Your teacher might try to trick you with a question like this: Which is heavies, a tonne of lead or a tonne of feathers? Everyone knows that Iead is heavier than feathers, but thatis not the right answer: The answer is thata tinne of feathers igjust at heavy as a tonne of lead. “The reason is that a tonne of anything weighs the same—it thas a mass of one tonne, or 1000 kilograms. 4 The mass of an object tells us how much matter i jn made of What is the unit of mass? Which has more mass, Lig of water or kg of Taking up space “The reasem we can easily be tricked by the question about lead snl feathers is that we know that feathers are Tighter’ than lead. But what does this mean? Ifyou look the pictare above, you will see that one tonne of Ieathers occupies much more space than one tonne af Iead. One tonne of lead has the same mass as one tonne of feathers, but it is squashed into a much smaller volume. IF you took two identical boxes and fled one with lead and one ‘with feathers, the box fall of lead would be much heavier than the box of feathers. There would be much more mass squashed into the volume of the box. Comparing materials In science, we don’t say that lead is heavier than feathers, We say that lead hasa greater density than feathers, ‘The density of « material tells us the mass of | eubie centimetre (Lem?) of the material. ‘Thisis lke a far test, way of comparing ‘hwo materia, For each material we find the mass of 1 em’ Aeavier” material is more dense than a lighter’ material, Tehas 4 greater density; In the pictur, each cube has a volume of tem’, but the cubes have lfleremt masses. We state the density of a material ike this: Density of water = 1.0 g/cm" ‘This tells us that Tem! of water has a mass of 1.0g,The unit of density is g/cm! (grams per centimetre cubed). Density ean also be given in kg/m’ kilograms per metre cubed @) sroesinacion 4 tonne of feathers will balance 1 tonne of lead. Feathers are ighterthen lead. ogg 108 238 in lee water brick 27g 9.38 aluminium — golé ‘The mass of cm ofa material tells usits density.Look ithe pire of diferen materia onthe previous page a. What s the density of gold? b> Which isdeases, water or ice? Explaining density At hus very low densi, about 0.00182/em*. You can understand this by thiking about the pastile mode of matter ‘Airis a gas. Itspartices are spread out far apart from each other. There is lot of empty space in besveen them. So air occupies a lot of space but its partces, which have mass, occupy only a tiny fraction of that space. ead i x solid ts particles are packed closely together, and each particle has more mass than a particle of the air This is why lead isso dense, TR particle model tells us why ead has. greaterdensity than alt. Sometimes you ean tll if one materials denser than another simply by holding, “samples of the two: sin your hands. ‘Your teacher will give you some samples of llferent materials. Your task isto ‘put them in order we send ie eteIF you want to know the density of a material, here is ‘what you do. You take a sample of the material and ‘measure two things: + its mavs in grams (3) + its volume in centimetres cubed (erm. ‘Then you calculate its density tke this: demi volume ‘Example: The diagram shows a bloek of east ion. Is volume is 30 cm? and its massis 210g, @ mas 210 — dersity SOE = 70g/em! volume 30em" "The picture shows that we can think of the block as being made up of 30 small cubes, each of velume Tem’ and mas 70g, ‘The bigiron block measures scm x3cm x2 I.5cm, Is massis 93.6, @ Calculate the density of ste 1b Steel is made almost entirely of iron atoms, but itis denser than iron. Suggest a reason for this. Calculating mass ‘We can rearrange the equation for density lke this: mass = density x volume M=DxT Example: fish tank measures 8(em x20emi x 25m. tis to be fled with ASH tank. * water, density 1.0@/en, Calculate the mass of water in the tank when its fll ‘Step 1: Calculate the volume of the tank volume = length width x height = 80 x 20 x 25 =40000em! Step 2: Caleulate the mass of the water mass = density x volume = 40000 x 1.0 = 40000¢ 2 half litre hostle has a mass of 80g, I eontains 500)em? Of liquid when full, The bottle is filed with olive oi of density = 0.60g/em’, 2 Calealate the mass of oil in the bate 1b Calculate the mass of the full bottle. J Calculating volume ‘We can rearrange the equation for clensiy to make volume its subject, like this: volume = . Ed A bottle of oll ® Ce9.3 Density calculations @® Example: A builder needs 20000kg of sand vo make mortar The sand is sole in Lm bags, How many bags will he need? (The density of sand is 2500kg/m',) ‘We need to find the volume ofthe sand 10000 2500 (Notie that, because the mas isn units of and the density iim kg/m, the volume i in my Since each baghas a volume of 1m! hewill need 8 bags. volume = mas density bm 3, Nccoin has amass of 7.0g, It is made Of a metal alley of density 5.6g/em?. Caleulate the volume Mixing sand, cement and water to of the coin. : ‘make mortar. (aT Cote ensity of a gas Airis a gtx, Gasesare mach les dere than solids or liquids, Observe as your teacher measures the density of ar ‘The rigid plastic bottle once held water: We say that i empty, but really is fall oF ai The container is weigher. This incluees the mass of the air inside it ‘Then the ai is pumped out and the tap closed, Now the balance shows the mass of the container with no air Discuss the following: + How can you calculate the mass of air in the container? : : The plastic containers weighed ey ee ca ee pee een evinces when itis full fair, and when . oo Te ae the airhas been pumped out. eae SerieAccarpenter uses nails to join two pieces of wood sharp) blunt together, The hammer hits the nail on its lat head. The nail’s sharp point pushes into the wood. farce of the small larger area area Why does a nail have a sharp point? Th hammer is concentrated on a small area «that the nail ‘will be able to penetrate the wood. Af a nail is blunt, the foree of the hammer is spread over bigger area and the nail will nt go into the wood. The idea of pressure Ifa fore is concentrated on a small area, we say that the force is creating a high pressure. If the force is spread. over a bigger area, the pressure will be less. If itis sharp, a nail can be hammered further with the same force, If you lie on « bed, the force of your weight is spread ‘over large area. You will make a shallow dip in the However if you stand on the bed, your weight will be concentrated on-a much smaller area. You will make a ‘much deeper dip in the bed. Standing makes a deeper dip ina bed. 4 Who wil create a greater pressure, a heavy person standing on a bed ora lighter person lying on the bed? Explain your ansives High pressure, low pressure Sometimes we want high pressure, sometiines we want tow pressure, Here are some examples, Sharks have sharp teeth so that, when they bite the force of thei jaws will ereate enough pressure (o crush, their prey ‘A esi is beter at cutting when is blade issharp."Then A shark. the force pushing on it wil be concentrated on a small area to create a high pressure Camels have wide feet so that their weight is spread over a large area. Then the pressure will be low and they will not sink into the sand. A snowsbourd is wide and does not sink into the stow, The Inuit people wear wide snowshoes for the {An Inuit holding his snowshoes. ®) 9Feikesin2eton ~9.4 pressure ( 2 Explain the follwing. in your answers, use the word ‘presure’ Taree" and ‘area’ 2A truck used inthe elosert bas wide tyres b> Accricket stump has a sharp point at one end € A drawing pin has a sharp point at one end ancl large, fait head at the othe a erry ere a game ofcreke, the players mast | oe ee the ground. The ‘picture shows four different situations — ee and the force may be lange or staal, ‘small ‘Use wha you Briony about prewure to force decide which sturap will goin furthest, cand which catgut the Teast, ‘Be prepared to explain your ideas tothe ‘rest of the class. small force cricket stump a soesnsaer (G)Pressure isthe quantity that tells us how concentrated a force is when it presses on an area, Here isthe equation which is used to calculate pressure, “written in words and in symbols Force pressure a where P= pressure, F= force, A= area. aN 2N 2N Example: ‘The diagram shews force of BN pressing on aan area of 4m’. fore _ 8N7 ana tn So the pressure is 2N/m", As the diagram shows, a foree =, (of 2N is acting on each square metre of the surface. = 2N/m* pressure 2 Alice of ON auis on an area of 2m’. What force ‘acts on each square mette? What is the pressure on the surface? Units of pressure ‘The unit of preaure i thé pascal (Ps). 1 Pai the same as N/m’, We can waite the anwver to the exanyple one pressre= 2 In the next example, the area is given in square millimetres (mm), so the pressure js in newtons per ‘square millimetre (N/mm*). Besraple: A hammer his» nil vith a farce of 200N% “The paint ofthe mail hasan aren of 0.5 min! touching » piece of wood. Calculate the presnue on the wood. fee pressure = = 400N/mm?