DESING OF AEROSPACE ELEMENTS

“INVESTIGATION 1”

GROUP: 393 HOUR: 7:00 AM – 8:00 AM

MENA RODRIGUEZ SERGIO ENRIQUE 1156507

ROMERO DURAZO EMMANUEL SANTIAGO

2020-1
March 17, 2020
 INDEX

INTRODUTION 3

STRESS ON A PLANE 4

STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS 6

STRESS UNDER GENERAL CONDITIONS 8

COMPOSITE MATERIALS 9

MATERIALS SELECTION 13

REFERENCES 16

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 INTRODUTION

The force per unit area, or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section, is called the stress on
that section and is denoted by the Greek letter (sigma). The stress in a member of cross-sectional area A
subjected to an axial load P is therefore obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the load by the area A

Composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials that results in better
properties than those of the individual components used alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each
material retains its separate chemical, physical, and mechanical properties. The two constituents are a
reinforcement and a matrix. The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and
stiffness, combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials, allowing for a weight reduction
in the finished part.

The choice of material cannot be made independently of the choice of process by which the material is to
be formed, joined, finished, and otherwise treated. Cost enters, both in the choice of material and in the
way the material is processed. And -it must be recognized -good engineering design alone is not enough
to sell a product. In almost everything from home appliances through automobiles to aircraft, the form,
texture, feel, colour, decoration of the product

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1.1 STRESS ON A PLANE

The force per unit area, or intensity of the forces distributed over a given section, is called the stress on
that section and is denoted by the Greek letter (sigma). The stress in a member of cross-sectional area A
subjected to an axial load P is therefore obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the load by the area A:

A positive sign will be used to indicate a tensile stress (member in tension) and a negative sign to indicate
a compressive stress (member in compression). Since SI metric units are used in this discussion, with P
expressed in newtons (N) and A in square meters the stress will be expressed in This unit is called a pascal
(Pa).

When U.S. customary units are used, the force P is usually expressed in pounds (lb) or kilopounds (kip),
and the cross-sectional area A in square inches The stress will then be expressed in pounds per square
inch (psi) or kilopounds per square inch (ksi).

This, formula gives us the normal stress in a member under axial loading:

We should also note that, in the formula, is obtained by dividing the magnitude P of the resultant of the
internal forces distributed over the cross section by the area A of the cross section; it represents,
therefore, the average value of the stress over the cross section, rather than the stress at a specific point
of the cross section. To define the stress at a given point Q of the cross section, we should consider a small
area ∆𝐴 (Fig. 1.10). Dividing the magnitude of ∆𝐹 by ∆𝐴 we obtain the average value of the stress over
∆𝐴. Letting ∆𝐴 approach zero, we obtain the stress at point Q:

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The internal forces and the corresponding stresses discussed in Secs. 1.2 and 1.3 were normal to the
section considered. A very different type of stress is obtained when transverse forces P and are applied
to a member AB (Fig. 1.15). Passing a section at C between the points of application of the two forces (Fig.
1.16a), we obtain the diagram of portion AC shown in Fig. 1.16b. We conclude that internal forces must
exist in the plane of the section, and that their resultant is equal to P. These elementary internal forces
are called shearing forces, and the magnitude P of their resultant is the shear in the section. Dividing the
shear P by the area A of the cross section, we obtain the average shearing stress in the section. Denoting
the shearing stress by the Greek letter 𝜏 (tau), we write:

SHEARING STRESS

Shearing stresses are commonly found in bolts, pins, and rivets used to connect various structural
members and machine components. Consider the two plates A and B, which are connected by a bolt CD
(Fig. 1.18). If the plates are subjected to tension forces of magnitude F, stresses will develop in the section
of bolt corresponding to the plane EE’. Drawing the diagrams of the bolt and of the portion located above
the plane (Fig. 1.19), we conclude that the shear P in the section is equal to F. The average shearing stress
in the section is obtained, according to formula , by dividing the shear by the area A of the cross
section:

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1.2 STRESSES ON INCLINED SECTIONS

The stress element of Fig. 2-31 provides only a limited view of the stresses in an axially loaded bar. To
obtain a more complete picture, we need to investigate the stresses acting on inclined sections, such as
the section cut by the inclined plane pq in Fig. 2-32a. Because the stresses are the same throughout the
entire bar, the stresses acting over the inclined section must be uniformly distributed, as pictured in the
freebody diagrams of Fig. 2-32b (three-dimensional view) and Fig. 2-32c (two-dimensional view). From
the equilibrium of the free body we know that the resultant of the stresses must be a horizontal force P.

