THE EFFECTS OF

CHORAL FORMATION
ON THE SINGING VOICE
DEBRA S. ATKINSON

Debra S. Atkinson, DA, is assistant professor of music and director of choral activities at Mis-
sissippi University for Women in Columbus, MS, where she directs the MUW Chorale, the
MUW Chamber Singers, and the vocal jazz group, Encore. She also teaches courses in music
education and supervises student teacher interns in music education datkinson@as.muw.edu.

24 Choral Journal • March 2010

 There are many benefits to be gained by singing in choral
ensembles. Performing in an ensemble can foster a spirit
of cooperation and camaraderie, and can help diminish
the negative aspects of competition that sometimes arise
in solo voice study. It is, therefore, imperative that choral
conductors, teachers of voice, and singers communicate
with each other about choral singing so that the experience
in a choral ensemble will be a vocally healthy and musically
enriching experience. Although there are many similarities,
researchers believe that choral singing and solo singing are
unique forms of singing that make different demands on
Choral Journal • March 2010
the singer.1 Some voice teachers are reluctant to allow their
students to participate in choral singing groups because
they are asked to sing in a way that is different from what
is being taught in the voice studio. Many singers, however,
can develop the skills that are needed to sing in both solo
and choral modes.
Research suggests that there are many things that can
influence choral tone and choral blend. Some of these
include vowel uniformity, vibrato, choral formation, and stra-
tegic placement of singers.The study, from which this article
is derived, sought to determine the effect that changes in
25