* Hammering a nail 2 Arectangular block weighs 240N. The area ‘of the block in contact withthe floor is 20¢m* Calculate the pressure on the floor. (Give your answer in Nem)To inflate (blow up) a toy balloon, you mast push air into it. When the balloon has been blown up, the pressure of the airinside presses outwards, tells us that air and other gases can cause pres his Liquids can also cause pressure, The photograph shows a fireman using a high pressire hese to put outa fire Diving deep Divers et be cari i hy want dive toa etre “The weight of water above press down on them “The greater the depth they go, the mare water there isabove them pressing down apd othe pressure i greater: oo @: The photograph shows an experiment on. Bs n the sea, A fireman atworkin Mumbal, india, 109000 200000 300000 400000 water pressure. Water squins out faster from thehole atthe botom of te bord than atthe | 40 top. Use the idea of pressure to explain why presire/Pa 500000 so ‘500000 | Pressure increases with depth in water because the weight of water pressing on the diver Increases with depth, The pressure of the atmosphere If you climb a high mountain, the air gets thinner les dense) as you go higher: ts density decreases. Because the air is less dense atthe top of a mountain, its pressure ig less. We call the pressure of the air atmospheric pressure. Holes in the bottle allow water to escape. Atmospheric pressue is greatest at sea level. This is because, at sea level, we ‘weight of the whole atmosphere above us, pressing down, It is as though we bottom of an ‘oceati of air lculate the force of is 20m 2 Atmospheric pressure is about 100 000Pa, C the aimosphere an a person whone suri6 Pressure in gases and liquids @ | : Particles and pressure We can understand the presture of liquids ancl gases another win: using the particle model which you learnt about in Unit5 of Stage 7. “The diagram shows the particles of a gasin a box, ‘The patticles move around rapidly, bouncing off the ‘walls of the box. Each collision of a particle with the wall eauses:a tiny force on the box. There are vast numbers of particles inside the box, and they are moning around very rapidly, This means that there are many, many collisions each second and all these tiny forces‘ add up, to cause the pressure om the walls of the box. How the particles of a gas cause pressure. ‘The pasticles of « liquid cause pressure in the same vay: However the particles are much closer together | than in a gas;e0 they collide withthe walls of their container more often, ereating greater pressure garer Beer “The pictures show particles of a gas ina bon. These pictures wil help ‘you to answer two questions: ‘+ What happens tothe pressure of | A) A asi se gant sae no < t jot | ; aa pe ee + What happens tote presse ofa gasif ls squashed ino 2 fate sole? Be prepared to explain your ileasto / the rest of the class. Patera eer eerie ae aan rt ~ The particles of @ gas or liquid colli Preece reneeet rennet‘The photograph shows how to Use a spanner to wun a nut. The mechanic pushes on the long arm of the spanner. “The force of the mechanic on thie spanner causes it to turn, We say that the force has a turning ‘effect. To tighten the mut, the ‘mechanic must tura it clockwise, Turing anut using a spanner, Opening a door ql takes 190 forees, cach with a turning effec, 10 epen door Fist, you press down on the door handle. Then the handle turns and you ean pull the door open, "The downward force of your hand on the handle makes the handle turn. The handle doesn't mave straight down, This s because the handles fixed to the doot: ‘The point ‘where it is fixed is called the pivot, mila; the cor has hinges: When you pall on the handle, the door tarns about the Ikinges. The hinges are the pivot about which the door turns ‘Opening 2 door- the forces causetthe handle end the doorto turn on their pivots. 11 Look atthe photograph of the spanner atthe top of the page. Draw a diagram of the spanner and nut, viewed fram above, Mark the pivot, and add aan arrow to show the mechanic’s pushing force.9.7 The turning effect of a force @® | Weighing with scales ‘The photograph shows a type of balance ‘which has a pivot at the middle. A beam is balanced at the pivot. ‘The balance is being used to weigh apples. Tepe oe eter gutie eight eee eee ect ORS. doples Gales BPR Che coed ee tum scales clockwise ‘You can see that the weights are slightly te tan Ue ape ‘The weights cause the balance to tip Which are heavier, the apples or the weights? downwards on the lef, so that the bear ‘ums anticlockwise, | The apples cause the balance wo tip downwards on the right. This would make the beam ten clockwise, but the turning cflect of the weights is greater, 2a How can you tll fom the photograph that the weights are heavier than the apples? Draw a diagram to show the forces on the balance. “GQ rer ale ‘You can make your own simple seales using a piece | ‘of wood balanced ona pivot made fiom a wooden vod, Part 1: Your teacher will gi you a number of items. Use your scales to compare the elferent items tnd put them in order, from lightest heaviest. Part 2: Your teacher wil give you a single 1 than IN, and which are lighter. | Part 3: Can you think of way wo use your scales © find the weight of each ier? ener) srocanacesIf you have ever played on a stesayy, you will have learnt about balancing the turning eflcets of forces. A seesaw is along beam balanced on a pivot The pivot is half way along the bear. Tn the photograph, you can ell thar the git (on the right) fs heavier than the boy because her end. of the beam is lower, Her weight has greater turning effect than the boy's weight. ‘The diagram represents the seesaw. It shows the aban 7 ‘ These children have a seesaw in their school Ba a aes ara ert coal 1 Lock atthe photograph of the children on the seesaw. Does the girl’ weight 1rn the beam clockwise cr anticlockwise? ‘This diagram shows the forces acting on the seesaw, Balancing up How can the children balance the seesaw? The girl ean do this by moving towards the pivot. Then ber weight will have less turning effect, because ic wil be closer tothe pivot. suggest two ways in which the boy could balance the beam. Qi: Moment of a force ‘The turning effect of a force depends on io things + ‘The greater the force, the greater its turning effec. + The further the force is from the pivot, the greater its turning effect. Weecan calculate the moment of a foree like thi: ‘moment = force * distance from pivot ‘The bigger the moment of a force, the greater its turning effect. G) vro«esnaion‘The principle af moments tells us that, when a beam is ‘balanced, the clockwise: moment acting on it isequal to the anticlockwise moment, clockivise moment = anticlockwise moment ‘The diagram shows the forces acting on a beam, and their distances ftom the pivot. The beam is balanced because the moments ofthe two forces are equal. son ‘Abalancec beam 42a Inthe diagram, which force has a clockwise moment (turning effect 1b Galeulate the moment of this force, © Galeulste the moment of the other force. Is the beam balanced? Explain how you can teil. Calculating a distance IF we know thata beam ic balanced, we can ‘alealate the distance of a force from the pivot Example: In the diagram, the beam is balanced. We do not know the distance »from the pivot to the 15.N ores, but we can work it out ike this: lockwise moment = anticlockwise moment 25N x Lem = 15N x x 30D = 15% 300. x= — = 20m 5 So the force must act at 20¢m froma the pivot. 2 Aceesaw is 101m loag with « pivot at is midpoint. A boy who weighs 400N sts ata digance of 1.5m from the pivot, His sister weighs SOON, '& Dey a diagram to show the beam, the pivot and the forces and theit distances from the pivot. b Caleutate the distance at which the git must sit f the beam isto be balanceal ©) seesinacin9.9 Calculating moments @® Calculating a force | 935m) 02m Similarly we ean calculate the force needed 1 balance a beam. to F ‘Example: In the diagram above, the beam is balanced. We do not know the foree F Which iseeded to keep it balanced, but we ean work it out lke this: clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment JON % 0.35m = Fx 0.20m 35 = 0208 : Soa foree of 17.5Nis needed to balance the beam. 3, Calculate the force Fshown in the diagram, aed‘Science begins with obs in this unit about electrcit static electricity. tions, and then we try to explain them. So, ‘we will start with some observations of Perhaps you have noticed the enuclling of tiny sparks when you pull off aashiet or jumper ax you go to bed. (This works best with clothes made from synthetie materials sich as nylon, and when the air is dry) The sparks are caused by static electsiciy Lightning is another example of static electricity, an a much larger scale During a thunderstorm a giant spark of electricity leaps beween the cloud and the ground, ae J nash eFgnoing 1 What do we hear after a fash of i ee natural electricity. ion ]D Here aie some simple experiments you ean try to find out about static electricity, For each experiment, record what you do andl what you observe. 44 Inflate balloon ard te the end, Rub the balloon on a woollen or cotton cloth, Hol the balloon elose to your hair: Can you feel fan feet? 2 Place some tiny pieoes of paper; thread, plastic and aluminium foil on the bench, Rub your balloon again and bring i clase to the different materials in turn, What happens? 