Stem Learning Achievement Among Cambodian Middle School Students

Annual Review of Comparative and International
Education 2015
Stem Learning Achievement among Cambodian Middle School Students: An
☆
Examination of Gender and Psychosocial Factors
Sothy Eng Whitney Szmodis
Article information:
To cite this document: Sothy Eng Whitney Szmodis . "Stem Learning Achievement
among Cambodian Middle School Students: An Examination of Gender and
#
Psychosocial Factors " In Annual Review of Comparative and International Education
2015. Published online: 07 Jan 2016; 279-305.
Downloaded by RMIT University At 00:02 31 March 2016 (PT)
Permanent link to this document:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1479-367920150000028018
Downloaded on: 31 March 2016, At: 00:02 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 11 times since NaN*
Users who downloaded this article also downloaded:
(2016),"Two Worlds Apart in Botswana’s Education System: Lessons from the 2010
Examinations Crisis", International Perspectives on Education and Society, Vol. 28 pp.
251-278 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1479-367920150000028017
(2016),"National–Postnational–Transnational? Changing Conceptualizations of
Citizenship in Comparative and International Education Research", International
Perspectives on Education and Society, Vol. 28 pp. 309-322 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/
S1479-367920150000028019
(2016),"Education for Youth at the Borderlands: Developing Comparative and
International Education between States", International Perspectives on Education and
Society, Vol. 28 pp. 195-222 http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1479-367920150000028015
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by

emerald-srm:393177 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please
use our Emerald for Authors service information about how to choose which
publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please visit
www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society.
The company manages a portfolio of more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books
and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online products
and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner
of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the
LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

STEM LEARNING ACHIEVEMENT
AMONG CAMBODIAN MIDDLE
SCHOOL STUDENTS: AN
EXAMINATION OF GENDER AND
PSYCHOSOCIAL FACTORS$
Sothy Eng and Whitney Szmodis
ABSTRACT
International assessments have shown gender disparity in STEM among
middle school students. Little is known of the gender disparity, the role
of psychosocial factors, and school-to-work aspirations in STEM fields
in the Cambodian context. The sample included 100 15-year-old students
(53% females) from 10 schools in four provinces and the capital city.
Classroom observations included eight classrooms from one of the 10
surveyed schools. This study’s measures were adapted from TIMSS’s
including science and math interests, and perceived STEM support from
$
Portions of this chapter’s content and data were originally conducted and written
for UNESCO’s regional study on Gender and STEM learning achievement in the
ASEAN region.
Annual Review of Comparative and International Education 2015

International Perspectives on Education and Society, Volume 28, 279 305
Copyright r 2016 by Emerald Group Publishing Limited
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved
ISSN: 1479-3679/doi:10.1108/S1479-367920150000028018
279
280 SOTHY ENG AND WHITNEY SZMODIS
teachers and parents. Results indicated that non-STEM subjects are on

top of the most enjoyed subjects reported by the students. No statistical
significance between genders on STEM interests was found. A multiple
regression analysis showed that parents’ and teachers’ support in math,
and teachers’ support in science, were predictive of STEM interests.
Both parents and students tended to value math more than science, indi-
cating a possible lack of understanding of science. Students showed a sig-
nificant disconnect between STEM education received in classrooms and
aspirations toward an actual career in STEM fields. Classroom observa-
tions indicated that while females tended to be shy in the classroom,
most teachers did not exhibit behaviors suggesting gender discrimination
patterns. Explanations of students’ interests in STEM regardless of gen-

der, as well as the current climate in higher education and careers
regarding the gender disparity in STEM, were discussed based on socioe-
conomic and sociocultural issues within the Cambodian context.
Keywords: STEM; Cambodia; gender; psychosocial factors; parent
support; teacher support
INTRODUCTION
STEM education has been at the forefront of many debates regarding the
imbalance of gender in STEM careers (Clark Blickenstaff*, 2005; Kanny,
Sax, & Riggers-Piehl, 2014; Linn & Hyde, 1989; Wyss, 2013). The trends
seen in the disproportionate amount of females entering STEM fields has
been well documented in the literature for many years, with findings sug-
gesting that females tend to lack interest in STEM fields compared to their
male counterparts (Gardner, 1975; Osborne, Simon, & Collins, 2003; Wyss,
2013). While females account for almost half of the workforce in the
United States, they only hold 25% of jobs in STEM fields (Beede et al.,
2011). The gap is even more significant in less developed countries such as
Cambodia, with a mere 10% of women graduating in a STEM field
(UNESCO UIS, 2011). Possible contributing factors include the lack of
female role models in STEM, gender stereotypes, and less flexibility for
women with families in STEM careers. Most women who enter STEM
fields work in healthcare professions or in educational positions (Beede
et al., 2011).
Stem Learning Achievement among Cambodian Middle School Students 281
With the emphasis on STEM education and increased importance of

countries competing in STEM fields, countries are placing a significant
amount of importance within their educational systems to produce students
capable of competing on the global level in STEM fields. Within this global
context, lower-middle income countries such as Cambodia face significant
challenges in supporting a knowledge-based economy that provides equal
access to educational and career opportunities, especially for females. A
knowledge-based economy capable of competing in STEM fields requires a
well-educated population that cannot only compete globally, but can also
contribute to the growth and prosperity of their local economies.
In response to the Royal Government of Cambodia National Strategic
Plan (NSP) vision to transition from a lower-middle income country to an

upper-middle income country by 2030 and a developed country by 2050,
the education system faces the challenge of producing a generation of
young professionals that are competent to support the economic needs of
the country, as well as reach a level of success that competes both region-
ally and in the larger global context. With Cambodia’s full integration into
ASEAN in 2015, there is an immediate need for a stronger focus on educa-
tion in order to produce an educated population capable of contributing to
the economic and political role Cambodia will play in the region.
According to the ASEAN declaration, one aspect of the organization is
“to accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural develop-
ment in the region through joint endeavors in the spirit of equality and
partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and
peaceful community of Southeast Asian Nations” (ASEAN, 1967). With
the Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of an ASEAN
Community by 2015, all ASEAN member states participate in the regional
commitment to a stronger security, economic, and sociocultural community
that fosters a cohesive regional infrastructure that benefits all member
states (ASEAN, 2007). Although Cambodia stands to benefit from the
increased presence of ASEAN, significant concerns regarding the contribu-
tion of Cambodia’s human resources at a competitive level in the regional
demographic.
Research indicated that the quality of education in Cambodia continued
to lag behind other countries in the ASEAN community. On the World
Bank Knowledge for Development Index (KDI), Cambodia fell far behind
all other ASEAN countries, as well as those on a global level. The KDI
measures education against literacy rates, secondary and tertiary enroll-
ment. With a normalized score (on a 10-point scale) of 1.70 as of 2011,
compared with 2.99 in Vietnam, 4.23 in Thailand, 5.09 in Singapore, and
9.71 in Australia, Cambodia continued to remain significantly behind both

regional and global counterparts (World Bank, 2011).
STEM EDUCATION IN CAMBODIA
In response to these concerns, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport

(MoEYS) Education Strategic Plan 2014 2018 states a commitment of the
highest priority to the quality of education, especially science and technol-
ogy (MoEYS, 2014). Efforts to meet the policy objectives include critical
aspects of STEM education, such as access to science labs for all schools,
computer training, and preparation for future participation in TIMSS and
PISA international assessments. In addition, development of higher educa-
tion programs includes a strategic focus on teaching and research in STEM
fields.
Cambodia lags far behind its more developed neighbors in terms of cur-
rent state of education in STEM fields. With females comprising only
20.7% of scientific researchers in Cambodia as of 2002, the lack of females
pursuing careers in science and other STEM fields is of significant concern
(UNESCO UIS, 2011). Inadequate teaching and learning, as well as low
enrollment, in lower secondary and upper secondary schools may lead to a
deficit in females pursing STEM disciplines in higher education. Although
Cambodia does not participate in TIMSS or PISA, Set, Sieng, and Kita
(2014) conducted a study including 3,014 eighth graders to assess perfor-
mance on key indicators of the cognitive domain using TIMSS assessment
criteria to explore student skills in knowing, reasoning, and application of
scientific knowledge. Results indicated that Cambodian students scored an
average of 31.96% on the chemistry knowledge portion of the exam, with a
range from 0.0% to 90.0%.
In a comparative analysis with Thailand, Japan, Malaysia, Indonesia,
and ASEAN averages, Cambodia performed on the low end of all coun-
tries in terms of understanding of key concepts in science knowledge and
understanding. Only Indonesia scored marginally lower in terms of under-
standing concept and cognitive domain. Results indicated that content
taught in science classrooms was not sufficient compared to international
assessment levels. Students may be receiving science instruction, but the
quality and content delivered, regardless of teacher quality, were insuffi-
cient to support students trying to compete in the science field. In addition,
inadequate acquisition of knowledge in the classroom can lead to
diminished student interest in science, which in turn can contribute to the

lack of students, especially females, entering science majors in higher
education.
EDUCATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND RESOURCES
The quality of math and science instruction is impacted not only by teacher
quality but also by issues of access to quality materials and curriculum.
Research indicates that science instructions in Cambodian classrooms are
too abstract for practical teaching and learning (Maeda et al., 2006).
Teachers continue to conduct lessons using rote memorization and teacher-
centered instruction due to a variety of factors that prohibit best practices
in science education, including lack of materials for student-centered
instruction and lack of professional development for teachers (Benveniste,
Marshall, & Caridad Araujo, 2008).
Access to science labs in lower secondary and upper secondary school in
Cambodia showed increased achievement as well as a deeper understanding
of scientific process skills (Karsli & Sahin, 2009; Set, Sieng, & Kita, 2014).
Additional research conducted at two upper secondary schools and one
lower secondary school showed that the integration of laboratory classes
helped students to understand key concepts and increased student interest
in science (Kelley, Plakmeyer, Shan, Sonnenberg, & Vargas, 2013). Both
male and female students reported significant interest in science as a poten-
tial career choice if they participated in laboratory experiments compared
to those who did not participate. While female students reported that
science would be a good career choice for women regardless of their partici-
pation in laboratory experiments, male students who participated in the
laboratories were more likely to report that science is a good career for
women compared to their male counterparts who did not participate in
laboratory experiments.
These findings indicated that students who received best practices in
science education tended to have a more comprehensive understanding of
the science field and were less likely to adhere to gender stereotypes regard-
ing careers for females. Although student perceptions of science changed
significantly based on their experiences with science in the classroom, stu-
dents reported that their experiences are limited. This is, in part, due to the
lack of teacher knowledge regarding science lab implementation. Recent
advancements in teacher training facilities have started to incorporate
professional development for pre-service teachers, and limited science

equipment and resources were available at all upper secondary schools
(MoEYS, 2014). However, resources were limited and the effectiveness of
teacher training and fidelity of implementation have yet to be assessed.
Kelley et al. (2013) reported in their study the quote based on a comment
by a science teacher, “students enjoy using equipment but we just don’t
have enough. When we study bacteria, we can’t show them. I use dust in
the morning light as an example of bacteria.”
CURRENT STUDY
A survey of lower secondary students was conducted to establish a baseline

assessment of how learning achievement in mathematics and science may
affect girls’ promotion to STEM disciplines in higher education and their
school-to-work aspirations. In addition, contextual factors including social
stereotypes of student abilities in mathematics and science, as well as socio-
cultural factors influencing girls’ aspirations to enter STEM fields, were
assessed to understand student perspectives. Sociocultural norms were
assessed through student and parent attitudes and beliefs regarding science
and mathematics in both the educational context as well as in perceptions
of possible school-to-work transitions in order to understand how the gen-
der disparity in the Cambodian context affect female transition to further
study and careers in STEM disciplines. In addition, classroom observations
were conducted to understand the role of the education setting and teacher
behaviors to establish any gender discrimination in the classroom that
could contribute to female perceptions of education and their ability to suc-
ceed in science and mathematics disciplines.
METHODS
Participants
The sample in this study included 100 15-year old students (53% females)
in three different grade levels: 85% were in grade 9, 14% grade 8, and 1%
grade 7. The data were collected from 10 different schools in both rural
(54%) and urban areas of Cambodia in four provinces (Preah Sihanouk,
Kampong Chhnang, Kampong Speu, and Kandal) and in the capital city
Phnom Penh. These places were purposefully selected based on the diverse
socioeconomic background of the people in terms of educational attain-
ment and traditional gender role attitudes. For instance, in Phnom Penh,
adult women with more than secondary education comprise of 11.6%,
whereas in Kampong Chhnang 0.5%, in Kampong Speu 0.7%, and Preah
Sihanouk 2.1% (National Institute of Statistics, Directorate General for
Health, and ICF Macro, 2011), representing the diversity of socioeconomic
status of people in these places. These provinces range widely on attitudes
toward traditional gender roles. For instance, in Phnom Penh, adult
women who agreed on the statement “married women should not be
allowed to work” consist of 15%, followed by Kampong Chhnang of 26%,
Kandal 29%, Kampong Speu 35%, and Preah Sihanouk 63% (National
Institute of Statistics, Directorate General for Health, and ICF Macro,
2011).
Procedures
Data collection took place in June 2014. The surveys were administered by
five undergraduate students in their junior and senior year in psychology,
who were trained to collect the data by the authors and another indepen-
dent expert in data collection in rural Cambodia. The surveyors obtained
permission from each school by providing a letter stating the purpose of
the study and requesting a signature from the school principal as an
approval to the study. With permission from a classroom teacher, the sur-
veyors formed a group of students and explained them the purpose of the
study and then asked them to fill in the questionnaire with the presence of
the surveyors to help answer any questions that the participating students
may have. Each questionnaire took about 30 minutes to complete.
Students were given a pen and writing book as an incentive of their
participation.
Classroom observations included eight classrooms from one of the 10
selected schools for the survey in which three classes were in rural and the
other five classes in urban areas. The surveyors explained to the classroom
teachers about the purpose of the observation but did not mention the
details of the observation (e.g., gender related interaction between students
and teachers). The observations took place in three mathematics classes
and the other five in science classes, in eight different schools. Each obser-
vation lasted for about one hour long, the entire lesson, in which the
surveyors acted as the observers with no interaction with students or the

teacher during the lesson.
The English questionnaire was translated into Khmer by a
reputable translation agency in Cambodia. The second author of this study
who is Cambodian national educated in the United States double checked
the quality and consistency of the translated materials. A few pilot tests
were conducted to ensure the readability and comprehensibility of the
questionnaire.
MEASURES
Independent Variables
Attitudes toward Science and Math