choral formation and spacing between sing-
ers has on select voices of an ensemble as
revealed through long-term average spectra
(LTAS) of the individual singers. The singers
that served as research in this article were in
an ensemble that was given the opportunity
to express their preferences for each of the
choral formations. Therefore, this article
concentrates on the singers’ comments and
opinions regarding choral formation and
spacing, and the differences they perceived
between choral and solo singing.
Choral Singing Versus Solo Singing
According to Rossing, et al., choral singing
and solo singing are two distinctly different
modes of musical performance. For this
reason, some voice teachers are reluctant to
allow their students to participate in choral
ensembles.2 The demands of solo singing are
different from those facing the choral singer;
however, Royal Stanton believes that these
demands are not necessarily contradictory.3
A well-trained voice should be flexible
enough to meet the demands of either
mode of performance.4
Darryl Edwards suggests that conflicts
between choral conductors and voice
teachers are not a new phenomenon. He
says “voice teachers complain that choral
singing promotes vocal constriction, limits
the healthy growth of solo singing, and cur-
26
THE EFFECTS OF
CHORAL FORMATION
ON THE SINGING VOICE
tails interpretive imagination,” while choral
conductors, on the other hand, continue
to testify to their dedication to nurturing
healthy singers. In order to eliminate some
of the conflicts, Edwards suggests that voice
teachers should invite students to spend
time in voice lessons on issues concerning
their choral repertoire.5
Sharon Hansen, Axel Theimer, and Leon
Thurman state that most college/university
voice teachers believe there is only one cor-
rect way to sing: the way one sings Western
opera.6 Dale Moore is concerned about
solo voices in choral situations, especially so-
pranos with large voices that have operatic
potential. He thinks that nothing is more dif-
ficult for a singer with a big voice than being
made to sing at low dynamic levels or always
having to “hold the voice back.”7 According
to Sten Ternström, demands on choral sing-
ers are different from those placed on solo
singers. Choral singers are expected to blend
with each other while opera singers do just
the opposite. Opera singers have developed
vocal strategies that allow them to be heard
over the symphony orchestra.8 Frauke Haas-
eman believes that trained singers may have
to reduce the vocal force and vibrato when
singing in a choir but avers that anyone who
has a good vocal technique should be able to
do this without damaging the voice.9
Voice students are sometimes advised
not to use a singing technique in choir that
differs from what they are being taught in
the private voice studio. These students can
become very confused when they get con-
flicting information about singing from choral
conductors and teachers of voice. Robert
Garretson avers that voice teachers must
understand that some deviation in vocal
production is necessary in order to achieve
historical authenticity in the performance
of choral music from different periods of
music history.10
According to John Weiss, Renaissance
music can sometimes cause problems for
operatically trained singers. The style used
for singing this music is often thought to be
“thin, straight, and lifeless.” However, one
must remember that the sixteenth cen-
tury cathedrals provided an acoustic that
supported vocal resonance without force.
During the nineteenth century, singers devel-
oped vocal techniques that allowed them to
meet the demands of being heard over large
orchestras in large concert halls.Therefore, it
may be necessary for some twenty-first cen-
tury singers to slightly modify their technique
in order to legitimately perform Renaissance
music. Unfortunately, many singers and voice
teachers are unwilling to make any kind
of adjustments, fearing that some damage
could be done to the voice.11 Daryl Edwards
points out that the singers who think singing
softly in choir is unhealthy are the same ones
who think nothing of singing sotto voce in an
art song such as Schubert’s An die Musik. He
indicates that responsible choral conductors
will balance personal ideals of choral tone
with healthy vocal production by each singer
in the ensemble.12
The vocal production disagreements that
are faced by American choral conductors
and teachers of voice are not perceived
the same way in Sweden. Gary Anderson
observed Swedish choral conductors and
voice teachers who seem to understand
and agree that there is a difference between
choral and solo singing and were surprised
to learn that this is such a controversial
matter in America.13 Knowing that there are
differing views, how should we go forward
in order to co-exist as teachers of voice and
directors of choral ensembles? The follow-
ing sections present a description of some
of the methods used by choral conductors
Choral Journal • March 2010
to strategically place singers in their choral
ensembles.
Voice Placement and Choir Formations
Research implies that the specific place-
ment of voices within the ensemble based
on vocal compatibility, frequency of the tone,
and a singer’s formant has definite effects
on choral tone and blend.14 According to
Sandra Willetts, careful placement of sing-
ers with vibratos that are even will solve
blend problems and intonation problems.15
Ekholm agrees, stating that arranging choris-
ters so the voices are acoustically matched
may enhance blend, phrasing, and overall
tone quality. It is possible that arranging
choristers may also benefit vocal production,
vocal comfort, and aesthetic satisfaction of
the choristers.16
Gerald Langner discusses the pros and
cons of different choral formations and the
rationale for each formation. In summary,
Langner observes that individual placement
of singers in an ensemble should not be left
to chance.The conductor should categorize
the quality of each voice in order to optimal-
ly place them in an ensemble. Placement is
an art and science that, when combined with
listening by the conductor, can significantly
affect the choral sound. Even more micro
decisions could include the exact placement
of each individual singer within the rows of
the ensemble.17
According to Gordon Lamb, choral
conductors are using mixed seating arrange-
ments extensively. He expresses the notion
that the advantage to this arrangement is a
homogenous sound, better balance of the
voices, and improved intonation. Lamb also
cautions that this formation is best used for
homophonic music of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. Polyphonic music may
suffer in mixed formation because of the
clarity of line that is needed in its perfor-
mance.18
Arthur Lambson found that the sectional
block formation appears to be the best
acoustical formation for the performance
of polyphonic choral music in more than
four parts. It is inferior, however, to other
formations with regard to recording, radio
broadcasting, and other events that might
require the use of microphones. The quar-