3> Rub your balloon and touch iton the wall, Wilt tick? ‘a ‘Tarn on the tp so tata thin stream of water lows inc the sink, ab a paste on on a cloth and bring itelese to the stream of water, Describe what you observe Describing static electricity When yon rub a balloon on a cloth, we say that the balloon has become charged with, static electricity. The balloon has an electric charge, Before it has been rubbed, we say that the balloon is uncharged, In the activity you observed tha such as hair, thread, paper and plastic are especially easy to attract, Metals ace bess casily attracted harged object cau attract other objects. Materials lectrical attraction is an example of a forve. In the next activity you will see that charged objects can also repel cach other:10.1 Static electicity (/ ® | plastic, sal charged by rubbing it. Ieisbroughteloseto one end of the + Two charged plastic rods ~ what ‘hanging 104. happens when the end af one ods “Tw. ie Wiavabyen asian brought close to the end ofthe omer? Anvestigate what happets if you use ‘wo rods mae of different rypes of plastic. Attraction and repulsion “The experiments in this topic show that objets with an electrfe charge can attract or repel other object, This is rather tke what you lame about magnets in Unie 13 of Staye 8. However itis important o ease that the elec free eauned by a charged ‘objects ot the same ao the tuagnctc fore between magnets Inthe next topic, we will ook at how scientists have learnt to explain static electricity 2 Whatare the rules of atraction and repulsion for magnetic poles? 3 How could you test whether a plastic rod that has bren given an electric charge would attract or repel a magnet? Describe your method and include a clingram. What result would you expect to observe?When people frst bexan to study electricity sctentiially, ‘over 300 years ago, they bad very litle understanding ‘of what was going on. They discovered different ways ‘of charging things, and they suggested diferent uses for electricity ‘The picture shows a German physicist, Otto van Guericke; working $50 years ago. When he turned the yellow ball of sulfur and rubbed itwith a pad, Ihe saw sparks. Explaining electric forces Ti took many years for scientists tp develop a good explanation of why charged objects sometimes attract tach other and sometimes repel each other / Here isthe theory they came up with, / “There are two types of electric charge, which we eal positive (+) and negative ~) + Posiive and negative changes atract one another + Positive charges repel one another, + Negative changes repel one another You ci remember thn by emnembering that “opposites \ sttract (Tis ete same as Toe magnetic pales ~ a north ole and south pole arnt one another) +8 oe The green arows show the forces ‘The diagram shows what happens when two chi eit ee ee between the electric charges. balls are hung close together 4. Look atthe picture of the charged balls. What symbols are used to represent positive and negative charge? Draw a similar diagram to show what happens ‘when two negatively charged balls are hung next toceach otter, Finding the sign of an electric charge You can wse a cgi meter called a eovlombmeter to fd our whether a charged object has pesiive or negative charge ‘The photograph shows a polythene rod which has been. charged by rubbing. The reading on the meter has a inus sign, showing that the rod has a negative charge. Finding the sign of an electric cherge usinga coulombmeter,10.2 Positive and negative charge @® Charging by friction In an experiment to investizate static electricity, you might stat with a polythene polythene rod and a woollen cloth. Neither has an electric charge. We say that they are neutral ‘When the rod is rubbed using the cloth, the ns a negative electric charge. It the force of fiction that gives charge to the rod. woal Acthe same time, the cloth gains positive electric charge If you use a rod made of achylic instead of polythene, you will find that the rd has x positive electric charge. auc ‘The charges that appear when two differeat materials are rubbed together depend which materials are used. One material gains a cotton positive charge, the other a negative charge. 3, What force causes an object to become charged when it is rubbed? 4 What charge will the cloth have when it has been wed to rub an acrylic rod? ae ges attract, like charges repel Puen er eeIris easier to understand how something becomes electrically charged if wwe can picture x electron =nerative the particles of which itis made, ‘Alamance we made cf som it you we EQ lens ~posive @ studied Unit 4, you will know that every atom ‘as «tiny nucleus a its contre, Electrons orbit ‘around the nucleus. “The nucleus hasa postive electric charge. ‘Atoms are made up of hated particles. This shows the “The electrons have negative electric change. _positiveand negetive particles in an atom of fithium. ‘1 An atom is usualy described ds ‘neutral’. What dees this tel you about the ‘amounts of positive and negative charge in an atom? QD | 2 Thenuelens of an atom attracts the elecions which orbit around it: This = ‘shat stops an atom from falling apart. Explain why the nucleus and electrons axtract each other, Explaining static electricity ‘When an acrylic rod is rubbed with a cloth, it becomes positively charged, What going on? ‘The cloth rubs against the atoms which make up the surface of the rod. The force of friction rubs electrons from these atoms onto the doth. Pecause the clot has gained nogatively charged electrons, it ow has a negative charge. “The rod is no longer neutral, It has lost electrons, soit has positive charge. Why do electrons mave from the rod to the cloth? ‘The reason is that the electrons are on the outside of the atoms, so they are Rubbing transfers electrons ‘easily transfered from ene material to the other, from the rodto the cloth, Some materials hold on to their elecivons more strongly thay others, Acrylic Holds its clecrons weakly 9 it easily loses them ‘and becomes posively charged. Polythene hold its electrons ‘more stonghy10.3 Electrons on the move @® Explaining why neutral objects are attracted by charged objects Af you rub a balloon on a cloth, it will become charged. If you hold the charged balloon near-a serap of paper it will attract the paper: ‘The paper snot charged, So why isi sttrcted? ‘The teason is that the paper contains electrons. (Everything that is made of atoms contains electrons) Ifthe balloon has a positive charg, it attracts the electrons inthe paper and so the paper feels a force towatds the balloon, ‘Understanding how electrons behave is the key to understanding electricity: J.J Thomson discovered electrons in 1897, so itis not surprising that scientists did not really understand what was going on before then, 4 If youpux two electrons next to cach other, would they attract or repel each other? Explain your answer hen e ErasMost housesand other buildings have electricity “There are wires hidlen in the walls and under the floors which carry electricity to where itis needed, “These wires are made of a metal, copper that fs the par that eatvies the electricity. The metal i covered with plastic this makes sure you do not get a shock if you touch the wire. “Meus are described ay conductors because they allow dectsicity w pas through them. Plastic and ‘ther nommetals are described as insulators ~ they Satu CLEOL ey a pC ae Wires like these are used to carry electicity around a building. ED Vowean ine thecireuit shown to test whether materials are conductors or insalators. ‘Use the clips to connect onto the ends of a piece of metal, plastic or other material, IF the lamp bulb his up, the materials conductor. better Wi ‘Ad Inthe photograph, 2 piece of aluminium foils conductor? Explain howe you can tell i) ecMost housesand other buildings have electricity “There are wires hidlen in the walls and under the floors which carry electricity to where itis needed, “These wires are made of a metal, copper that fs the par that eatvies the electricity. The metal i covered with plastic this makes sure you do not get a shock if you touch the wire. “Meus are described ay conductors because they allow dectsicity w pas through them. Plastic and ‘ther nommetals are described as insulators ~ they Satu CLEOL ey a pC ae Wires like these are used to carry electicity around a building. ED Vowean ine thecireuit shown to test whether materials are conductors or insalators. ‘Use the clips to connect onto the ends of a piece of metal, plastic or other material, IF the lamp bulb his up, the materials conductor. better Wi ‘Ad Inthe photograph, 2 piece of aluminium foils conductor? Explain howe you can tell i) ec10.4 Conductors and insulators (> Electric current lectriity makes a lamp tight up, “Electricity” is vague wont. Iti better to talk about electric current. We say: “The lamp lights up because there s an electric current in the cient, ‘Two things are needed for there to be an electric currents + acomplete circuit of metal around which the current can flow + a cell (a battery) to make the current flow: A swite breaks a circuit io stop the current flewving The picture shows three components connected up to make a circuit, 4 Study the picture of the circuit. The electric current flows from the positive (+) end of the cell. Which ‘component does it reach first, the switch or the lamp? Circuit symbols Scientists and engineers draw eireuit diagrams to show how switch éifferent components are connected together in a electric circuit, ‘They use a eireuit symbol for each type of component. Because ‘everyone uses the same symbol, they can understand each other's diagrams. Computers can understand the diaurams, (00. "The diagram shows the same citeuit as in the picwire nbowe + Each symbol is labelled with the name of the component itrepresents, + The wires joining the components are shown as lines, lamp 2. Suudy the cireuit diagram. Draw the circuit symbols for a cell, a switch and a lamp, 3, Which part of the symbol for a cell represents the positive end, the long line or the short line? sway y‘Alamp can show us when there is an electric current in acircuit + Ifthe lamp lights up, there it 4 current. + Abbrighter lamp shows a bigger eurrent The photograph shows very simple circuit. A lamp i connected 19 cell. You can we that the lamp is shining, showing that an electric current is flowing through it. ARatetateclirentraUEL te weuptlgnt Uc a Lela! ED Vou cause a cetlrotighe up wo famps The cicuit dixgram shows how to do this, 2 Seciiman Ga acetate amps! nh be equally bright, or will one “brighter than the other? 