LECTURE NOTES

MODULE - III

ELECTRICAL MACHINES

1
 Synchronous Machines

Introduction

Synchronous machines are principally used as alternating current generators. They supply the electric power
used by all sectors of modern society. Synchronous machine is an important electromechanical energy
converter. Synchronous generators usually operate in parallel forming a large power system supplying
electrical power to consumers or loads. For these applications the synchronous generators are built in large
units, their rating ranging form tens to hundreds of Megawatts. These synchronous machines can also be run
as synchronous motors.

Synchronous machines are AC machines that have a field circuit supplied by an external DC source.
Synchronous machines are having two major parts namely stationary part stator and a rotating field system
called rotor.
In a synchronous generator, a DC current is applied to the rotor winding producing a rotor magnetic field.
The rotor is then driven by external means producing a rotating magnetic field, which induces a 3-phase
voltage within the stator winding.
Field windings are the windings producing the main magnetic field (rotor windings for synchronous
machines); armature windings are the windings where the main voltage is induced (stator windings for
synchronous machines).
Types of synchronous machines

According to the arrangement of armature and field winding, the synchronous machines are classified as
rotating armature type or rotating field type.
In rotating armature type the armature winding is on the rotor and the field winding is on the stator. The
generated emf or current is brought to the load via the slip rings. These type of generators are built only in
small units.
In case of rotating field type generators field windings are on the rotor and the armature windings are on the
stator. Here the field current is supplied through a pair of slip rings and the induced emf or current is supplied
to the load via the stationary terminals.
Based on the type of the prime movers employed the synchronous generators are classified as

1. Hydrogenerators : The generators which are driven by hydraulic turbines are called hydrogenerators.
These are run at lower speeds less than 1000 rpm.
2. Turbogenerators: These are the generators driven by steam turbines. These generators are run at very
high speed of 1500rpm or above.
3. Engine driven Generators: These are driven by IC engines. These are run at aspeed less than 1500
rpm.

Hence the prime movers for the synchronous generators are Hydraulic turbines, Steam turbines or IC engines.
Hydraulic Turbines: Pelton wheel Turbines: Water head 400 m and above Francis turbines: Water heads up
to 380 m
Keplan Turbines: Water heads up to 50 m

Steam turbines: The synchronous generators run by steam turbines are called turbogenerators or turbo
alternators. Steam turbines are to be run at very high speed to get higher efficiency and hence these types of
generators are run at higher speeds.
Diesel Engines: IC engines are used as prime movers for very small rated generators.
 Construction of synchronous machines

1. Salient pole Machines: These type of machines have salient pole or projecting poles with concentrated
field windings. This type of construction is for the machines which are driven by hydraulic turbines or Diesel
engines.
2. Nonsalient pole or Cylindrical rotor or Round rotor Machines: These machines are having cylindrical
smooth rotor construction with distributed field winding in slots. This type of rotor construction is employed
for the machine driven by steam turbines.

1. Construction of Hydro-generators: These types of machines are constructed based on the water head
available and hence these machines are low speed machines. These machines are constructed based on the
mechanical consideration. For the given frequency the low speed demands large number of poles and
consequently large diameter. The machine should be so connected such that it permits the machine to be
transported to the site. It is a normal to practice to design the rotor to withstand the centrifugal force and stress
produced at twice the normal operating speed.
Stator core:

The stator is the outer stationary part of the machine, which consists of

• The outer cylindrical frame called yoke, which is made either of welded sheet steel, cast iron.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations called stator core pressed into the
cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents, reducing
losses and heating. CRGO laminations of 0.5 mm thickness are used to reduce the iron losses.

A set of insulated electrical windings are placed inside the slots of the laminated stator. The cross- sectional
area of these windings must be large enough for the power rating of the machine. For a 3- phase generator, 3
sets of windings are required, one for each phase connected in star.
Details of construction of stator are shown in Figure.

Stator of Synchronous Generator

 The stator is the static part of the generator it provides the covering to the internal construction of the
machine.
 It is constructed by the laminated sheets of aluminum, there are slots at its inner periphery which used to
hold the windings.
Rotor of the Synchronous Generator
 The rotor of the generator is an electromagnet, it is connected with the external DC source. The external
source produces a voltage in the rotor, the field of the rotor induced a voltage in the stator.

 There are 2 main types of synchronous generator.

 Salient Pole Rotor
 Non-Salient Pole Rotor
Salient Pole Rotor
 This type of rotor has many no of poles that are manufactured on the wheel like arrangements.
 These poles are constructed from steel and are laminated.
  The windings of the rotor are wound on these poles and at the corners, windings are controlled by the pole
shoe.
 The dia of the salient pole rotor is higher and its axis is short.
  The salient pole rotor has 4 or large no of the pole.

 The given diagram shows the salient pole rotor.

Non-Salient Pole Rotor 
 The word ‘salient’ means to stick out, Non-salient pole is such a pole that is manufactured with the surface
of the rotor they are not out of the surface like the salient poles.
 This type of rotor is used where 4 or more poles are required at the stator.

DC Excitation of Synchronous Generator

 As we discussed that the synchronous generator is not a self-start machine. It must connect with the
external source.
 To excitation of the generator, the DC supply is connected with the circuitry of the rotor.
 As the rotor rotates so there is some precaution that we should keep in mind, connecting rotor with the DC
source.
 Try to connect the windings of the rotor with the DC source through the slip ring and graphite
made brushes, if you connect the windings directly with the dc source, it causes serious spark and
motor will damage.
 Connect such dc source with the generator that remains permanently connected with the rotor.
 The slip ring is rings made by some metal, they are mounted on the shaft of the generator and have some
insulation.
 Every end of the rotor’s windings is joined with the slip rings and the static brushes are mounted on the
slip rings.
 The brushes always mounted on the slip ring because they are made from graphite which has less
resistance.
  If the one terminal of the DC source is joined with one carbon brush, then the other will be connected with
the second brush.
 The important thing you should note that the dc voltage you provided to the generator should have same
value irrespective of the variation in the speed and angular position of the generator.
Problems of  Slip Ring and Brushes in Synchronous Generator
 As we discussed that we use slip ring and carbon brushes to provide the dc supply to the windings of the
rotor. These two components cause some difficulties.
 As the brush is made from the carbon that is soft material nature, so their condition must be monitored
after some time and maybe they should be replaced after some time. This process increases the
maintenance cost of the machine.
 There is some loss of voltage at the brushes which increases the field current and power loss at the field
windings.
 For a smaller synchronous machine this method of the voltage is used because it is a cheap method for
these machines.

Working Principle of Synchronous Generator

 The working of a synchronous generator is based on Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction.
emf= dΦ/dt
 This law says that the rate of change of flux in any device will produce emf in that device. If a device is
static and the field is rotating it will also produce field in the device.
 In case of a synchronous generator, the rotor is rotating, and it produces field in the stator.
Working

It works on the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic Induction. Any rotating machine when rotated in the magnetic flux
works according to this principle.

The working of this machine is similar to that of an AC generator. The working figure of an AC generator is shown in the figure
below.

Armature winding is a collection of coils placed in the magnetic field. The coil when rotated in the
 magnetic field by a prime mover, it cuts the magnetic lines of forces thus, generating an induced emf.
This generated induced emf is according to the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic Induction.
The induced emf develops current to flow in the armature winding. The direction of the armature current
is found by using the Flemings right-hand rule.
The induced emf will be zero when the coil is in the alignment of magnets and is maximum when the coil
is perpendicular. As the coil is rotated the current changes continuously which can be observed in a
galvanometer. The current is passed through the slip rings and then to the brushes. The slip rings are used
for the smoother operation of the machine and brushes are used to collect the current from the slip rings
and deliver to the load. The coil movement in the magnetic field at different points is shown in the figure
below.

Relation between Speed and Frequency: In the previous course on induction motors it is established that the
relation between speed and frequency and number of poles is given by
Frequency f = P x N /120 Hz

Windings in Alternators: In case of three phase alternators the following types of windings are employed.
(i) Lap winding,
(ii) wave winding and
(iii) mush winding.

Based on pitch of the coil

(i) full pitched

(ii) short pitched windings

Based on number of layers

 (i) Single layer
(ii) Double layer

EMF Equation of an alternator:

Consider the following :
Φ = flux per pole in wb
P = Number of poles
Ns = Synchronous speed in rpm
f = frequency of induced emf in Hz
Z = total number of stator conductors
Zph = conductors per phase connected in series
Tph = Number of turns per phase

Assuming concentrated winding, considering one conductor placed in a slot .

According to Faradays Law electromagnetic induction,
The average value of emf induced per conductor in one revolution
eavg = dΦ/dt
eavg = Change of Flux in one revolution/ Time taken for one revolution

Change of Flux in one revolution = p x Φ

Time taken for one revolution = 60/Ns seconds

Hence eavg = (p x Φ) / ( 60/Ns)

eavg = (p x Φ) / ( 60/Ns) = p x Φ x Ns / 60
We know f = PNs /120
hence PNs /60 = 2f

Hence eavg = 2 Φ f (volts)

Hence average emf per turn = 2 x 2 Φ f (volts) = 4 Φ f (volts)
If there are Tph, number of turns per phase connected in series, then
average emf induced in Tph turns is

Eph, avg = Tph x eavg = 4 f Φ Tph (volts)

Hence RMS value of emf induced
E = 1.11 x Eph, avg

= 1.11 x 4 f 8 Tph volts

= 4.44 f 8 Tph volts
This is the general emf equation for the machine having concentrated and
full pitched winding.
In practice, alternators will have short pitched winding and hence coil span
will not be 1800, but on or two slots short than the full pitch.

Pitch Factor:

180 - α
α
Full Pitch

As shown in the above figure, consider the coil short pitched by an angle α, called chording angle. When
the coils are full pitched the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in magnitude and in phase with
each other. Hence the resultant emf induced in the coil will be sum of the emf induced.
Hence Ec = E1 + E2 = 2E for full pitched coils,

Hence total emf = algebraic sum of the emfs = vector sum of emfs as shown in figure below

When the coils are shot pitched by an angle α, the emf induced in each coil side will be equal in
magnitude but will be out of phase by an angle equal to chording angle. Hence the resultant emf is equal
to the vector sum of the emfs as shown in figure below.
Hence the resultant coil emf is given by Ec = 2E1 cos α/2 = 2E cos α/2 volts.

Hence the resultant emf in the short pitched coils is dependant on chording angle α. Now the factor by
which the emf induced in a short pitched coil gets reduced is called pitch factor and defined as the
ratio of emf induced in a short pitched coil to emf induced in a full pitched coil.
 Pitch factor Kp= emf induced in a short pitched coil/ emf induced in a full pitched coil
= (2E cos α/2 )/ 2E Kp = cos α/2
where, α is called chording angle.

Distribution Factor: Even though we assumed concentrated winding in deriving emf equation, in practice an
attempt is made to distribute the winding in all the slots coming under a pole. Such a winding is called distributed
winding.
In concentrated winding the emf induced in all the coil sides will be same in magnitude and in phase with each
other. In case of distributed winding the magnitude of emf will be same but the emfs induced in each coil side
will not be in phase with each other as they are distributed in the slots under a pole. Hence the total emf will not
be same as that in concentrated winding but will be equal to the vector sum of the emfs induced. Hence it will be
less than that in the concentrated winding. Now the factor by which the emf induced in a distributed winding gets
reduced is called distribution factor and defined as the ratio of emf induced in a distributed winding to emf
induced in a concentrated winding.

Distribution factor Kd = emf induced in a distributed winding/ emf induced in a concentrated winding
= vector sum of the emf/ arithmetic sum of the emf

Let
E = emf induced per coil side
m = number of slots per pole per phase, n = number of slots per pole
β = slot angle = 180/n

The emf induced in concentrated winding with m slots per pole per phase = mE volts.
Fig below shows the method of calculating the vector sum of the voltages in a distributed winding having a
mutual phase difference of β. When m is large curve ACEN will form the arc of a circle of radius r.
From the figure below AC = 2 x r x sin β/2 Hence arithmetic sum = m x 2r sin β/2
Now the vector sum of the emfs is AN as shown in figure below = 2 x r x sin mβ/2

Hence the distribution factor Kd = vector sum of the emf / arithmetic sum of the emf
= (2r sin mβ/2) / (m x 2r sin β/2) Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)

In practical machines the windings will be generally short pitched and distributed over the periphery of the
machine. Hence in deducing the emf equation both pitch factor and distribution factor has to be considered.

Hence the general emf equation including pitch factor and distribution factor can be given as EMF induced per
phase = 4.44 f Φ Tph x KpKd (volts)
Eph = 4.44 KpKd f ΦTph (volts)

Hence the line Voltage EL = √3 x phase voltage = √3 Eph

Numerical Problems:

1. A 3Φ, 50 Hz, star connected salient pole alternator has 216 slots with 5 conductors per slot. All the
conductors of each phase are connected in series; the winding is distributed and full pitched. The
flux per pole is 30 mwb and the alternator runs at 250 rpm. Determine the phase and line voltages
of emf induced.