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tet plan (placing singers in heterogeneous
groupings of four singers each; a soprano, an
alto, a tenor and a bass) appears to be the
preferred formation for the performance of
four-part homophonic music.19
James Daugherty, one of the pioneers in
choral acoustics, states empirical studies sug-
gest that mixed formation does not produce
a noticeably better sound for the audience.
However, experienced singers may prefer
mixed over sectional formations. Daugherty
also suggests that compatibility placement
of voices in an ensemble could be beneficial
to choirs of all ages because it encourages
sensitivity to the ensemble sound and allows
singers to consider their own phonation. He
adds that perhaps this method would work
28
THE EFFECTS OF
CHORAL FORMATION
ON THE SINGING VOICE
best if members of the ensemble had a voice
in deciding the placement of voices within
the ensemble.20
According to Lewis Gordon, the forma-
tion of the choir should be based on several
factors: the number of singers, the balance
between the parts, the abilities of the sing-
ers, contrast between the individual voices,
and the structure of the music. He suggests
placing strong singers toward the back or
next to weak singers. Soloistic voices should
never be placed on the ends of the rows
but should be put in the middle of the rows
toward the back. He also encourages try-
ing several formations while rehearsing a
piece: starting in a circle or semi-circle, using
sectional formation to learn the parts, using
mixed quartets or circle within a circle to
polish, and returning to the original plan for
interpretation and staging.21
Self-to-Other Ratio
Sten Ternströ m discovered another
acoustical phenomenon that affects the
individual singers in an ensemble. He made
several investigations into what he calls Self-
to-Other Ratio (SOR) in choral singing. The
singers in a choir apparently have definite
preferences for the balance between self-
sound and others-sound.22 If spacing is too
close, there is a masking of the individual
voice by the sound of the surrounding voices
creating a decreased amount of auditory
feedback. In this situation, choristers will
push or force their voices in order to be
able to hear themselves. This phenomenon
is described as the “Lombard” effect. The
Lombard effect occurs if the others-sound
overpowers the self-sound, causing over-
singing, intonation problems, and vocal fa-
tigue.23 However, Steve Tonkinson found that
singers can be taught to resist the “Lombard”
effect with proper training.24
The exact amount of space that is need-
ed between singers has not been clearly
determined. Research does support the idea
that spacing of twenty-four and thirty-six
inches provided positive comments from
singers in the ensemble and from the audi-
tor’s who were rating their performances.
Voice Matching
Voice matching is a technique developed
by Weston Noble for use with the Nordic
Choir at Luther College.The first step in the
procedure is to find two voices in a section
that have a natural blend. Gradually, singers
are added one by one until all singers in the
section are in one horizontal line. Noble
says the blend must be present on both
sides of the singers and he has learned that
like voices are not always the best choices
to stand next to each other. Opposites also
have the potential for blend (differences in
tone color, vibratos, etc.).25
Eckholm’s research suggests that ar-
ranging singers so that voices are acousti-
cally matched may “enhance blend, dynamic
range, phrasing, and overall tone quality.” It
may also benefit vocal production, comfort,
and satisfaction in choral singing.26 Neil
Woodruff proposes that voice matching
reduces the vocal changes for singers in
an ensemble and could possibly begin to
reduce tensions between choral directors
and teachers of voice because of perceived
differences in pedagogical practices.27
Purpose of This Study
Research indicates that many factors in-
fluence choral tone and choral blend. Some
of these are vowel uniformity, vibrato, choral
formation, strategic placement of singers, and
spacing between singers. Accordingly, this
author conducted an investigation to deter-
mine the effects of choral formation (mixed
or sectional) and spacing (close or spread)
on the voices of four select singers in a select
sixteen-member college ensemble. Addition-
ally, all sixteen singers in the ensemble were
asked questions regarding their preferences
for singing in each of the four formations.
The four randomly selected individuals—a
soprano, alto, tenor, and bass—were also
asked to describe the differences, if they
thought there were any, between solo sing-
ing and choral singing.
It was instructive to read the comments
that the singers made about singing in the
different formations and about singing in
choral ensembles in general.
The four formations used in the study
Choral Journal • March 2010
were: sectional formation with one inch
spacing between the shoulders of the singers Table 1 Mean Ranks for Questions About Choral Formations (N=16)
(Sectional-Close), sectional formation with
twenty-four inch spacing between singers
(Sectional-Spread), mixed formation with Ease of Hearing Ease of Choral
one inch spacing between the shoulders of Choral Ease of and Blending Hearing Sound Preference
the singers (Mixed-Close), and mixed forma- Formation Singing With Section Others Preference for Singing
tion with twenty-four inch spacing between
Sectional-Close 3.1+ 2.6 3.7*+ 3.3* 3.7*+
singers (Mixed-Spread). A twenty-four inch
dowel was used to measure the spacing Sectional-Spread 2.3 1.6* 2.6 2.4 2.6
between the singers. The twenty-four inch
spacing was chosen because previous stud- Mixed-Close 3.1* 3.3* 2.1+ 2.6 2.4+
ies have determined that auditors preferred
the sound of a choir using a spacing of Mixed-Spread 1.5*+ 2.6 1.6* 1.7* 1.4*
twenty-four inches between the singers.28
r2 (16.72) (14.02) (22.27) (12.75) (25.88)
Illustration 1 shows the diagrams of the four
df =3
choral formations.
Immediately following the session all level of significance .001 .005 .001 .01 .001
sixteen choristers answered a questionnaire
regarding their preferences for singing in the
four choral formations. Each member of the Note. r2 = a version of the chi square statistic calculated by the Friedman test.
ensemble was asked to rank the four choral df = degrees of freedom.
formations from 1 to 4 (with 1 being best * and + = significant difference between means in columns indicated in post hoc
and 4 being worst) for each of the five ques- comparisons.
tions. (Table 1).
In addition, the four randomly selected
members of the ensemble answered a ques-
tionnaire regarding the differences between
solo singing and choral singing (Table 2). The
singers were encouraged to add comments
to the questionnaire.
The four selected singers’ comments
provided some interesting insights into
the way different singers approach the
differences between solo and choral sing-
ing modes. They agreed on several of the
answers. There was one item thought to be
a problem for all but the tenor: three sing-
ers felt they are asked, at times, to sing at

Illustration 1 The Four Choral Formations

Sectional-Close TTTTBBBB
SSSSAAAA

Sectional-Spread T T T T B B B B
S S S S A A A A
Mixed-Close STABSTAB
ABSTABST
Mixed-Spread S T A B S T A B
A B S T A B S T

Choral Journal • March 2010 29

 THE EFFECTS OF
CHORAL FORMATION
ON THE SINGING VOICE

Table 2 Answers to the Questionnaire Given to the Four Selected Singers

How do you classify your voice? How many years of private voice instruction?

Soprano – An average size voice 8

Alto – An average size voice 3
Tenor – A big voice 3½
Bass – A big voice 6

Do you place or focus your tone while singing in the choir in the same way you do while singing a solo?

Soprano – (often) “It really depends on the type of music I am singing”

Alto – (seldom) “We are encouraged to sing with a straighter, smaller tone and volume in choral singing.”
Tenor – (always) “In choral singing I’m always trying to blend and hold back because I stick out easily.
In solo singing I just let my voice go.”
Bass – (seldom) “I focus on straight tone and working with less vibrato in choral singing.”

Do you use the same dynamic levels of forte or mezzo forte in the choral ensemble that you use in solo singing?

Soprano – (often)
Alto – (never)
Tenor – (seldom)
Bass – (seldom)

Are you asked to sing at dynamic levels that are too soft to be sung in an efficient manner while in a choral ensemble?

Soprano – (often)
Alto – (often) “I feel that sometimes to achieve a smaller, more blended choral sound, I have to use much
less of my voice than would be acceptable in solo singing.”
Tenor – (seldom)
Bass – (often) “At times I have a hard time sustaining soft dynamics above a certain high range in my voice.”

Private voice study improves my ability to perform in the choir.

Soprano – (strongly agree)

Alto – (strongly agree) “Private study helps me learn to use my voice - differentiation between solo and
choral techniques is important to healthy singing.
Tenor – (agree)
Bass – (agree)

If there is a voice that does not seem to blend with the ensemble? How often do you think the voice to be of
someone who has had formal voice lessons?

Soprano – (no answer)

Alto- (often) “A person with formal training may sometimes be unwilling to relinquish vocal color and
beauty for the good of a more blended choral sound.”
Tenor – (often)
Bass – (often) “A lot of people who’ve had private voice lessons are too stubborn to tone down their
voices and blend.”

30 Choral Journal • March 2010

If a balance or blend problem is caused by a trained singer, it is usually because

Soprano – the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style
the singer is not aware that he/she has a problem
Alto – the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style
Tenor – the singer is uncertain about how to sing in choir
Bass - the singer will not change his/her individual vocal style

I am able to participate in choir with little or no affect on my individual vocal technique.

Soprano - (agree)
Alto - (strongly disagree)
Tenor - (don’t know)
Bass - (agree)

Does singing with a straight tone cause vocal problems for you?

Soprano - (seldom) “I don’t have a heavy vibrato, so it doesn’t really bother me.”
Alto - (often) “I find that because I sing in straight tone so much in choir, this sneaks into my solo singing.”
Tenor - (seldom) “Sometimes it’s difficult to switch between solo singing and choral singing.”
Bass - (seldom) “At times it can wear my voice out a little quicker.”

There is a way to sing a “straight tone” that will not cause vocal problems.

Soprano - (strongly agree)

Alto - (don’t know)
Tenor - (agree) “I don’t exactly know what it is.”
Bass - (agree) “with the correct air flow it doesn’t cause problems”

What do you think is the best method that can be used to achieve choral blend?

Soprano - “listening to the people around you and making sure you don’t stick out. Also vowel modification.”
Alto - “placing singers so that they can hear all parts and thereby encourage a beautiful sound”
Tenor - “mezzo piano straight tone”
Bass - “singers who are willing to adjust their voices and listen to each other.”

Briefly comment about how you think singing in choir affects your voice and/or your overall musicianship.

Soprano - “I believe singing in choir has helped me to greatly improve in sight-reading. Choir also makes
me more aware of rhythmic accuracy. Although at times my voice becomes tired from over-singing,
singing in choir has strengthened my voice because I have grown accustomed to using it more often.”

Alto - “Singing in choir benefits my musicianship because I am introduced to new styles and technical
challenges, but it hurts my voice in that holding it straight for an extended period of time seems to
have a tiring effect on my voice.”

Tenor - “Sometimes I think it makes my voice slightly weaker.”

Bass - “I think it makes me a better singer because I am able to work and blend with others to achieve
great music.”

