COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

Description

This e-book discusses the use of computer assisted instruction in teaching and learning as
compared to other modes of teaching. It also covers instruction by electronic non-electronic
media, communication process and programmed instruction
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER ASSISTED INSTRUCTION

Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) refers to an educational system of instruction performed

almost entirely by computer. It refers to a structured environment in which computers are
used for teaching purposes.

Benefits of CAL

1. Computer programs allow students to work at their own pace along with direct and
individualized feedback.
2. Computers deliver drills, practice, tutorials and simulations to students. It displays
information and asks questions then the student types his/her answer to the questions.
The computer gives him immediate feedback.
3. A computer can for example, generate math’s problems to which the student responds
and the computer gives him feedback. Computers are used for simulations (models) and
games. Simulations allow students to view a graphic action, sequence and to alter
particular variables and see what happens.
4. Simulations allow students to do experiments, actively apply knowledge to a problem
scenario and to graphically see the results changing elements of a situation.
5. Computers can allows students to make use of simulating labs (dry labs) to work
laboratory exercises. With clever simulation of a chemical laboratory, a student can for
example discover the potentially disastrous effects of combining different chemicals.
6. Computer simulations can also be used for teaching perceptual and cognitive skills
involved in sports/games like basketball, problem solving skills etc. Also computer
games related to certain subjects have been created e.g. languages, maths etc.

E-learning
E-learning is an all-encompassing term generally used to refer to computer-enhanced
learning. It may include the use of web-based teaching materials and multimedia in general,
CD-ROMs or web sites, discussion boards, collaborative software, e-mail, blogs, wikis,
computer aided assessment, educational animation, simulations, games etc., with possibly a
combination of different methods being used.

The term is generally used to refer to the use of technology for learning. E-learning is
naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also be used in
conjunction with faceto-face teaching, in which case the term "blended learning" is
commonly used.

When to Use CAL

• Computers can be used when material is difficult to teach using other media. e.g.,
presenting simulations that cannot be otherwise shown.

• When a great deal of individualized learning is required.

• When normal instruction may not be safe. A number of chemistry and physics
experiments are potentially risk. Students using dry lesson computer simulations can do
experiments safely and effectively.

• When other forms of instruction are too costly. E.g., driving, auto mechanics. A
computer may be less expensive than the actual objects.

• When other forms of instruction do not motivate students. Failure in a normal class may
be more humiliating than a mistake in computer. The learner makes mistakes in the
privacy of one to one computer learner situation.

• When it is logistically difficult to teach a topic e.g. things concerning heredity can be
taught using simulations.
Advantages of CAL

Computers have an advantage in that they:

i. have impressive memory capacities

ii. ii.can deliver information rapidly and accurately
 iii. have high problem solving and computation
capabilities.
iv. can present information in different modes (characterized versatility of
presentation modes). Computers can present pictures and audio recording, as well
as the printed material for instruction, unlike other traditional programmed
instruction.
v. can easily store complicated branching programmes
vi. can analyze results as soon as students respond to them.
vii. There is superior retention of the material.
viii. One gets immediate feedback (don’t have to wait until a teacher grades it)
ix. One can review material that is not understood
x. One has a constant incentive to learn (to get to go on to the next frame)
xi. One avoids a sense of failure for wrong answer in class
xii. One can progress at their own individual rate.

Disadvantages of CAL
i. The student may not finish course
ii. It is a major expense for the school and
iii. government
iv. CAL is not as good as having a human teacher because it can only answer questions
which have been programmed into it.
v. There is no set timetable (could take a student a long time to finish)
vi. There is a lack of human interaction (no teacher to explain things in another way,
and no other students to work, or socialize with).
vii. CAL is relatively expensive for many schools to use.
Computer Simulations

Computer simulations are computer-generated versions/imitations of real-world objects (for

example, a sky scraper or chemical molecules) or processes (for example, population growth
or biological decay). They may be presented in 2-dimensional, text-driven formats, or,
increasingly, 3-dimensional, multimedia formats. Computer simulations can take many
different forms, ranging from computer representations of 3-dimensional geometric shapes to
highly interactive, computerized laboratory experiments.

References

1. IoanaIacob: The Effectiveness of Computer Assisted Classes for English as a Second

Language; “Tibiscus” University of Timişoara, România. Annals. Computer Science
Series. 7th Tome 1st Fasc. – 2009

2. Leonardo Da Vinci Language Competences: Introduction To Computer Assisted

Language Learning; www.languages.dk

3. Ramazan Basturk: The Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Teaching

Introductory Statistics; Educational Technology & Society, 8 (2), 170-178. 2005

4. SıtkıKülür: New Possibilities For The Photogrammetry Education In Turkey; Istanbul

Technical University, Civil Engineering Faculty, Commission VI, Working Group VI/2
 CHAPTER TWO
PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION

Introduction
Refers to a mode of teaching using information/material that is skillfully organized and
sequenced to optimize learning. It is a mode of instruction in which materials is presented to
students in a step – by – step progression from easier to more difficult and provide students
with immediate feedback. In programmed instruction the learner moves at his own pace.
Typically, the learner reads a chapter or section of a textbook and he is tested on the section.
If he passes the test, he is rewarded by being allowed to continue to the next section. If he/she
does not succeed he/she is referred back to that section which he/she must master before
moving on. Programmed learning is based on operant conditioning technique. This is
because a response is emitted or an operation (operant) is performed by the subject and then
reinforced if it is correct. Thus, programmed instruction is a practical example of operant
conditioning technique.

Programmed instruction can be presented in the form of a textbook, a computer programme, a

videotape, a teaching machine or any combination.

The main idea is to allow students to learn at their own pace by rewarding appropriate study
habits and punishing poor study habits. Programmed instruction is often presented in book
form owing to the cost of machines and computers.

Types Of Programmes
There are three basic types of programmes distinguishable on the basis of the type of questions
used on the frames (small steps).