Slon: Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz,

P = 120 x f/Ns = 120 x 50/250 = 24 poles
m = number of slots/pole/phase = 216/(24 x 3) = 3
β = 1800 / number of slots/pole = 1800 / (216/24) = 200 Hence distribution factor Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
= ( sin 3 x 20 / 2) / (3 sin 20/2)
= 0.9597
Pitch factor Kp = 1 for full pitched winding. We have emf induced per conductor
Tph= Zph/2 ; Zph= Z/3
Z = conductor/ slot x number of slots Tph= Z/6 = 216 x 5 /6 = 180

Therefore Eph = 4.44 KpKd f 8 Tph vlolts

= 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 50 x 30 x 10-3 x 180
= 1150.488 volts
Hence the line Voltage EL = √3 x phase voltage = √3 Eph
= √3 x1150.488
= 1992.65 volts

2. A 3Φ, 16 pole, star connected salient pole alternator has 144 slots with 10 conductors per slot. The
alternator is run at 375 rpm. The terminal voltage of the generator found to be 2.657 kV. Dteremine
the frequency of the induced emf and the flux per pole.

Soln: Ns = 375 rpm, p =16, slots = 144, Total no. of conductors = 144 x 10 = 1440 EL = 2.657 kV,
f = P Ns/120 = 16 x 375/120 = 50 Hz
Assuming full pitched winding kp = 1
Number of slots per pole per phase = 144/(16 x 3) = 3 Slot angle β = 1800 / number of slots/pole = 1800 /9 = 200
Hence distribution factor Kd = ( sin mβ/2) / (m sin β/2)
= ( sin 3 x 20 / 2) / (3 sin 20/2)
= 0.9597
Turns per phase Tph = 144 x 10/ 6 = 240 Eph = EL/√3 = 2.657/√3 = 1.534 kV
Eph = 4.44 KpKd f 8 Tph vlolts
1534.0 = 4.44 x 1 x 0.9597 x 50 x 8 x 240

8 = 0.03 wb = 30 mwb

3. A 4 pole, 3 phase, 50 Hz, star connected alternator has 60 slots with 4 conductors per slot. The
coils are short pitched by 3 slots. If the phase spread is 60 0, find the line voltage induced for a flux
per pole of 0.943 wb.

Slon: p = 4, f = 50 Hz, Slots = 60, cond/slot = 4 , short pitched by 3 slots, phase spread = 600, Φ = 0.943 wb

Number of slots/pole/phase m = 60/(4 x 3) = 5

Slot angle β = phase spread/ number of slots per pole/phase
= 60/5 = 12
Distribution factor kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sinβ/2)
= sin ( 5 x 12/2) / 5 sin(12/2)
= 0.957
Pitch factor = cos α/2

Coils are short chorded by 3 slots Slot angle = 180/number of slots/pole

= 180/15 = 12
Therefore coil is short pitched by α = 3 x slot angle = 3 x 12 = 360 Hence pitch factor kp = cos α/2 = cos 36/2 =
0.95
Number of turns per phase Tph = Zph/2 = (Z/3)/2 = Z /6 = 60 x 4 /6 = 40 EMF induced per phase Eph = 4.44 kp kd f
Φ Tph volts
= 4.44 x 0.95 x 0.957 x 50 x 0.943 x 40
= 7613 volts
Line voltage EL = √3 x Eph
= √3 x 7613 = 13185 volts
 4. In a 3 phase star connected alternator, there are 2 coil sides per slot and 16 turns per coil. The stator
has 288 slots. When run at 250 rpm the line voltage is 6600 volts at 50 Hz. The coils are shot
pitched by 2 slots. Calculate the flux per pole.

Slon: Ns = 250 rpm, f = 50 Hz, slots = 288, EL= 6600 volts, 2 coilsides/slot, 16 turns /coil Short pitched by 2
slots

Number of poles = 120f/ Ns = 120 x 50/250 = 24 Number of slots /pole/phase m = 288 / ( 24 x 3) = 4 Number of
slots /pole = 288 / 24 = 12
Slot angle β = 180/ number of slots per pole
= 180 / 12 = 150

Distribution factor kd = (sin mβ/2) / (m sinβ/2)

= sin ( 4 x 15/2) / 4 sin(15/2)
= 0.9576

Coils are short chorded by 2 slots Slot angle = 15

Therefore coil is short pitched by α = 2 x slot angle = 2 x 15 = 300 Hence pitch factor kp = cos α/2 = cos 30/2 =
0.9659

Two coil sides per slot and 16 turns per coil

Total number of conductors per slot = 2 x 16 = 32 turns Total conductors = 32 x 288
Turns per phase = 32 x 288 / 6
= 1536

Eph = 6600 / √3 = 3810.51 volts,

We have EMF induced per phase Eph = 4.44 kp kd f Φ Tph volts

3810.51 = 4.44 x 0.9659 x 0.9576 x 50 x Φ x 1536
Φ = 0.02 wb

5. A three phase 600 kVA, 400 volts, delta connected alternator is reconnected in star.
Calculate its new ratings in terms of voltage, current and volt-ampere.

Slon: (i) when the machine is delta connected

VL = Vph = 400 volts
Volt-ampere = √3 x VL x IL = 600 kVA
Hence IL = 600 kVA/ √3 x 400 = 866 amps
and Iph = IL / √3 = 866 /√3 = 500 amps

When it is reconnected in star phase voltage and phase current will remain same, as
Eph = 4.44 kp kd f Φ Tph and Iph = Vph /Zph

(ii) When star connected

Vph = 400 volts and VL = √3 x Vph = √3 x 400 = 692.8 volts
IL = Iph = 500 amps
Hence VA rating = √3 x VL x IL = √3 x 692.8 x 500 = 600 kVA
 Alternators are the primary source of all the electrical energy we consume. These machines are the largest
energy converters found in the world. They convert mechanical energy into AC energy.
Voltage Regulation:
When an alternator is subjected to a varying load, the voltage at the armature terminals varies to a certain
extent, and the amount of this variation determines the regulation of the machine. When the alternator is
loaded the terminal voltage decreases as the drops in the machine stars increasing and hence it will always
be different than the induced emf.
Voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from no load to full load
expressed as a percentage of rated voltage when the load at a given power factor is removed with out change
in speed and excitation. Or The numerical value of the regulation is defined as the percentage rise in voltage
when full load at the specified power-factor is switched off with speed and field current remaining
unchanged expressed as a percentage of rated voltage.

Hence regulation can be expressed as

% Regulation = (Eph – Vph / Vph ) x 100

where Eph = induced emf /phase, Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase

Methods of finding Voltage Regulation: The voltage regulation of an alternator can be determined by
different methods. In case of small generators it can be determined by direct loading whereas in case of
large generators it can not determined by direct loading but will be usually predetermined by different
methods. Following are the different methods used for predetermination of regulation of alternators.
1. Direct loading method
2. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method
3. MMF method or Ampere turns method
4. ASA modified MMF method
5. ZPF method or Potier triangle method
All the above methods other than direct loading are valid for nonsalient pole machines only. As the
alternators are manufactured in large capacity direct loading of alternators is not employed for
determination of regulation. Other methods can be employed for predetermination of regulation. Hence the
other methods of determination of regulations will be discussed in the following sections.

EMF method: This method is also known as synchronous impedance method. Here the magnetic circuit is
assumed to be unsaturated. In this method the MMFs (fluxes) produced by rotor and stator are replaced by
their equivalent emf, and hence called emf method.
To predetermine the regulation by this method the following informations are to be determined. Armature
resistance /phase of the alternator, open circuit and short circuit characteristics of the alternator.

OC & SC test on alternator:

Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

The open-circuit characteristic or magnetization curve is really the B-H curve of the complete magnetic
circuit of the alternator. Indeed, in large turbo-alternators, where the air gap is relatively long, the curve
shows a gradual bend. It is determined by inserting resistance in the field circuit and measuring
corresponding value of terminal voltage and field current. Two voltmeters are connected across the armature
terminals. The machine is run at rated speed and field current is increased gradually to If1 till armature
voltage reaches rated value or even 25% more than the rated voltage. Figure 32 illustrates a typical circuit
for OC and SC test and figure 33 illustrates OC and SC curve. The major portion of the exciting ampere-
turns is required to force the flux across the air gap, the reluctance of which is assumed to be constant. A
straight line called the air gap line can therefore be drawn as shown, dividing the excitation for any voltage
into two portions, (a) that required to force the flux across the air gap, and (b) that required to force it
through the remainder of the magnetic circuit. The shorter the air gap, the steeper is the air gap line.
Procedure to conduct OC test:
(i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous speed of the alternator.
(ii) Keep the field circuit rheostat in cut in position and switch on DC supply.
(iii) Keep the TPST switch of the stator circuit in open position.
(iv) Vary the field current from minimum in steps and take the readings of field current and
stator terminal voltage, till the voltage read by the voltmeter reaches up to 110% of rated
voltage. Reduce the field current and stop the machine.
 (v) Plot of terminal voltage/ phase vs field current gives the OC curve.

Short Circuit Characteristic (S.C.C.)

The short-circuit characteristic, as its name implies, refers to the behaviour of the alternator when its
armature is short-circuited. In a single-phase machine the armature terminals are short-circuited through an
ammeter, but in a three-phase machine all three phases must be short-circuited. An ammeter is connected in
series with each armature terminal, the three remaining ammeter terminals being short-circuited. The
machine is run at rated speed and field current is increased gradually to If2 till armature current reaches rated
value. The armature short-circuit current and the field current are found to be proportional to each other over
a wide range, as shown in Figure 33, so that the short- circuit characteristic is a straight line. Under short-
circuit conditions the armature current is almost 90° out of phase with the voltage, and the armature mmf
has a direct demagnetizing action on the field. The resultant ampere − turns inducing the armature emf are,
therefore, very small and is equal to the difference between the field and the armature ampere − turns. This
results in low mmf in the magnetic circuit, which remains in unsaturated condition and hence the small
value of induced emf increases linearly with field current. This small induced armature emf is equal to the
voltage drop in the winding itself, since the terminal voltage is zero by assumption. It is the voltage required
to circulate the short- circuit current through the armature windings. The armature resistance is usually small
compared with the reactance.

Air Gap line

Figure 33: O.C.C. and S.C.C. of an Alternator

Short-Circuit Ratio:
The short-circuit ratio is defined as the ratio of the field current required to produce rated volts on open
circuit to field current required to circulate full-load current with the armature short-circuited.

Short-circuit ratio = If1/If2

Determination of synchronous impedance Zs:

As the terminals of the stator are short circuited in SC test, the short circuit current is circulated against the
impedance of the stator called the synchronous impedance. This impedance can be estimated form the oc
and sc characteristics.
The ratio of open circuit voltage to the short circuit current at a particular field current, or at a field current
responsible for circulating the rated current is called the synchronous impedance.
synchronous impedance Zs = (open circuit voltage per phase)/(short circuit current per phase)|for same If Hence
Zs = (Voc) / (Isc)|for same If
From figure 33 synchronous impedance Zs = V/Isc
Armature resistance Ra of the stator can be measured using Voltmeter – Ammeter method. Using
synchronous impedance and armature resistance synchronous reactance and hence regulation can be
calculated as follows using emf method.

Zs = √(Ra)2 + (XS)2 and Synchronous reactance Xs = √( Zs)2 - (Ra)2

Hence induced emf per phase can be found as Eph = √[ (V cosΦ + IRa)2 + (V sinΦ ± IXS)2]
where,
V = phase voltage per phase = Vph ,
I = load current per phase
in the above expression in second term + sign is for lagging pwer factor ans – sign is for leading power
factor.

% Regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100

where Eph = induced emf /phase, Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase

Synchronous impedance method is easy but it gives approximate results. This method gives the value of
regulation which is greater (poor) than the actual value and hence this method is called pessimistic method.

Ex.1. A 1200 kVA, 3300 volts, 50 Hz, three phase star connected alternator has an armature resistance of
0.25 Ω per phase. A field current of 40 Amps produces a short circuit current of 200 Amps and an open
circuit emf of 1100 volts line to line. Find the % regulation at full load 0.8 pf lagging and leading by using
emf method.