2 “Try 10 give an explanation for your prediction. Diseuss ‘your ideas with a partner, and then present them to the ‘rest of the dass, 2 See eee ee change your ie? 3 Fiege at jou wil haere yourtenbe re wih ‘three lamps, all in a roy, Test your prediction. ‘When you have learnt more about clectrie currents, you will have a better understanding of this experiment. Measuring electric current We eanmenie the caren in =a) ee An ammeter circuitsymbol. ‘The unit of electric current is the amp (ymbol A) “To connect an ammeter in a cireuit, it is necessary to make a breakin the circuit, Then the current can flew through the ammeter. Adding anammetertoa circuit. @ sereED Now you can find out more about the current in a chew 4 Set up a cirenit with a cell and wo lamps, as before. You should find thatthe two lamps ‘are equally bright: 2. Connect an ammeter as shosin at position 1 in the circuit: Note the value of the eurrent. 3, Repeat wth he arumeter pon 2 and then at position 3, Lie rene position 2 ou found when you used! lamps instead of snammerer positions position 3 Current in a series circuit In the experiments in tis topic, you should have found that the current isthe same all the way round each circuit i We picture the current coming from the positive end of the cell It lows sound the circuit, through the ammeter, one lamp lee ge ore @ Tees Pears ck aie ceteens uae et W Soealg aed parrot QB A circuit lke this, where the components are connected encd- torend, iscalled a series circuit, The current flows throuzh the components one alter another. The current isthe same all the way round a series circuit. ‘The current, shown by the blue ariows, 's the same all the way round & series circuit Uke this, 4 Does the electric current get used up as it goes round an electric circuit 2 Inaseries circuit, an ammeter shows that the current leaving the positive enel of acell is0.5,A. What current flows into the negative end of the cell? wen ©Here-are some things you have learnt about electric current, + Ancleciric eurrent can flow through a metal but not through plastic = Accel can male a current flow round a cireuit = The current i the same all round a series cenit. + An eleceric current can light up a lamp, We caan understand this if we think about electrons, the tiny particles which helped to explain static electricity (topic 10.9). 4 Test what you remember about electrons. @ Which is bigeer, an atom or an electron? 1b What charge do electrons have, positive or negative? © What charge would attract an electron, postive or negative? @ 210m Why metals conduct electricity electron Merals ae useful materials because they ‘contain laty of electrons which can move about inside the metal. These electrons are not ae tightly attached to their atoms. That is what electron makes metals elfevent from other materials, ‘Accel can make'a current flow in a metal wire If you could look into the ire, you would see the electrons moving along. Elections have an electric charge, so charge is moving through the metal. This is what we call an electric current. metal wire Elections moving in a metal conducting electiciy. How a cell makes a current flow Think about a cll. One end i pesitive (marked +), the other neganive electrons (imasked ~The positive end attracts electrons (because electrons have ae inp Atesistor is usedto make the Avatlable resistor allows youto A buzrermakes a soundwhen ‘current smaller in a crcutt. ‘control the amount of current in the current flows through it, a circuit. G) soe10.8 Changing circuits 2 (; ! a poe) one ED Your excker will iow you how a variable resistor can be sed to change the current in a circuit 4. Drawa circuit diagram 10 represent this iscuit 2. Write sentence to describe what you observe is the variable resitorisaltered. Movingthe slider alone 3 Write another sentence (o explain what changes the resistance variable resistor you observe, in the circuit. “Q Pere | See GD ii the cireuitshown, wo clips comect toa length of resistance wire a Construct the circuit and observe what ‘when you slide the clips along the wire go that they are closer together or farther apart. ‘Try toexplain what you observe. Resistance wire has more resistance wire ‘resistance than normal wire, Losing energy When two components are connected in series in a circuit, iis harder for the current to flove. There is more resistance, and so the current is smaller. 1c requites energy for the electrons to flow through any component which has resistance. ‘That's nota bad ching! We want the current to wander energy co a buzzer so that it will make a sound or a lamp so that ie will give out light, 2a Drawa circuit diagram t9 show a circuit with (wo cells and two resistors connected in series Include an ammeter to measure the current in the eicuit. b Add arrows to show how the electric current flows around the circuit, € Explain why the current in the circuit would be bigger if there was only one resistor in the eicuit,We have seen that, when two lamps are connected in le cal, they are dim. This is because the current in the circuit is small, Ics more difficult for the electrons to flow round the circuit than if there was only ene lamp. Two lamps have more tvsistance than one lamp. There is another way to connect two lamps to a eel. Place them side by sid, as shown in the photograph, ‘You can se that both lamps shine brightly, When components are connected side by side inthis wat, we say they are in parallel with each other Parallel diagrams ‘The circuit diagram shows how we represent the eieuit with two lamps connected in parallel If you look elosely you will see that each of the two. lamps has one encl connected directly to the postive tnd of the cell, and the other end connected directly to the negative end. Bach lamp feck the fall push of the celland so itfights ‘up brightly. ‘To remember the diference between series and patalle: in series’ means ‘connected end-to-end’ n parallel’ means ‘eenncete side by side’. These two lamps are connected in parallel, Circuit diagram to show twolamps connected in parallel,N Current in parallel circuits ‘The circuit diagram shows the same circuit as before, but drawn slighty differently to make ‘easier to understand how the current flows when to identical components are connected . in parallel ‘Phe current flows fom the postive end of the cell. When it reaches point A it divides, Half of the curreat flows threugh one lamp, and half + flows through the other. When the two currents reach point B, they jin together again. Then they low back io the eel. : x ‘This means that, when there ane wo identical lamps in parallel, there i twiee as mach current The blue arrows show how the as when there i only one lamp. Each lamp gets current flows in this parallel circuit. its own share of the current. ‘This shows that its easier for the current flow when nwo components are connected i parallel in a circuit. There is less resistance, and so the current is bigger. ‘Dray a circait diagram to show a cizcuit with one cell and two resistors connected in parallel. Include an ammeter to measure the current flowing, frorn the cell. Add arrows to show how the electric current flows round the eincuit Mark with an X the point where the current divides, If each resistor has a current of 0.5, flowing thenugh it, what current ‘would the ammeter show? onents connected side by side are dice i11.1 How we use energy Energy is important to us. Whatever we do, we need a supply of energy: } ‘Our bodies use the energy that we get from our food. This enables us to move around, (think, to stay warm and $0 0°. LS 4 You learnt about food and digestion in Stage Unit 2. What two types of nutrient are our main sources of energy 2. What isthe original source of the enengy we get from our food? Mores eee ep ererebs 1) js useful if we-can find other ways of using energy Tor example, many people work on farms: Farmers ‘ean aleo make use of animals to do some of the heny work, such as palling load. Machines can alo do work for us, Like people and animals, machines need a supply of energy, Some work using electricity. Others we fel, such as coal or ol Over