Chapter 3: The Biological Bases of Behavior

(Pags 64-74)

Amygdala: is in both the right and left halves of the brain. It

is a crucial control center for the experience of fear.
3.1 Communication in the Nervous System
Nervous Tissue: The Basic Hardware
Your nervous system is living tissue composed of cells. The
cells in the nervous system fall into 2 major categories: glia
and neurons.
Neurons:
- Individual cells in the nervous system that receive, integrate,
and transmit information.
- Basic links that allow communication within the nervous
system.
- Most of them communicate only with other neurons.
- The minority receive signals from outside the nervous
system (sensory organs) or carry messages from the nervous
system to the muscles that move the body.
Parts of the Neuron:
Soma: contains the cell nucleus and much of the chemical
machinery
Dendrites: Part of the dendritic tree. Receive information.
From the many dendrites, information flows into the cell body,
then travels away from the soma along the axon.
Axon: Long, thin fiber that transmits signals away from the
soma to other neurons, muscles or glands. They are wrapped
in cells with a high concentration of myelin.
Myelin: White and fatty Insulating material that encases
some axons. They speed up the transmission of signals that
move along axons and prevent them from going to a different
direction. They also stabilize the axon’s structure and pattern
of connection.
If certain axons’ myelin sheaths deteriorate, signals may not
be transmitted effectively. Ex: Multiple sclerosis (degeneration
of myelin sheaths). Not all axons are myelinated, and those
who are have different distributions of it.
The axon ends in a cluster of terminal buttons.
Terminal buttons: small knobs that secrete chemicals called
neurotransmitters.
Neurotransmitters: chemicals that serve as messengers
and might activate neighboring neurons.
Synapse: A junction where information is transmitted from
one neuron to another. Points at which neurons interconnect.
Glia:
- Cells found throughout the nervous system that provide
various types of support for neurons.
- Much smaller than neurons.
- Supply nutrients to neurons
- Help remove neurons’ waste products
- Provide insulation around many axons. The myelin sheaths
that encase some axons are derived from special types of glial
cells.
Some types of glia can detect neural impulses and send
signals to other glial cells and some of them can send signals
back to neurons. Some studies say that dysfunction in glial
cells may be related to the cognitive impairment seen in
schizophrenia or depressive disorders, also their deterioration
might contribute to Alzheimer or chronic pain.
The Neural Impulse: Using Energy to Send Information
The neural impulse is a complex electrochemical reaction.
Both inside and outside the neuron are fluids containing
electrically charged atoms and molecules called ions.
Positively charged sodium and potassium ions (Na+ and K+)
and negatively charged chloride ions (Cl-) flow back and forth
across the cell membrane (depolarization and repolarization),
but they don’t cross at the same rate, there’s a slightly higher
concentration of negatively charged ions inside the cell. The
resulting voltage means that the neuron at rest is a tiny
battery stored with potential energy.
Resting potential: the neuron’s energy when the cell is
inactive. It is stable and negative.
If the voltage of a neuron stays constant, the cell is quiet and
no messages are being sent. When the neuron is stimulated,
channels in its cell membrane open and allow the positively
charged Na ions to get in. For an instant, the neuron’s charge
is lees negative, but then it gradually becomes positive,
creating an action potential.
Action Potential: Brief shift in a neuron’s electrical charge
that travels along an axon. The force of the stimuli doesn’t
matter, they all have the same size.
After the action potential, the channels in the cell membrane