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As a preliminary matter, we need a scheme for specifying the orientation of the inclined section pq. A
standard method is to specify the angle between the x axis and the normal n to the section (see Fig. 2-33a
on the next page). Thus, the angle u for the inclined section shown in the figure is approximately 30°. By
contrast, cross section mn (Fig. 2-30a) has an angle equal to zero (because the normal to the section is
the x axis). For additional examples, consider the stress element of Fig. 2-31. The angle for the right-hand
face is 0, for the top face is 90° (a longitudinal section of the bar), for the left-hand face is 180°, and for
the bottom face is 270° (or -90°). Let us now return to the task of finding the stresses acting on section pq
(Fig. 2-33b). As already mentioned, the resultant of these stresses is a force P acting in the x direction.
This resultant may be resolved into two components, a normal force N that is perpendicular to the inclined
plane pq and a shear force V that is tangential to it. These force components are

N = P cos 𝜃 V= P sin 𝜃

(2-26a,b) Associated with the forces N and V are normal and shear stresses that are uniformly distributed
over the inclined section (Figs. 2-33c and d). The normal stress is equal to the normal force N divided by
the area of the section, and the shear stress is equal to the shear force V divided by the area of the section.
Thus, the stresses are
𝑁 𝑉
𝜎= 𝐴1
𝜏= 𝐴1

in which A1 is the area of the inclined section, as follows:

𝐴
A1 = cos 𝜃

As usual, A represents the cross-sectional area of the bar. The stresses 𝜎 and 𝜏 act in the directions shown
in Figs. 2-33c and d, that is, in the same directions as the normal force N and shear force V, respectively.
At this point we need to establish a standardized notation and sign convention for stresses acting on
inclined sections. We will use a subscript u to indicate that the stresses act on a section inclined at an
angle u (Fig. 2-34), just as we use a subscript x to indicate that the stresses act on a section perpendicular
to the x axis (see Fig. 2-30). Normal stresses 𝜎𝜃 are positive in tension and shear stresses 𝜏𝜃 are positive
when they tend to produce counterclockwise rotation of the material, as shown in Fig. 2 -34.

For a bar in tension, the normal force N produces positive normal stresses 𝜎𝜃 (see Fig. 2-33c) and the
shear force V produces negative shear stresses 𝜏𝜃 (see Fig. 2-33d). These stresses are given by the
following equations (see Eqs. 2-26, 2-27, and 2-28):

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we get the following expressions for the normal and shear stresses:

The normal stress 𝜎𝜃 equals 𝜎𝑥 when 𝜃 =0. Then, as 𝜃 increases or decreases, the normal stress
diminishes until at 𝜃 = ± 90° it becomes zero, because there are no normal stresses on sections cut parallel
to the longitudinal axis. The maximum normal stress occurs at 𝜃 = 0 and is

Also, we note that when 𝜃 = ±45°, the normal stress is one-half the maximum value. The shear stress 𝜏𝜃
is zero on cross sections of the bar (𝜃 = 0) as well as on longitudinal sections (𝜃 = ±90°). Between these
extremes, the stress varies as shown on the graph, reaching the largest positive value when 𝜃 = -45° and
the largest negative value when 𝜃 = +45°. These maximum shear stresses have the same magnitude:

2.- STRESS UNDER GENERAL CONDITIONS

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The relation obtained shows that the y component of the shearing stress exerted on a face perpendicular
to the x axis is equal to the x component of the shearing stress exerted on a face perpendicular to the y
axis. From the remaining two equations, we derive in a similar manner the relations.