many centuries, people have discovered bony t0 make use of many different sources of energy What we use energy for “The pie chart shows the three main types of energy we use Careare machines. Thoy usualy use diesel or petrol (gasoline) as their energy supply. In oar homes, schools, factories ind olfices, we use energy for heating and cooling, for cooking, for lighting . homesand and 0 on, anes We need enemy to travel around, so we use energy for transport. Industry uses energy’ for making things. Everyone uses things that are manufactured. transport industry 3 Lookat the pee chart. Which sector uses the momen? The three main sectors whete energyis —s used. These data are forthe whole wortEnergy and development te As countries become richer, people 2482 hhave more money to sper. They buy carsand use more fuel, They live in bigger houses, we more clean water 7 sand consurne more goods. é energy All of these things require more ‘consumption supplies of energy: The bar chact shows /fonnes of oi how much energy each person uses per equivalent per 4 yearin diffrent regions ofthe wosld. _petS0n peryear (These are average figures, Some People use more, some peaple ue less) 2 ° Dara yc EOS CRIME cK ghe™ dl eae pe pate ac average energy consumption ‘Annual energy consumption per person around the world. per person around the wold is 2.2 units. In which regions oF ‘coumaries do people use more than thi? homes and. offices transport industry etn‘An energy resource is anything from which we ean obtain nuclear energy. The pie chart shews the energy resources we use, and, the fraction of our total needs each type contributes. renewables ‘You can see that most of the energy we use comes from fossil fuels. These are coal, oil and natural gas. 2-& Which fos ful is uses the moxt as an sencigy resource? b_ Use the pic chart to estimate the fraction of our Coal The energy resources we use around the world. Chemical stores In Stage 7 Unit 10 you learnt about how energy changes from one form to another. Fos fuels are stores of chemical energy. ‘The energy is released when the fuel burnt For example, in.a car engine, petrol and airare mixed together. A spark ignites the mixture and it burns. ‘The ‘energy released makes the car move lorward. Foss fuels are uwefal because they are very concentrated * sores of energy: I takes only a minute or evo for a driver 0 ‘put 30 bites of pevol into the ears tank. Then itis ready to travel 100046 or more Rejveling ata with petrol at Filing station in Borneo. 3, Many people use oil to heat their hom | cagram to show this energy change. | Where the energy came from Tosi els ate found underground. Goal formed from dhe remains of plants that died milions of years ago. O3 and fas formed from the remains of sea creatures ‘Those living organisms gained their energy originally from sunlight. So, when we burn fossil fuels, we are making use of the cnergy of sunlight which fell on the Earth a very ‘4, Why isit wrong te say that fossil fuels are stores of Tight enerey? Insome parts of the wortd, oltand gas ate extracted from under the seabed.11.2 Fossil fuels ( © yy Generating electricity lees aa caentent way ot ecg nergy irons place to place, Most chetrichy i genieated i power tions which bam foe fools eapedaly coaland ie | coal fired power station in China: Annuclear power station is supplied with nuclear fuel. Le produces electricity eseaper as heat energy: “The diagram shows the inputs and outputs with red arrows. The blue energy ‘arrow shows the energy change which takes place within the power station, >” heat energy nuclear energy — electrical energy ‘Your takes to draw similar diagrams forthe situations described below, You ‘may need to revise the different forms that energy can take. Look at Stage 7 Unit 10 again, 4 Coal ie burned in a power station to generate eleciricity 2. When a car saris moving it uses petrol stored in its fuel tank, 2. A stove uses gas to heat water for cooking 4 An sirerafi hurns kerosene to fly fast and high, Geary their ene eat coreyAbout one-eighth of our energy comes fom renewable energy resources, [hese include wind and water power, solar energy and biofuels, ‘A renewable enengy resource i one which we cannot use up. ‘The eneigy we use today will be replaced naturally in the fan. ee , smsnncg Tether descr hetubine ae sys Rm peas oa are wed to generate electricity, behind the turbine. Water power 5 A river can tur a mill wheel IF the ever i dammed, the ‘water ca be used 1 tum turbines connected to generators this is hydeoelectcity. Waves and tidal currents can also be used 1 generate electricity Solar energy ‘Thi Suns ray can be ud fo heat water They can alo be used o generate electricity using photovoltaic cells solar cells), These are photovoltaic cells generating electricity from sunlight, “Biofuels Wood isa biofuel thet many prople around the wold rely on. Crops, such as maize and sugarcane, can be harvested ancl fermented to produce liqu fel for eas an trucks. 11 Lis the four ways of generating electricity mentioned above. 2. Draw energy arrow ciagrams to show the enengy changes that happen ina solar eel and in a wind turbine, Fost fuels are described as non-renewable energy resources. ‘once they have been burnt, they are gone Forever, Because they take millions of years to form, we would have to wait a very long te for new fossil fuels to form to replace the oneswe use. Solar energy is desctbeed as renewable. Thisis because, if we tse the energy of sunlight co heat water or to generate electricity today, there will be more sunlight tomorrow. '3, Explain why wind energy, used to turn a wind turbine, sa renewable ‘enenuy resounee,11.3 Renewables and non-renewables @® Nuclear power ber paver ea ont genmrar Ghehieky wg oa fis: Hower eae poses satore wen dftrcen typ of fuel = they sue Wickes frlessch mr oariares These ersteee Ot etileee pera Mislertoetwes Hot bharat, The nergy is elesel in a mclear reactor. CBD 6 Uranium isa nuclear fuel. eis mined from under the ground, Is uranium a renewable enerzy resource? Explain your answer: ‘A nuclear power station in india. “a Pate) deed “The graph shows that we are using more renewable enensy resources, renewable energy use 11970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2070 ‘Your tik isto fine out mare about one of the different renewable ‘nergy resources and prepare a report or presentation to share with the test of the els ‘You should answer these questions. + Hows the energy resourer used? + Init used in your country? + What energy changes are involved? Why is it described as renewable? ‘What are its benefits and problems?Savina is string a hot drink, She is using a metal spooa. ‘Soon the handle of the spoon is toe hot to hold. ‘The dink ishet. Iisa store of thermal energy. Some of the ‘energy goes into the spoon and travels up the handle, When Sarina touches the handle, it feels hot. he Spon get Rot? ‘spoon, would she notice the Pine cee Ne PTE Conduction Sarina has observed the process of thermal conduction (or heat conduction). Energy is travelling from a hot place to a cooler one through the solid metal of the spoon, We use the jon isis similar to electrical conduction which you studied in Unit 10. But remember that here we are thinking about enersy ttavelling through # material from a hox place toa cooler place. "The pictare below shows one way to observe thermal conduction in a metal rod, “The rod has several drawing pins (thumb tacks} attached io i using wax. One end of the rod is heated using a Bunsen burner Gradually; energy spreads along the rod, The drawing pins drop olf'one by one, as the rod gets hot and the wax melts ha Observing energy conducting along a metal rod. eterare11.4 Conduction ofheat ® Conductors and insulators Metals such as copper; aluminium and steel are good thermal conductors, Most noa-metals such as wood and plastic are poor thermal conductors. poor thermal conductor called a thermal insulator “The picture shows how energy conducts through solids. Atthe hot end, the particles are vibrating a lot because they have alot of energy ‘They bump into their neighbours, giving them some of their energy. Then these atoms vibrate more and give some energy to thei neighbours, and so on, In this way, energy travels through ENS : 5 the particles vibrate more the solid from the hot end to the cold end. TIRE Roland uA Ad Gos, hotend cold end QD V2 ter cane te oles ered net feels ape 3 Suggest two reasons why cooking pots are made of metal, not plastic. (Styrofoam) cups: Why are these easier i ‘Tn this activity, you will have two blocks, one made of metal ‘and the other of plastic. ‘An ice cube is placed on each block, Which will melt first? Befove you carry out the experiment, think about these questions: ‘+ Why will the ice: melt? peers en ee Sishe ee plasticblock meta block Explain your thoughts. Write description of what you observe, together with an explanation. nt een chen ocConduction isjust one way in which energy can be ‘transferred from a hotter place to a colder place. Here is another ‘The eagle in the photograph does not have to flap its wings to stay up in the air: Tthas found a place where warm air is rising, The rising ait supports the eagle. ‘Warm air rising like this is called a conveetion current. ‘The ising air carries energy from the warm ground up ints the cold atmosphere. ‘The eagle is soaring on warm, rising air. Convection at home When itis cold, you may tse a heater to warm the room you are in. + The heater transfers energy to the air next wo it + This warm air rises, + Cold air flows in to replace the warm air. In this way, a convection current is set up in the rom, and this spreads the enerry from the heater all round the room. A convection current transfers energy from the heaterto the rest of the room, ‘4 If you go-to the beach on a hot day, you may notice that a cool breeze blows from the sea onto the hind. Explain why this breeze happens,14.5 Convection @® potassium permanganate crystal warm air How convection works Convection cant happen in gases or Hguic (fds) ~ any material which can flow. "Think about air Ttis a gas ts particles are quite far apart and can move about freely. When air is heated, its particles move faster and they move farther apart. The air expands, Now the airs less dense than the surrounding air andl it flats upwards. It carries enesy with i At the same time, eootes, denser air flows in to replace i. So convection is the transfer of energy through a fluid when the fluid itself moves ‘why'convection cannot transfer energy through a solid. 3, Why does the wind blow? In the past, some people thought it was the trees moxing their leaves that created the wind, How could you corince someone that this idea is wrong? Ocean currents help to transfer energy from the topics to polar regions Explain why warm water currents flow near the ocean surface but cold water currents fow at greater depts. * Warmer fluidis less dense and so floats upwYou have learnt about conduction and convection, two waysin which energy can be transferred from a hotter place toa colder place, Here i a third A butterfly cannot fly until its temperatire reaches 16°C. On a cold day, it will find a sunny spot and sit wit its wings open. ‘The butterfly is absorbing enesgy from the ‘Sun's rays. IF you sit in a sunny spot, you may get too hat as you, (0, will absorb ‘energy fiom sunlight This butterly is basking in the sunlight in the Ghanaian rainforest. Energy from the Sun ‘The Earth receives alot of energy from the Sun, How does it get here? It cannot travel by conduction or convection because it has to pass through vvacuumn (empty space) t0 get here. There is ‘no matter in space. Instead, it travels as infra-red radiation, Infra-ed radiation is similar to light, except that it i invisible to our eyes. [Anything shich is warm gives out infra red radiation. The hotter iti, the more cenergy it radiaies. Anything which absorbs radiation gets warm. Iniga-red radiation can travel through Infra-red radiation brings us energy from the Sun. At ‘empty space and through any transparent right, the Earth cools down. ‘material such as ait or glass. 1 If you stand in front of a hot oven, you will gt warm. Is its energy reacting you by conduction, convection or radiation? Explain your answer, 2 This easy to understand why it gets warmer during the day — the Earth is absorbing radiation from the Sun. But why does it cool down at night? Where is the Earth’s enemy going?11.6 Radiation @® Good and bad radiators ‘Mat (not shiny) black surfaces are good at ralsting hs tener. That is why the inside of an oven is often painted black ~ then, asi heats up, it radiaes energy’ atthe fod Shiny white or silver surfaces reflect radiation, just as they reflect light. This shows that i is difficult for ractiation vo pass ‘durough a shiny surfies, ‘This means that shiny surfaces are poor absorbers of radiation ~ itreBects off them. Ic ako means that shiny surfaces are poor emitters of radiation ~ energy escapes only slowly from a hot, shiny object. The seatsin this car are biack. The driver has fitted a sunshield inside the windscreen. a ety te cert te proemreyt vert getter on sunny day. How il the susie help io keep ]D_ _ityouputhoewater fra cone richualy cool down Sec up a number of eiferent containers, similar t those show inthe pictur. “They could be made of meal, las, plastic or cardboard, The outer urface ‘maybe black, white or ses: Some shoot have a ba, Pour boing ater into each and adda thermometer Record each temperature as the water cook, Analyse your results Can you say whether the energy is exeaping fram the water by conehieton, conection arradiation? Energy can be transferred through a vacuum of transparent ‘substance by infra-red radiation. Ce eet Shiny surfaces are good at reflecting radiation som @} 11.7 Evaporation The sea is bie of a pttzale. Rivers flow into the sea, but it never seems to get any fuller: Why no The answer eam he found by looking at puddles. When the rain stops, puddles graclually disappear. The water has evaporated Evaporation is bit clifferent fiom boiling, The temperature of the water doesn't have (0 100°C. Even when the temperature is quite low, the water gradually yurns iato water vapour in EBD | 2 Vee these ideas to explain why the sea docs The cyclist gets wet but his clothes will soon dry ‘out, thanks to evaporation, not get any fuller Evaporation cools you down (On avery sunny day. you may get to0 ho to get wet ~ to have-a swim in a river ot the sea, When you get out, ‘water evaporates off your skin, and this cools you down. If there is + a breeze blowing, the water will evaporate more quickly and you will cool down more rapidly. One way t9 coal down is ng wet on a cold, windy day. The wind makes from your body and you get very cold, This ctor’ which is sometimes mentioned on the Now think about ge the water eva is the ‘wind chill weather forecast Desert faxes cool themselves by panting. ‘They breathe over their tongues, and water evaporates, cooling them dawn. This boy got wet atthe beach = is : and now he i Fealing col QB [2 Cooke pltograph of the elit ce tcp ts pee lst fy a airs alny ese ares sn ‘A cape fox from southern africa, panting to keep elf cool. s8 Energy14.7. Evaporation @® Evaporation and energy ‘When water evaporates from your bod; it carries ‘energy away. That is why you feel cooler. ‘Why does evaporation have « cooling effect? We need to think about the par the water: The particles in water are moving around. Some have enough energy to escape from the surface, They become water vapour in the air, ‘The particles with the most energy ate the ones that Some particles in the water are moving around escape, The ones with less energy are left behind, so the faster than athers. The fastest ones (shown in water is colder than before. Its temperature decreases. red) can escape into the air. cold water IF yowhang washing on line to dey: it dries more quickly on some days than others, What isthe best sort of weather for drying washing quickly? Explain your The drawing shows «wo containers of water: Explain why the water in the wide container will evaporate more quickly than the water in the narrow eontainer. See een ee ee een ae eee eee ce eed |Working with equations Jence, we often use equation to show how two oF more quantities are related Ge aac oc coms Cem rearrange an equation before you can calculate the quansiy you ane interested in, ‘Here is an equation from Unit density solame “This equation tells us how we can calculate the density ofa substance. We need to know evo quantities * the mass of a sample of the substance * the volume of the sample. “Thea we caleulate the density of the substance by dividing mass by volume Remembering an equation You may be able to memorise an equation simply by repeating it yourself Itmay be easier if you change the names of the quantities into lewters or other symbols like this: ‘Another way isto think about the meaning af the quantity: Density tell us how to compare two materials — which ix heavier? To make ita far test, we have to compare equal volumes, So we compare the masses of Lem? or Inv ‘An alternative isto think about units. The unit of density is z/cm’, or hg/m'. “This should remind you to divide the mass fit g/0r kg) by the volume (in cm! ccm’), Rearranging an equation ‘The equation for density has density a its subject (the quantity on its own, on the lef), Bur sometimes, we might want to calculate one of the other quantities. For example: ‘What is the mass of tem! of mercury? The density of mercury = 13.56/em’. We need to rearrange the equation to make mass Mts subject, To do this, ‘multiply both sides by volume Vi DxV=M So M= Dx V= 135 «4 = StgReference ( @) {can help if you think about units. We want to know the mass (in g). We ean find this if we multiply the density (in g/cm’) by the volume (in erm). AM = 135 g/em* x dem! = 54.0 (he cm units cance! out) Another method isto use a “formula triangle’. The three quantities in the equation are put into a triangle, as shown. Mass Mis atthe top. “To find the equation which has volume Fas is subject, cover the Vin the triangle, M ‘You will see thar this leaves . D 21 Use the density formula triangle to find the equation with mass Mas its subject. 2. The diagram below shows the formula triangle for pressure. ‘@ Use the pressure formula triangle to find the equation with area 4 asits subject. Calculate the force on an area of 31m® when a pressure of 50N/m* acts on it 3, Here is the equation for he momentof force: ‘moment = force * dliscance from pivot a Rearrange the equation to make force the subject. 