that opened to let in Na close. Some time is needed before
they’re ready to open again.
Absolute refractory period: Length of time after an action
potential where another action potential cannot begin. It takes
1 or 2 milliseconds.
The neural impulse is an all-or-none proposition, you can’t
half-fire it.
Neurons can get information about the strength of a stimulus.
They vary the rate at which they fire action potentials.
The Synapse: Where Neurons Meet
The neural impulse functions as a signal. This signal must be
transmitted from the neuron to other cells. This transmission
takes place at special junctions called synapses.
Sending Signals: Chemicals as Couriers
Synaptic cleft: microscopic gap between the terminal button
of one neuron and the cell membrane of another neuron.
Signals must cross this gap to permit neurons to
communicate.
Presynaptic Neuron: neuron that send a s signal across the
gap.
Postsynaptic Neuron: neuron that receives the signal.
Synaptic Vesicles: small sacs where chemicals are stored.
Receptor sites: molecules in the postsynaptic cell
membrane. They recognizer and respond to specific
neurotransmitters.
When a neural impulse reaches an axon’s terminal buttons, it
triggers the release of neurotransmitters. The
neurotransmitters are released when a vesicle fuses with the
membrane of the presynaptic cell and its contents spill into
the synaptic cleft. After their release, neurotransmitters
diffuse across the synaptic cleft to the membrane of the
receiving cell. There they may bin with the receptor sites.
Neurotransmitter only bind in places where they fit.
Receiving Signals: Postsynaptic Potentials
When a neurotransmitter and a receptor molecule combine,
reactions in the cell membrane cause a postsynaptic
potential (PSP).
Postsynaptic Potential (PSP): voltage change at a receptor
site on a postsynaptic cell membrane.
Postsynaptic potentials don’t follow the all-or-none law, they
are graded. They vary in size and they increase or decrease
the probability of a neural impulse depending on the amount
of voltage change.
Two types of messages can be sent from cell to cell:
excitatory and inhibitory.
Excitatory PSP: positive voltage shift that increases the
likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action
potentials.
Inhibitory PSP: negative voltage shift that decreases the
likelihood that the postsynaptic neuron will fire action
potentials.
The direction and nature of the PSP (excitatory or inhibitory)
depends on which receptor sites are activated in the
postsynaptic neuron.
The excitatory or inhibitory effects last a fraction of a second.
After that, the neurotransmitters move away from the
receptor sites or are inactivated by enzymes that convert
them into inactive forms. Most are reabsorbed into the
presynaptic neuron through reuptake.
Reuptake: process in which neurotransmitters are absorbed
from the synaptic cleft by the presynaptic membrane.
Integrating Signals: A Balancing Act
A neuron not only gives and receives messages, it also uses
excitatory and inhibitory signals that arrive to decide whether
to fire a neural impulse or not.
The links between neurons are fluid, there are new synaptic
connections being made and some old synaptic connections
being removed.
The elimination of old synapses is more important than the
creation of them. The nervous system usually forms more
synapses than needed and then gradually eliminates them.
Synaptic pruning: elimination of old or less-active synapses.
Neurotransmitters and Behavior
Neurotransmitters play a key role in everything form muscle
movements to moods and mental health.
Specific neurotransmitters function at specific kind of
synapses. Specific transmitters can deliver signals at only
certain locations on cell membranes. There’re many different
neurotransmitters because it reduces collisions of neurons
and makes the nervous system more precise.
(Pags 74-77)