3.- COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Composite material can be defined as a combination of two or more materials that results in better
properties than those of the individual components used alone. In contrast to metallic alloys, each
material retains its separate chemical, physical, and mechanical properties. The two constituents are a
reinforcement and a matrix. The main advantages of composite materials are their high strength and
stiffness, combined with low density, when compared with bulk materials, allowing for a weight reduction
in the finished part.

The reinforcing phase provides the strength and stiffness. In most cases, the reinforcement is harder,
stronger, and stiffer than the matrix. The reinforcement is usually a fiber or a particulate. Particulate
composites have dimensions that are approximately equal in all directions. They may be spherical,
platelets, or any other regular or irregular geometry. Particulate composites tend to be much weaker and
less stiff than continuous fiber composites, but they are usually much less expensive. Particulate
reinforced composites usually contain less reinforcement (up to 40 to 50 volume percent) due to
processing difficulties and brittleness. A fiber has a length that is much greater than its diameter. The
length-to-diameter (l/d) ratio is known as the aspect ratio and can vary greatly. Continuous fibers have
long aspect ratios, while discontinuous fibers have short aspect ratios. Continuous-fiber composites
normally have a preferred orientation, while discontinuous fibers generally have a random orientation.

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Isotropic, Anisotropic, and Orthotropic Materials

Materials can be classified as either isotropic or anisotropic. Isotropic materials have the same material
properties in all directions, and normal loads create only normal strains. By comparison, anisotropic
materials have different material properties in all directions at a point in the body. There are no material
planes of symmetry, and normal loads create both normal strains and shear strains. A material is isotropic
if the properties are independent of direction within the material. For example, consider the element of
an isotropic material shown in Fig. 1.4. If the material is loaded along its 0°, 45°, and 90° directions, the
modulus of elasticity (E) is the same in each direction (E0° = E45° = E90°). However, if the material is
anisotropic (for example, the composite ply shown in Fig. 1.5), it has properties that vary with direction
within the material. In this example, the moduli are different in each direction (E0° ≠ E45° ≠ E90°). While
the modulus of elasticity is used in the example, the same dependence on direction can occur for other
material properties, such as ultimate strength, Poisson’s ratio, and thermal expansion coefficient

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Laminates

When there is a single ply or a lay-up in which all of the layers or plies are stacked in the same orientation,
the lay-up is called a lamina. When the plies are stacked at various angles, the lay-up is called a laminate.
Continuous-fiber composites are normally laminated materials (Fig. 1.8) in which the individual layers,
plies, or laminae are oriented in directions that will enhance the strength in the primary load direction.
Unidirectional (0°) laminae are extremely strong and stiff in the 0° direction. However, they are very weak
in the 90° direction because the load must be carried by the much weaker polymeric matrix. While a high-
strength fiber can have a tensile strength of 500 ksi (3500 MPa) or more, a typical polymeric matrix
normally has a tensile strength of only 5 to 10 ksi (35 to 70 MPa) (Fig. 1.9). The longitudinal tension and
compression loads are carried by the fibers, while the matrix distributes the loads between the fibers in
tension and stabilizes the fibers and prevents them from buckling in compression. The matrix is also the
primary load carrier for interlaminar shear (i.e., shear between the layers) and transverse (90°) tension.

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4.- MATERIALS SELECTION

The choice of material cannot be made independently of the choice of process by which the material is to
be formed, joined, finished, and otherwise treated. Cost enters, both in the choice of material and in the
way the material is processed. And -it must be recognized -good engineering design alone is not enough
to sell a product. In almost everything from home appliances through automobiles to aircraft, the form,
texture, feel, colour, decoration of the product- the satisfaction it gives the person who buys or uses it -
are important. This aesthetic aspect (known confusingly as 'industrial design') is not treated in most
courses on engineering, but it is one that, if neglected, can lose the manufacturer his market. Good designs
work; excellent designs also give pleasure.

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 REFERENCES

Beer, F. (2019). Mechanics of materials. McGraw-Hill.

Gere, J. M., & Timoshenko, S. P. (1984). Mechanics of Materials 2e. Brooks/Cole Engineering, 198(4).

Michael F. Ashby (1999). Materials selection in mechanical design 2e.

Clyne, T. W., & Hull, D. (2019). An introduction to composite materials. Cambridge university press.

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