CE340, Fall 2015 Soil Classification 1/ 7

The geotechnical engineer predicts the behavior of soils for his or her clients (structural engineers, architects,
contractors, etc). A first step is to classify the soil. Soil is typically classified according to its distribution of grain
sizes, its plasticity, and its relative density or stiffness.

Classification by Distribution of Grain Sizes. While an experienced geotechnical engineer can visually examine a
soil sample and estimate its grain size distribution, a more accurate determination can be made by performing a
sieve analysis.

Sieve Analyis. In a sieve analysis, the dried soil sample is placed in the top of a stacked set of sieves. The sieve
with the largest opening is placed on top, and sieves with successively smaller openings are placed below. The
sieve number indicates the number of openings per linear inch (e.g. a #4 sieve has 4 openings per linear inch).

The results of a sieve analysis can be used to help classify a soil. Soils can be
divided into two broad classes: coarse‐grained soils and fine‐grained soils.
Coarse‐grained soils have particles with a diameter larger than 0.075 mm (the
mesh size of a #200 sieve). Fine‐grained soils have particles smaller than 0.075
mm. The four basic grain sizes are indicated in Figure 1 below: Gravel, Sand, Silt
and Clay.

Sieve Opening, mm Opening, in Soil Type

Cobbles

76.2 mm 3 in

Gravel

#4 4.75 mm ~0.2 in
[# 10 for AASHTO) (2.0 mm) (~0.08 in)
Coarse Sand
Coarse Grained
#10 2.0 mm ~0.08 in
Medium Sand

#40 0.425 mm ~0.017 in

Fine Sand
#200 0.075 mm ~0.003 in

Silt
Fine Grained

0.002 mm to
0.005 mm

Clay

Figure 1. Unified Soil Classification by Grain Size

CE340, Fall 2015 Soil Classification 2/ 7

Hydrometer Analysis. The grain size distribution of fine‐grained soil is determined using a hydrometer
analysis. In a hydrometer analysis, fine‐grained soil is dispersed in water and its relative density is
measured over time. The relative density of a soil with a high percentage of larger‐grained soils will
decrease rapidly, since the larger‐grained soils settle more rapidly than fine‐grained soils. The text
provides more details regarding hydrometer analysis. Also, you will perform a hydrometer analysis in
the laboratory portion of thiscourse.

Particle‐Size Distribution Curve. The results of sieve and hydrometer analyses can be plotted to show the
distribution of grain sizes. Soils with an even‐distribution of grain sizes are called “well‐graded” and soils with
predominantly one grain size are called “poorly‐graded” (see Figure 4 below). Well‐graded soils, having a variety
of particles sizes, can be packed “tighter” than poorly‐graded soils leading to higher unit weight and therefore
higher strength and lower settlement potential.

poorly‐graded
Percent Finer

60

30 well‐graded
D30

well‐graded poorly‐graded
D60

(variety of particle sizes) (particles all one size)

Particle Size (mm) ‐log scale
Figure 4. Particle‐Size Distribution Curve

Soils can be classified as either “well‐graded” or “poorly‐graded” according to the following criteria:

Soil is well‐graded if: 4 <= Cu for gravel or

Where:
6 <= Cu for sand
D60
– and – Cu = Uniformity Coefficient =
D10
1 <= Cc <= 3
Cc = Coefficient of Gradation =
2
Else soil is poorly‐graded. D30
D60 D10

Classification of Fine‐grained Soils by Plasticity. The engineering properties of fine‐grained soils are affected
more by their plasticity than by their grain size distribution. Clay particles are mostly flake‐shaped particlesthat
exhibit plasticity (become putty‐like) when mixed with a small amount of water. The mineral composition of the
clay has a large effect on its plasticity.
CE340, Fall 2015 Soil Classification 3/ 7

In the presence of very little or no water, the clay soil behaves like a solid. With increasing moisture content, the
soil behaves like a semi‐solid, then like a plastic putty, and finally like a liquid. The moisture contents representing
the transition points between these four statesare the shrinkage limit, the plastic limit and the liquid limit, as
indicated in Figure 4 below.

Solid SemiSolid Plastic Liquid

Shrinkage Plastic Liquid

Limit Limit Limit
Plasticity
Index (PI)
Figure 4. Atterberg Limits

These limits are collectively known as the Atterberg Limits after Swedish scientist Albert Atterberg who invented
them circa 1900. The Atterberg Limits are performed on soil passing the #40 sieve (fine sand and fines). The
liquid limit is the moisture content at which the soil flows (the groove closes along a ~½‐inch length when the
brass cup holding the soil is tapped 25 times). The plastic limit is the moisture content at which 1/ 8‐inch diameter
threads crumble. These tests are described in more detail in the text and you will perform them in the laboratory
portion of this course. The Plasticity Index (PI) is defined as the difference between the Liquid Limit and the
Plastic Limit, and is used to help classify fine‐grained soils in the Unified Classification System.

Plastic Limit: moisture content at which

1/ 8‐inch threadscrumble Liquid Limit: moisture content at which
groove closes over ~1/ 2‐inch length

Arthur Casagrande noticed that soils could be classified according to their liquid limit (LL) and plasticity index (PI).
Soils that plot on similar regions of his Plasticity Chart had similar engineering properties. The primary feature of
the Plasticity Chart is the “A‐line” which divides inorganic clay from inorganic silts and organic soils (see Figure 5
below).

80
70 Low Plasticity High
HighPlasticity
Plasticity
(Lean) (Fat)
60
Plast icit y Index

A‐line PI = 0.73 ( LL – 20)

50
40
30
20
10
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Liquid Limit

Figure 5. Plasticity Chart

CE340, Fall 2015 Soil Classification 4/ 7

Classification (Unified System) by Grain Size Only. Two classification systems exist for classifying soils according
to their engineering properties: The AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and Transportation
Officials) system and the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS). The AASHTO systems is used by departments
of transportation for highway construction; the Unified System is favored by geotechnical engineers. In both
systems, soils are classified according to their grain size distribution and their plasticity (described in the next
section). We will focus on the Unified System in these notes (the text describes the AASHTOsystem.)

The basic procedure for classifying soils according to grain size distribution is as follows:
1. Perform a sieve analysis
2. Determine the percentages of gravel, sand and fines using the criteria shown in Figure 1
3. Describe the soil using the USCScriteria shown in Figure 2.

1. Identify primary component (largest percentage)

2. Identify second‐largest percentage
If primary component is coarse‐grained, then
If secondary component is course‐grained, then
If 15%< secondary, WITH SAND
or WITH GRAVEL

If secondary component is fine‐grained, then

If %fines < 5%, CLEAN
If 5%< %fines < 12%, WITH FINES
If 12%< %fines, SILTY
or CLAYEY

If primary component is fine‐grained then

If secondary component is course‐grained, then
If 30%< sand + gravel,
If sand > gravel SANDY
If gravel > sand GRAVELLY
If 15%< sand + gravel < 30%,
If sand > gravel WITH SAND
If gravel > sand WITH GRAVEL

If tertiary component is course‐grained, then

If 15%< tertiary, WITH SAND
or WITH GRAVEL

3. Repeat Step 2 for third‐largest component if necessary.

Figure 2. Procedure for Classifying Soils by Grain Size Using USCS
CE340, Fall 2015 Soil Classification 5/ 7

Example #1, Soil Classification Using Results of Sieve Analysis.

Write the soil classification based on the following sieve analysis results: 40 g retained on the #4 sieve, 72 g
retained on the #200 sieve, 35 g retained in the pan.

Solution:
Sieve Wt. Retained, g %Retained Soil Type

4 40 27% gravel
200 72 49% sand
pan 35 24% fines

Total 147

Figure 3. Results of Sieve Analysis

Assume for this example that the fines are classified as “clay” by Atterberg Limits tests (see next section).

Step Soil Description

1. Primary component is sand sand
2. Secondary component is gravel
Since primary component iscoarse‐grained
And 15%< secondary component sand with gravel
rd
3. Tertiary (3 ‐largest) component is clay
Since primary component is coarse‐grained
And tertiary component is fine‐grained
And 12%< %fines clayey sand with gravel

Soil Classification: clayey sand with gravel

Example #2:
Write the soil classification based on the following sieve analysis results and Atterberg Limit test results:
110 g retained on the #4 sieve, 200 g retained on the #200 sieve, 50 g retained in the pan.
Cu = 6.5, Cc = 3.5
Liquid Limit (LL) = 52, Plasticity Index (PI) = 21

Solution:
Sieve Wt. Retained, g %Retained Soil Type
4 110 31% gravel
200 200 56% sand
pan 50 13% fines
Total 360
CE340, Fall 2015 Soil Classification 6/ 7

Primary component = sand,

Secondary component = gravel, P2 = 31%
Tertiary component = fines, P3 = 13%

Gradation:
Cu= 6.5, 6 <= Cu for sand, so WG(well‐graded)
Cc = 3.5, 1 <= Cc <= 3 not true, so PG(poorly‐graded)
Therefore soil is: poorly graded

Plasticity:
PIA_Line = 0.73 ( LL– 20) = 0.73 ( 52 – 20 ) = 23.4
PI = 21 < 23.4 = PIA_Line , therefore fines = silt

LL= 52 > 50, therefore, silt is fat

Primary component = course‐grained (sand), sand

Secondary component = course‐grained (gravel, P2 = 31%)
Since 15%< 31%= P2, with gravel

Tertiary component = fines (silt, P3 = 13%)

Since 12%< 13%= P3, silty

Soil Classification: Silty poorly‐graded sand with gravel

CE340, Fall 2015 Soil Classification 7/ 7

Example #3:
Write the soil classification based on the following sieve analysis results and Atterberg Limit test results:
10 g retained on the #4 sieve, 40 g retained on the #200 sieve, 130 g retained in the pan.
LL= 40, PI = 30

Solution:
Sieve Wt. Retained, g %Retained Soil Type
4 10 6% gravel
200 40 22% sand
pan 130 72% fines

Total 190

Primary component = fines, therefore:

Secondary component = sand, P2 = 22%
Tertiary component = gravel, P3 =6%

Plasticity:
PIA_Line = 0.73 ( LL– 20) = 0.73 ( 40 – 20 ) = 14.6
PI = 30 > 14.6 = PIA_Line , therefore fines = clay

LL= 40 < 50, therefore, clay is lean

Secondary component = course‐grained (sand, P2 = 22%)

Since 15%< 22%+ 5%= P2 + P3 < 30% with sand

Tertiary component = course‐grained (gravel, P3 = 6%)

Since P3 = 6%< 15%, leave blank

Soil Classification: lean clay with sand