3.2 Organization of the Nervous System

The brain is divided into 3 regions: the hindbrain, the

midbrain, and the forebrain. The reticular formation runs
through both the midbrain and the hindbrain on its way up to
the brainstem.
The peripheral nervous system is made up of the somatic
nervous system and the autonomic nervous system, The
somatic controls voluntary muscles and sensory receptors and
the autonomic controls the involuntary activities of smooth
muscles, blood vessels, and glands.
The Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system is made up of all those nerves
that lie outside the brain and spinal cord. It extends to the
periphery (outside) of the body. It can be subdivided into the
somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system.
Nerves: bundles of neuron fibers (axons) that are routed
together in the peripheral nervous system.
The Somatic Nervous System:
It’s made up of nerves that connect to voluntary skeletal
muscles and to sensory receptors. These nerves carry
information from receptors in the skin, muscles, and joints to
the central nervous system and biceverse.
These functions require 2 kinds of nerve fibers:
1. Afferent nerve fibers: axons that carry information
inward to the central nervous system from the periphery of
the body.
2. Efferent nerve fibers: axons that carry information
outward from the central nervous system to the periphery of
the body.
The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS):
It’s made up of nerves that connect to the heart, blood
vessels, smooth muscles, and glands. It’s a separate system
but it’s controlled by the central nervous system. It controls
involuntary functions.
It mediates much of the physiological reactions when people
experience emotions. Ex: fear.
The autonomic nervous system can be subdivided into 2
branches:
1. Sympathetic Division: branch of the autonomic nervous
system that mobilizes the body’s resources for emergencies.
When activated, the digestive processes slow down and the
blood from the periphery drains (this to reduce the bleeding in
case of an injury).
Key sympathetic nerves send signals to the adrenal glands,
triggering the release of hormones that prepare the body for
effort.
2. Parasympathetic Division: branch of the autonomic
nervous system that generally conserves bodily resources. It
activates processes that allow the body to save and store
energy.
Actions by parasympathetic nerves slow heart rate, reduce
blood pressure, and promote digestion,
The Central Nervous System (CNS)
The central nervous system is the portion of the nervous
system that lies within the skull and spinal column. It consists
of the brain and the spinal cord. It is bathed in cerebrospinal
fluid (CSF).
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Nutritive fluid that nourishes the
brain and provides a protective cushion for it. The CSF is
carefully filtered, to enter, substances in the blood must cross
the blood-brain barrier.
Blood-brain barrier: semipermeable membrane that stops
some chemicals, including drugs, from leaving the
bloodstream to enter the brain.
The Spinal Cord:
- Connects the brain to the rest of the body through the
peripheral nervous system.
- It’s part of the central nervous system.
- Runs from the base of the brain to just below the level of the
waist.
- Has bundles of axons that carry the brain’s commands to
peripheral nerves and that transmit sensation from the
periphery of the body to the brain.
Spinal cord damage can cause paralysis. The spinal cord is
important because it transmits signals from the brain to the
neurons, signaling the body’s muscles to move.
The Brain:
- Anatomically, it is part of the central nervous system located
in the upper portion of the skull.
- Contains billions of interacting cells that integrate
information from inside and outside the body
- Coordinate the body’s actions. (talk, think, remember, plan,
create, and dream)
(Pags 89-90)

3.5 The Endocrine System: Another Way to

Communicate:
The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete
chemicals into the bloodstream that help control bodily
functioning. The messengers in this communication network
are called hormones.
Hormones: chemical substances released by the endocrine
glands. They are like the neurotransmitters but less fast and
less specific. Hormone release tends to be pulsatile.
Pulsatile: released several times per day in brief bursts that
last only a few minutes.
Hypothalamus: much of the endocrine system is controlled
by it. It’s in the base of the forebrain and connect to the
pituitary gland.
Pituitary gland: releases different hormones that move
through the body, stimulating actions in the other endocrine
glands. The “master gland”.
The endocrine system is connected to the nervous system.
When stressed, the hypothalamus sends signals to the
adrenal glands through 2 pathways: the autonomic nervous
system and the pituitary gland. In response, the adrenal
glands secrete hormones that move across the body and
prepare it for an emergency.
Oxytocin: hormone that’s released by the pituitary gland and
regulates reproductive behaviors. It triggers contractions
during birth and stimulate the mammary glands to release
milk for breastfeeding. They also affect social behavior, like
fidelity, openness, trust, empathy or engagement with others.