1. Linear Programmes: Simply ask students questions on the material learned and require
him to think and write down the answer to the questions. It requires construction of a
response rather than recognition of a right answer from a set of answers already provided.
 Linear programmes may be presented in either book form or in computer programmes.
They attempt to conceal the answer until a response is made.
2. Branching Programmmes: – Uses frames containing multiple – choice type of questions
in which the learner is required to choose the correct answer. If the choice is correct he is
allowed to proceed to the next step. If the response is not correct the learner is directed
into a remedial frame which explains the errors and give additional instruction or review.
The Learner moves through these remedial frames before he is allowed to proceed with
the main sequence.
3. Mathetics programming

Components of Programmed Learning

• Programmed instruction is composed of small units called frames, which are presented
to the learner one at a time. Each frame carries some prerequisite information or task
that needs to be acted on before the learner moves on to the next information or task
carried by the next frame.
• A frame may be simply a page of a book or the screen on a machine or computer.
• The basic idea behind the frame is to break the material into components that can be
assimilated with minimum effort by the average student.
• The material is ordered in an organized manner to facilitate learning and recall.
Principles On Which Programmed Instruction Is Based
1. Reinforcement: providing knowledge of results acts as a source of reinforcement.
Correct answers serve as positive reinforcement whereas incorrect answers serve as
negative reinforcement, in which the learner is denied the chance to advance further.
2. Reinforcement follows immediately after the response is made. Thus there is immediate
feedback. Knowledge of results follows closely in time after the response the learner has
just made.
3. Progression through, small steps that provide numerous opportunities for reinforcement.
Materials are organized from simple to complex.
4. Emphasis is on positive rather than negative reinforcement or punishment.
5. Active involvement/participation of students in learning. The learner is continuously
engaged mentally in the learning activity.
6. Provision of an opportunity to revise the basic material before new and complex
information is presented.

7. Progression at learner’s pace.

8. The programmes are designed in such a way that the question contains an element of
challenge and in this way help to maintain the interest of the learner.
9. In some programmes, opportunity is provided for revision of basic material before new
and complex information is presented.
10. Programmed instruction ensures that the learner is actively engaged in the learning task.
Instead of receiving information passively, the learner is presented with numerous tasks
which ensure that he is continuously engaged mentally and overtly in some learning
activity.

Disadvantages of Programmed Learning

1. Much of the initial research on programmed learning was done on lower animals and
therefore its application on human learning has been criticized.
2. It does not make provision for the teacher to function through intellectual and emotional
contact with the learner.
 3. Mechanized/computerized instruction might mean unemployment in the long run.
4. The cost of programmed instruction is prohibitive. We cannot afford to mechanize or
computerize our schools even after the laptop projects for class one pupils is
implemented.
5. Programmed instruction is unsuitable for teaching some subjects such as art, literature,
and language. It is not good for teaching creative behaviour and may destroy initiative
and creativity.
6. The learning material in programmed instruction is too easy and therefore not
sufficiently challenging to maintain attention and interest of pupils. Moreover, such
easy material does not require or encourage much thinking.
7. It does not allow the learner to explore
8. A learner who comes to depend on programmed instruction, especially computers, will
be less able to cope with the inefficient presentation of lectures.

Advantages Of Programmed Instruction Over Conventional teaching Methods

i. Increased demand for education today cannot be met simply by building more
schools, and training more teachers; hence audio-visual aids such as the
television, film projectors, programmed instructions are needed to supplement
lectures, demonstrations and textbooks.
ii. Learners are actively involved in learning/participate
iii. Programmed instruction caters for individual needs of learners and therefore
saves time and labour of teachers for these aspects of teaching that must depend
on human contact.
iv. Programmed instructions presents material in a clear and interesting way and is
therefore in a sense more efficient.
v. It solves the problem of student motivation without resorting to anxiety –
evoking techniques such as punishment, negative reinforcement etc.

vi. The learner can get feedback immediately without having to wait for an hour’s
test or a final examination.
 vii. Pupils are able to proceed at their own level of ability and knowledge, and are
able to get instructions at home and any time of the day.
viii. Teaching machines/computers can be adapted for special use with handicapped
pupils such as the deaf and those who have difficulties in writing, but have
normal intelligence and ability to learn. ix. The discouragement engendered
(caused) by poor grades in schools does not arise as probability of success is
very high.
x. Children who fall behind school work because of sickness or any other reason
can catch up on their own.
xi. Machines/computers can withstand the patience required of teachers who
instruct slow learners.
xii. Most of the problems that arise from use of punishment to effect learning do not
arise since punishment or negative reinforcement are minimized in programmed
instruction.
xiii. Machines/computers are better for more factual learning, while the teacher is
better for discussion of abstract problems. xiv.Making an error is not a public
humiliation. xv. Provides review, since review is written build into the
programme
xvi. It frees the teacher for helping other students and attending to other tasks.

Principles of programmed instruction

ICT IN THE CLASSROOM

Fundamental Reasons for Technology in Education

1.Expansion of time and place

Information technology allows learning anywhere, anytime; not just in one particular
classroom for forty minutes a day. The learner has access to the Internet 100% of the time.
On-line materials are far more available. The learner can access the teacher's course material
and the entire Internet almost anywhere.

2.Depth of Understanding

Interactive simulations and illustrations can produce a much greater depth of understanding of
a concept. When virtual/practical manipulatives are used in a classroom setting they can go
far beyond chalk and talk. Using a projector, the teacher can conduct onscreen investigations
and demonstrate concepts far more easily than with just words and arm-waving.

Because the students have access to the same tools over the web, they can reinforce the ideas by
experimenting with the simulations themselves, anytime, anywhere.

3.Learning vs. Teaching

Instead of teaching, students can be given projects that require them to learn the necessary
material themselves. Key to this is the ability to get the information they need anytime,
anywhere, without being in the physical presence of a teacher. This project-based approach
makes learning far more interesting for the student.

4.Use of media for self-expression

In the old days, students could write in a notebook, and what they wrote was seen only by the
teacher. Using modern technology they can: Make a Power Point presentation, record/edit
spoken words, do digital photography, make a video, compose digital music on a synthesizer,
make a website, etc.
5.Collaboration
A vital skill in the new digital world is the ability to work collaboratively on projects with
others who may not be physically close. This can best be done using modern computer tools
such as the web, email, instant messaging and cell phone. Rather than laboring alone on
homework, students can work in small groups wherever they happen to be and at any time.
They are doing this already (it used to be called cheating) - it can now be formalized and
taught as a vital skill. Many university projects are undertaken by teams spread around the
world. Students need to be prepared for this.

6.Going Global
The Internet permits free video conferencing/sykping which permits interaction in real time
with sister schools in other countries. From an educational viewpoint, what could be more
important than understanding other cultures through direct dialog and collaboration?

7.Individual pacing and sequence

Information technologies can permit learners to move at their own pace. Without disrupting
the class, they can repeat difficult lessons and explore what they find interesting. This makes
it more like having a private tutor rather than being lost in a large class.

8.Weight
Textbooks are bulk. A laptop computer is light and provides access to infinitely more material
via its own storage and the Internet. A 40 GB hard drive can hold 2 million pages with
illustrations; the web is unbelievably large.

9.Personal Productivity

Portable personal computers make a student's (and teacher's) life more effective and productive.
Schools and institutions can go paperless.

10.Lower Cost

The cost of computers have gone down significantly. The price of a decent laptop can be
equivalent to the price of several textbooks. Through the use of open, free educational tools
on the web, the dependence on expensive paper textbooks can be reduced. There is a growing
movement to create and publish this type of materials through organizations such the Open
Educational Resources and the idea is to follow the open source model made popular by
software projects such as Linux.

Types of Technology Used in the Classroom

With technology, the classroom can be an interactive world where the teacher as well as the
student is engaged with technology.

Projectors

Projectors are a basic way to introduce technology to students in the classroom. The projector
is hooked up to the teacher's laptop and projects the screen from the laptop to the white board
in the front of the room. This enables students to see a larger version of what is on the laptop
screen. A teacher can project a word document and show students' note-taking strategies. The
teacher can also show Power Point presentations to students using the projector. Students can
follow the teacher as he or she goes onto educational websites as well. A projector in the
classroom is a remarkable tool in engaging the student with technology. SMART
Technologies

SMART Technologies are leading the way in classroom interaction between students and
teachers using computers. SMART boards are a fantastic way for students to stay engaged in
lessons. A SMART board is an interactive white board that allows the teacher to project an
image from a laptop to the front of the room. The amazing part is that the teacher can then
digitally draw on that image. Graphs and tables are available in templates in SMART boards.
SMART boards can store lessons and digitally enhance plain templates into customized
learning tools. Hundreds of applications are possible with this technology, and students are
benefiting immensely from it.

Mimio Boards

Mimio boards are similar to SMART boards. They are interactive white boards that allow the
teacher to manipulate computer functions on the white board in the front of the room. Sensors
are in place in the board that allows the teacher to use a special pen that acts like a mouse.
Teachers maneuver through websites, graphs and other lessons using this technology. Students
can even participate by using the board for Power Point presentations. This is a fantastic tool
in interactive classroom lessons.

Classroom PCs
Some educational institutions are lucky to have individual PCs for every student in the class.
When every student has his or her own laptop, students can research and explore on their own.
PCs can store a student's work more efficiently than folders. Bulky encyclopedias and
dictionaries are unnecessary if every student can access the Internet on his or her own time
using a personal computer. A paperless world in the classroom can be organized as well as
environmentally friendly. Finally, students become empowered in their education by having
their own personal tool to better their ACADEMIC OUTCOMES

1. IoanaIacob: The Effectiveness of Computer Assisted Classes for English as a Second

Language; “Tibiscus” University of Timişoara, România. Annals. Computer Science
Series. 7th Tome 1st Fasc. – 2009.

2. Leonardo Da Vinci Language Competences: Introduction To Computer Assisted

Language Learning; www.languages.dk

3. Ramazan Basturk: The Effectiveness of Computer-Assisted Instruction in Teaching

Introductory Statistics; Educational Technology & Society, 8 (2), 170-178. 2005

4. SıtkıKülür: New Possibilities For The Photogrammetry Education In Turkey; Istanbul

Technical University, Civil Engineering Faculty, Commission VI, Working Group VI/2
ICT in the classroom
 CHAPTER THREE
COMMUNICATION AND PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction
What is communication?
 This is the act of passing messages from the sender to the receiver through a given
medium in order to receive feedback.
 Communication is also a process of transferring messages through a medium or channel
from a sender to the receiver in order to get a feedback.
 Communication is the transmission of facts, ideas, values, and attitudes from one
individual or group to another. The receiver may either accept or reject the message.

Process of communication

The process of communication can be shown as follows:

Sender Medium Receiver

Communication process
 The sender is the person with information or message. The medium refers to the channel to
be used to send the message e.g. TV, radio or phone. The receiver gets the message and
interprets its meaning. The receiver then gives back his/her response as feedback to the
sender. The sender (teacher) sends a message through a medium (for example chart, picture,
flash card computer etc) to the receiver (learner), the receiver also sends feed back to the
sender a message or sign that the message was received.

The sender should ensure that the message is simple, clear and appropriate. The medium of
communication should be appropriate and effective. The receiver should listen carefully and
have positive attitudes. Because having negative attitudes may hinder him/her from getting a
given information.

Stages of communication process

1. Conception
The sender conceives or selects an idea and makes a decision to communicate. In
teaching- learning process, the teacher will make a lesson plan with very clear objectives.
2. Selection of the mode of communication.
The sender decides the mode of communication to use to send the message. The mode
may be a chart, flash-card, chalkboard etc.

The following factors influence the selection of the mode of communication

 Urgency of the message. If a message is urgent, the media should convey the message
quickly.
 Cost of sending the message. The medium should not be expensive.
 Distance between the sender and the receiver.
 The kind of audience. It can be big or small.
 Time available. The media should convey the message in or on time.
 Privacy of the message. The media should maintain the privacy of the message.
 Availability of the medium. The media to be used should be available.
3. Transmission of the message.
 The sender transfers or actually sends the message to the receiver.
4. Comprehension and interpretation of the message.
The receiver understands and interprets the message. It is the duty of the sender of the
message to make it possible for the receiver to understand and interpret the message.
5. Sending the feedback
The feedback will help the sender to know:
 Whether the message has reached the receiver.
 How the receiver feels about the message.
 What further action he or she may take.

Communication skills

(i) Confidence in communication.

The teacher will communicate well if he/she is confident. To have confidence the teacher
should do the following:
 Prepare well. The teacher should make proper lesson.
 Master the content or the subject. Having a sharp grasp of the subject or topic.
 Use appropriate vocabulary. Use appropriate vocabulary suitable to the learners. if
you are teaching children, the vocabulary you use should be appropriate to children.
 Encourage learners to participate. The teacher should encourage the learners to
interact and participate in teaching and learning process.
 Use relevant examples. You should use relevant examples to help learners to
understand.
 Combine verbal and non-verbal communication skills. You should combine verbal
and non-verbal communication to enhance communication like use of gestures and
body language.
(ii) Clarity in communication.
The teacher should clarify points. To achieve clarity you should do the following:
 Give enough examples.
 Give simple meaning.
  Use appropriate vocabulary.
 Use normal speed in communication. Do not be too fast or too slow.
 Use clear and simple sentence structures.
 Use simple language.
(iii) Preciseness (conciseness) in communication
This means that you should not be wordy. You as a teacher you should:
 Have specific objectives for communication.
 Say only what is important.
 Do not use fabricated fillers such as: you know, in fact, you see, I think, you can
imagine that, emh, so you see etc. These fabricated fillers only serve to show that you
are empty of words, not ready to speak what you wants to say or you are simply
giving empty speech.
 Summarize your points.
(iv) Completeness in communication
You should use complete expressions. Your sentences should be furnished with complete
examples, and non-verbal communication features.
(v) Candidness in communication.
You should speak without any fear.
(vi) Correctness in communication.
You should:
 Use correct sentences in terms of number, tense, and person.
 Use language within context and be interpreted within the same context. For example the
word ‘pupil’ within a school setting means a learner. But within a hospital setting as in
eye clinic means a section of the eye.
(vii) Cohesion in communication
You should:
 Show the relationship between a topic, introduction, main body and the summary.
 Not deviate from the main topic when communicating or teaching.
Qualities of effective communication

Effective communication should have the following qualities:

 Clear. Effective communication is clear so that your listeners or learners should not
have problems to understanding what you are saying.
 Appropriateness. Effective communication passes appropriate or right information
considering the group of people one is talking to.
 Simple. Effective communication ensures that the facts are put forward in a simple
way in a short while.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

Introduction

In the previous article we learned about the process of communication, stages of

communication, and communication skills. In this lecture we are going to learn more about
communication. We shall look at the types of communication, the factors which cause
communication breakdown and how to improve communication. List ways to improve
communication.

Communication Types

Types of communication
 We have two types of communication: Verbal and non-verbal communication.

Verbal Communication
What is the meaning of verbal communication? Verbal communication is passing of
information from one person to another by using the word of mouth. This means that the
words and communication symbols are spoken but not written.

Non- verbal Communication

What is the meaning of non-verbal communication? Non-verbal communication refers to

passing of messages using means other than words and writing. Non-verbal
communication is primary, continuous and the meaning is frequently ambiguous
(undefined).

Examples of non-verbal communication are:

1. Gestures.
These are movements of body parts for example hands, head. Movements of the hands,
arms and body accompany speech and may be used to illustrate a word, such as moving
the hands apart to show how large a fish was.
2. Facial expression.
It is the most obvious component of body language. It can be used to express a wide
range of emotions from joy, pleasure and anger. It can also be used when giving feedback
and cues for continuity or termination of social interactions or activity.
3. Posture is used to convey internal feelings for example; sadness, anger, surprise, and
impatience.
4. Appearance. It is a very important form of communication. It includes the way one is
dressed, hair styles and overall cleanliness. Appearance can help one to tell what kind of
a person one is.
 5. Position in space. The distance between two people can communicate several
messages for example being in love.
6. Touch. It is a message which may mean love, not happy or one has been hurt.

Factors which cause communication breakdown

The factors include:
i) Language barrier
When the receiver or learner is unable to understand the terminology used. Some of the
language barriers include:
 Using language which is too technical.
 Poor pronunciation. For example: one pronouncing ‘go’ as ‘ngo’, rice as ‘lice’,
church as ‘search’, ‘run’ as ‘lun’.
 Poor spelling of words.
 Use of language unfamiliar to learners.
ii) Attitudes towards the subject matter.
iii) Wrong choice of words or vocabulary.
iv) Lack of capacity to use technology
v) Lack of proper preparation
vi) Dull delivery of the message.
vii) Subject matter. Message may be too technical or not suitable.

How to improve communication

 Proper planning. Planning well is planning to succeed. Prepare well before you go to
teach or deliver a speech.
 Complete message. Your message should be clear, specific and complete.
 Capture the attention of the learner or receiver while teaching or speaking.
 Combine verbal and non-verbal communication to make communication more
effective.
 Keep time. Start on time and end on time. Too long communication or lesson or
speech will be boring.
  Feedback. Get feedback while teaching or delivering a speech. Feedback enables one
to prepare for the next course of action
 Careful listening. Listen carefully or attentively to children or audience while
communicating or teaching.
 Have audience eye contact. Look at the audience or learners while teaching or
communicating.

References
Daniel, M. D, Lisa, J. G. (2003). Communication. Embracing difference.
Pearson Education, inc.

Jean, W. and Kathleen, A. H. (1987). Search strategies in mass

communication; Longman, 10 Bank Street, White Plans, NY 10606.

Kaththleen, S. V., Rudolph, F. V., and Cynthia, B. (2007). inter-act.

Interpersonal communication concepts, skill and contexts; Oxford University
Press, inc.

William, L. (1981). Communicative language teaching. An introduction.

Cambridge University Press.
 CHAPTER FOUR

ELECTRONIC MEDIA

Introduction

The previous article was about non-electronic media. In this lecture we are going to learn about
electronic media. They include: Films, televisions, projectors, tape-recorders, and computers.

Examples of electronic media

Films

Films are about places, people and things which children learn about. They offer an effective
way of presenting information to children. They can be used to present facts, concepts, skills,
and procedures. Motion pictures can provide experiences which the teacher alone may not be
able to provide. Teachers help children to understand pictures. Varieties of films are
available in the market for use in teaching and learning. Teachers should be careful when
selecting films for children. Some of the films are not appropriate for children.

Principles for selecting appropriate film for children

 Films to be used by children should meet the following standards:
 Reinforcement. Films should be used to reinforce what teachers have taught in the
classroom.
 Specific knowledge. A film should provide specific knowledge.
 Appropriate to children. A film should be relevant or appropriate to children. The
influence of a film is greater when the content of the film is relevant to children.

Effective use of films

To use films effectively, you should do the following:

Step one: Choose appropriate film to meet your lesson objectives.

Select a film to meet your lesson objectives and purpose. Not every film in the market is
appropriate for children and can meet your lesson objectives. The film should be short
because children have a short attention span and if the film is long, show the film in pits.
Select a variety of films for children.

Step two: Preview the film.

Go through the film to be familiar with the content of the film before you allow children to
view the film. Pay attention to technical terms used in the film, the questions to ask and
things to look for. The teacher will prepare children to view the film. Let children know the
key points to look for. Read the manual accompanying the film. After previewing the film do
the following:

 Write objectives of the lesson and read about the topic.

 Ensure that the classroom environment is conducive. Chairs should be well arranged, not
overcrowded, with adequate ventilation, proper condition of the radio (adequate volume
and well maintained).

 Ensure the equipment is working and prepare the class to watch the film psychologically.
 Tell learners what the programme is all about and give a brief on the topic to arouse the
interest of children.

 Sit with children.

Step three: Let children view the film.

 Turn on the film. Allow children to view the film.

 Listen and observe carefully with your children or learners.

 Do not interrupt the film or let children do any other activity unless asked to do so.

 Ensure that children do what they are supposed to do.

 Maintain discipline.

 Write brief notes like difficult terms and some questions for follow-up activities.

 Ensure learners do as asked: Speak after the teacher or sing.

Step four: Show the film a second time.

Let children view the film a second time to learn more. Encourage children to interact or talk
with one another and ask questions. Then discuss the film with children.
Step five: Provide follow-up activities.
They include:

 More information. Provide more explanations on the topic and ask learners to ask
questions.

 Test understanding. Ask learners questions to test their understanding.

 Reading. Read books about the topic covered in the film or movie,
 Work to do. Give some work to do: draw, model or write.

 Follow up activities. Activities like drawing, colouring, and modelling.

 Ensure learners do follow-up activities.

Importance of films
 Enriching learning. Films enrich the learning process.
 Improves academic achievement. Films improve academic achievement.
 Attracts attention. A film attracts children’s attention because they have magnetic pull.
 Real experiences. Films provide experiences which are almost real because they are three
dimensional.
 Positive attitudes. Films develop positive attitudes towards learning and school.
 Improves understanding. Films make understanding easy.
 Combines sight and sound. Films combine sight and sound and thus making the
experience real, concrete and immediate.
 Demonstration. Learners watch processes: How to make, how to care for, and how to
construct.
 Economical. Films saves time, effort and cost of setting classroom equipment.
 Expert teaching. Learners are taught by experts through films.
 Model teachers. Helps teachers to learn from model teachers.
 Use of variety of instructional media not available to classroom teacher.
 Motivates talented and gifted children. Films provide exposure to children which
motivate them.

Types of educational films

The types are:
 Instructional films. They are films for teaching content in different subjects for example
language, math, science, and social studies.
 Dramatic films. They are for recreation.
  Narrative films. They tell stories or narrate events.
 Factual films: Problematic films.

Television

It is a very important audio-visual media. The Kenya institute of education TV channel

broadcasts educational programmes.

Importance of Educational Television

It includes:
 Combines sight and sound. It makes the experience real, concrete and immediate.
 Demonstration. Learners watch processes: how to make, how to care for, and how to
construct.
 Expert teaching. Learners are taught by experts.
 Model teachers. Helps teachers to learn from model teachers.
 Variety of media. It allows the use of variety of instructional media not available to
classroom teacher.
 Motivates talented and gifted children. It provides them with exposure and resources.
Limitations of Televisions

 It is a one-way communication. Learners cannot talk back or ask questions.

 Time-handicap. Difficult to adjust television broadcast to the working hours of schools

and classes.

 No pre-hearing or re-usability. Teachers cannot pre-hear the programme.

 Accessibility. There are no television sets for educational use in many schools in Kenya.
  Negative attitudes. Some teachers may think that it is not necessary.

Types of television educational programmes:

1. Demonstration programmes. It may be a classroom in action or school activity.

2. Supplementary or enrichment programme. Lessons are related to what is taught in
schools in different subjects but may be difficult or impossible to teach in ordinary
schools due to lack of resources.
3. Direct teaching programmes. Telecast to all levels of education. Topics are taken from
the syllabuses. Programmes are designed for school use. Children watch a scheduled
programme intended for school use and then answer questions. A series of scheduled
telecasts intended to present content of a particular course are watched by children.
Effective use of school television programme:
 Proper preparation. Teachers teaching different subjects should be involved in the
preparation of the programmes. They will help in the selection of the right material for a
specific group of children and the sequence. Teachers should also understand the
requirements of the television programme.
 Production of the programme. Teachers should understand the process of producing a TV
programme.
 Presentation of TV programme. Teachers to be involved in presentation of the
programme should be well trained.
 Teachers to introduce the lesson in the classroom. It is the role of teachers to prepare,
inspire, and motivate learners before the telecast of the lesson and later discuss the lesson
with learners and integrate the lesson with classroom teaching.
 Conduct follow-up activities like discussing the programme.
 Evaluate television programmes. Teachers should be well trained on how to evaluate
television programmes.
Tape recorder

Recorded teaching – learning materials are disseminated through tape recorders.

Ways to use tape recorder in teaching - learning:

 Introducing a new topic. You can play a taped audio programme for children to introduce
a topic or unit, or as part of a lecture or explanation.
 Drill and practice. You can use a recorded tape to extend your presence or provide
guidance that is, use a tape recorder to play back an instructional tape.
 Songs. You can record songs sung by children and then play the songs for children to
listen to themselves.
 Story telling. You can use a tape recorder to tell stories and listening to recorded stories.

Importance of tape-recorders
 Used to reinforce what children have learned or what the teacher has taught.
 Used to develop listening skills. Listening time should be short.
 Used to teach music: Teaching songs, differentiating different musical instruments, and
recording children’s songs.
 Listening to music from other cultures.
 Not expensive and easy to use by children.
 Used to give directions to be followed by children.
 Used in teaching language skills (listening and speaking).
 Teaching children poems.

Effective use of tape recorder

To use a tape recorder effectively, you should do the following:

Stage one: Preparation

 Write objectives of the lesson.

 Ensure that the classroom environment is conducive. Chairs should be well arranged, not
overcrowded, with adequate ventilation, proper condition of the radio.

 Have support materials ready like pictures, and write necessary words on a chart.

 Put the tape recorder or player in front of children and ensure it is working.

 Prepare the class for the broadcast.

 Sit facing children. Tell learners what the lesson is about and give a brief on the topic to
arouse interest.

Stage two: During the lesson

 Listen carefully with your children or learners.

 Do not interrupt the lesson.

 Ensure that children do what they are supposed to do: listen, sing, or speak after the
teacher.

 Maintain discipline.

 Ensure that there is silence. Young children should listen unless asked to speak.

 Write brief notes like difficult terms and some questions for follow-up activities.

 Ensure learners do as asked to do: say after the teacher or sing.

Stage three: Follow-up activities.

Provide follow-up activities:

  Provide more explanations on the topic and ask learners to ask questions.

 Answer learners’ questions.

 Ask learners questions to test their understanding.

 Give some work to do: draw, model or write.

 Provide materials to reinforce the lesson.

 Ensure learners do follow-up activities.

Radio

School Broadcasts

Educational broadcasts are not meant to replace or take over from the classroom teacher.
They are supplement classroom instruction. School broadcast cannot cover the syllabus. The
radio is meant to do what teachers cannot be able to do. Programme series are also available
on tapes or cassettes for teachers to use.

Used to provide audio programmes to support the delivery of primary school and secondary
school curriculum, pre-service and in-service teacher education programmes. The
programmes are developed with the help of subject and course panels. Materials are
disseminated live through radio stations.

Importance of Radio

 Enriches school programme by bringing different events into the classroom.

 Supplements classroom instructions hence saving the time the teacher could have spent in
looking for the information or materials

 Connects schools to the realities of the world out there.

 Develops critical thinking. Trains children to listen critically.

 Develops talents. The radio offers opportunities for learners to participate hence
developing talents.

Effective use of radio

To use a radio effectively, you should go through the following stages:

Stage one: Before the broadcast

 Understand the objectives of the radio programme, read about the topic days before the
broadcast.

 Ensure that the classroom environment is conducive. Chairs should be well arranged,
children should not be overcrowded, adequate ventilation, proper condition of the radio
(adequate volume and well maintained).

 Have support materials ready like pictures, and write necessary words on a chart.

 Put the radio in front of children and tune it to the correct station at some minutes before
the programme begins.

 Switch of the radio and prepare the class for the broadcast.

 Sit facing children. Tell learners what the programme is about and give a brief on the
topic to arouse interest.

 Turn on the radio two minutes before the time indicated for the programme to start.

Stage two: During the broadcast

 Listening. Listen carefully with your children or learners.

 Do not interrupt the radio or let children write notes unless asked to do so.
  Ensure that children do what they are supposed to do.

 Maintain discipline. Ensure that children are disciplined.

 Ensure that there is silence. Young children should listen unless asked to speak.

 Write brief notes like difficult terms and some questions for follow-up activities.

 Ensure learners do as asked to do: say after the teacher or sing.

Stage three: After the broadcast.

You should do the following:

 Provide more explanations on the topic and ask learners to ask questions.

 Answer learners’ questions.

 Ask learners questions to test their understanding.

 Give some work to do for example: draw, model or write what they have learned

 Provide materials to reinforce the lesson.

 Ensure learners do follow-up activities.

Types of educational radio programmes

They are:

1. Radio talk programme.

It gives learners ideas, activities to do like to read a book, and project to do.

2. Discussion programme.
 It consists of interviews, and round table discussions. Discussions are on different subjects or
topics depending on the needs of the learners.

3. Dramatic programme.

It is a dramatic presentation or play.

The type of programme to be selected depends on the following factors:

 The objectives of the programme.

 The level and type of listeners.

 The nature of the programme.

 The time allotted to the programme.

Limitations of educational radio

They include:

 One-way communication. Learners or children cannot talk back or ask questions.

 Time-handicap. Difficult to adjust radio broadcast to the working hours of schools and
classes.

 No pre-hearing or re-usability. Teachers cannot pre-hear the programme.

 Accessibility. There are no radios for educational use in many schools.

 Negative attitudes. Some teachers may think it is not necessary.

Instructional Kits
 Kit refers to equipment needed for a particular activity. Instructional kit usually contain a
variety of related learning resources, which may include real objects, pictures, slides, films,
flash cards and models. A well prepared kit offers a variety of useful learning resources for
effective delivery of a lesson. It is a package of related materials organized to simplify
procurement and provides learning resources required.

Reference

Armstrong, G. (1996). One approach to motivating faculty to use

multimedia. The Journal of Instructional Media, 69 – 71.

Bushan, A. and Auja, M. (1992). Educational technology, theory and practice in teaching-
leaning process. Meerut, Vivek Publishers.