These two scales were created from a set of six items asking the students
how much they enjoy and feel confident about science/math. For example,
“I enjoy science/math class,” “I feel confident about my abilities in science/
math,” “and I can solve science/math problems easily and quickly.”
Response pattern was from 1 to 5 in which 1 indicated strongly disagree to
5 strongly agree, thus the higher the scores the more positive attitudes
toward science/math. Interitem reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) for science
was .72 and math .73.
Perceived Importance of Science and Math

These two scales were created from a set of four items, for instance, “it is
important for me to do well in science/math so that I can do well in other
subjects at school,” “science/math is important for my everyday life,”
“science/math is important for my future education, and “science/math is
important for my future career.” The response to these items were between
1 and 5 in which 1 indicated strongly disagree to 5 strongly agree. Higher
scores suggested the importance of science and math. Interitem reliability
for science was .59 and math .69.
Teachers’ Support of Science and Math

Eight items from both science and math were averaged to create the two
scales. Questions asked, for example, “my teacher(s) is fully prepared and
confident when teaching science/math,” “my teacher(s) interact(s) with me
when teaching science/math,” and “If I ask my teacher(s) for help with a
science/math problem, he/she/they always try to help me.” Response to

these questions was from 1 to 5 in which 1 indicated strongly disagree to 5
strongly agree, thus the higher the scores, the stronger the support provided
by the teacher(s). Interitem reliability for science was .72 and for math .62.
Parents’ Support of Science and Math

All the six items in both science and math were averaged to create the two
scales. Questions asked, for example, “my parent(s) encourage(s) me to do
well/better in science/math,” “my parent(s) tell(s) me science/math is
important for my further study,” and “my parent(s) influence(s) how well I
do in science/math.” Response pattern was the same as the above scales.

Higher scores represented stronger support from the parents in science and
math. Interitem reliability for science was .76 and math .71.
Extra Classes in Science/Math

This variable was created from four variables asking if students had taken
private classes on biology, chemistry, physics, and math. Interitem reliabil-
ity was .65.
Enjoy Science and Math the Most/the Least

These two variables were created based on students’ response to three sub-
jects they liked the most and the least in science and math. Similar proce-
dure was done with the perform best/worst in science and math variable.
Lab Utilization
Students were asked if their school had a laboratory and if they have used
the lab. The response was 0 (no) and 1 (yes).
Science Is a Good Career for Women

In addition, students were asked to rate on a 4-point-Likert scale to how
much they agreed on the statement, “Science is a good career for women.”
Higher scores suggested stronger agreement toward the statement.
Dependent Variables
STEM Interests
This scale was created from the combination of four scales based on atti-
tudes toward science and math and perceived importance of science and
math. Higher scores of this scale suggest higher levels of STEM interests.
Interitem reliability of this scale was .72.
College Plan in Science/Math

This variable was created from an open-ended question asking the students
to indicate their major of interest in college and the explanation, if they
plan to continue to higher education. This variable was then manually
coded to make a category of major: science/math vs. non-science/math.
The science/math was coded as “1” and the other as “0.” This procedure
was done similarly with the career interest in science/math variable.
RESULTS
STEM Interests and Correlates
Fig. 1 illustrates the percentage of all students who reported subjects they
enjoyed the most. Students were asked to select three subjects that they
enjoy learning the most. Based on a multiple response analysis, the results
showed that science and math were not favored choices reported by stu-
dents. Table 1 further explores the most enjoyable subjects by breaking
down preferences by gender.
Three top subjects selected were language/literature (38%), history
(36%), and foreign languages (36%). Algebra (32%), biology (31%), chem-
istry (23%), and computer science (17) ranked, respectively, fourth, fifth,
sixth, and seventh; math on the other hand ranked twelfth (6%). In addi-
tion, general science subject (4%) ranked 17th among all the 20 subjects
asked. When asked to rank three subjects least enjoyed by the students,
algebra (21%) and math (21%) were shown to be in the second place, fol-
lowed by general science subject (19%) in the third place; music (27%) was
on the top list of the least enjoyable subject to study. Table 1 shows the
percentage of most enjoyed subjects by gender. Overall, there was no signif-
icant difference in all the science subjects reported by both boys and girls.
The only significant difference between boys and girls was non-science sub-
jects: history (boys > girls) and art (girls > boys).
Research indicated that female students tend to show higher levels of
disinterest in math and science than their male counterparts (Schibeci &
Riley, 1986; Simpson & Steve Oliver, 1990). However, the current study
indicated no significant difference between male and female in math and
60
50 Enjoy most Enjoy least
21
5 10 9
40
13
30 12
15
16 17
20 38 27
36 36 17
32 31 18 21
19
23 16
10 17 8 10 15 14
15 14
9 7 6 6 5 5 4 4 2 2
0
ng re
H age
Al ry
B ra
pu hem gy
y
gr e
hy
Ph t
eo s
ry
th
Ph ral no ic
y
ie du ion
(g on
C ral)
fe us
ills
Ar
G ysic
ys Ed log
r S istr
eo c
M tec us
a
to
et
b
La ratu
ap
om C iolo
G cien
Li cul
e ati
Sk
Sc al E cat
M
ge
e
u
is
en
c
al
ig ite
u
h
re /L
te
Fo age
n
nc
n/
ic
ig
o
u
es
ng
D
La
Fig. 1. Rank Order of Subjects Enjoyed Most by Students.
Table 1. Percentage of Most Enjoyed Subjects by Gender.

Male Female Total χ2 p-Value
Language/literature 34.04 41.51 38 0.59 0.44

History 48.94 24.53 36 6.44 0.01
Foreign language 27.66 43.4 36 2.68 0.10
Algebra 38.3 26.42 32 1.62 0.20
Biology 29.79 32.08 31 0.06 0.81
Chemistry 25.53 20.75 23 0.32 0.57
Computer science 12.77 20.75 17 1.13 0.29
Geography 19.15 11.32 15 1.20 0.27
Art 6.38 20.75 14 4.27 0.04
Physics 10.64 7.55 9 0.29 0.59
Geometry 8.51 5.66 7 0.31 0.58
Math 6.38 5.66 6 0.02 0.88
Music 4.26 7.55 6 0.48 0.49
Design/technology 4.26 5.66 5 0.10 0.75
Moral/ethics education 6.38 3.77 5 0.36 0.55
Physical education 4.26 3.77 4 0.02 0.90
Science (general) 4.26 3.77 4 0.02 0.90
Life skills 2.13 1.89 2 0.01 0.93
Calculus 2.13 1.89 2 0.01 0.93
science interests. In contrast, students who enjoyed math and science,