(Pags 77-85)

3.3 The Brain and Behavior:

Research Methods
Lesioning: destroying a piece of the brain. Typically done by
inserting an electrode into a brain structure and passing a
high-frequency electric current through it to burn the tissue
and disable the structure.
Electrical Stimulation of the Brain (ESB): sending a weak
electric current into a brain structure to stimulate it. The
current is delivered through an implanted electrode, but a
different type of current is used.
CT (Computerized tomography) Scan: computer-
enhanced X-ray of brain structure. Many X-rays are shot from
many angles and the computer combines the readings to
create an image of a horizontal slice of the brain.
MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scan: uses magnetic
fields, radio waves, and computerized enhancement to map
out brain structure. Provide better images of brain structure
than do CT scans (3D, high resolution).
fMRI (Functioning Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Scan:
variation on MRI that monitor blood flow and oxygen
consumption in the brain to identify areas of high activity.
Map actual activity in the brain over time with precision.
PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scan: uses
radioactive markers to map chemical activity in the brain over
time. Color-coded map of the brain. Radioactive gas mixed
with glucose is injected.
The brain is divided into 3 major regions: the hindbrain, the
midbrain, and the forebrain.
The Hindbrain:
Includes the cerebellum, the medulla, and the pons.
Medulla: attaches to the spinal cord, controls essential
unconscious functions (breathing, circulation, etc)
Pons: includes a bridge of fibers that connects the brainstem
with the cerebellum. Also contains several clusters of cell
bodies involved with sleep and arousal.
Cerebellum: large and folded structure adjacent to the back
surface of the brainstem. Coordinates movement and gives
the sense of equilibrium. Also help in sensing the position of
our limbs. It’s one of the structures first depressed by alcohol
and damage to it can affect fine motor skills.
The Midbrain:
- Segment of the brainstem that lies between the hindbrain
and the forebrain.
- Contains an area that integrates sensory processes like
vision and hearing.
- Has a system that releases dopamine neurons and sends
them to higher brain centers. This dopamine system is
involved in the performance of voluntary movements. The
Parkinson’s disease (decline in dopamine) is caused by
degeneration of a structure located in the midbrain.
Reticular formation: located in the central core of the
brainstem. Contributes to the modulation of muscle reflexes,
breathing, and pain perception. Regulates sleep and
wakefulness.
The Forebrain:
The largest and most complex region of the brain. Includes
the cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic
system.
Thalamus: relay station. Structure in the forebrain through
which all sensory information (except smell) must pass to get
to the cerebral cortex. Made up of clusters of somas. Also
plays an active role in integrating information from various
senses.
Hypothalamus: regulator of biological needs. Structure
found near the base of the forebrain that regulates basic
biological needs. It controls the autonomic nervous system.
Also plays a major role in the regulation of basic biological
drives related to survival. (Fighting, fleeing, feeding).
Limbic System: seat of emotion. A network of structures
located along the border between the cerebral cortex and
deeper subcortical areas. It’s in charge of motivation,
emotion, learning, and memory. It influences the endocrine
system and the autonomic nervous system.
Cerebrum: in charge of complex thought. The wrinkled
surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, it’s the outer
layer of the brain. It’s divided into 2 hemispheres.
Cerebral hemispheres: right and left halves of the
cerebrum.
Corpus callosum: major structure that connects the 2
cerebral hemispheres.
Each cerebral hemisphere is divided by deep fissures into 4
lobes. Each lobe is dedicated to specific purposes:
Occipital lobe: primary visual cortex. Where most signals are
sent and processed.
Parietal lobe: registers the sense of touch. It receives
signals from different parts of the body. It integrates visual
input and monitories the body’s position in space.
Temporal lobe: contains the area in charge of auditory
processing, the primary auditory cortex.
Frontal lobe: largest lobe. Contains the principal areas that
control movement of muscles, the primary motor cortex.
Prefrontal lobe: portion of the frontal lobe. Organize and
direct thought processes.
(Pags 85-89)

3.4 Right Brain / Left Brain: Cerebral Specialization:

Broca’s area: plays an important role in the production of
speech.
Wernicke’s area: plays an important role in the
comprehension of language.
Split-brain surgery: the corpus callosum is cut to reduce the
severity of epileptic seizures.
Each hemisphere’s primary connections are to the opposite
side of the body.
Both hemispheres are in close communication with each
other. Information received by one is shared with the other via
the corpus callosum.
Left side /// Right side
Language ///
Visual-spatial

(Pags 99-103)
3.9 Personal Application: