Centre Pompidou, Paris

School of the Built Environment (D28DE)

© Heriot-Watt University
ACTIONS ON STRUCTURES D28DE DESIGN STUDIES A

© Heriot-Watt University

Address for correspondence:

School of the Built Environment

Heriot-Watt University,
Riccarton,
Edinburgh
EH14 4AS, UK
Tel.: +44 (0) 131-451-3866
Fax.: +44 (0) 131-451-4617

Module Author:

Dr M. Chrisp
School of the Built Environment
Heriot-Watt University,
Tel.: +44 +(0) 131-451-3595
Fax.: +44 (0) 131-451-4617
t.m.chrisp@hw.ac.uk:
First published November 2008

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CONTENTS

1 Overview ............................................................................................... 4

2 Structural Modelling ............................................................................ 5

2.1 Overview ................................................................................................ 5
2.1.1 Definition ................................................................................................ 5
2.1.2 Why produce structural models.............................................................. 5
2.2 Modelling Detail ..................................................................................... 6

3 Actions - Load Types ........................................................................... 8

3.1 Permanent Actions - Gk ......................................................................... 8
3.2 Variable (Imposed) Actions – Qk ........................................................... 9
3.3 Snow Loading (a type of variable action) ............................................... 9
3.4 Wind Loading ....................................................................................... 10
3.5 Loading (Safety) Factors γG or Q (“gamma”) ...................................... 12
3.6 Load Combinations .............................................................................. 13
3.6.1 Simple Loading Combination - Adverse Loading Application ............... 13
3.6.2 Further Loading combinations.............................................................. 14
3.6.3 Determining worst application of actions .............................................. 15

4 Summary Of Beam Bending Behaviour ........................................... 18

A1 Typical weights of building materials .............................................. 20

A2 Extracts from Eurocodes .................................................................. 21

A3 SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURAL MODELS ............................................... 25

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1 Overview

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2 Structural Modelling
2.1 Overview

2.1.1 Definition

Stage 1: determination of the loads or “actions” (Eurocode) to which the structure

(and/or an element of the structure) may be subjected during its life;

Stage 2: applications - how these loads may be applied to the structure in order
to calculate stress and/or displacements.

2.1.2 Why produce structural models

Modelling is undertaken to allow the engineer then predict how the structure will
behave in terms of the forces, stresses, displacements etc be able to determine.
Once the engineer has determined this behaviour they can then design suitable
sized structural elements (eg beams, columns).

If modelling is poorly undertaken failure can result, thus:

1. Failure of structural columns in multi- 2. Tacoma Narrows failure of bridge deck

storey building caused by lack of understanding of the wind
loading effects

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3. Collapse of highway foundations due to 4. Collapse of electricity pylon caused by

incorrect understanding of the loading increased loading (actions) due to ice build
(actions) on the ground up on power lines

2.2 Modelling Detail

Modelling is the technique that is used to generate a structural model from the
reality that can be analysed. The structural model for the following real situation
is given:-

Real situation Structural model

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When engineers assess existing structures they must produce a structural model
from the results of the structural inspection or from photographic evidence (see
above example).

When undertaking new design the structural model would be produced to match
the design concept.

IMPORTANT

The figures given at in Appendix A3 show simple structural models for many
applications. The majority of initial structural modelling will be undertaken using
such simple structural models.

More advanced structural modelling is available with many numerical analysis

techniques. These techniques form the background of many software packages
eg QSE. However these software packages are typically only used later in the
design process where optimisation or multiple load case or sensitivity studies
need to be analysed.

SIMPLE MODELLING IS ALWAYS UNDERTAKEN FIRST.

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3 Actions - Load Types

Previously understood loads as Uniformly Distributed Loads and Point Loads.

Actions are made up from:

• Permanent loads – self-weight, often termed “dead loads” - G

• Imposed loads – variable “occupancy” loads, wind loads, snow loads - Q
• Accidental loads - (not generally assessed - economics) - A

3.1 Permanent Actions - Gk

Permanent actions (or dead loads) are made up of the self weight of the structure
and include any permanent elements.

eg Concrete (or steel, timber, masonry) floors, beams, columns, decks;

Blockwork walls, cladding, roofs;

Water or earth pressure

Temporary partitions are not 'permanent loads'.

The magnitude of the permanent action for a particular element is calculated

from the geometry of the element and the unit weight for its material – see table
of typical building material weights in Appendix A1.

Typical values which should be remembered:

Material Unit weight

(kg/m3)

Concrete 2400

Water 1000

Steel 7850

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Simple Example

A concrete column 300mm square by 3.5m long has a dead weight of 7.42kN,
say 7.5kN.

3.2 Variable (Imposed) Actions – Qk

Variable actions are loads that may be applied to the structure during its life and
depend upon the use of the structure.

For example:

o Colleges, universities etc have loads caused by student occupancy,

laboratory equipment and storage etc.
o Bridges have loads caused by vehicle load

For design purposes the maximum effect of variable actions on the structure
must be provided for. The appropriate variable action is based on the maximum
likely to be applied. Eurocodes guide Engineers in developing the maximum
likely loads on common structures. For unusual structure the Engineer must use
his/her judgement, any past records available, model testing etc.