1b. Calculate the force which must be applied ata distance of 10m from a pivot to give a moment of 500Nm.(A NG) Reference =—— Ideas and evidence During your Cambridge Secondary Science cour experiments to try to find the answers to questions, results and use them to make conclusions, you have learnt how to plan have learnt how to collect In this section, you can read about some examples of how scientists have investigated some answered yet. You will alo see that some experiments have not been very well planned! ‘bi’ questions. You will se that not every question can be Question: Is there intelligent life beyond Earth? ‘Many people have wondered: Ave there people like us valking around on a planet orbiting a distant star? In other words, is there exira-terrestrial inteligence? (Extra- terrestrial’ means beyond the Basth,) ‘We can be fairly sure that there are not intelligent creatures living on another planet or moon in our solar system. However, there are billions of stars in our galaxy and billions of galaxies in the universe, so many scents think that there mus be large numbers of planets sila: to Earth. Life may have appeared on them, and ineligentereatures like us may have evolved. In 1960, a young scientist called Frank Drake decided to find out if he could detect any radio signals coming from space which might be from a distant civilisation. He used a radio telescope to collet rad ‘waves from space.‘Then he analysed them to se if there were any pattterns that looked like messages from intelligent beings He had no luck. Since then, seiemtsts have used bigger and be Jun for signals. They set up « project called the Search for Extra-Terrestrial Inelligence (SETD radio telescopes 10 Today, the SET! project has even bigger and better telescopes. They collect lots of data which must be checked to see if it contains extraterrestrial signals, Anyone can join the project and use their computer to help check the scientists’ data to sce if there is any’ sign of messages from space So far, no signs of alien intelligence have been desected, However, b astronamers naw have heiter telescopes, they have ben able to deteet planets going round other stars our galaxy. They can F Someone signs upto help withthe SETI project, their home computercan help to analyse the radi signals analyse the atmospheres ofthese planets dete e : from space. This may show if any of them are home tole ®hat question was Frank Drake trying wo answer? b How did he tryto answer i? 2. How has new technology helped the SETI project to collect and analyse ‘more data? 3. So fa; the SETI project has wot foune signs of extra-terrestial intelligence, ‘@ Does this mean that we are the only intelligent ereatures in the universe? Explain your answer. b Give atleast two reasons why it might be difficult to detect intelligent extraterrestrial life 4 Suggest an alternative waty to look for aie ie. ‘Question: Does fish cil improve exam performance? In 2006, a county couneil (ocal government institution) ia the United Kingdom “announced that they were going (o run tial tofind out if taking tablets containing fish of could improve students’ performance in their GCSE exarns ‘This is what they diet *+ ‘They gave fish ol tablets to 3000 chiidren in Year 1 the start of the year in ‘which they would take their GCSE exams). The students were supposed to take their tablets regularly, * By the time the stucents took their exams, only #32 of them were sill taking the tablets om at least 80% of the tines that they should, *+ ‘The researchers ‘matched’ 629 of these students against similar students out of the original 3000 who had stopped taking their fih oil ables, They did this by finding stucents who went to the sume school, were the sane sex, had similar smarks in school and hal a siilar social background. * They found that, on average, the student in each pair who had taken fish oil did better than the one who had not, ‘The Activity on page 190 wil help yo to think about the design of this inwstigationGy Reference aD Scents hink tha the fn i experiment was no wel designed 4 IF the researchers wanted to find out whether students whe took fish oil tablets ‘did better in their exams than studen's who didn't, what should they have done ‘what you would do. Electric circuit symbols ammeter buzzer call connceting wie connecting wires crossing connecting wires joined ap resistor switeh, open mitch, closed variable resistor voltmeter ON Neett| 124mons (QD Anomalous results Sarah did an experiment to find out how temperature affects the rate of reaction between magnesium ind hydroctloric acid. She used acid at different temperatures and measured the volume of gas produced, Sarah made three measurements for temperature. This table shows her results, Sarah thought that one of her results didn't look right. Gan you spot which one iis? result like this, that does not fit the pattern of all the other results, is called an anomalous result, If you get scmething tha looks like an anomalous result, there are two things that you can do, 1 The best thing to dois to try to measure it again, 2 If you can’t do that, then you should ignore the result. So Sara shoul! not use this result when she i calculating the mean. She should use only the otter two results for that temperature, add them up and divide them by two. 3 rerege pe rlassrtodennne apm ere ay temperature of acid, Remember — don't include the anomalous result in your caleulation! Spotting an anomalous eatin a result table ean be quite difficult Iv fen much easerif you have drawn a graph. Rajesh did an experiment to investigate how adding ice co water changed is temperature. He added a cube of ice to 500em* of water and stirred the water ual the ice had completely meld, Then he measured the temperature of the water before adding another ive cube. The graph on the next page shows his result. |temperature /°C umber of fce cubes Te easy to see that the point at (3, 8) doesn't fit the pattern of all the other results: ‘Something must have gone wrong when Rajesh was making that measurement ‘When Rajesh draws the line on his graph, he should ignore this esl, He should also Link about why it might have gone wrong, Ferbaps he misread the thermometer ~ as the eorreet reading 8 °C? Or perhapshe forgot to stir the water and measured the temperature where the cold ice bad just melted, If you think about wiry an anomalous result has occurred, it can help youoimprene your technique and avoid such problems in the future. temperature /°C fgnore the anomalous result when you draw the line.algal bloom bie population of algae in lake, iver or sea, often ‘caused by fertiliser a alkali metals meialsin Group 1 of the Periodic Table that produce alkalis when they teact with water 64 ammeter ameter used to measure electric earrent M48 ‘amp _ the unit of electric current; symbol A 148 annual plants plants that germinate, grow, flower, produce seeds and dle in less than a year 8 anthers the parts of @ flower in which pollen is made 2 aquatic living in water 23 atmospheric pressure the pressure of the atmosphere 130 ‘atom a very small particle of an clement 00,61 atomic umber the aumber of ‘protons in an atom; each type of atom has unique atomic number 62 base metal oxide; soluble bases dliswotve in water to form alkalis 401 biodiversity the number of diferent species in a particular area 36 biclogical catalyst another term foran enzyme 7 blast furnace a suucture used for the large-scale production of iron from iron ore 90 carbohydrate a group of chemicals found in ving onganisms, which includes sugar, starch and cellulose 6 ‘earnivore an animal that eats other animals catalase an enzyme found in living cells that speeds up the breakdown of hydogen permite 47 ‘catalyst substance that speeds up a reaction but remains unchanged boy the reaction cell (electrical) 4 battery. a device that produces a voliage ina circuit Ww charge see electric charge oor chemical energy energy stored in ‘chemical cubstances 70, 71, 74,151, 162, 163 choice chamber piece of apparaius in which small animals are zzven achoice of places to go with different conditions for example dark Flight 2% chromosomes threads of DNA, found in the nucleus of a cel, which are made up of thousands of genes 48,48 circuit diagram a repcescutation of an electric eirait using standard 116, 117 symbole 147,148, civeuit 5 a symbol representing any componentin an electric circuit 147, 148, 176 collision bumpingintosomething 107 combustion burning 70,71 ¢onduetor an object or material through which electric current ‘ean pass 46, 167 convection the transfer of heat ‘energy from one place to another, carried by the material asit moves 158, 169 convection current the flow of ‘aot was or liquid, carrying heat ‘energy with it 168Gy Glossary and index cotyledons structures found inside some kinds of seeds, for example beans, which store food for the young embryo 7 decomposers organisms that break down organic matte, for example earthworms and fang’ 30,31 density property of an object or material, calculated by densi mass/volume 120-125 dispersed spread over awide area, 18,23 displacement reaction & reaction in which a more reactive metal “pushes out’ less reactive one fiom a compound 88,90 DNA. the chemical from which genes and chromosomes