regardless of gender, tended to feel they performed well in the subject.
Bivariate correlation analysis (Table 2) showed that there was a strong cor-
relation between students who reported enjoying science/math the most
and their best performance in these subjects (r =.45, p < .001). In addition,
students who reported enjoying science/math the least tended to also report
performing the worst in these subjects (r =.25, p < .05). Those who reported
enjoying science/math the most were less likely to perform the worst in
these subjects (r = −.28, p < .01). Finally, those who performed best in
science/math were also less likely to perform worst in these subjects (r =
−.31, p < .01). Overall, the results showed the consistency of students’
report of their subjects of interest and performance. However, no signifi-

cant gender differences among their interest and performance in science/
math subjects were found.
Table 2 shows bivariate correlations among STEM interests and psycho-
social factors as well as schools’ and students’ demographics. Four vari-
ables, students’ attitudes toward science and math as well as their
perception toward the importance of science and math were combined to
create a scale called STEM interests, yielding Cronbach’s alpha of .72.
Factors associated with STEM interests included lab use (r = .38, p < .01),
lab in schools (r = .21, p < .05), parents’ support in math (r = .70, p < .001),
parents’ support in science (r = .54, p < .001), teachers’ support in math
(r = .60, p < .001), teachers’ support in science (r = .62, p < .001), students’
enjoy most in science/math (r = .25, p < .05), students’ perform best in
science/math (r = .22, p < .05), extra classes in science/math (r = .21,
p < .05), and college plan in science/math (r = .25, p < .05). Parents’ and tea-
chers’ support in science and math had strongest effect on STEM interests.
There were no differences between boys and girls with any of the factors
being studied.
A follow-up multiple regression analysis (Table 3) using STEM interests
as an outcome variable and the rest of the variables as predictors showed
that only three variables were significant including parents’ (β = .46,
p < .001) and teachers’ support (β = .20, p < .05) in math, and teachers’ sup-
port in science (β = .22, p < .05), F(10, 70) = 15.86, p < .001, adjusted R2 =
.65, N = 81. The results suggested that parents and teachers played an
important role in students’ interest in STEM education and that parents’
support seemed to have greater influence on STEM interests compared to
that of teachers’ support in science.
Table 2. Bivariate Correlations among STEM Interests and Psychosocial Factors as well as Schools’ and
Stem Learning Achievement among Cambodian Middle School Students

Students’ Demographics.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
1 STEM interests −
2 Gender (male = 0) −.03
3 Lab use (no = 0) .38** −.16

4 Lab in schools (no = .21* .02 .72***
0)
5 Location (rural = 0) .14 −.14 .12 .06
6 Science’s good .17 .04 −.01 .13 .30**
career for women
7 Parents’ support in .70*** .01 .08 .08 .16 .29**
math
8 Parents’ support in .54*** .03 .23 .08 −.02 .17 .59***
science
9 Teachers’ support in .60*** −.15 .36** .09 .07 .00 .42*** .30**
math
10 Teachers’ support .62*** −.05 .19 .14 .15 .20* .51*** .50*** .49***
in science
11 Enjoy most in .25* −.12 .08 −.05 .15 .04 .18 .08 .20* .06
science/math
12 Perform best in .22* .04 .24 .20* .15 .20* .22* .04 .03 .12 .45***
science/math
13 Extra classes in .21* .00 .23 .14 .37*** .20* .09 −.09 .29** .28** .04 .23*
science/math
14 College plan in .25* −.08 .26 .23* .15 .11 .25* .12 .26* .12 .47*** .27* .10
science/math
15 Career interest in .03 .02 −.05 −.02 −.19 .01 .05 .03 .03 −.03 .07 .16 −.25* .40**
science/math
291
*p < .05.
**p < .01.
***p < .001.
N = 100.
Table 3. Standardized Regression Coefficients Predicting STEM Interests.

β SE t
Gender (male = 0) −.02 .06 −.23

College plan in science/math −.01 .06 −.18
Parents’ support in math .46 .07 4.53***
Teachers’ support in math .20 .06 2.35*
Enjoy most in science/math .08 .32 .94
Perform best in science/math .06 .30 .72
Extra classes in science/math .03 .10 .33
Science’s good career for women .02 .04 .22
Teachers’ support in science .22 .08 2.37*
Parents’ support in science .07 .07 .72

N 81
F 15.86***
R2 (Adjusted R2) .69 (.65)
*p < .05; ***p < .001.
COMPARATIVE VIEWS AND ATTITUDES OF MATH

AND SCIENCE
Among all the views, attitudes, and support from the students, their par-
ents and their teachers toward STEM education (Table 4), students’ per-
ceived math importance scored highest (M = 3.81), followed by parents’
support of math (M = 3.78), and students’ positive attitudes toward science
(M = 3.78). Parents’ support of math (M = 3.78) scored higher than par-
ents’ support of science (M = 3.58), t(99) = 3.81, p < .001, suggesting a pos-
sibility that parents may not have a better understanding of the importance
of science compared to that of math (Fig. 2). Similarly, students’ perception
of the importance of math (M = 3.81) also scored higher than students’
perception of the importance of science (M = 3.59), t(99) = 4.43, p < .001.
No gender significant differences were found among all of these attitudes
and support toward STEM education, except only one, student’s attitudes
toward math in which boys scored higher (M = 3.88) than girls’ (M =
3.63), eta2 = .05 (medium effect size).
Results indicated that parental involvement in education, specifically
concerning STEM disciplines, did not significantly differ by student gender.
Parents and students both placed more importance on math compared to
science. Trends in higher education majors showed that a majority of stu-
dents enrolled in business and accounting fields, which heavily relied on
math. In contrast, enrollment in the sciences remained one of the least
Table 4. Mean Comparison between Male and Female Students

Regarding Math and Science Attitudes and Support by Parents and
Teachers, Based on One-Way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).
Male Female Total F p-Value
Perceived math importance 3.73 3.89 3.81 1.65 0.20

Parents’ math support 3.77 3.79 3.78 0.02 0.88
Science attitudes 3.84 3.73 3.78 0.91 0.34
Teachers’ science support 3.72 3.67 3.70 0.24 0.63
Math attitudes 3.88 3.63 3.75 4.87 0.03
Perceived science importance 3.55 3.63 3.59 0.50 0.48
Teachers’ math support 3.79 3.61 3.70 2.36 0.13
Parents’ science support 3.56 3.60 3.58 0.10 0.76
3.85
3.81
3.8 3.78
3.75
3.7
3.65
3.6 3.58 3.59
3.55
3.5
3.45
Parents’ support Students’ perceived importance
Math Science
Fig. 2. Mean Comparison of Parents’ Support and Students’ Perceived

Importance of Math and Science as Reported by Students. Note: t-test for parents:
t(99) = 3.81, p < .001 and for students: t(99) = 4.43, p < .001.
sought majors, which could be a result of both parental and student ideas
surrounding the most profitable and prestigious career choices (HRINC,
2010).
SCHOOL-TO-WORK INSPIRATIONS
Regarding the students’ school-to-work aspirations, results indicated a gen-

eral lack of understanding of science and mathematics subjects. Based on
the comments provided by students as to why they were interested in the

subjects they selected, the majority of the responses did not appear to show
students’ understanding of these subjects. For example, some comments
included, “math because it is easy to earn the money,” “chemistry because
it is my favorite subject and easy to understand,” “biology because I like
this subject,” “chemistry because I like to work with it,” “physics and biol-
ogy because I want to be a doctor,” “algebra because I want to have a
good job,” “biology because I want to be a professor,” “math because it
can help my future job,” “math and English because these majors are very
important to study,” “biology because it is easy and can help my parents,”
“algebra and chemistry because I love them,” “chemistry and physics are
both good for me,” etc.

Perhaps two areas that need to be enhanced in order to gain students’
understanding in science and math when they select a major are the encour-
agement of lab utilization and fostering parents’ support particularly in the
science field. Science fairs held in school should also be involved parents
from the community for their participation as it helps educate parents to
understand science and math careers better.
Career interest in science/math (Table 2) showed a significant negative
relationship with extra classes in science/math (r = −.25, p < .05), suggesting
that those who took more number of extra classes in science/math, how-
ever, tended to like a career in non-science/math fields. This may indicate
disconnect between students’ learning in science/math and their under-
standing of a career in this field. Further evidence based on the comments
provided in the open-ended question asking them to explain the reasons of
their planned career showed that the majority of the responses were doctor
and teacher. Those who mentioned wanting to be a doctor referred to help-
ing people and the lack of doctor in the village, and especially to earning
high income. Those who wanted to be a teacher said they want to share
knowledge to the next generations.
Only a few students mentioned about wanting to be a researcher/
experimenter in science fields and an engineer, however their explanations
did not seem to indicate the understanding of the scientific and or technolo-
gical substance; for instance a typical response would be “civil engineering
because it is my favorite job,” “algebra because I am good at it,” “IT and an
engineer because I can develop my country,” “engineer because I want to
build big buildings and earn a lot of money.” These responses showed a
significant disconnect between science/math education that they received in
classrooms and an actual possible career in science/math fields. Those who
took extra classes in science/math may not suggest the fact that they were
interested in learning the subjects, but rather to improve their performance
in these subjects. As evidenced in correlation analysis (Table 2), extra
classes in science/math were not statistically correlated with how much they
enjoy the subjects, but significantly associated with their best performance,
meaning that they may perform well in these subjects but not necessarily
enjoying it.
Overall, no significant differences were found between boys and girls
regarding STEM interests and any other factors based on the correlation
analysis (Table 2). The only item appeared significant was attitudes toward
math in which boys scored higher (M = 3.88) than that of girls (M = 3.63)
(p < .05). Girls tended to like geometry and chemistry the least compared to
those of boys (p < .05).
A gender related question asking students their opinion if science is a
good career for women showed that those who agreed to the statement
tended to come from urban areas, had parents’ support in math, teachers’
support in science, performed well in science/math, and had more number
of extra classes. Further data exploration showed that girls (M = 2.53)
agreed more with the statement compared to that of boys (M = 2.18) for
only those in rural areas, F(1, 52) = 4.30, p < .05.
The majority of the students reported that they plan to go on to college
(95%). A follow-up, open-ended question asking them to state the type of
college major and career they wish to do in the future indicated that 54%
(20% math, 11% biology, 6% chemistry, 5% physics, 12% other technolo-
gical related fields) of them planned to major in science/math after high
school and 53% of them planned to have a career in science/math. Table 2
showed statistical significance between college plan and career they wished
to pursue, r = .40, p < .01, indicating that if students planned to major in
science/math in college, they were more likely to plan to pursue their career
in science/math as well. Factors associated with college plan in science/
math included STEM interests (r = .25, p < .05), the availability of lab
in schools (r = .23, p < .05), parents’ support in math (r = .25, p < .05),
teachers’ support in math (r = .26, p < .05), enjoy most in science/math
(r = .47, p < .001), and best performance in science/math (r = .27, p < .05).
The results showed that various stakeholders such as school resources in
operation (e.g., lab use), parents’ support, and students themselves enjoying
science/math subjects played a key role in major selection in college.
CLASSROOM OBSERVATIONS
As part of the current study, classroom observations were conducted in

eight classrooms in five urban and three rural schools. Subjects of observa-
tion included algebra, math, biology, geology, chemistry, and physics.
Class size ranged from 36 to 90 students with the average size of 57 stu-
dents in each class. Two urban schools had large number of students, 85
(physics class) and 90 (biology class) each. Total number of absence was
higher among female students than that of males.
Overall, female and male students showed equal amount of activeness
and support in classroom in terms of asking teachers questions, the level of
confidence when answering teacher’s questions, aspirations for studies,
showing opinions in classroom, classroom participation, and teacher’s sup-
port and encouragement. The difference between male and female students
in classroom appeared to be shy for girls and brave for boys. In some cases,
female students showed reluctance, shakiness and anxiety when answering
questions with their face looking down and sometime looking toward their
friends as if they wanted to seek for help. Some female students waited to
ask questions until after the class ended. Female students’ shyness was
further exacerbated by male students mocking at them while they stood up
or went to the board to answer questions.
Girls’ shyness was observed more often in a classroom where there were
fewer numbers of girls than boys and especially in algebra and physics. In
one chemistry class, fewer female students spoke up in class regarding ask-
ing and answering questions. Teacher bias favoring boys to girls was seen
in one physics class where the female teacher revealed positive impressions
and admiration toward boys more often than those toward girls. However,
female students seemed to answer more correctly than male students did
and they showed greater aspirations toward their studies than their male
counterparts. They were more often attentive in their class participation
and during their group work. Male students, on the other hands, showed
more braveness in asking and answering questions although their answers
often were incorrect.
Teachers seemed to show equal treatment and attention to both boys
and girls. They asked all who raised the hand by shifting gender, seat loca-
tion (front vs. back), and slow learners vs. accomplished students. In all
observations, teachers encouraged students, both males and females, to
voice their opinions and to ask questions. Some teachers even gave students
time to think to ask questions and in some cases teachers required students
to respond by reinforcing an environment of competitiveness. Some tea-
chers encouraged students to have personal thoughts and ideas and then
praised anyone who voiced their opinions or asked questions. There was a
balance in responses by male and female students. Teacher’s support based
on classroom observations seemed to be consistent with survey results that
showed no significant differences between the support in both science and

math provided to boys and girls.
DISCUSSION
While most students found math to be one of their least favorable subjects,
both students and student perceptions of parents’ attitudes indicated that
math was important for future career goals. Conversely, students and par-
ents did not feel that science was as important, and students showed less
interest in science classes. Despite a lack of interest in science, future career

goals for 53% of students included both math and science disciplines.
When examining the choices of students when they pursue higher education
degrees, almost half of all majors choose business (HRINC, 2010).
Research indicates that students value parental opinions, as reflected in the
current study, and mathematics is regarded as a valuable skill for careers in
business. In contrast, with less than 2% of students enrolling in the
sciences, it is reasonable to assume that many parents and students do not
see the value of science majors when exploring profitable and prestigious
career options. Arguably, if parents and students were educated on the
value of science as a discipline and lucrative future career choices, especially
for females, there may be an increase in science as a major in higher
education.
EQUAL INTEREST VERSUS DISPARITY

IN STEM CAREERS
With minimal data to show the significance of low enrollment of women in
mathematics and science majors in higher education throughout the coun-
try, it is difficult to speculate as to the reasons why females do not select
STEM disciplines in their school-to-work transitions. While 95% of stu-
dents in the current sample planned to attend higher education institutions,
more than half of students wished to pursue a career in a STEM field.
Responses as to why students would choose a career in STEM are vague,
with comments that provide minimal feedback. Students see these disci-
plines as a way to earn a good salary or that the discipline is easy for them
to understand. No references were made to concrete jobs or professions,

which may again support the idea that students (and parents) are unaware
of the professional opportunities associated with mathematics and science
disciplines.
Issues of female dropout existed at alarming rates, particularly between
primary and lower secondary school. Psychosocial factors contributed to
this high rate, as males tended to be seen as a better investment for educa-
tional attainment and opportunities for better jobs that will help provide
for the family. Females continuing with their education are expected to be
highly intelligent and capable of competing with their male counterparts
while continuing to uphold the responsibilities of females within the home,
such as taking care of younger children and household chores. Classroom

observations indicated that while females tended to be shy in the classroom,
most teachers did not exhibit behaviors suggesting gender discrimination
patterns. The modest attitudes of female students supported the sociocul-
tural expectations of females to be well-mannered and controlled, especially
in social situations, including the classroom.
The gender disparity in Cambodia in higher education can be attributed
to both economic and sociocultural factors. The costs of education for par-
ents are significant, and in some cases parents and communities are
required to pay 74.8% of costs associated with primary education, with the
government paying only 12.9% (Bray, 1999). Because of the high cost of
education, parents cannot afford to educate all their children, and have to
choose certain children to attend. This is especially true in higher educa-
tion, where students may attend private institutions for a fee as well as
costs associated with food and housing for students traveling to urban cen-
ters for schooling. Public institutions are free, but costs for food and hous-
ing are not covered, and dorms are not available for students. The
economic factors associated with higher education are prohibitive, and
many students cannot afford to travel to major cities to attend.
In addition to economic factors, sociocultural implications regarding
deeply rooted gender norms contribute to the gender gap in higher educa-
tion enrollment. Parents are often forced to choose certain children to
attend higher education institutions. Social norms require females to stay
close to home and help with household work and care for younger siblings.
If education does not prevent girls from completing their domestic respon-
sibilities, girls are more likely to attend school. However, because of the
proximity of upper secondary schools and higher education institutions to
villages and local communities, parents are reluctant to send their daugh-
ters long distances to attend school.
These issues of female participation in higher education may also

be contributing factors to other forms of education. Students gradua-
ting from lower secondary school have the opportunity to attend public
technical/vocational institutes (TVET) or private training centers typically
funded and run by NGOs (in lieu of upper secondary school). Only 50%
of students attending these institutions receive technical training, and the
other 50% learn management and computer skills. NGO training centers
mainly provide instruction in English, business, and computer skills
(World Bank, 2010). In the 2005 2006 year, 42,212 (37.5% female,
62.5% male) students graduated from 40 TVETs and 170 NGO or
private training centers. Public TVET institutions provide training in
numerous fields, such as vehicle repair, general mechanics, computer tech-

nology, agricultural mechanics, electricity, electronics, repair of cooling
mechanics, and civil engineering.
Approximately 6% of Cambodians ages 20 24 have attended TVET
schools. When compared regionally, Cambodia has one of the smallest
shares of students currently enrolled in TVET at the upper-secondary and
tertiary levels (World Bank, 2011). Existing public TVET programs are lim-
ited in quality and dissemination due to lack of funding, skilled trainers,
proper equipment/technologies, and poor building facilities. Private TVET
institutions tend to receive adequate funding and have higher quality
resources for students (James, Gill, & Bates, 2013). The gender disparity in
TVET institutions may be attributed to similar factors as upper secondary
and higher education, such as financial and geographic limitations for
female students, as TVET institutions tend to be located in urban areas,
much like higher education institutions.
Although this study did not show gender as an indicator of aspirations
to STEM majors in higher education, gender is a considerable factor in the
current state of employment in Cambodia. Women are underrepresented in
science fields, and tend to work in low-skilled jobs. Economic growth in
recent years has been mainly driven by four sectors: garments, tourism,
construction, and agriculture. As opportunities expand to enter the work-
force and earn a salary to help support families, girls are often put to work
before they can complete higher levels of education that would lead to
higher skilled job opportunities (CSES, 2012; HRINC, 2010). In order to
positively influence increases in women in higher education, including
STEM disciplines, effective teaching and learning in the classroom must
provide both parents and students with a conceptual understanding of the
long-term benefits associated with higher education and skilled jobs in
STEM fields for females.
CURRICULUM
National curriculum currently fails to incorporate issues regarding gender

responsiveness. Subject materials in social science, technology, and math
fail to reference gender equality concepts. While illustrations in teaching
materials and textbooks appear to provide images that promote gender
equality, explicit materials that promote such practices are not available. In
addition, teaching styles in secondary schools generally consist of rote
memorization and learning from textbooks, which leaves little to no room
for teachers to effectively promote gender equality in the classroom
(Velasco, 2004).
Similar findings are applicable to science curriculum, and teachers report

a lack of training to facilitate integration of science experiments and other
best practices in science education (Kelley et al., 2013). Current application
of science experiments in government schools consist of teachers modeling
the experiment while students watch or are called on to facilitate. While
teachers are familiar with the student-centered approach to curriculum
delivery, research indicates low fidelity of implementation (JICA, 2009).
Russell, Derosa, and Eng (2013) in their teacher attitudes survey in Siem
Reap, Cambodia with 142 teachers from grades 1 to 12 found that teachers
were less likely to use student-centered learning in terms of helping slow
learners and using tools for demonstration when teachers have strong fatal-
istic beliefs. These beliefs may further hinder the effectiveness of the child-
centered approach implementation.
Support for students as they move forward with applying for college is
housed in the Non-Formal education programs provided by MoEYS,
intended to provide students with the information necessary when explor-
ing future careers and entry into higher education institutions. Curriculum
produced in conjunction with USAID, World Education, and KAPE
(NGO collaboration) provide print resources for students to read through
as they formulate ideas about their future goals. Recent research indicates
that most students graduating from upper secondary school do not fully
comprehend the necessary steps to take when applying to higher education.
Additionally, most students are unaware of the necessary job skills and
levels of education necessary for a given career path (USAID, 2006). It is
evident from the current state of career preparation in Cambodia that there
is an imminent need for additional career preparation for students about to
graduate from secondary school. Lack of data and research implications
regarding the Non-Formal education programs leave many unanswered
questions as to the efficacy of current programs and curriculum, as well as

implications for females as they explore options, including STEM disci-
plines, in higher education.
CONCLUSION
The current state of girls’ education in math and science and their potential
enrollment in STEM disciplines in higher education is under-researched in
the Cambodian context. Minimal research in the field coupled with limited
data from MoEYS leaves a very superficial view of the reality of the current
educational landscape, especially in STEM disciplines. The current study
provided some useful information for discussion, especially regarding gen-
der disparities. The current study showed no significant difference between
male and female attitudes toward math and science education. Yet, interna-
tional research and assessments have ascertained that across nations and
cultures, females tended to perform lower in math and science disciplines
than their male counterparts (Kessels & Steinmayr, 2013). While this study
focused on a relatively small sample (N = 100), results in this study were
consistent with another STEM interests study with a larger sample size
(N = 905) with students from Grades 7 to 12, in a northwestern province
of Cambodia (Kelley et al., 2013) that showed no significant differences in
STEM interests and gender.
Adding to the current trends in international assessments, sociocultural
norms widely recognized as the significant factors in gender and education
disparities showed that boys tended to have a more supportive relationship
with parents and teachers regarding education in general, and even more so
in math and science disciplines. Female students were assumed to prefer
the social sciences and arts, while male students were perceived to enjoy
the hard sciences (Palafox, Prawda, & Velez, 1994; Raudenbush,
Kidchanapanish, & Kang, 1991). Traditional gender norms play into this
idea, and international trends in STEM disciplines over the last several dec-
ades supported these ideas (Provasnik et al., 2012). However, the current
study showed that students, regardless of gender, tended to want to pursue
STEM careers if they feel that math and/or science are their best subjects.
In addition, regardless of gender, results from this study indicated that stu-
dents had higher interests in STEM if they perceived their parents and/or
teachers to value STEM disciplines.
The gender disparity in STEM disciplines is a significant issue for

research and debate in the global community. While ideas about the gender
disparity in science and mathematics disciplines has been present for dec-
ades, the data and analysis provided by international results such as
TIMSS and PISA contribute to a global perspective on a large scale to give
some insight into the role of science and mathematics education opportu-
nities for female students.
The classroom is an ideal environment for fostering students’ positive
attitudes toward STEM disciplines. STEM education has the potential
to positively impact regional and national economies and increase
Cambodia’s regional and international presences in the global economy
(Rothwell, 2013; Schuster, 2013). In order to facilitate improved attitudes

toward STEM, highly qualified teachers with positive attitudes toward
math and science should be trained to create an environment in which stu-
dents become active participants in their learning. The use of science labs
has shown to increase students’ attitudes and beliefs toward science as a
career, as well as dispel preconceived notions regarding girls’ inability to
perform well in science (Kelley et al., 2013).
In Cambodia and other developing countries, “skills in science are criti-
cal to economic progress in a society that is becoming more technologically
sophisticated. So, students need to become more aware of the usefulness of
science for everyday life and for careers in the future” (George, 2003,
p. 439). In addition, teacher training and preparation, student access to
hands-on activities, and increased student-centered models using coopera-
tive learning can strengthen students’ positive attitudes toward science
(Haladyna, Olsen, & Shaughnessy, 1982; Myers & Fouts, 1992).
Cambodia has a long road ahead to improving education and creating a
knowledge-based society on a competitive level with the rest of the world.
Insufficient educational policies that fail to be disseminated to schools due
to lack of qualified resources and teachers contribute to Cambodia’s strug-
gle to increase education levels and meet ESP goals.
To further complicate the educational landscape, higher education insti-
tutions have shown rapid expansion in the country in the last decade, and
both public and private institutions are established throughout the country.
However, due to rapid expansion and limited resources to monitor compli-
ance with international standards for education, many higher education
institutions lack credibility and recognition as quality institutions. While
ESP indicates a commitment to accreditation for all higher education insti-
tutions, the current status of quality and internationally competitive curri-
culum is unknown.
This study’s results shed light on possible recommendations for

increased quality of education and increased female participation in STEM
disciplines in higher education. Integration of student-centered instruction
and science labs has positive impacts on teacher efficacy, confidence and
perceptions of STEM education as well as increased teacher quality and
retention (Galosy & Gillespie, 2013; Nadelson et al., 2013). Fostering a life-
long love of learning in students is heightened when teachers, the third par-
ent, continue their own understanding of concepts and innovations in best
practices in teaching and learning. By understanding critical elements of
teaching that contribute to student achievement, teachers can harness their
skills to expose students to a variety of educational opportunities for
females in STEM education.
REFERENCES
ASEAN. (1967). The ASEAN declaration (Bangkok declaration) Bangkok, 8 August 1967.
Retrieved from http://www.asean.org/news/item/the-asean-declaration-bangkok-
declaration. Accessed on March 18, 2015.
ASEAN. (2007). Cebu declaration on the acceleration of the establishment of an ASEAN com-
munity by 2015. Retrieved from http://www.asean.org/news/item/cebu-declaration-on-
the-acceleration-of-the-establishment-of-an-asean-community-by-2015. Accessed on
March 18, 2015.
Beede, D. N., Julian, T. A., Langdon, D., McKittrick, G., Khan, B., & Doms, M. E. (2011).
Women in STEM: A gender gap to innovation. Issue Brief No. 04-11. Washington, DC:
Economics and Statistics Administration, U.S. Department of Commerce.
Benveniste, L., Marshall, J. H., & Caridad Araujo, M. (2008). Teaching in Cambodia. Phnom
Penh: The World Bank/Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport.
Bray, M. (1999). The private costs of public schooling: Household and community financing.
Paris: International Institute for Educational Planning/UNESCO.
Cambodia Social Economic Survey (CSES). (2012). National Institute of Statistics. Cambodia:
Phnom Penh.
Clark Blickenstaff*, J. (2005). Women and science careers: Leaky pipeline or gender filter?
Gender and Education, 17(4), 369 386.
Galosy, J. A., & Gillespie, N. M. (2013). Community, inquiry, leadership: Exploring early
career opportunities that support STEM teacher growth and sustainability. Clearing
House, 86(6), 207 215.
Gardner, P. L. (1975). Attitudes to science: A review. Studies in Science Education, 2(1), 1 41.
George, R. (2003). Growth in students’ attitudes about the utility of science over the middle
and high school years: Evidence from a longitudinal study of American youth. Journal
of Science and Education and Technology, 12(4), 439 448.
Haladyna, T., Olsen, R., & Shaughnessy, J. (1982). Relations of student, teacher, and learning
environment variables to attitudes toward science. Science Education, 66(5), 671 687.
HRINC. (2010). Higher education and skills for the labor market in Cambodia. Phnom Penh:
HRINC.
James, D., Gill, T., & Bates, R. (2013). Innovate-Cambodia: Desktop study. University Park,
PA: Penn State University.
Japanese International Cooperation Agency (JICA). (2009). Baseline survey report from science
teacher education project (STEPSAM2). Hiroshima University.
Kanny, M. A., Sax, L. J., & Riggers-Piehl, T. A. (2014). Investigating forty years of STEM
research: How explanations for the gender gap have evolved over time. Journal of
Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 20(2), 127 148.
Karsli, F., & Sahin, C. (2009). Developing worksheet based on science process skills: Factors
affecting solubility. In Asia-pacific forum on science learning and teaching (Vol. 10,
No. 1, pp. 4 16). Hong Kong: Hong Kong Institute of Education.
Kelley, T., Plakmeyer, A., Shan, L., Sonnenberg, L., & Vargas, H. (2013). Science performance
among female students: An evaluation of science labs, utilization and teachers’ skills and
attitudes towards the field of science at CFC schools. Unpublished manuscript. Lehigh
University.
Kessels, U., & Steinmayr, R. (2013). Macho-man in school: Toward the role of gender role
self-concepts and help seeking in school performance. Learning and Individual
Differences, 23, 234 240.
Linn, M. C., & Hyde, J. S. (1989). Gender, mathematics, and science. Educational Researcher,
18(8), 17 27.
Maeda, M., Pen, S., Set, S., Kita, M., Sieng, S., & Naganuma, T. (2006). The quality of
science teachers in Cambodia: From a problem to a solution. In International conference
“Education/Training: The Search for Quality”, IRD-IER-NIESAC, HCMC (pp. 18–20).
MoEYS. (2014). Higher education. Retrieved from http://www.moeys.gov.kh/en/education/
higher-education.html. Accessed on March 18, 2015.
Myers, R. E., & Fouts, J. T. (1992). A cluster analysis of high school science classroom envir-
onments and attitude toward science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 29(9),
929 937.
Nadelson, L. S., Callahan, J., Pyke, P., Hay, A., Dance, M., & Pfiester, J. (2013). Teacher
STEM perception and preparation: Inquiry-based STEM professional development for
elementary teachers. Journal of Educational Research, 106(2), 157 168.
National Institute of Statistics, Directorate General for Health, and ICF Macro. (2011).
Cambodia demographic and health survey 2010. Phnom Penh: National Institute of
Statistics, Directorate General for Health, and ICF Macro.
Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Attitudes towards science: A review of the
literature and its implications. International Journal of Science Education, 25(9),
1049 1079.
Palafox, J. C., Prawda, J., & Velez, E. (1994). Primary school quality in Mexico. Comparative
Education Review, 38(2), 167 180.
Provasnik, S., Kastberg, D., Ferraro, D., Lemanski, N., Roey, S., & Jenkins, F. (2012).
Highlights from TIMSS 2011: Mathematics and science achievement of US fourth- and
eighth-grade students in an international context. Washington, DC: National Center for
Education Statistics.
Raudenbush, S. W., Kidchanapanish, S., & Kang, S. J. (1991). The effects of preprimary
access and quality on educational attainment in Thailand. Comparative Education
Review, 35(2), 255 273.
Rothwell, J. (2013). The hidden STEM economy. Metropolitan policy program. Washington,
DC: Brookings.
Russell, M., Derosa, S., & Eng, S. (2013). Child-friendly schooling in Cambodia: Do teacher
beliefs and attitudes matter? Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Comparative
and International Education Society, New Orleans, LA.
Schibeci, R. A., & Riley, J. P. (1986). Influence of students’ background and perceptions on
science attitudes and achievement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(3),
177 187.
Schuster, D. (2013). In pursuit of sustainable STEM certification programs. Journal of College
Science Teaching, 42(4), 38 45.
Set, S., Sieng, S., & Kita, M. (2014). Understanding Cambodian student competencies in chemis-
try at lower secondary school compared to regional neighbors and Japan. Phnom Penh:
National Institute of Education.
Simpson, R. D., & Steve Oliver, J. (1990). A summary of major influences on attitude toward
and achievement in science among adolescent students. Science Education, 74(1), 1 18.
USAID. (2006). Jobs for the 21st century: Cambodia assessment. Asia and Near East Bureau.
UNESCO UIS. (2011). Global education digest 2011. Comparing education statistics across the
world.
Velasco, E. (2004). Ensuring gender equity in education for all: Is Cambodia on track?
Prospects, 34(1), 37 51.
World Bank. (2010). Providing skills for equity and growth: Preparing Cambodia’s youth for
the labor market. Washington, DC.
World Bank. (2011). Knowledge development index. Retrieved from http://go.worldbank.org/
JGAO5XE940. Accessed on March 18, 2015.
Wyss, V. (2013). Developing videos to better inform middle school students about STEM
career options. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 57(2),
54 62.

Stem Learning Achievement Among Cambodian Middle School Students - An Examination of Gender and Psychosocial Factors PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Stem Learning Achievement Among Cambodian Middle School Students - An Examination of Gender and Psychosocial Factors PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Annual Review of Comparative and International

Permanent link to this document:

Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by

*Related content and download information correct at time of download.

Sothy Eng and Whitney Szmodis

Annual Review of Comparative and International Education 2015

teachers and parents. Results indicated that non-STEM subjects are on

patterns. Explanations of students’ interests in STEM regardless of gen-

With the emphasis on STEM education and increased importance of

Plan (NSP) vision to transition from a lower-middle income country to an

9.71 in Australia, Cambodia continued to remain significantly behind both

STEM EDUCATION IN CAMBODIA

In response to these concerns, the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport

diminished student interest in science, which in turn can contribute to the

EDUCATIONAL INFRASTRUCTURE AND RESOURCES

professional development for pre-service teachers, and limited science

A survey of lower secondary students was conducted to establish a baseline

surveyors acted as the observers with no interaction with students or the

Attitudes toward Science and Math

Perceived Importance of Science and Math

Teachers’ Support of Science and Math

science/math problem, he/she/they always try to help me.” Response to

Parents’ Support of Science and Math

do in science/math.” Response pattern was the same as the above scales.

Extra Classes in Science/Math

Enjoy Science and Math the Most/the Least

Science Is a Good Career for Women

College Plan in Science/Math

STEM Interests and Correlates

50 Enjoy most Enjoy least

Fig. 1. Rank Order of Subjects Enjoyed Most by Students.

Table 1. Percentage of Most Enjoyed Subjects by Gender.

Language/literature 34.04 41.51 38 0.59 0.44

science interests. In contrast, students who enjoyed math and science,

report of their subjects of interest and performance. However, no signifi-

3 Lab use (no = 0) .38** −.16

Table 3. Standardized Regression Coefficients Predicting STEM Interests.

Gender (male = 0) −.02 .06 −.23

Parents’ support in science .07 .07 .72

*p < .05; ***p < .001.

COMPARATIVE VIEWS AND ATTITUDES OF MATH

Table 4. Mean Comparison between Male and Female Students

Perceived math importance 3.73 3.89 3.81 1.65 0.20

Parents’ science support 3.56 3.60 3.58 0.10 0.76

Fig. 2. Mean Comparison of Parents’ Support and Students’ Perceived

Regarding the students’ school-to-work aspirations, results indicated a gen-

the comments provided by students as to why they were interested in the

both good for me,” etc.

As part of the current study, classroom observations were conducted in

showed no significant differences between the support in both science and

interest in science classes. Despite a lack of interest in science, future career

EQUAL INTEREST VERSUS DISPARITY

to understand. No references were made to concrete jobs or professions,

such as taking care of younger children and household chores. Classroom

These issues of female participation in higher education may also

numerous fields, such as vehicle repair, general mechanics, computer tech-

National curriculum currently fails to incorporate issues regarding gender

Similar findings are applicable to science curriculum, and teachers report

questions as to the efficacy of current programs and curriculum, as well as

The gender disparity in STEM disciplines is a significant issue for

(Rothwell, 2013; Schuster, 2013). In order to facilitate improved attitudes

This study’s results shed light on possible recommendations for