Soln: Full load current = 1200 x 103/ (√3 x 3300) = 210 amps; Voltage per phase Vph = 3300/√3 = 1905
volts
Synchronous impedance Zs = oc voltage per phase/ sc current per phase for same excitation
= (1100/√3) / 200 = 3.17 Ω
Synchronous reactance = Xs = √[( Zs)2 - (Ra)2] = √ (3.17)2 + (0.25)2 = 3.16 Ω
0.8 pf lagging: referring to the phasor diagram
Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 + IXS)2]
=√[(1905 x 0.8 + 210 x 0.25)2 + ( 1905 x 0.6 + 210 x 3.16)2
= 2398 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph )/ Vph] x 100
= [(2398 – 1905) / 1905] x 100
= 25.9 %
0.8 pf leading: Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 - IXS)2]
=√[(1905 x 0.8 + 210 x 0.25)2 + ( 1905 x 0.6 - 210 x 3.16)2
= 1647 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(1647 – 1905) / 1905] x 100

= - 13.54 %

Ex.2. A 3-phase star connected alternator is rated at 1600 kVA, 13500 volts. The armature resistance and
synchronous reactance are 1.5 Ωand 30Ω per phase respectively. Calculate the percentage voltage regulation
for a load of 1280 kW at a pf of 0.8 leading.

Soln: Full load current = 1600 x 103/ (√3 x 13500 x 0.8) = 68.4 amps;
Voltage per phase Vph = 13500/√3 = 7795volts
0.8 pf leading: Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 - IXS)2]
=√[(7795 x 0.8 + 68.4 x 1.5)2 + ( 7795 x 0.6 – 68.4 x 30)2
= 6861 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(6861 – 7795) / 7795] x 100
= - 12 %

Ex.3. A 3-phase star connected alternator is rated at 100 kVA. On short-circuit a field current of 50 amp
gives the full load current. The e.m.f. generated on open circuit with the same field current is 1575 V/phase.
Calculate the voltage regulation at (a) 0.8 power factor lagging, and (b) 0.8 power factor leading by
synchronous impedance method. Assume armature resistance is 1.5 ohms.
Soln:

Ex. 4. A 10 MVA 6.6 kV, 3phase star connected alternator gave open
circuit and short circuit data as follows.
Field current in 25 50 75 100 125 150
amps:
OC voltage in kV 2.4 4.8 6.1 7.1 7.6 7.9
(L-L):
SC Current in 288 528 875
Amps:
Find the voltage regulation at full load 0.8 pf lagging by emf method.
Armature resistance per phase =
0.13 .
Soln: Full load current = 10 x 106/ (√3 x 6600) = 875 amps;
Voltage per phase Vph = 6600/√3 = 3810volts
Corresponding to the full load current of 875 amps oc voltage from the oc
and sc characteristics is 6100 volts
Hence synchronous impedance Zs = oc voltage per phase/ sc current per
phase
= (6100/√3)/ 875
= 4.02 
pf lagging: Eph = √[ (V cos8 + IRa)2 + (V sin8 + IXS)2]
=√[(3810 x 0.8 + 875 x 0.13)2 + ( 3810 x 0.6 – 875x 4.01789)2
= 6607.26 volts Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(6607.26 – 3810) / 3810] x 100
= 73.42%

Ex. 5 The data obtained on 100 kVA, 1100 V, 3-phase alternator is : DC

resistance test, E between line = 6 V dc, I in lines = 10 A dc. Open circuit
test, field current = 12.5 A dc, line voltage = 420 V ac. Short circuit test,
field current = 12.5 A, line current = rated value, calculate the voltage
regulation of alternator at 0.8 pf lagging.
Soln:

Why do we use synchronous generator?

Generally synchronous generators or alternators are used to generate
electrical power due to its high efficiency, better power factor, constant
 speed or synchronous speed and other constructional characteristics. ...
That's why synchronous generators are preferably used to generate
electrical power.
Synchronous Motors:

Principle of operation
In order to understand the principle of operation of a synchronous motor, assume that the armature winding (laid out
in the stator) of a 3-phase synchronous machine is connected to a suitable balanced 3-phase source and the field
winding to a D.C source of rated voltage. The current flowing through the field coils will set up stationary magnetic
poles of alternate North and South. On the other hand, the 3- phase currents flowing in the armature winding produce
a rotating magnetic field rotating at synchronous speed. In other words there will be moving North and South poles
established in the stator due to the 3-phase currents i.e at any location in the stator there will be a North pole at some
instant of time and it will become a South pole after a time period corresponding to half a cycle. (after a time = 1/2f ,
where f = frequency of the supply). Assume that the stationary South pole in the rotor is aligned with the North pole
in the stator moving in clockwise direction at a particular instant of time, as shown in Figure below. These two poles
get attracted and try to maintain this alignment ( as per lenz’s law) and hence the rotor pole tries to follow the stator
pole as the conditions are suitable for the production of torque in the clockwise direction. However, the rotor cannot
move instantaneously due to its mechanical inertia, and so it needs sometime to move. In the mean time, the stator
pole would quickly (a time duration corresponding to half a cycle) change its polarity and becomes a South pole. So
the force of attraction will no longer be present and instead the like poles experience a force of

Figure.59 Force of attraction between stator poles and rotor poles

- resulting in production of torque in clockwise direction

repulsion as shown in Figure below. In other words, the conditions are now suitable for the production of torque in
the anticlockwise direction. Even this condition will not last longer as the stator pole
would again change to North pole after a time of 1/2f. Thus the rotor will experience an alternating force which tries
to move it clockwise and anticlockwise at twice the frequency of the supply, i.e. at intervals corresponding to 1/2f
seconds. As this duration is quite small compared to the mechanical time constant of the rotor, the rotor cannot
respond and move in any direction. The rotor continues to be stationary only.
On the contrary if the rotor is brought to near synchronous speed by some external device say a small motor mounted
on the same shaft as that of the rotor, the rotor poles get locked to the unlike poles in the stator and the rotor
continues to run at the synchronous speed even if the supply to the motor is disconnected. Thus the synchronous rotor
cannot start rotating on its own when the rotor and stator are supplied with rated voltage and frequency and hence the
synchronous motor has no starting torque. So, some special provision has to be made either inside the machine or
outside of the machine so that the rotor is brought to near about its synchronous speed. At that time, if the armature is
supplied with electrical power, the rotor can pull into step and continue to run at its synchronous speed. Some of the
commonly used methods for starting synchronous rotor are described in the following paragraph.

Figure.60 Force of repulsion between stator poles and rotor poles

- resulting in production of torque in anticlockwise direction

Methods of starting synchronous motor

Basically there are three methods that are used to start a synchronous motor:

• To reduce the speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator to a low enough value that the rotor can easily
accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the rotating magnetic field’s rotation. This is done by
reducing the frequency of the applied electric power. This method is usually followed in the case of inverter-
fed synchronous motor operating under variable speed drive applications.

• To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of synchronous motor near to its synchronous speed and
then supply the rotor as well as stator. Of course care should be taken to ensure that the directions of rotation of
the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic field of the stator are the same. This method is usually
followed in the laboratory- the synchronous machine is started as a generator and is then connected to the
supply mains by following the synchronization or paralleling procedure. Then the power supply to the prime
mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will continue to operate as a motor.
 • To use damper windings if these are provided in the machine. The damper windings are provided in most of
the large synchronous motors in order to nullify the oscillations of the rotor whenever the synchronous
machine is subjected to a periodically varying load.

Behavior of a synchronous motor

The behavior of a synchronous motor can be predicted by considering its equivalent circuit on similar lines to that of
a synchronous generator as described below.

Equivalent circuit model and phasor diagram of a synchronous motor

The equivalent-circuit model for one armature phase of a cylindrical rotor three phase synchronous motor is shown in
Figure below exactly similar to that of a synchronous generator except that the current flows in to the armature from
the supply. Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to Figure below

Figure.61.

VT = IaRa + jIaXl + jIaXas + Ef

Combining reactances, Xs = Xl + Xas
VT = Ef + Ia(Ra + jXs)

or VT = Ef + IaZs
where:
Ra = armature resistance (/phase)
Xl = armature leakage reactance (/phase) Xs = synchronous reactance (/phase)
Zs = synchronous impedance (/phase) VT = applied voltage/phase (V)
Ia = armature current/phase(A)
Effect of changes in excitation on the performance synchronous motor

Increasing the strength of the magnets will increase the magnetic attraction, and thereby cause the rotor magnets to
have a closer alignment with the corresponding opposite poles of the rotating magnetic poles of the stator. This will
obviously result in a smaller power angle. This
Fullfact can also be seen from power angle equation. When the shaft load
is assumed to be constant, the steady-state load
value of E f sinδ must also be constant. An increase in Ef will cause a
transient increase in Ef sinδ, and the rotor will50%
accelerate. As the rotor changes its angular position, δ decreases until
load
Ef sinδ has the same steady-state value as before, at which time the rotor is again operating at synchronous speed, as
it should run only at the synchronous speed. This change in angular position of the rotor magnets relative to the poles
of rotating magnetic field of the stator occurs in a fraction of a second. The effect of changes in field excitation on
armature current, power angle, and power factor of a synchronous motor operating with a constant shaft load, from a
constant voltage, constant frequency supply, is illustrated in figure below.

Ef1 sin δ1 = Ef2 sin δ 2 = Ef3 sin δ 3 = Ef Lead

sin δ
→
This is shown in Figure below, where the locus of the tip of the E f phasor is a straight line parallel to the VT phasor.
Similarly,
Ia1 cos Φi1 = Ia2 cos Φi2 = Ia3 cos Φi3 = Ia cos Φi

This is also shown in Figure below, where the locus of the tip of the Ia phasor is a line perpendicular to the phasor VT.
Note that increasing the excitation from Ef1 to Ef3 caused the phase angle of the current phasor with respect to the
terminal voltage VT (and hence the power factor) to go from lagging to leading. The value of field excitation that
results in unity power factor is called normal excitation. Excitation greater than normal is called over excitation, and
excitation less than normal is called under excitation.
Further, as indicated in Figure, when operating in the overexcited mode, |Ef | > |VT |. A synchronous motor operating
under over excited condition is called a synchronous condenser.

V and inverted V curve of synchronous motor:

Graphs of armature current vs. field current of synchronous motors are called V curves and are shown in Figure
below for typical values of synchronous motor loads. The curves are related to the phasor diagram shown in figure
below, and illustrate the effect of the variation of field excitation on armature current and power factor. It can be
easily noted from these curves that an increase in shaft loads require an increase in field excitation in order to
maintain the power factor at unity.
The points marked a, b, and c on the upper curve corresponds to the operating conditions of the phasor diagrams
shown. Note that for P = 0, the lagging power factor operation is electrically equivalent to an inductor and the leading
power factor operation is electrically equivalent to a capacitor. Leading power factor operation with P = 0 is
sometimes referred to as synchronous condenser or synchronous capacitor operation. Typically, the synchronous
machine V-curves are provided by the manufacturer so that the user can determine the resulting operation under a
given set of conditions.
 Full load

50% load

No load

←Lag Lead →

pf

←Lag Lead →
If
Figure.65

Plots of power factor vs. field current of synchronous motors are called inverted V curves and are shown in Figure
above for different values of synchronous motor loads.

Hunting and Damper Winding:

Hunting:
Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may sometimes set up oscillations that are superimposed upon the
normal rotation, resulting in periodic variations of a very low frequency in speed. This effect is known as hunting or
phase-swinging. Occasionally, the trouble is aggravated by the motor having a natural period of oscillation
approximately equal to the hunting period. When the synchronous motor phase-swings into the unstable region, the
motor may fall out of synchronism.
Damper winding:
The tendency of hunting can be minimized by the use of a damper winding. Damper windings are placed in the pole
faces. No emfs are induced in the damper bars and no current flows in the damper winding, which is not operative.
Whenever any irregularity takes place in the speed of rotation, however, the polar flux moves from side to side of the
pole, this movement causing the flux to move backwards and forwards across the damper bars. Emfs are induced in
the damper bars forwards across the damper winding. These tend to damp out the superimposed oscillatory motion by
absorbing its energy. The damper winding, thus, has no effect upon the normal average speed, it merely tends to
damp out the oscillations in the speed, acting as a kind of electrical flywheel. In the case of a three- phase
synchronous motor the stator currents set up a rotating mmf rotating at uniform speed and if the rotor is rotating at
uniform speed, no emfs are induced in the damper bars.

Synchronous Condenser:

An over excited synchronous motor operates at unity or leading power factor. Generally, in large industrial plants the
load power factor will be lagging. The specially designed synchronous motor running at zero load, taking leading
current, approximately equal to 90. When it is connected in parallel with inductive loads to improve power factor,
it is known as synchronous condenser. Compared to static capacitor the power factor can improve easily by variation
of field excitation of motor. Phasor diagram of a synchronous condenser connected in parallel with an inductive load
is given below.

Figure.66

Numerical Problems:

Ex.1 A 3 phase star connected synchronous motor is taking a current of 25 Amps from supply while driving a certain
load. Its resistance and synchronous reactances per phase are 0.2 Ω and 2 Ω respectively. Calculate the emf induced
in the motor if it is operating at a power factor (i) 0.8 lagging
(ii) 0.9 leading.