Bhatia, K. K., Narang, C. L., & Sindhu, H. S. (1992). Foundations of

teaching-learning process. Ludhiana: Tandoni Publications.

Patel, M. M. &Mukwa, C. W. (1993). Design and use of media in

education. Nairobi: Lectern publications.

Sammons, M.S. (1994). Motivating faculty to use multimedia as a lecture

tool. The Journal of instructional media 21, 88 – 90.

http://www.kie.ac.ke/index.php/divisions-a-departments.html
 CHAPTER FIVE

NON- ELECTRONIC MEDIA

Introduction
In this article we are going to learn about non-electronic media. We shall describe the media and
look at the reasons why each is a very important instructional media. State the importance of
pictures.

Examples of non-electronic games for Kids

Text-books

Textbooks are media used for storing and retrieving information. Books are valuable
instructional (visual) media. Words and pictures in textbooks complement each other. They
clarify abstract concepts and stimulate children’s imagination.

Importance of Textbooks:
The importance of textbooks is as follows:
 Clarification. Textbooks clarify abstract ideas and concepts.
 Stimulation. Textbooks stimulate children’s imagination.
 Reading. Textbooks develop reading skills.
 They are sources of knowledge.
 Imparts knowledge, develops wisdom, and understanding in children for example story
books. Children identify themselves with the characters in the books.
 Learning. Textbooks help children to learn.
 Story books helps children to do further learning activities which encourages more
learning. For example, drawing pictures of a story they have read, making models of
animals or characters in a story, and constructing something in a text book.

Appropriate textbooks for children

Suitable textbooks for children should meet the following criteria

 Reading level. Textbooks for children should be appropriate i.e reading level should not
be beyond the level of children.
 Content. The books should not contain facts that are outdated.
 Meaning information. Information in the books should be meaningful to children.
 Variety books. Children should be provided a variety of textbooks.
 Interesting. The books for children should be interesting to children.
 Culturally relevant. The books should contain content which is local and not foreign.
 Attractive. The books should be attractive to capture the attention of children.

Real Things (Objects)

When children are using real objects, they ask themselves several questions like: What is
this? What is it made of? How does it feel? How does it smell? No instructional media is as
effective as real objects. Real objects allow children to learn through all senses that is see,
hear, touch, smell, and taste the message.
 Real objects are available everywhere in our environment. Real things are sources of
information and serve as stimulators for learning when they are handled, tasted, and
manipulated. Real things include all kinds of specimens, both animate and inanimate. For
example, equipment, building, and construction sites, animals, plants, rocks, and mountains.

Teachers should learn to select real things in unique ways. Teachers should provide children
chances for them to have intimate contact with real objects used for learning. In classrooms
teachers may put some items in display cases, others can be arranged on tables and shelves
for children to hold, feel, and touch. Children may also read about real objects in textbooks
and view films.

Importance of real things in teaching and learning:

The importance of real things can be described as follows:

 Manipulation. Real things allow children to learn through manipulation.
 Multi-sensory approach. Real things allow children to learn through many senses.
 Develop interest in learning. Real things develop interest in learning and makes learning
interesting.
 Observation. Real things develop children’s observation skills.
 Understanding the past. Real things help children to understand the past life and life far
from them.
 Similarities and differences. Real things help children to understand similarities and
differences for example in families.

The sources of real things include: Families, Museums, Rivers and lakes, Farms and Zoos.
Examples of real things include:
 Furniture: Tables, chairs, stool. Children will learn how they are made and used.
 Clothing: Shirt, short, people who wear the clothes and how they are made. Importance
of clothes.
  Old and new tools: Children will learn how they were used, people who used the tools,
tools used today and how they are used.
 Foods: Names of foods, the place they are grown, how they are grown, how they are
harvested, and how they are transported.
 Plants: Names of plants, uses, and what they need to grow.

Models

A model is a small thing that represents a big object or thing. Models are three dimensional
materials. Models involve more that one sense. Children may be involved in making models
which later can be used as instructional media.

Although it is important to observe real things sometimes it is impossible and because of the
difficulties, teachers turn to representations of real things or models.

Teachers should encourage children to make models. Children who make models will
develop pride in craftsmanship and can learn much more than facts about the subject matter.
Models offer a short cut or substitute for the study of real things. Models can also be rich
sources of information and experiences for children, when teachers arrange for them to be
seen, used, and constructed. Children will learn how different models are from the real
things or objects.

Characteristics of models

The characteristics of models include:

 Three-dimensional. Models are three dimensional, that is they have depth, height and
width.
 Enlarge or reduce objects. For example, the globe for the earth, animals like elephant,
heart etc.
 Simplify complex objects.
Importance of Models

Models are important as follows:

 Development of craftsmanship skills. Children develop craftsmanship skills while
constructing models.
 More learning. Children learn more than facts about the subject matter.
 Saves time. Models offer short-cut to the study of real things.
 Economical. Models offer substitute for the study of real things hence saving money and
time.
 Multi-sensory. Models involve several senses. For example sight and feeling.

Chalkboards

A chalkboard is a medium of instruction that is used to convey visual messages. It is one of the
most basic instructional media in schools.

Effective use of the chalkboard

To use the chalkboard effectively you should do the following:

 Be brief. Stick to important words and phrases (write a few words).
 Stand on one side of the chalkboard. Don’t stand in front of what you are writing so
that children can see how you are writing.
 Use the pointer. If you use a pointer to focus the attention of children, put it down
when you are finished. Please do not point it at children. You will scare or demoralize
children.
 Use a duster. Always use a duster when cleaning a chalk board.
 Spacing. Have uniform spacing between letters, words, and sentences.
 Letters, numbers and drawings should be big enough to be seen from the back of the
classroom
  Use coloured chalks. They capture the attention of children.
Maintenance of Chalkboard
Some of the ways to maintain a chalkboard are:
 Painting. Regularly paint your chalkboard.
 Exposing to the sun. Do not expose your chalkboard to the sun or rain. It will be
damaged.
 Proper cleaning. The chalkboard should be properly cleaned using a duster or soft
material.

Charts

It is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical and written materials meant to give a

clear visual summary of an important process or set of relationships. You can use charts
to reinforce what you have taught or summarize your lesson. You can also use charts
when teaching letters, numbers, or different topics.

The types of charts are: outline chart, bar chart, flow chart, organizational chart, and
process chart (it shows a flow of activities).

Characteristics of a suitable chart:

The chart you select or design to use when teaching children should meet the following qualities:
 Easy to read. The chart should not be crowded.
 Attractive. The chart should be attractive or appealing to the eye of a child.
 Clean. The chart should be clean.
 Durable. The chart should be laminated to make it durable and remain clean.
 Labelled in lower case or small letters. Pictures on a chart should be labelled in small
case and not capital case. Words should also start with small letters and not capital
letters. The title of a chart should be in a title case.
  Adequate size. It should be big enough to be seen from the back of the class.

Storage of charts

Some of the ways you can store charts are:

 Drawers. Keep charts in drawers specifically designed for charts.
 Flat surface. Keep charts on a flat surface.
 Not in roll form. Do not keep charts in roll form.
 Hanging. Hang charts on a wall.
 Numbering. Number charts according to different themes or topics.

Example of a chart

PRESENT PAST TENSE

TENSE
cook cooked
shout shouted
cry cried
beg begged
jump jumped
spill spilled
walk walked
move moved
wonder wondered
wander wandered
loiter loitered
ask asked

When you are teaching verb tenses you may use the above chart.
The verbs are labelled in lower case or small letters. Pictures on a chart should be labelled in
small case and not capital case. Words should also start with small letters and not capital letters.
The title of a chart should be in a title case.

Flash –cards

The types of flash cards are:

 Number cards. They are used for teaching numbers for example 1 – 10.

1 2 3 4 5

 Sound cards. Sound cards are used for teaching sounds for example a – z.

a b c d e

 Letter cards. Letter cards are used for teaching letters for example A – Z.

A B C D E

 Word cards. They are used for teaching simple words for example words with three
letters like: boy, car, and dog.

boy

 Sentence cards with simple sentences. They are used for teaching simple sentences for
example: “This is a dog”.
 This is a dog.
This is a cow.

 Picture cards. They are pictures big enough to be seen from the back of the class. They
are used for teaching picture reading, meanings of words, and storytelling.

Importance of flash cards

The reasons why charts are important include:

 Capturing attention. Flash cards are used to capture the attention of children.
 Focuses the attention. Flash cards are used to focus the attention of children to a
particular learning activity.
 Visual message. Flash cards allow children to see the message. Children are visual
learners. Whatever they learn through seeing makes a greater impression in them
 Makes learning interesting. Flash cards are used to make learning interesting. Thus,
children do not get bored during the learning process.

Pictures

A picture is a visual message. It is appropriate for direct instruction. Pictures are found
everywhere in books, newspapers, advertisements, supermarkets, magazines, on calendars,
and charts from publishers. Some can be obtained free of cost while others can be bought.

Pictures may consist of photographs of actual objects or processes, or they may consist of
drawing, sketches, or diagrams. Pictures can be of animals, plants, religious buildings, and
means of transport. The pictures can be used for illustration or teaching meanings of words
or storytelling. Pictures develop interest in learning. A camera can be used to take pictures
for instructional use. Pictures files can be prepared from magazines and calendar pictures
and other sources. Children love pictures having children or people.

Characteristics of appropriate pictures for children

The characteristics of pictures for children include:

 Attractive. Pictures should be attractive to capture the attention of children.
 Durable. Pictures should be laminated to make them durable and remain clean.
 Labelled in lower case or small letters. A picture card or pictures on a chart should be
labelled in small case and not capital case. Words should also start with small letters and
not capital letters.

Picture Reading

To motivate children to learn, you should provide mental activities to motivate children to
learn more from pictures. Some of the mental activities include:
 Naming objects in the pictures. Children will name, describe or tell what they see in a
picture.
 Interpret the picture. The teacher will ask children to tell what is happening.
 Relating pictures to life experiences.
 Adding imaginative elements.
 Engaging in further activities like art activities: drawing, colouring, modelling,
cutting and pasting.

Some of the important questions you can ask children to help them learn more from pictures
are:
 What do you see?
 Why did this happen?
 What is he or she doing?
  What is happening?

Importance of pictures

The reasons why pictures are important are:

 Stimulates children to learn. Pictures stimulate children to learn or ask questions.
 Develops children’s imagination. Pictures develop children’s imagination.
 Saves time. Pictures offer short-cut for the study of real things hence saves time.
 Economical use of words. A picture is worth 1000 words. Hence reducing teachers’
talking and saves energy.
 Involve sense of sight. Pictures allow children to see the message, and develop and
sharpen their observation skills.
 Makes learning interesting. Pictures help children to see and hear the message hence
making teaching and learning interesting.
 Clarify abstract ideas. Pictures make abstract ideas concrete hence helping children to
understand.
 Develops reading skills. Children read pictures on books, television, and newspapers,
hence developing reading skills.
 Pictures can be used to give information about people, places and things far form
children’s immediate environment. Pictures help children to understand differences in
cultures.
 Picture reading is used to develop thinking skills. The teacher will start picture
reading by asking children to name objects on the picture

References

Armstrong, G. (1996). One approach to motivating faculty to use

multimedia. The Journal of Instructional Media, 69 – 71.

Bhatia, K. K., Narang, C. L., & Sindhu, H. S. (1992). Foundations of

 teaching-learning process. Ludhiana: Tandoni Publications.

DeCecco, J. P. & Crawford, W. R. (1977). The psychology of learning and

instruction: Educational psychology. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India Private
Limited.

Patel, M. M. & Mukwa, C. W. (1993). Design and use of media in

education. Nairobi: Lectern publications.

Sammons, M.S. (1994). Motivating faculty to use multimedia as a lecture

tool. The Journal of instructional media 21, 88 – 90.