Choral Journal • March 2010 31


dynamic levels that are too soft to be sung
in an efficient manner in a choral ensemble.
Additionally, they all concurred that private
voice study improves their ability to sing in
the choir, and that if there is a voice that does
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June 13–15, 2010 • Lexington, Kentucky
Guest Clinician, Dr. Ann Howard Jones
Director of Choral Activities
Boston University
Host Clinician, Dr. Jefferson Johnson
Director of Choral Activities
University of Kentucky
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email jeff.johnson@uky.edu
32
THE EFFECTS OF
CHORAL FORMATION
ON THE SINGING VOICE
not seem to “blend with the ensemble, it is
often thought to be the voice of someone
who has had formal voice lessons, because
these singers can sometimes be ‘unwilling
to relinquish vocal color and beauty for the
good of a more blended choral sound.’ ”
All the singers except the alto thought
that singing with a “straight tone” did not
cause problems for them, and that there
is a way to sing a “straight tone” that will
not cause vocal problems. All four selected
singers said singing in the choir has had a
positive effect on their musicianship and
sight-reading skills.
Summary
From the singers’ comments, it appears
that they have experienced differences in the
techniques used while singing in the choir
and those used when singing in the private
voice studio. The comments also suggest
that some singers, for whatever reason, are
sometimes unwilling to modify their singing
style in order to blend with the choral en-
semble. Perhaps acknowledging that choral
singing and solo singing are two different
modes of vocal performance and giving
students “permission” to explore different
singing techniques would help eliminate
some of the problems these students have
experienced with respect to blend.
The members of this ensemble were
accustomed to singing in many different
formations. Therefore, it was easy for them
to consciously think about how they sang in
each of the four formations. This familiarity
would not be as easy for a group that never
changed choral formations. Therefore, the
results of this study cannot be generalized to
choirs who only sing in sectional formation.
NOTES
1
Thomas D.Rossing, Johan Sundberg, and Sten
Ternström̈ , “Acoustic Comparison of Voice
Use in Solo and Choir Singing” The Journal
of the Acoustical Society of America 79 (1986):
1975-1981
2
Rossing, et al, 1975– 81.
3
Royal Stanton, The Dynamic Choral Conductor
(Delaware Water Gap, PA: Shawnee Press,
Inc., 1971).
4
Rossing, et al., 1975– 81.
5
Darryl Edwards, “Music Makers: Closing the Gr-
eat Divide Between Choral Conductors and
Voice Teachers,” Canadian Music Educator 46
(2005): 36–37.
Choral Journal • March 2010
6
Sharon Hansen, Axel Theimer, Leon Thurman,
“The Cart, the Horse, and a Ride In the
Choral Countr yside,” Choral Journal 41
(2001): 45–55.
7 16
Dale Moore, “A Plea for Dialogue,” NATS Journal
46 (1990): 53–56.
8
Sten Ternström, “Preferred Self-to-Other Ratios
in Choir Singing, Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America, 105 (1999) : 3563–74.
9
Frauke Haaseman, “Thoughts on Choral Music
in America: Report of a Sabbatical Trip to
Six American Institutions,” Choral Journal 27
(1986): 23–27.
10
Robert L. Garretson, Conducting Choral Music
(Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentiss-Hall, Inc.,
1998).
11
John R. Weiss, “Operatically Trained Singers
in the Collegiate Choral Rehearsal,” Choral
Journal 43 (2002): 27–33.
12
Edwards, 36 –37.
13
Gary L. Anderson, “The Swedish Sound,” Choral
Journal 41, (2001): 35–39.
14
Richard Sataloff, Barbara Smith, Choral Pedagogy
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Choral Journal • March 2010
(San Diego, CA: Singular Publishing Group, Singing,” (Doctoral diss., University of
2000). Missouri—Kansas City, 1990).
15 25
Sandra Willetts, Beyond the Downbeat (Nashville, R. Paul Crabb, “Choral Audition Procedures of
TN: Abbingdon Press, 2000). Six Well-Known Conductors: Webb, Noble,
Eckholm, 123–35 Bruffy, Carrington, Ehly, and Warland,” Choral
17
Gerald Langner, “The Placement of Singers in a Journal 42 (2002): 35– 51, 54– 58.
Mixed Choir,” Canadian Music Educator 43 26
Eckholm, p. 124
(2002): 26–29. 27
Neil Woodruff, “The Acoustic Interaction of
18
Gordon Lamb, Choral Techniques (Dubuque, IA: Voices in Ensemble: An Inquiry Into The
Sm. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1974). Phenomenon of Voice Matching and the
19 Arthur R. Lambson, “An Evaluation of Various Perception of Unaltered Vocal Process,”
Seating Plans Used in Choral Singing,” Journal (Doctoral diss., The University of Oklahoma,
of Research in Music Education 9 (1961): 2002).
47– 54. 28
James Daugher ty, “Spacing, Formation, and
20
Daugherty, 69– 75. Choral Sound: Preference and Perceptions of
21
Lewis Gordon, Choral Director’s Rehearsal and Auditors and Choristers,” Journal of Research
Performance Guide (West Hyack, NY: Parker in Music Education 47 (1999): 224 –38.
Publishing Co., 1989).
22
Sten Ternström, “Preferred Self-to-Other Ratios
in Choir Singing,” Journal of the Acoustical
Society of America 105 (1999): 3563–74.
23
Daugherty, 69–75.
24
Steve Tonkinson, “The Lombard Effect in Choral
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