Soln: Ra = 0.2 Ω, Xs = 2 Ω Ia = 25 amps, Vph= 400/√3 = 230.94 volts Zs = √ (R a)2 + (Xs)2 = Ra + j Xs = 0.2 + j 2 =
2.001 ∟84.29 Ω
(i) 0.8 lagging
Ia = 25∟-36.86 amps
Eph

IaZs
Eph

δ( θ
)Φ ) δ(
Vph

Ia

From the phasor diagram Eph = Vph – IaZs

= 230.94∟0 – 25 ∟-36.86 x 2.001 ∟84.29
= 230.94∟0 - 50.025∟47.43
= 200.51∟10.63 volts

(ii) Similarly for 0.9 leading Ia = 25∟25.84 amps

Eph = Vph – IaZs
230∟0 – 25∟25.84 x 2.001 ∟84.29
252.57∟-10.72 volts
Ex.2 A 4000 volts 50Hz, 4 pole star connected synchronous motor generates a back emf /phase of 1800 volts. The
resistance and synchronous reactance per phase are 2.2 fi and 22 fi respectively. The torque angle is 30 0 electrical.
Calculate (i) resultant stator voltage/phase (ii) stator current/phase (iii) power factor (iv) gross torque developed by
the motor.

Eph A
Er
IaZs
Eph

30( θ 30(
o
)
)Φ B Vph

Ia

Stator voltage/phase = 4000/√3 = 2309.4 volts Back emf /phase =1800 volts
(i) From the phasor diagram, using cosine rule

Er2 = V 2
+ E 2 - 2 V E cosδ
ph ph ph ph
2 2
= 2309.4 + 1800 – 2 x 2309.4 x 1800 x cos 30
= 1374578.79
Hence Er = 1172.42 volts
(ii) Zs = √ (Ra)2 + (Xs)2 = Ra + j Xs = 2.2 + j 22 = 22.11∟84.29 fi
Hence Ia = Er/Zs = 1172.42/22.11 = 53.02 amps
(iii) Power factor
θ = 84.3 , form the triangle OAB ∟AOB = θ – Φ
tan (θ – Φ) = AB/OB = Ephsin30/( Vph - Ephcos30)
= 1800 sin30/(2309.4 – 1800cos30)
= 1.199
θ – Φ = tan-1 1.199 = 50.17 hence Φ = 84.3 – 50.17 = 34.130
power factor = cos Φ = cos34.13 = 0.827
(iv) Motor input Pi = √3VLILcos Φ
= √3 x 4000 x 53.02 x 0.827
= 303784.67 watts
Stator cu loss = 3Ia2Ra = 3 x 53.022 x 2.2 = 18553.39 watts
Mechanical power developed Pm = Pi – cu losses = 303784.67 – 18553.39 =285231.28 watts Synchronous speed =
120f/p = 1500rpm
Gross torque developed Tg = 9.55 Pm/Ns N-m
= 9.55 x 285231.28/1500
= 1815.97 N-m
Ex.3. A 400 volts, 8 kW, 3 phase, 50Hz synchronous motor has negligible resistance and synchronous reactance of 8
fi per phase. Determine the minimum current and the corresponding induced emf for full load condition. Assume
efficiency of the motor as 88%.( Aug2001)
Slon:
We have Stator voltage/phase = 400/√3 = 230.94 volts Xs = 8 fi
Motor input = output/η = 8000/0.88 = 9091 watts Motor input Pi = √3VLILcos Φ
ILcos Φ = Pi /√3VL = 9091 /(√3 x 400) = 13.12 amps.

Current is minimum when cos Φ =1 hence Imin = ILcos Φ = 13.12 amps

IZs = IXs = 13.12 x 8 = 105 volts

Hence Eb = √(230.942 + 1052) = 253.7 volts

Ex.4. A 6 pole, 400 volts, 3 phase, 50 Hz star connected synchronous motor has a resistance and synchronous
impedance of 0.5 Ω and 4 Ω per phase respectively. It takes a current of 15 amps at unity power factor when
operating with a certain field current. If the load torque is increased until the line current becomes 60 amps, the field
current remaining unchanged, calculate the gross torque developed
and new power factor. ( Jan 2009) B
Soln:
Stator voltage/phase = 400/√3 = 230.94 volts Er Eb
2 2 2 2
Synchronous reactance Xs = √( Zs – Ra ) = √( 4 – 0.5 ) = 3.969 Ω
Internal angle θ = tan -1(Xs/Ra) = tan-1(3.969/0.5) = 82.80 Impedance drop
Er = Ia x Zs = 60 volts δ θ
Consider the phasor diagram of the motor From the phasor diagram, using A
cosine rule Eb2 = V 2 + E 2 - 2 V E cosθ o Ia
ph r ph r Vph
2 2
= 230.94 + 60 – 2 x 230.94 x 60 x cos 82.8
Eb = 231.21 volts
When the load on the motor is increased the load angle increases and the phasor diagram becomes as shown
Input current = 60 amps
B
Supply voltage Vph = 230.94 volts Back emf = 231.21 volts Eb
Er
Impedance drop Er = Ia x Zs = 60 x 4 = 240 volts
From phasor diagram using cosine rule A
2 2 2
Eb = V + Eph - 2 Vr E cosθ ph o r
2 2 2 )θ δ( ph
231.21 = 230.94 + 240 – 2 x 230.94 x 240 x cos ∟AOB
V
Hence cos ∟AOB = 0.5185 Ia
∟AOB = cos-1 0.5185 = 58.70
We have θ = tan-1(Xs/Ra) = tan-1(3.969/0.5) = 82.80 Hence pf angle Φ = 82.8 – 58. 7 = 24.1
New pf = cos24.1 = 0.913 lag
New Motor input = Pi = √3VLILcos Φ = √3 x 400 x 60 x 0.913 = 38000 watts Total cu loss = 3 I a2Ra = 3 x 602 x 0.5 =
5400 watts
Total mechanical power developed = 38000 – 5400 = 32600 watts. Synchronous speed Ns = 120f/p = 1000 rpm
Gross torque developed Tg = 9.55 Pm/Ns N-m
= 9.55 x 32600/1000
= 311.33 N-m

**********************************************************************************

Applications of synchronous motor:

usually, synchronous motors are used for applications where precise and constant speed is required. Low power
applications of these motors include positioning machines. These are also applied in robot actuators. Ball mills,
clocks, record player turntables also make use of synchronous motors.
Synchronous Motor
Operating Principle
The fact that a synchronous motor has no starting torque can be easily explained.
(i) Consider a 3-phase synchronous motor having two rotor poles NR and SR. Then the stator will also be
wound for two poles NS and SS. The motor has direct voltage applied to the rotor winding and a 3-phase
voltage applied to the stator winding. The stator winding produces a rotating field which revolves round

the stator at synchronous speed Ns (= 120 f/P). The direct (or zero frequency) current sets up a two-pole
field which is stationary so long as the rotor is not turning. Thus, we have a situation in which there exists
a pair of revolving armature poles (i.e., NS - SS) and a pair of stationary rotor poles (i.e., NR - SR).
(ii) Suppose at any instant, the stator poles are at positions A and B as shown in Fig: It is clear that poles
NS and NR repel each other and so do the poles SS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the
anticlockwise direction. After a period of half-cycle (or ½ f = 1/100 second), the polarities of the stator
poles are reversed but the polarities of the rotor poles remain the same as shown in Fig: Now SS and NR
attract each other and so do NS and SR. Therefore, the rotor tends to move in the clockwise direction.
Since the stator poles change their polarities rapidly, they tend to pull the rotor first in one direction and
then after a period of half-cycle in the other. Due to high inertia of the rotor, the motor fails to start.
Hence, a synchronous motor has no self- starting torque i.e., a synchronous motor cannot start by itself.

Equivalent Circuit Unlike the induction motor, the synchronous motor is connected to two electrical
systems; a d.c. source at the rotor terminals and an a.c. system at the stator terminals.
1. Under normal conditions of synchronous motor operation, no voltage is induced in the rotor by the
stator field because the rotor winding is rotating at the same speed as the stator field. Only the impressed
direct current is present in the rotor winding and ohmic resistance of this winding is the only opposition to
it as shown in Fig: (i).
2. In the stator winding, two effects are to be considered, the effect of stator field on the stator winding
and the effect of the rotor field cutting the stator conductors at synchronous speed.
(i) The effect of stator field on the stator (or armature) conductors is accounted for by including an
inductive reactance in the armature winding. This is called synchronous reactance Xs. A resistance Ra
must be considered to be in series with this reactance to account for the copper losses in the stator or
armature winding as shown in Fig: (i). This resistance combines with synchronous reactance and gives the
synchronous impedance of the machine.
(ii) The second effect is that a voltage is generated in the stator winding by the synchronously- revolving
field of the rotor as shown in Fig: 2.23 (i). This generated e.m.f. Eb is known as back e.m.f. and opposes
the stator voltage V. The magnitude of Eb depends upon rotor speed and rotor flux ф per pole. Since rotor
speed is constant; the value of Eb depends upon the rotor flux per pole i.e. exciting rotor current If. Fig:
2.23 (i) shows the schematic diagram for one phase of a star-connected synchronous motor while Fig: 2.23
(ii) shows its equivalent circuit. Referring to the equivalent circuit in Fig: 2.23 (ii). Net voltage/phase in
stator winding is Er = V - Eb phasor difference Armature current/phase,

This equivalent circuit helps considerably in understanding the operation of a synchronous motor. A
synchronous motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V. If the field
excitation is such that Eb < V, the motor is said to be under-excited. The motor is said to be over-excited if
the field excitation is such that Eb > V. As we shall see, for both normal and under excitation, the motor
has lagging power factor. However, for over-excitation, the motor has leading power factor.

2.12 Phasor Diagram

Fig: 2.24 shows the phasor diagrams for different field excitations at constant load. Fig: 2.24 (i) shows the
phasor diagram for normal excitation (Eb = V), whereas Fig: 2.24 (ii) shows the phasor diagram for under-
excitation. In both cases, the motor has lagging power factor. Fig: 2.24 (iii) shows the phasor diagram
when field excitation is adjusted for unity p.f. operation. Under this condition, the resultant voltage Er and,
therefore, the stator current Ia are minimum. When the motor is overexcited, it has leading power factor as
shown in Fig: 2.24 (iv). The following points may be remembered: (i) For a given load, the power factor is
governed by the field excitation; a weak field produces the lagging armature current and a strong field
produces a leading armature current. (ii) The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases
as the p.f. becomes less either leading or lagging
Torque and Power Relations Motor Torque
Gross torque, T =9.55 Pm/Ns N-M where Pm = Gross motor output in watts = Eb Ia cos(d - ф)
Ns = Synchronous speed in r.p.m.
Shaft torque, Tsh = 9.55 Pshout/Ns N-M
It may be seen that torque is directly proportional to the mechanical power because rotor speed (i.e., Ns) is
fixed.
Mechanical Power Developed
Neglecting the armature resistance Fig: 2.25 shows the phasor diagram of an under-excited synchronous
motor driving a mechanical load. Since armature resistance Ra is assumed zero. tanq= Xs/Ra = ¥ and
hence q =90°.
Input power/phase = V Ia cos ф
Since Ra is assumed zero, stator Cu loss (I Ra)2 will be zero. Hence input power is equal to the
mechanical power Pm developed by the motor.
Mechanical power developed/ phase, Pm = V Ia cos ф, referring to the phasor diagram in Fig: .
V-Curves and Inverted V-Curves It is clear from above discussion that if excitation is varied from very
low (under excitation) to very high (over excitation) value, then current Ia decreases, becomes minimum
at unity p.f. and then again increases. But initial lagging current becomes unity and then becomes leading
in nature. This can be shown as in the Fig: 2.26.

Excitation can be increased by increasing the field current passing through the field winding of
synchronous motor. If graph of armature current drawn by the motor (Ia) against field current (If) is
plotted, then its shape looks like an english alphabet V. If such graphs are obtained at various load
conditions we get family of curves, all looking like V. Such curves are called V-curves of synchronous
motor. These are shown in the Fig: 2.27 (a). As against this, if the power factor (cos ) is plotted against
field current (If), then the shape of the graph looks like an inverted V. Such curves obtained by plotting
p.f. against If, at various load conditions are called Inverted V-curves of synchronous motor. These curves
are shown in the Fig: 2.27 (b).

Typically, the synchronous machine V-curves are provided by the manufacturer so that the user can
determine the resulting operation under a given set of conditions.

Effect of Changing Field Excitation at Constant Load

In a d.c. motor, the armature current Ia is determined by dividing the difference between V and Eb by the
armature resistance Ra. Similarly, in a synchronous motor, the stator current (Ia) is determined by dividing
voltage-phasor resultant (Er) between V and Eb by the synchronous impedance Zs. One of the most
important features of a synchronous motor is that by changing the field excitation, it can be made to
operate from lagging to leading power factor. Consider a synchronous motor having a fixed supply voltage
and driving a constant mechanical load. Since the mechanical load as well as the speed is constant, the
power input to the motor (=3 V*Ia *cos ф) is also constant. This means that the in-phase component Ia cos
ф drawn from the supply will remain constant. If the field excitation is changed, back e.m.f Eb also
changes. This results in the change of phase position of Ia w.r.t. V and synchronous motor for different
values of field excitation. Note that extremities of current phasor Ia lie on the straight line AB. hence the
power factor cos of the motor changes. Fig: shows the phasor diagram of the synchronous motor.
(i) Under excitation The motor is said to be under-excited if the field excitation is such that Eb < V.
Under such conditions,
the current Ia lags behind V so that motor power factor is lagging as shown in Fig: (i). This can . be easily
explained. Since Eb < V, the net voltage Er is decreased and turns clockwise. As angle (= 90°) between Er
and Ia is constant, therefore, phasor Ia also turns clockwise i.e., current Ia lags behind the supply voltage.
Consequently, the motor has a lagging power factor.
(ii) Normal excitation The motor is said to be normally excited if the field excitation is such that Eb = V.
This is shown in Fig: 2.28 (ii). Note that the effect of increasing excitation (i.e., increasing Eb) is to turn
the phasor Er and hence Ia in the anti-clockwise direction i.e., Ia phasor has come closer to phasor V.
Therefore, p.f. increases though still lagging. Since input power (=3 V*Ia *cos ф) is unchanged, the stator
current Ia must decrease with increase in p.f. Suppose the field excitation is increased until the current Ia
is in phase with the applied voltage V, making the p.f. of the synchronous motor unity [See Fig: 2.28 (iii)].
For a given load, at unity p.f. the resultant Er and, therefore, Ia are minimum.

(iii) Over Excitation: The motor is said to be overexcited if the field excitation is such that Eb > V.
Under-such conditions, current Ia leads V and the motor power factor is leading as shown in Fig:
2.28 (iv). Note that Er and hence Ia further turn anti-clockwise from the normal excitation position.
Consequently, Ia leads V. From the above discussion, it is concluded that if the synchronous motor
is under-excited, it has a lagging power factor. As the excitation is increased, the power factor
improves till it becomes unity at normal excitation. Under such conditions, the current drawn from
the supply is minimum. If the excitation is further increased (i.e., over excitation), the motor power
factor becomes leading. Note. The armature current (Ia) is minimum at unity p.f and increases as
the power factor becomes poor, either leading or lagging.

Synchronous Condenser A synchronous motor takes a leading current when over-excited and, therefore,
behaves as a capacitor. An over-excited synchronous motor running on no-load in known as synchronous
condenser. When such a machine is connected in parallel with induction motors or other devices that
operate at low lagging power factor, the leading kVAR supplied by the synchronous condenser partly
neutralizes the lagging reactive kVAR of the loads. Consequently, the power factor of the system is
improved. Fig: 2.29 shows the power factor improvement by synchronous condenser method. The 3 - f
load takes current IL at low lagging power factor cos фL. The synchronous condenser takes a current Im
which leads the voltage by an angle fm. The resultant current I is the vector sum of Im and IL and lags
behind the voltage by an angle ф. It is clear that ф is less than фL so that cos f is greater than cos фL.
Thus the power factor is increased from cos фL to cos ф. Synchronous condensers are generally used at
major bulk supply substations for power factor improvement.
Advantages (i) By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor can be
changed by any amount. This helps in achieving step less control of power factor. (ii) The motor
windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents. (iii) The faults can be removed easily.
Disadvantages (i) There are considerable losses in the motor. (ii) The maintenance cost is high. (iii) It
produces noise. (iv) Except in sizes above 500 RVA, the cost is greater than that of static capacitors of
the same rating. (v) As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, then-fore, an auxiliary equipment
has to be provided for this purpose.

Methods of starting synchronous motor There are three chief methods that are used to start a
synchronous motor:
1. To reduce the speed of the rotating magnetic field of the stator to a low enough value that the rotor can
easily accelerate and lock in with it during one half-cycle of the rotating magnetic
field's rotation. This is done by reducing the frequency of the applied electric power. This method is
usually followed in the case of inverter-fed synchronous motor operating under variable speed drive
applications.
2. To use an external prime mover to accelerate the rotor of synchronous motor near to its synchronous
speed and then supply the rotor as well as stator. Of course care should be taken to ensure that the
directions of rotation of the rotor as well as that of the rotating magnetic field of the stator are the same.
This method is usually followed in the laboratory- the synchronous machine is started as a generator and is
then connected to the supply mains by following the synchronization or paralleling procedure. Then the
power supply to the prime mover is disconnected so that the synchronous machine will continue to operate
as a motor.
3. To use damper windings if these are provided in the machine. The damper windings are provided in
most of the large synchronous motors in order to nullify the oscillations of the rotor whenever the
synchronous machine is subjected to a periodically varying load.

Motor Starting by reducing the supply Frequency If the rotating magnetic field of the stator in a
synchronous motor rotates at a low enough speed, there will be no problem for the rotor to accelerate and
to lock in with the stator's magnetic field. The speed of the stator magnetic field can then be increased to
its rated operating speed by gradually increasing the supply frequency 'f' up to its normal 50- or 60-Hz
value.
But the usual power supply systems generally regulate the frequency to be 50 or 60 Hz as the case may be.
However, variable-frequency voltage source can be obtained from a dedicated generator only in the olden
days and such a situation was obviously impractical except for very unusual or special drive applications.
But the present day solid state power converters offer an easy solution to this. We now have the rectifier-
inverter and cycloconverters, which can be used to convert a constant frequency AC supply to a variable
frequency AC supply. With the development of such modern solid- state variable-frequency drive
packages, it is thus possible to continuously control the frequency of the supply connected to the
synchronous motor all the way from a fraction of a hertz up to and even above the normal rated frequency.
If such a variable-frequency drive unit is included in a motor- control circuit to achieve speed control, then
starting the synchronous motor is very easy-simply adjust the frequency to a very low value for starting,
and then raise it up to the desired operating frequency for normal running.

When a synchronous motor is operated at a speed lower than the rated speed, its internal generated voltage
applied to the motor must be reduced proportionally with the frequency in order to keep the stator current
within the rated value. Generally, the voltage in any variable-frequency power supply voltage (usually
called the counter EMF) EA = Kφφωω will be smaller than normal. As such the terminal varies roughly
linearly with the output frequency.

Motor Starting with an External Motor

The second method of starting a synchronous motor is to attach an external starting motor (pony motor)
to it and bring the synchronous machine to near about its rated speed (but not exactly equal to it, as the
synchronization process may fail to indicate the point of closure of the main switch connecting the
synchronous machine to the supply system) with the pony motor. Then the output of the synchronous
machine can be synchronised or paralleled with its power supply system as a generator, and the pony
motor can be detached from the shaft of the machine or the supply to the pony motor can be
disconnected. Once the pony motor is turned OFF, the shaft of the machine slows down, the speed of the
rotor magnetic field BR falls behind Bnet, momentarily and the synchronous machine continues to
operate as a motor. As soon as it begins to operate as a motor the synchronous motor can be loaded in the
usual manner just like any motor. This whole procedure is not as cumbersome as it sounds, since many
synchronous motors are parts of motor-generator sets, and the synchronous machine in the motor-
generator set may be started with the other machine serving as the starting motor. Moreover, the starting
motor is required to overcome only the mechanical inertia of the synchronous machine without any
mechanical load (load is attached only after the synchronous machine is paralleled to the power supply
system). Since only the motor's inertia must be overcome, the starting motor can have a much smaller
rating than the synchronous motor it is going to start. Generally most of the large synchronous motors
have brushless excitation systems mounted on their shafts. It is then possible to use these exciters as the
starting motors. For many medium-size to large synchronous motors, an external starting
motor or starting by using the exciter may be the only possible solution, because the power systems they
are tied to may not be able to handle the starting currents needed to use the damper (amortisseur) winding.

Motor Starting by using damper (Amortisseur) Winding As already mentioned earlier most of the large
synchronous motors are provided with damper windings, in order to nullify the oscillations of the rotor
whenever the synchronous machine is subjected to a periodically varying load. Damper windings are
special bars laid into slots cut in the pole face of a synchronous machine and then shorted out on each end
by a large shorting ring, similar to the squirrel cage rotor bars. A salient pole rotor with sets of damper
windings is shown in Fig
When the stator of such a synchronous machine is connected to the 3-Phase AC supply, the machine starts
as a 3-Phase induction machine due to the presence of the damper bars, just like a squirrel cage induction
motor. Just as in the case of a 3-Phase squirrel cage induction motor, the applied voltage must be suitably
reduced so as to limit the starting current to the safe rated value. Once the motor picks up to a speed near
about its synchronous speed, the DC supply to its field winding is connected and the synchronous motor
pulls into step i.e. it continues to operate as a Synchronous motor running at its synchronous speed.

Performance Characteristic The effects of changes in mechanical or shaft load on armature current,
power angle, and power factor can be seen from the phasor diagram shown in Fig: As the applied stator
voltage, frequency, and field excitation are assumed, constant. The initial load conditions, are represented
by the thick lines. The effect of increasing the shaft load to twice its initial value are represented by the
light lines indicating the new steady state conditions. When the shaft load is doubled both Ia cos i and Ef
sin are doubled. While redrawing the phasor diagrams to show new steady-state conditions, the line of
action of the new jIaXs phasor must be perpendicular to the new Ia phasor. Furthermore, as shown in Fig:
if the excitation is not changed, increasing the shaft load causes the locus of the Ef phasor to follow a
circular arc, thereby increasing its phase angle with increasing shaft load. Note also that an increase in
shaft load is also accompanied by a decrease in i ; resulting in an increase in power factor. As additional
load is placed on the machine, the rotor continues to increase its angle of lag relative to the rotating
magnetic field, thereby increasing both the angle of lag of the counter EMF phasor and the magnitude of
the stator current. It is interesting to note that during all this load variation, however, except for the
duration of transient conditions whereby the rotor assumes a new position in relation to the rotating
magnetic field, the average speed of the machine does not change. As the load is being increased, a final
point is reached at which a further increase in fails to cause a corresponding increase in motor torque, and
the rotor pulls out of synchronism. In fact as stated earlier, the rotor poles at this point, will fall behind the
stator poles such that they now come under the influence of like poles and the force of attraction no longer
exists. Thus, the point of maximum torque occurs at a power angle of approximately 90◦ for a cylindrical-
rotor machine. This maximum value of torque that causes a synchronous motor to pull out of synchronism
is called the pull-out torque. In actual practice, the motor will never be operated at power angles close to
90◦ as armature current will be many times its rated value at this load.
Hunting and Damper Winding: Hunting: Sudden changes of load on synchronous motors may
sometimes set up oscillations that are superimposed upon the normal rotation, resulting in periodic
variations of a very low frequency in speed. This effect is known as hunting or phase-swinging.
Occasionally, the trouble is aggravated by the motor having a natural period of oscillation
approximately equal to the hunting period. When the synchronous motor phase-swings into the
unstable region, the motor may fall out of synchronism.

Damper winding: The tendency of hunting can be minimized by the use of a damper winding.
Damper windings are placed in the pole faces. No emfs are induced in the damper bars and no current
flows in the damper winding, which is not operative. Whenever any irregularity takes place in the
speed of rotation, however, the polar flux moves from side to side of the pole, this movement causing
the flux to move backwards and forwards across the damper bars. Emfs are induced in the damper bars
forwards across the damper winding. These tend to damp out the superimposed oscillatory motion by
absorbing its energy. The damper winding, thus, has no effect upon the normal average speed, it
merely tends to damp out the oscillations in the speed, acting as a kind of electrical flywheel. In the
case of a three- phase synchronous motor the stator currents set up a rotating mmf rotating at uniform
speed and if the rotor is rotating at uniform speed, no emfs are induced in the damper bars. Fig: shows
a salient pole synchronous motor with damper winding.
STEPPER MOTOR
It is a brushless electromechanical device which converts the train of
electric pulses applied at their excitation windings into precisely defined
step-by-step mechanical shaft rotation. The shaft of the motor rotates
through a fixed angle for each discrete pulse. This rotation can be linear or
angular.It gets one step movement for a single pulse input.
When a train of pulses is applied, it gets turned through a certain angle. The angle through which the
stepper motor shaft turns for each pulse is referred as the step angle, which is generally expressed in
degrees.

The number of input pulses given to the motor decides the step angle and hence the position of motor shaft
is controlled by controlling the number of pulses. This unique feature makes the stepper motor to be well
suitable for open-loop control system wherein the precise position of the shaft is maintained with exact
number of pulses without using a feedback sensor.
If the step angle is smaller, the greater will be the number of steps per revolutions and higher will be the
accuracy of the position obtained. The step angles can be as large as 90 degrees and as small as 0.72
degrees, however, the commonly used step angles are 1.8 degrees, 2.5 degrees, 7.5 degrees and 15
degrees.
The direction of the shaft rotation depends on the sequence of pulses applied to the stator. The speed of
the shaft or the average motor speed is directly proportional to the frequency (the rate of input pulses) of
input pulses being applied at excitation windings. Therefore, if the frequency is low, the stepper motor
rotates in steps and for high frequency, it continuously rotates like a DC motor due to inertia.
Like all electric motors, it has stator and rotor. The rotor is the movable part which has no windings,
brushes and a commutator. Usually the rotors are either variable reluctance or permanent magnet kind.
The stator is often constructed with multipole and multiphase windings, usually of three or four phase
windings wound for a required number of poles decided by desired angular displacement per input pulse.
Unlike other motors it operates on a programmed discrete control pulses that are applied to the stator
windings via an electronic drive. The rotation occurs due to the magnetic interaction between poles of
sequentially energized stator winding and poles of the rotor.

There are several types of stepper motors are

available in today’s market over a wide range
of sizes, step count, constructions, wiring,
gearing, and other electrical characteristics. As
these motors are capable to operate in discrete
nature, these are well suitable to interface with
digital control devices like computers.
Due to the precise control of speed, rotation,
direction, and angular position, these are of
particular interest in industrial process control
systems, CNC machines, robotics,
manufacturing automation systems, and
instrumentation.

Types of Stepper Motors

There are three basic categories of stepper motors, namely permanent magnet stepper motor, variable
reluctance stepper motor and hybrid stepper motor. In all these motors excitation windings are
employed in stator where the number of windings refer to the number of phases.
A DC voltage is applied as an excitation to the coils of windings and each winding terminal is connected
to the source through a solid state switch. Depends on the type of stepper motor, its rotor design is
constructed such as soft steel rotor with salient poles, cylindrical permanent magnet rotor and permanent
magnet with soft steel teeth. Let us discuss these types in detail.
Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor
It is the basic type of stepper motor that has been in existence for a long time and it ensures easiest way to
understand principle of operation from a structural point of view. As the name suggests, the angular
position of the rotor depends on the reluctance of the magnetic circuit formed between the stator poles
(teeth) and rotor teeth.

Construction of Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor:

It consists of a wound stator and a soft iron multi-tooth rotor. The stator has a stack of silicon steel
laminations on which stator windings are wound. Usually, it is wound for three phases which are
distributed between the pole pairs.
The number of poles on stator thus formed is equal to an even multiple of the number of phases for which
windings are wounded on stator. In the figure below, the stator has 12 equally spaced projecting poles
where each pole is wound with an exciting coil. These three phases are energized from of a DC source
with the help of solid state switches.
The rotor carries no windings and is of salient pole type made entirely of slotted steel laminations. The
rotor pole’s projected teeth have the same width as that of stator teeth. The number of poles on stator
differs to that of rotor poles, which provides the ability to self start and bidirectional rotation of the motor.
The relation of rotor poles in terms of stator poles for a three phase stepper motor is given as, Nr = Ns ±
(Ns / q). Here Ns = 12, and q= 3, and hence Nr = 12 ± (12 / 3) = 16 or 8. An 8-pole construction rotor
without any excitation is illustrated below.
Working Variable Reluctance Stepper Motor:
The stepper motor works on the principle that the rotor aligns in a
particular position with the teeth of the excitation pole in a
magnetic circuit wherein minimum reluctance path exist. Whenever
power is applied to the motor and by exciting a particular winding,
it produces its magnetic field and develops its own magnetic poles.
Due to the residual magnetism in the rotor magnet poles, it will
cause the rotor to move in such a position so as to achieve
minimum reluctance position and hence one set of poles of rotor
aligns with the energized set of poles of the stator. At this position,
the axis of the stator magnetic field matches with the axis passing
through any two magnetic poles of the rotor.
When the rotor aligns with stator poles, it has enough magnetic
force to hold the shaft from moving to the next position, either in
clockwise or counter clockwise direction.
Consider the schematic diagram of a 3-phase, 6 stator poles and 4 rotor teeth is shown in figure below.
When the phase A-A’ is supplied with a DC supply by closing the switch -1, the winding become a
magnet which results one tooth become North and other South. So the stator magnetic axis lies along these
poles.
Due to the force of attraction, stator coil North Pole attracts nearest rotor tooth of opposite polarity, i.e.,
South and South Pole attract nearest rotor tooth of opposite polarity, i.e., North. The rotor then adjusts to
its minimum reluctance position where the rotor magnetic axis exactly matches with stator magnetic axis.
When the phase B-B’ is energized by
closing switch -2 keeping phase A-A’
remain de-energized by opening switch-
1, winding B-B’ will produce the
magnetic flux and hence the stator
magnetic axis shifts along the poles thus
formed by it. Hence the rotor shifts to the
least reluctance with magnetized stator
teeth and rotates through an angle of 30
degrees in the clockwise direction.
When the switch-3 is energized after
opening switch-2, the phase C-C’ is
energized, the rotor teeth align with new
position by moving through an additional
angle of 30 degrees. By this way, the
rotor moves clockwise or
counterclockwise direction by
successively exciting stator windings in a particular sequence. The step angle of this 3-phase 4-pole rotor
teeth stepper motor is expressed as, 360/ (4 × 3) = 30 degrees (as step angle = 360 / Nr × q).
The step angle can be further reduced by increasing the number of poles on the stator and rotor, in such
case motors are often wound with additional phase windings. This can also be achieved by a adopting
different construction of stepper motors such as multistack arrangement and reduction gear mechanism.

Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor

The permanent magnet design motor is perhaps the
most common among several types of stepper motors.
As the name implies, it adds permanent magnets to
the motor construction. This type of stepper motors is
also referred as can-stack motor or tin-can motor.
The main advantage of this motor is its low
manufacturing cost. This type of motor has 48-24
steps per revolution.

Construction Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:

In this motor, the stator is of multipolar and its
construction is similar to that of variable reluctance
stepper motor as discussed above. It consists of
slotted periphery on which stator coils are wound. It
has projected poles on the slotted structure where the
wound windings can be two or three or four-phase.
The end terminals of all these windings are bought
out and connected to the DC excitation via solid state
switches in the drive circuit.

The rotor is made up of a permanent magnet material like a ferrite that can be in the shape of either
cylindrical or salient pole, but usually it is of smooth cylindrical type. The rotor designed to have an even
number of permanent magnetic poles with alternate North and South polarities.
Working of Permanent Magnet Stepper Motor:
The operation of this motor works on the principle that unlike poles attract each other and like poles repel
each other. When the stator windings are excited with a DC supply, it produces magnetic flux and
establishes the North and South poles. Due to the force of attraction and repulsion between permanent
magnet rotor poles and stator poles, the rotor starts moving up to the position for which pulses are given to
the stator.
Consider a 2-phase stepper motor with two permanent magnetic rotor poles as shown in the figure below.
When the phase A is energized with a positive with
respect to the A’, the windings establish North and
South poles. Due to the force of attraction, the rotor
poles align with stator poles such that the magnetic
pole axis of rotor adjusts with that of stator as shown in
figure.
When the excitation is switched to B phase and
switching off phase A, the rotor further adjusts to
magnetic axis of phase B, and thus rotates through 90
degrees in clockwise direction.
Next, if the phase A is energized with a negative
current with respect to A’, the formation of stator poles
causes the rotor to move through another 90 degrees in
clockwise direction.
In the same way, if the phase B is excited with
negative current by closing phase A switch, the rotor
rotates through another 90 degrees in the same
direction. Next, if the phase A is excited with positive
current, the rotor comes to the original position thus
making a 360 degrees complete revolution. This
implies that, whenever the stator is excited, the rotor tends to rotate through 90 degrees in clockwise
direction.
The step angle of this 2-phase 2-pole permanent magnet rotor motor is expressed as, 360/ (2 × 2) = 90
degrees. The step size can be reduced by energizing two phases simultaneously or a sequence of 1-phase
ON and 2-phase ON modes with a proper polarity.

Hybrid Stepper Motor

It is the most popular type of stepper motor as it provides better performance than permanent magnet rotor
in terms of step resolution, holding torque and speed. However, these motors are more expensive than PM
stepper motors. It combines the best features of both variable reluctance and permanent magnet stepper
motors. These motors are used in applications that require very small stepping angle such as 1.5, 1.8 and
2.5 degrees.

Construction of Hybrid Stepper Motor:

The stator of this motor is same as its permanent magnet or reluctance type counterpart. The stator coils
are wound on alternate poles. In this, the coils of different phases are wound on each pole, usually two
coils at a pole which is referred as a bifilar connection.
The rotor consists of a permanent magnet which is magnetized in axial direction to create a pair of
magnetic poles (N and S poles). Each pole is covered with uniformly spaced teeth. The teeth are made up
of soft steel and two section, of which on each pole are misaligned each other by a half-tooth pitch.
 Working of Hybrid Stepper Motor:

This motor works similar to that of permanent magnet stepper motor.

The figure above shows 2-phase, 4-pole, 6-tooth rotor hybrid stepper
motor. When the phase A-A’ is excited with a DC supply, keeping B-
B’ unexcited, the rotor aligns such that the south pole of the rotor
faces north pole of the stator while north pole of rotor faces south pole
of the stator.
Now, if the phase B-B’ is excited, keeping A-A’ switched off in such
a way that upper pole becomes north and lower becomes south, then
the rotor will align to a new position by moving through
counterclockwise direction. If the phase B-B’ is oppositely excited
such that the upper pole becomes south and lower becomes north, then
the rotor will turn clockwise direction.
By a proper sequence of pulses to the stator, the motor will turn in desired direction. For every excitation,
rotor will get locked into new position, and even if excitation is removed motor still maintains its locked
condition due to the permanent magnet excitation. The step angle of this 2-phase, 4-pole, 6-tooth rotor
motor is given as 360/ (2 × 6) = 30 degrees. In practice, hybrid motors are constructed with more number
of rotor poles in order to get high angular resolution.

Unipolar and Bipolar Stepper Motors

The above discussed motors can be unipolar or bipolar based on the coil winding arrangements. A
unipolar motor is employed with two windings per phase and hence the direction of current flow through
these windings changes the rotation of the motor. In this
configuration, the current flow is through one direction in one coil
and opposite direction in another coil.
The figure below shows 2-phase unipolar stepper motor wherein A
and C coils are for one phase and B and D are for other phase. In
each phase each coil carries current in opposite direction to that of
other coil. Only one coil will be carrying current at a time in each
phase for achieving particular direction of rotation. So just by
switching the terminals to each coil, the direction of rotation is
controlled.
In case of a bipolar stepper motor, each phase consists of a single
winding rather than two in case of unipolar one. In this, the direction
of rotation is controlled by reversing the current through the
windings. Hence, it requires a complex drive circuit for current reversal.

Stepping Modes of a Stepper Motor

A typical stepping action causes the motor to step through a sequence of equilibrium positions in response
to current pulses given to it. It is possible to vary the stepping action in different ways simply by changing
the sequence through which stator windings are energized. The following are the most common operating
or driving modes of stepper motors.
1. Wave step
2. Full step
3. Half step
4. Microstepping

Wave Step
Wave step mode is the simplest of all other modes in which only one winding is energized at any given
time. Each coil of the phase is connected to the supply alternatively. The table below shows the order
through which coils are energized in a 4-phase stepper motor.
In this mode motor gives maximum step angle compared to all other modes. It is the simplest and most
commonly used mode for stepping; however the torque produced is less as it uses some part of the total
winding at a given time.

Full Step
In this drive or mode, two stator phases are energized simultaneously at any given time. When two phases
are energized together, the rotor will experience the torque from both phases and comes to the equilibrium
position, which will be interleaved between two adjacent wave step positions or 1-phase excitations. So
this step provides better holding torque than wave step. The table below shows the full step drive for 4-
phase stepper motor.

Half step
It is the combination of both wave and full step modes. In this, single phase and dual phase excitations are
carried out alternatively, i.e., one-phase ON, two-phases ON, and so on. The step angle in this mode
becomes half of the full step angle. This drive mode has highest torque and stability compared to all other
 modes. The table containing phase pulsing sequence for a 4-phase motor in half stepping is given below.

Microstepping
In this mode, each motor step is subdivided into several small steps, even hundreds of fixed positions,
therefore a greater positioning resolution is obtained. In this, currents through the windings are continually
varied in order to get very small steps. In this, two phases are excited simultaneously, but with the unequal
currents in each phase.
For example, the current through phase -1 is held constant while the current through phase-2 is
incremented in steps till the maximum value of current, whether it is negative or positive. The current in
the phase-1 is then decreased or increased in steps till zero. Thus, the motor will produce a small step size.
All these stepping modes can be obtained by each type of stepper motor discussed above. However, the
direction of current in each winding during these steps can be varied depending on the type of motor and
either it is unipolar or bipolar.

BLDC MOTOR

Brushless DC motors (BLDC) have been a much focused area for numerous motor manufacturers as these
motors are increasingly the preferred choice in many applications, especially in the field of motor control
technology. BLDC motors are superior to brushed DC motors in many ways, such as ability to operate at
high speeds, high efficiency, and better heat dissipation.