Examples of occupancy loads are given in the Appendix A2.

3.3 Snow Loading (a type of variable action)

The precise value of snow loading should be calculated from the Eurocode and
depends on a range of factors eg the location of the building, the likely hood of
drifting, building shape (valley roof etc). Approximate values are given:

o without access 0.75kN/m2

o with access 1.5 kN/m2

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3.4 Wind Loading

The precise value of wind loading should be calculated from the Eurocode and
depends on a range of factors eg location of building, exposure of building,
building height, building shape.

The broad process of calculating design wind load is separated into three
stages:-

Stage 1 – Determination of basic wind pressure for geographic location.

Wind velocity (vb) is determined from metrological data (eg see Figure NA.1).

Basic wind pressure (qb) is then calculated thus:

qb = 0.613 X (vb2)

Stage 2 – Calculation of peak velocity wind pressure appropriate to site.

Peak velocity pressure (qp) depends on a range of site factors eg location of site,
exposure of site etc and typically varies between:-

o Exposed – 2kN/m2
o Not exposed – 1kN/m2

Note these are approximate values.

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Extracted from UK National Annex

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Stage 3 – Calculation of wind pressure applied to building

The value of design wind pressure applied to the building uses the peak velocity
wind pressure (above), modified by a Pressure co-efficient (Cp) depends on a
range of building factors eg height, roof shape.

Example:-

Roof angle (degrees) Windward slope Leaward slope

5 -0.6 to +0.0 -0.6

15 -0.3 to +0.2 -0.4 to +0.0

30 -0.2 to +0.4 -0.4 to +0.0

45 -0.0 to +0.6 -0.2 to +0.0

60 +0.7 -0.2

75 +0.8 -0.2

Vertical (wall) to 1.0 -0.3

Approximate pressure co-efficients on external surface of building (Cpe)

3.5 Loading (Safety) Factors γG or Q (“gamma”)

Safety factor are incorporated into design in order to take into account variability
or uncertainty. Load safety factors reflect the level of confidence with which the
loading can be defined.

They are only used for calculating ‘Ultimate Limit State’ conditions ie failure
caused by breakdown of the structure and material.

Safety factors are NOT used when calculating deflections of structures.

Typical examples:

• Permanent load factor : γG = 1.35

• Variable load factor: γQ = 1.5

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Safety factors must be applied to ensure that the worst effect is established – ie
the building is designed for its critical condition. Safety factors can therefore vary
in there application.

3.6 Load Combinations

3.6.1 Simple Loading Combination - Adverse Loading Application

A typical example to determine the worst effect for adverse loading:-

The Design Loading to be used to calculate the moment in this case is given as:

Design Loading = [ γG * Gk ] + [ γQ * Qk]

where, in this case,

Permanent load safety factors = 1.35

Variable load safety factors = 1.5.

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3.6.2 Further Loading combinations

If combining permanent loads with more than one variable loading (eg people
and wind on a building) then it is unnecessary to add ALL of the second variable
action, hence a “reduction factor, Ψ [psi]) may be included, for example:-

Design Combined Loading = [γG * Gk ] + [ γQ * Qk1 ] + [ Ψ * γ Q * Qk2]

Ψ values for a range of variable loads are given as:.

Residential 0.7

Office 0.7

Shopping 0.7

Storage 1.0

Snow 0.7

Wind 0.6

Ψ values

Typical example:-

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3.6.3 Determining worst application of actions

There are cases when the load safety factor may change from the values given
above.

Structural Equilibrium – eg Building stability

In this case the Dead load factor = 1.0, wind load factor = 1.5, and live load is
NOT applied.

Structural Element Strength – eg Cantilever beam

Case 1 – In determining the maximum hogging moment permanent load factor =

1.35 and variable load factor = 1.5.

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Case 2 - In this case permanent load safety factors vary from 1.0 to 1.35 and
the variable load safety factor = 1.5, although live load in some places is NOT
applied.

Either option 1:

Or option 2:

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Both of the above cases need to be examined to determine which load case
gives the maximum “sagging” bending moment.

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4 Summary Of Beam Bending

Behaviour

No doubt you recognise all this from first year mechanics.

The moment of resistance M is the moment about the neutral axis of the internal
forces resisting the applied bending moment. It is given by:

M f E
= =
I y R
or by rearranging

I
M= f*
y
where

f (yield stress in the beam (sometime given as fy or strength of the

material); I is the 2nd moment of area. ;

y is the distance form the neutral axis;

E is the Young modulus of the beam material;

R is the radius of curvature.

“Moment of resistance” means how much moment a particular beam can carry or
“resist” – ie it is the strength of the beam defined by moment. And:-

⎡ bd 3 ⎤
I ⎢ 12 ⎥ bd 2
=⎢ ⎥= =Z
y ⎢ d 6
⎥
⎣ 2 ⎦

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so the Moment that a steel beam can resist is given by:

M = fy *Z
where

fy is the yield stress or strength of the steel from test results (or design
standards)

Z is the elastic modulus from the Section Tables.

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A1 Typical weights of building

materials

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A2 Extracts from Eurocodes

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A3 SIMPLIFIED STRUCTURAL
MODELS
Extracted From Steel Designers’ Manual, Blackwell Scientific Publications

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SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

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