are made; DNA carries a code of instructions that determines how cells andl organisms develop 48 ecologists people who study the relationships hetween living, ‘organisms and their environment 26,27 ecology the study of living organisms in their environment 26,07 electric charge apmperty of an object which causes itt attract ot repel other objects with charge electric current the movement of electric charge electron a negatively charged particle found surrouncing the nucleus of an atom 60, 62 electronic structure the atrangement af electrons in the shells around the nucleus of an atom: 62,65 140-145, 150 147-151 embryo ayery young, new ‘organism, which has developed from zygote 17,18 endangered at risk of becoming extinct 36 e endothermic process a process (euch asa change of state) in which ‘energy is taken in from the environment 75, 77 endothermic reaction a chemical reaction in which enengy is taken in from the environment el energy resource anything which isa source of energy environment anything in the surroundings of an organism that adects it in any way 45,47 enzyme a biological catalyst that speeds up a reaction ina iving stem 30, 117 162-165 evaporation when i liquid changes toa gas(a vapour at a {temperature below its boiling point ‘exothermic process a process (ouch asa change of state) in which energy is given outinto the environment 76 172,173 exothermic reaction a chemical reaction in which energy given out into the environment 70, 72, 78,76, 90 extinct disappeared from the Earth; an extinct species is gone forever 36, 37 fertilisation the joining together of the nucleus of a male gamete and the nurleus of a female gamete 16,49 fertilisers mineral ions that plants need for healthy growth, and that are added to the sol to help crops grow beter 8,0, 34,35 fossilfuels coal, oil andnarural ys 162 feiction the force that appears when two objects try to lide over tach other 143 fruit astrucame that contains seeds; fruits develop from ovaries after fertilisation, and often help the seects to be spread away from the parent phunt 18,19Glossary and index @® sgenes_ instructions, inthe form micropyle «tiny hole inthe f'a DNA code, in the nucleus of covering of «eed, which allows the cell genes affect many of the seed to absorb water when it germinates 17 characteristics of an organism 45449 mineral salts substances such global warming the gradual asnivate and magnesium, which increase of the Earth’ temperaure 39,53 ——_plants absorb rom the sil through ; ie their root, and wich they nce for group (in the Periodic Table) * the cements in a column of the Deal gro s Periodic Table 64,81 moment a measure of the Ihabitat the place where an turning effect of force, calculated aan he 29,09 by moment = force x ditance from ; : pivot; measured in newion batogens eens ound Foes (in) 1h37 Sroup 7 of the Periodic Table z ins $6 natural selection the process herbivore an animal thateats plants 29 jn which invite thn ae beet Type ee eee race ale to surive in an environment sqitlakeay ara Aig <9 ae more obredanel pon ; their characterises to their offsprin inert docs notreact a * Hae i ae nectar a sugary substance made infrarred radiation thermal boy owes, whieh attract insects 4 energy aravelling through empty . space oF a material i Seeaioncherge aie ot electric charge 62, 142-145 inheritance the passing down of ae Povrsp et niiyan tats 46 mevtal lem) doer object with no overall eecticcharge 143 im parallel describes two : cy components in a circuit which are neutralisation a reaction in coeceded Ure 196 which an acd and an alkali react to : produce a solution which i neither insulator an chject or material Aci! nor alkaline but neutral, 100 tshich electric current canmot passthrough 146 —_ neutrons particles found in the Key. series of questions that kads ‘nucleus of an stom that have n0 you w the identification of an organism 42 GLetronte change 60 magnesium (plant nutrition) a Pie eegasteeel ak teaeetntes | tmoineral salt that plants need to make need to make protein and chlorophyll 8 chlorophyl 8 on | : noble gases the elements found in Se Sere manera , __ Group 8 of the Periodic Table 67 | object, measured in kilogram (kg) 120-125 etse mamber_the numberof Esa | Fesource —anly enemy resource protonsand neutrons in an arom E which, when used, wil not renew itself 164 added together 62, 65 nuclear energy cnerzy given but when nuclei of atoms split 105Gy Glossary and index nuclens(of an atom) the centre ‘of an atom formed from protons and neutrons 60, 61 orbits electronic orbits are the paths followed by electrons around the nucleus of the atom, 2 fore a rock or mineral that contains a metal compound 90 organic matter material that ‘makes up, or has made up, part of a living organisms body ‘ovaries the parts of a flower that” contain the oviles 12,16 ‘ovules the parts of a flower that ‘contain the female gametes oxidation reaction any reaction ‘where a substance combines with oxygen 71 particle model the model ‘of matter in which everything is * composedl of particles in motion 121 pascal the unitof pressure, symbol Pa 128 12, 16,17 Periodic Table a table ofall the elements plied in order of thei atomic number 6 petals the colourful pars of a flower that help w attract insects 2 phytoplankton microscopic pplanclike organisms that float in water 28 pivot the point about which an object is turned by a force 192 pollen tiny grains, produced im the anthers of a flower, which contain the male gametes 12, 14-16 pollination the transler of « pollen from an anther to stigma 14,15 pollution the addition of substances to the environment that harm living organisms 3 © positive charge one type of lectrie charge 60, 62, 142, 143 precipitate an insoluble slid formied when two soluble substances react 110 preliminary work some practical work you dobelore an investigation to find out how you will cary ic out. Forexample you might find our the range or interval of the independent variable you will use 3 ‘pressure the force acting per unit area on a surface 126-131 principle of moments an object js balanced when clockwise moments vnticlockwige moments 134, 135 protons positively changed particles found in the nucleus of an ator 60, quadrat a square area within which you can sample th organisms in a habitat 7 rate of reaction the speed of! ‘a reaction, measured by the time taken for the products to form oF for reactants to be used up reactivity how quickly or siowly a chemical reacts compared with another 85, 86 reactivity series list of metals in order of how reactive they are. "The most reactive are at the top of the list and the least reactive atthe bottom 86, renewable energy resource any ‘energy resource which will natarally renew tse 164 resistance the property of a component in circuit which acts 10 rechice the current in the cirewit it resistant not ailecced bya substance that kills or harms other organisms; for example, some bacteria are resistant to certain antibiotics 54 10-17resistor _acomponentin an lectrie circuit that reduces the ‘curtent in the circuit salt compound formed when a metal reacts with an acid eg, ‘magnesium chloride 84, OF, 96 sampling collecting data from asinall part of a whole area, or from just a small number of a large number of individuals 26,27 seed structure that contains an embryo plant, and food sores to help = ittobegin to grow into-a new plant 7 selective breeding a process of ‘choosing individuals with desiree characteristics to breed together it is generally continued for many generations 50,51 series circuit an lect cireuit in ‘which all eomponents are connected ‘endto%end, one after another 19 ‘shells clectronic shells are layers ‘around the nucleus of an atem “where the electrons are arranged; the electrons move about within their shell 62 species a group of organisms that share the same features, and can breed together to produce fertile offspring 44 starch a type of carbohydrate that fsstored inside plane cells 6 static electricity effects produced by eketrie charges whem they are not moving 0-15 ‘stigma the part of a flower that receives pollen grains during pollination 15, 16 surface area the total area of the surface of an object 108 testa the tough, protective outer covering of aseed v aap thermal conduction the transfer Oo heat energy through a material, ‘without the materia itself moving 166, 167 thermal conductor a material Which will allow heat to conduct through it 167 thermal insulator material ‘which will not allow heat to conduct ‘through it 167 ‘thermite reaction reaction where aluminium displaces iron from ‘non oxide. This reaction cam be used toweld raibay rails 90 trialrun a testrun ofan investigation to check that you can carry out it out correctly 110 turning effect whena force ‘causes an object to turn, ithas a turning effect 132 variable resistor a resistor whose resistance can be changed 154 variation differences between the individuals in a species 8 voltage a measure of the push of ‘celina citeuit; symbol V 152 voltmeter ameter usedl to ‘measure voltage 152 volume the amount of space oveupied by an object 120 ‘water vapour a gas of water ‘molecules mixed into the air 10, 11, 172 zooplankton microscopic animals that float in water 28 zygote the cell that is formed) when a male gamete fuses with a female gamete t.49