They are an indispensable part of modern drive technology, most commonly employed for actuating
drives, machine tools, electric propulsion, robotics, computer peripherals and also for electrical power
generation. With the development of sensorless technology besides digital control, these motors become
so effective in terms of total system cost, size and reliability.
 brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric motor which is
driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it accomplishes electronically controlled commutation system
(commutation is the process of producing rotational torque in the motor by changing phase currents
through it at appropriate times) instead of a mechanically commutation system. BLDC motors are also
referred as trapezoidal permanent magnet motors.
Unlike conventional brushed type DC motor, wherein the brushes make the mechanical contact with
commutator on the rotor so as to form an electric path between a DC electric source and rotor armature
windings, BLDC motor employs electrical commutation with permanent magnet rotor and a stator with a
sequence of coils. In this motor, permanent magnet (or field poles) rotates and current carrying conductors

are fixed.

The armature coils are switched electronically by transistors or silicon controlled rectifiers at the correct
rotor position in such a way that armature field is in space quadrature with the rotor field poles. Hence the
force acting on the rotor causes it to rotate. Hall sensors or rotary encoders are most commonly used to
sense the position of the rotor and are positioned around the stator. The rotor position feedback from the
sensor helps to determine when to switch the armature current.

This electronic commutation arrangement eliminates the commutator arrangement and brushes in a DC
motor and hence more reliable and less noisy operation is achieved. Due to the absence of brushes BLDC
motors are capable to run at high speeds. The efficiency of BLDC motors is typically 85 to 90 percent,
whereas as brushed type DC motors are 75 to 80 percent efficient. There are wide varieties of BLDC
motors available ranging from small power range to fractional horsepower, integral horsepower and large
power ranges.
Construction of BLDC Motor
BLDC motors can be constructed in different physical configurations. Depending on the stator windings,
these can be configured as single-phase, two-phase, or three-phase motors. However, three-phase BLDC
motors with permanent magnet rotor are most commonly used.

The construction of this motor has many similarities of three phase induction motor as well as
conventional DC motor. This motor has stator and rotor parts as like all other motors.
Stator of a BLDC motor made up of stacked steel laminations to carry the windings. These windings are
placed in slots which are axially cut along the inner periphery of the stator. These windings can be
arranged in either star or delta. However, most BLDC motors have three phase star connected stator.
Each winding is constructed with numerous interconnected coils, where one or more coils are placed in
each slot. In order to form an even number of poles, each of these windings is distributed over the stator
periphery.
The stator must be chosen with the correct rating of the voltage depending on the power supply capability.
For robotics, automotive and small actuating applications, 48 V or less voltage BLDC motors are
preferred. For industrial applications and automation systems, 100 V or higher rating motors are used.

Rotor
BLDC motor incorporates a permanent magnet in the rotor. The number of poles in the rotor can vary
from 2 to 8 pole pairs with alternate south and north poles depending on the application requirement. In
order to achieve maximum torque in the motor, the flux density of the material should be high. A proper
Ferrite magnetic material for the rotor is needed to produce required magnetic field density.
magnets are inexpensive, however they have a low flux density for a given volume. Rare earth alloy
magnets are commonly used for new designs. Some of these alloys are Samarium Cobalt (SmCo),
Neodymium (Nd), and Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB). The rotor can be constructed with different core
configurations such as the circular core with permanent magnet on the periphery, circular core with
rectangular magnets, etc.

Hall Sensors
Hall sensor provides the information to synchronize stator armature excitation with rotor position. Since
the commutation of BLDC motor is controlled electronically, the stator windings should be energized in
sequence in order to rotate the motor. Before energizing a particular stator winding, acknowledgment of
rotor position is necessary. So the Hall Effect sensor embedded in stator senses the rotor position.

Most BLDC motors incorporate three Hall sensors which are embedded into the stator. Each sensor
generates Low and High signals whenever the rotor poles pass near to it. The exact commutation sequence
to the stator winding can be determined based on the combination of these three sensor’s response.

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Working Principle and Operation of BLDC Motor
BLDC motor works on the principle similar to that of a conventional DC motor, i.e., the Lorentz force law
which states that whenever a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force.
As a consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal and opposite force. In case
BLDC motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary while the permanent magnet moves.

Construction-Working-Principle-and-Operation-of-BLDC-Motor-Brushless-DC-Motor

When the stator coils are electrically switched by a supply source, it becomes electromagnet and starts
producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source of supply is DC, switching makes to
generate an AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the force of interaction between
electromagnet stator and permanent magnet rotor, the rotor continues to rotate.

Consider the figure below in which motor stator is excited based on different switching states. With the
switching of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding winding energized as North and South
poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and South poles align with stator poles causing motor to
rotate.

Observe that motor produces torque because of the development of attraction forces (when North-South or
South-North alignment) and repulsion forces (when North-North or South-South alignment). By this way
motor moves in a clockwise direction.

Here, one might get a question that how we know which stator coil should be energized and when to do.
This is because; the motor continuous rotation depends on the switching sequence around the coils. As
discussed above that Hall sensors give shaft position feedback to the electronic controller unit.

Based on this signal from sensor, the controller decides particular coils to energize. Hall-effect sensors
generate Low and High level signals whenever rotor poles pass near to it. These signals determine the
position of the shaft.

Switched Reluctance Motor

The increasing availability and progressive improvement of power semiconductor devices as well as
intensive computer aided study of the geometry of conventional reluctance motors for optimum torque
production have led to the introduction of yet another type of drive called the switched reluctance motor
drive. It is becoming a serious competitor to converter supplied dc and ac variable speed drive systems.

The switched reluctance motor is being considered, nowadays, for applications ranging from low power
servomotors to high power traction drives. Motors of power ratings varying from 4 to 22 kW are
commercially available at present for many applications.

Construction of SRM:
The switched reluctance motor (SRM) has both salient pole stator and rotor like a variable reluctance
stepper motor. Figure 3.57 shows a one phase winding of a 4-phase switched reluctance motor having 8
poles on stator and 6 poles on rotor. While the rotor has no windings, each stator pole has a concentrated
winding around it and each pair of diametrically opposite coils comprise one phase of the motor. These
motors are designed for applications different from those for which stepper motors are designed.

A stepper motor is designed suitable for open-loop position and speed control in small power applications,
where efficiency is not significant. On the other hand a switched reluctance motor (SRM) is employed in
variable speed drives and designed to operate efficiently for wide range of speed and torque and needs
rotor position sensing. It is, also, quite different from a standard synchronous reluctance motor in two
aspects.
A synchronous reluctance motor has the same number of poles on stator and rotor but the rotor of a SRM
has lesser poles than the stator, which is an essential feature to provide self-starting capability and
bidirectional control. They are also different in stator construction—the synchronous reluctance motor has
a cylindrical stator with distributed winding, while the SRM has a salient pole stator with concentrated
coils like a dc motor.

Though various combinations of stator and rotor pole numbers are possible in SRMs, the commonly used
are 8/6 and 6/4. The stator has concentrated coils and diametrically opposite coils are connected in series
or parallel to provide one phase. Thus, motors with pole numbers 6/4 and 8/6 will have three and four
phases respectively.

Operation of SRM:
Reluctance torque is produced when a stator phase is excited by means of unidirectional currents. This
results in the magnetic attraction of an adjacent rotor pole as it tends to align into a position of minimum
reluctance. When the numbers of stator and rotor poles differ, the sequential switching of the excitation
from one set of stator poles to the next, in synchronism with the rotor position, produces an almost
constant torque resulting in an uniform rotation of rotor. The synchronisation of the switching on the
excitation with rotor position can be accomplished with simple rotor position feedback.

Neglecting nonlinearity of the magnetic circuit, the instantaneous torque produced in such machines may
be given as-

where i is the instantaneous current in the exciting winding and L is the self-inductance of that winding
varying as a function of the angular position of the rotor. It may be noted that the torque developed is
independent of the direction of current flow in the windings, so that unidirectional currents can be used to
control the motor. The direction of rotation can be reversed by exciting the phases in the reverse sequence.

The motor can also provide regenerative braking. If a phase is excited after the rotor has crossed the
position of minimum reluctance, the rotor will experience a torque in opposition to its motion, it will
decelerate, and mechanical energy drawn from it will be converted into electrical energy and supplied to
the source. In fact, the possibility of operating in all of the four quadrants of the speed-torque plane and
obtaining flexible speed-torque characteristics simply by appropriate switching of current pulses makes
the motor very versatile.

Figure 3.58 (a) and (b) illustrates the ideal variation of inductance of the exciting winding with respect to
the angular position of the rotor over a periphery of one rotor pole pitch and the corresponding torque
developed, for an assumed value of constant current [using Eq. (3.60)].
Different circuit configurations are available for the power converters for SRM drive. All of these have
two essential elements—a controlled switch or switches to connect the dc voltage source to the exciting
winding to build up current and an alternative path for the current to take when the switch is turned off.
The alternative path is provided by a diode or diodes such that the winding experiences a reverse voltage
to collapse the current.
Three alternatives for one phase of a SRM power converter are depicted in Fig. 3.61. A flexible circuit
using two switches per phase is shown in Fig. 3.61 (a), whilst the use of bifilar wound motor (as in stepper
motors) or a centre tapped supply permits the use of only a single switch per phase as depicted in Figs.
3.61 (b) and (c). The correct choice of power circuit configuration will depend on the power level of the
drive, the supply voltage and the application.

Modes of Operation of SRM:

There are two distinct modes of operation corresponding to low or high speed. Monitoring of exciting
current during low speed operation is essential because of long duration of each phase period and needs
chopping of energization to restrict each phase current within the semiconductor ratings. Moreover, the
developed torque is controlled by varying the average phase current.

Hence, accurate monitoring of the exciting current is required for obtaining high degree of controllability
possible. During high speed operation, current control is not essential because the inductance of the
winding and the motional back emf induced restrict the excitation to single pulses of current. Torque is
controlled by optimal positioning of these pulses rather than the current level. Current monitoring,
however, is retained for the sake of protection.

ypical phase current waveforms of the two modes (low speed and high speed) of operation are shown in
Figs. 3.59 (a) and (b).
The complete drive system, comprising a SRM coupled to a load, a power converter and a control system
involving rotor position transducer and current sensor is shown in Fig. 3.60.
Power Converter for SRM:
Since the SRM needs only unidirectional currents, its operation is possible with only one switching device
in service per phase, instead of two in series in each phase leg of an inverter for an ac drive. So, the power
converter circuits employed for energization of SRMs have few semiconducting devices than the inverters
supplying ac motors and those devices have only one forward voltage drop in series per phase so that the
power losses may, in general, be lower than in conventional inverters. Because of these facts, other factors
being the common, results in reduction in the physical size of converter and increase in its reliability.

Structure of power system

Power Systems Generation, Transmission and Distribution systems are the main components of an
electric power system. Generating stations and distribution systems are connected through
transmission lines. Normally, transmission lines imply the bulk transfer of power by high-voltage
links between main load centers. On the other hand, distribution system is mainly responsible for the
conveyance of this power to the consumers by means of lower voltage networks. Electric power is
generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is increased by stepped up transformers to the main
transmission voltage. At sub-stations, the connections between various components are made, for
example, lines and transformers and switching of these components is carried out. Transmission level
voltages are in the range of 66 kV to 400 kV (or higher). Large amounts of power are transmitted
from the generating stations to the load centers at 220 kV or higher. In USA it is at 345 kV, 500 kV
and 765 kV, in Britain, it is at 275 kV and 400 kV and in Egypt it is at 500 kV and 750 kV. The
network formed by these very high voltage lines is sometimes called as the super grid. This grid, in
turn, feeds a sub-transmission network operating at 132 kV or less. In Egypt, networks operate at 132
kV, 66 kV, 33 kV, 11 kV or 6.6 kV and supply the final consumer feeders at 380 volt three phase,
giving 220 volt per phase. Figure 1.1 and Figure 1.2 shows the schematic diagram of a power supply
network. The power supply network can be divided into two parts, i.e., transmission and distribution
systems. The transmission system may be divided into primary and secondary (sub-transmission)
transmission system. Distribution system can be divided into primary and secondary distribution
system. Most of the distribution networks operate radially for less short circuit current and better
protective coordination. Distribution networks are different than transmission networks in many ways,
quite apart from voltage magnitude. The general structure or topology of the distribution system is
different and the number of branches and sources is much higher. A typical distribution system
consists of a step-down transformer (e.g., 132/11 kV or 66/11 kV or 33/11 kV) at a bulk supply point
feeding a number of lines with varying length from a few hundred meters to several kilometers.
Several three-phase step-down transformers, e.g., 11 kV/400 V are spaced along the feeders and from
these, three-phase four-wire 3 networks of consumers are supplied which give 220 volt single-phase
supply to houses and similar loads. Figure 1.3 shows part of a typical power system.
Types of Power Plant
Power Plant

A power plant or a power generating station, is basically an industrial location that is utilized for the
generation and distribution of electric power in mass scale, usually in the order of several 1000 Watts.
These are generally located at the sub-urban regions or several kilometers away from the cities or the load
centers, because of its requisites like huge land and water demand, along with several operating
constraints like the waste disposal etc.
For this reason, a power generating station has to not only take care of efficient generation but also the fact
that the power is transmitted efficiently over the entire distance and that’s why, the transformer switch
yard to regulate transmission voltage also becomes an integral part of the power plant.

At the center of it, however, nearly all power generating stations has an AC generator or an alternator,
which is basically a rotating machine that is equipped to convert energy from the mechanical domain
(rotating turbine) into electrical domain by creating relative motion between a magnetic field and the
conductors.

The energy source harnessed to turn the generator shaft varies widely, and is chiefly dependent on the
type of fuel used.
Types of Power Station
A power plant can be of several types depending mainly on the type of fuel used. Since for the purpose of
bulk power generation, only thermal, nuclear and hydro power comes handy, therefore a power
generating station can be broadly classified in the 3 above mentioned types. Let us have a look in these
types of power stations in details.
Thermal Power Station
A thermal power station or a coal fired thermal power plant is by far, the most conventional method of
generating electric power with reasonably high efficiency. It uses coal as the primary fuel to boil the water
available to superheated steam for driving the steam turbine.
The steam turbine is then mechanically coupled to an alternator rotor, the rotation of which results in the
generation of electric power. Generally in India, bituminous coal or brown coal are used as fuel of boiler
which has volatile content ranging from 8 to 33% and ash content 5 to 16 %. To enhance the thermal
efficiency of the plant, the coal is used in the boiler in its pulverized form.
In coal fired thermal power plant, steam is obtained in very high pressure inside the steam boiler by
burning the pulverized coal. This steam is then super heated in the super heater to extreme high
temperature. This super heated steam is then allowed to enter into the turbine, as the turbine blades are
rotated by the pressure of the steam.
The turbine is mechanically coupled with alternator in a way that its rotor will rotate with the rotation of
turbine blades. After entering into the turbine, the steam pressure suddenly falls leading to corresponding
increase in the steam volume. After having imparted energy into the turbine rotors, the steam is made to
pass out of the turbine blades into the steam condenser of turbine. In the condenser, cold water at ambient
temperature is circulated with the help of pump which leads to the condensation of the low pressure wet
steam.
Then this condensed water is further supplied to low pressure water heater where the low pressure steam
increases the temperature of this feed water, it is again heated in high pressure. This outlines the basic
working methodology of a thermal power plant.
Advantages of Thermal Power Plants
 Fuel used i.e coal is quite cheaper.
 Initial cost is less as compared to other generating stations.
 It requires less space as compared to hydro-electric power stations.
Disadvantages of Thermal Power Plants
 It pollutes atmosphere due to production of smoke and fumes.
 Running cost of the power plant is more than hydro electric plant.
Nuclear Power Station
Nuclear power plants are similar to the thermal stations in more ways than one. However, the exception
here is that, radioactive elements like uranium and thorium are used as the primary fuel in place of coal.
Also in a Nuclear station the furnace and the boiler are replaced by the nuclear reactor and the heat
exchanger tubes.
For the process of nuclear power generation, the radioactive fuels are made to undergo fission reaction
within the nuclear reactors. The fission reaction, propagates like a controlled chain reaction and is
accompanied by unprecedented amount of energy produced, which is manifested in the form of heat.
This heat is then transferred to the water present in the heat exchanger tubes. As a result, super heated
steam at very high temperature is produced. Once the process of steam formation is accomplished, the
remaining process is exactly similar to a thermal power plant, as this steam will further drive the turbine
blades to generate electricity.
Hydro-Electric Power Station
In Hydro-electric plants the energy of the falling water is utilized to drive the turbine which in turn runs
the generator to produce electricity. Rain falling upon the earth’s surface has potential energy relative to
the oceans towards which it flows. This energy is converted to shaft work where the water falls through an
appreciable vertical distance. The hydraulic power is therefore a naturally available renewable energy
given by the eqn:
P = gρ QH
Where, g = acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/sec 2
ρ = density of water = 1000 kg/m3
H = height of fall of water.
This power is utilized for rotating the alternator shaft, to convert it to equivalent electrical energy.
An important point to be noted is that, the hydro-electric plants are of much lower capacity compared to
their thermal or nuclear counterpart. For this reason hydro plants are generally used in scheduling with
thermal stations, to serve the load during peak hours. They in a way assist the thermal or the nuclear plant
to deliver power efficiently during periods of peak hours.
Advantages of Hydro Electric Power Station
 It requires no fuel, water is used for generation of electrical energy.
 It is neat and clean energy generation.
 Construction is simple, less maintenance is required.
 It helps in irrigation and flood control also.
Disadvantages Hydro Electric Power Station
 It involves high capital cost due to dam construction.
 Availability of water depends upon weather conditions.
 It requires high transmission cost as the plant is located in hilly areas.
Types of Power Generation
As mentioned above, depending on the type of fuel used, the power generating stations as well as the
types of power generation are classified. Therefore the 3 major classifications for power production in
reasonably large scale are:
1. Thermal power generation
2. Nuclear power generation
3. Hydro-electric power generation
Apart from these major types of power generations, we can resort to small scale generation techniques as
well, to serve the discrete demands. These are often referred to as the alternative methods or non
conventional energy of power generation and can be classified as :-
1. Solar power generation. (making use of the available solar energy)
2. Geo-thermal power generation. (Energy available in the Earth’s crust)
3. Tidal power generation.
4. Wind power generation (energy available from the wind turbines)
These alternative sources of generation has been given due importance in the last few decades owing to the
depleting amount of the natural fuels available to us. In the centuries to come, a stage might be reached
when several countries across the globe would run out of their entire reserve for fossil fuels.
The only way forward would then lie in the mercy of these alternative sources of energy which might play
an instrumental role in shaping the energy supplies of the future. For this reason these might rightfully be
referred as the energy of the future.
Variable Loads on Power System
 
Today’s interconnected power systems supply a variety of loads depending upon the consumer’s
demands. These demands, of course, vary constantly which leads to the variable loading of the system and
all its consequences.
Effects of Variable Loading on Power System
Variation in loading has certain undesirable effects, the most appreciable of which are given below:

1. Generation of power becomes costly:

For obvious reasons of optimum operation, alternators are designed in such a way that maximum
efficiency occurs at (or very close to) their rated capacity. Hence, when the load varies and becomes low,
the alternator will not be loaded up to its rated capacity and its working efficiency is reduced. This
consequently increases the cost of production.
2. Difficulty in controlling the system:
When the load changes, the frequency of the system also varies. For proper operation, the frequency must
be within the permissible limits. (Generally ± 3% deviation is permissible, i.e. 48.5 Hz to 51.5 Hz in case of
system frequency of 50Hz in India.)
In order to keep the frequency within limits, additional control equipments are required. Such equipments
increase the cost and complexity of the system.
1. Requirement of additional equipment:
As explained above, variable loading necessitates the use of speed governors, voltage and frequency
sensors, microcontrollers and other closed loop control equipments to exert control over the system and
maintain all parameters within permissible ranges.
2. Increased losses:
Due to variation in loading conditions, various machines like transformers, electronic devices and other
machines show increased losses due to magnetization characteristics, saturation and variation in
parameters. This decreases the overall efficiency of the system.
Load Curves
As stated above, the load on the system varies with time. This variation can be represented graphically and
is termed as “Load Curve”.
The above figure shows a typical daily load curve. As we can see, the maximum load demand occurs
around 8 pm. Such a load curve shows the variation of load with time. We can determine the maximum
demand on the system too. This maximum demand relates to the maximum load that occurs on the system.
This maximum load will affect the size and capacity of the plant. We can also determine the energy (in
units or kWh) by calculating the area under the curve.
Such curves are also helpful to determine important terms and factors like Average Load, Maximum
Demand, Load Factor, Demand Factor, Plant use factor etc. (They’ve been discussed further in the article.)
These curves are also needed while selecting the number and size (capacity) of the generating units
(alternators). Load curves are also needed in the control and management section for preparing the
schedule of the station.

Another variation of the load curves is a ‘Load duration curve’. This is shown below:

Load Duration Curve

When the various loads occurring on a system are arranged in a decreasing order of their magnitudes with
respect to the time period of the occurrence of these loads the graph obtained is known as a Load Duration
Curve.
A load duration curve gives us the data in a more presentable form. We can easily determine the max
demand and its duration. Also, we can determine the exact amount of time a specific load has prevailed.
This curve is basically generated from the values of the load curve; hence, the area under the curve will
also give us the total energy generated. Also, similar to the load curve, the load duration curve can also be
plotted for ant period of time.
Terms Related to Loading Conditions
The variation in load introduces some terms that need to be specified. These terms are:

Connected Load
It is defined as “the total sum of all the loads (ON and OFF) connected to the power system.
All the loads may not be switched ON together, but such loads have to be calculated to determine the
required power and hence the capacity of the units.
For example, if one of the consumers has three lamps of 200 W each, four lamps of 100 W each and a
machine consuming 5 kW, then the connected load of the consumer = 3(200) + 4(100) + 5000 = 6000 W
Average Load
As the name implies, it indicates the average value of all the loads occurring on the station for a given time
period (such as day/s or month/s or year/s)
It can be expressed as
Average load =
No. of units (kWh) generated in given time period
The time period
Maximum Demand
It is defined as “the maximum value of load that occurs on the system during a specific time period.”
In the figure no. 1, the maximum demand is 40 MW and it occurs around 8 pm. Maximum demand is
measured by a max demand meter.
Knowledge of max demand is necessary because the installed capacity of the plant is decided on the basis
of max demand since the power station must be capable of supplying the max demand.
Factors Related to Variable Loading
Demand Factor
It is defined as “the ratio of maximum demand to the connected load of the system.”
Demand factor =
Maximum demand
Connected load
Since, all the connected loads are not ON all the time, Maximum demand < Connected Load.
Hence, Demand factor < 1
It is necessary for determination of the required plant equipment capacity.
Load Factor
It is defined as “the ratio of average load to the maximum demand in a given time period.”
Load factor =
Average load
Maximum demand
It can be daily/monthly/yearly load factor according to the time period considered. It is less than unity
because Average load < Maximum demand.
Value of load factor affects the production cost too. It should be as high as possible. If the load factor is
high, max demand is low and required station capacity (which depends on max demand) is reduced. This
reduces cost of production. Load Factor should be as close to 1 as possible.
Also, a higher value of load factor reduces the variable loading problems. This is because, a higher value of
load factor implies less variation in demands at various times. Due to this, the effects of variable loading
are minimised. Hence Load factor should be as high as possible.
Diversity factor
A power station supplies a variety of consumers. Each consumer will have an individual maximum
demand and such max demands may not occur all at the same time.
Diversity Factor is defined as “the ratio of the sum of the individual maximum demands to the total
maximum demand on the system. It can be expressed as,
Diversity factor =
Sum of individual maximum demands
Maximum demand of the power station
Obviously, Diversity Factor is greater than 1. This factor gives us the diversification of the load and is
necessary to decide the installation, transmission and distribution capacities of the plants.
It should be as high as possible. Higher diversity factor means that maximum demands of different
consumers occur at different times, and hence, interchange and scheduling is easier and operation is
optimum.
Another implication of higher diversity factor is that total max demand is lower. This reduces the size
(capacity) of the required units and also the production cost.
In order to increase the diversity factor, following methods have been employed:

1. Scheduling office times with certain time differences (known as staggering of timing.)
2. Making use of different time zones.
3. Giving incentives to particular consumers to utilize electricity at off-peak hours (such as night time.)
4. Use of daylight savings.
5. Using two part tariff schemes.
Plant Capacity Factor
It is defined as “the ratio of actual energy produced in a given time period to the total energy that could’ve
been produced in the same time period.”

If we consider time period to be 1 day then,

Plant capacity factor =
Total kWh output of 1 day
Plant capacity X 24
Plant Use Factor
It is defined as “the ratio of actual energy produced (in kWh) in a given time period to the product of plant
capacity and the number of hours the plant was in operation.”
Plant use factor =
Actual energy generated (kWh)
[Plant capacity X Time (in hours) the plant has been in operation]
Suppose 100 MW plant produces 50 × 106 kWh energy after being in operation for 2500 hrs in a year. Then,
Plant use factor =
50 x 106
[100 x 103 x 2500]
Therefor, Plant use factor = 0.2 = 20%

Solved Numerical
A plant has a connected load of 40 MW and a maximum demand of 20 MW. 73.8 × 106 kWh energy is
generated in a year. Calculate: [i] demand factor, [ii] average load, [iii] load factor

Solution:
Given data:

 Connected load = 40 MW
 Maximum demand = 20 MW
 Generation = 73.8 × 106 units per annum.