On The Popular Devotions of the Celtic

Tribe
By M. Boutet, Drummondville, Québec, 2019

Meyrick, Samuel Rush and Smith, Charles Hamilton. The Costume of the Original In
habitants of the British Islands, published and printed for Howlett and Brimmer, T. M
Lean (1821).

At first glance, the polytheistic pantheons of the Indo-Europeans, and in particular

those of the Celts, seem desperately encumbered and confused. This is just an outsider’s
impression. Gods were not just ranked according to their importance or for pre-eminence,
but again, according to function, essence and nature, and were seen as projections of the
personal triune Godhead. That there is an ethical ranking order here made according to
gender, quality, and number, is not to be questioned. The prototype for this multiplication
of godly entities originates well within the original construct of the common Indo-
European pantheon. It was theologized that from the three manifestations of the Supreme
Being, separate entities were declined as spirit projections and emitted in sets of three.
This complex indexing of gods could not have been conceptualized without the work of
theologian and philosopher druids, who were called diuiciacoi and adgnatioi in the Old
Celtic sacred nomenclature. Let it also be said, that the devotions of the third social
function were varied and were expressed according to the various cults and lines of
discipline. Therefore, the gods of other related peoples could be indexed in preference
according to the rankings of the Roman pantheon, which, according to Caesar’s list, went
as follows: Mercury, Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva. All other deities are but
manifestations or hypostases of these entities.

It is also important to underline that the druids coordinated and oversaw all of the
rituals, sacrifices, devotions, and religious observations of the Celts. Does this mean that

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they had to believe in everything they overlooked, that is, in all of the popular
superstitions? Absolutely not, for it was reported that they entertained about the same
thoughts as those held by the other philosophers and theologians of Eurasian Antiquity.
Here is what the Greek historian Diodorus of Sicily had to say:

And it is a custom of theirs that no one should perform a sacrifice without a

“philosopher”; for thank-offerings should be rendered to the gods, they say,
by the hands of men who are experienced in the nature of the divine, and
who speak, as it was, the language of the gods, and it is also through the
mediation of such men, they think, that blessings likewise should be sought.
Nor is it only in the exigencies of peace, but in their wars as well, that they
obey, before all others, these men and their chanting poets, and such
obedience is observed not only by their friends but also by their enemies;
many times, for instance, when two armies approach each other in battle
with swords drawn and spears thrust forward, these men step forth between
them and cause them to cease, as though having cast a spell over certain
kinds of wild beasts. In this way, even among the wildest barbarians, does
passion give place before wisdom, and Ares stands in awe of the Muses. 1
In The Apology of Socrates by Plato, Metelus states that the accusers of Socrates say that
“Socrates commits wrong deeds, and corrupts the young men, and he does not believe in
the gods that the state believes in but believes in other things having to do
with daimones of his own.”

Please note that for the Greeks, daemons were lesser spirits and not necessarily demons.
So, back to the subject of druids, being of the elite, they were no less astute than the
Greeks. Julius Caesar does expressly mention that they were the ones who interpreted
all questions of religion.

Of the two classes above mentioned one consists of Druids, the other of knights. The
former is concerned with divine worship, the due performance of sacrifices, public
and private, and the interpretation of ritual questions: a great number of young men
gather about them for the sake of instruction and hold them in great honor.2

Or again, as Strabo also writes, the druids were indeed the intellectual elite of the day:

Among all the Gallic peoples, generally speaking, there are three sets of men who are
held in exceptional honor; the Bards, the Vates, and the Druids. The Bards are singers
and poets; the Vates, diviners and natural philosophers; while the Druids, in addition
to natural philosophy, the study also moral philosophy. The Druids are considered
the most just of men, and on this account they are entrusted with the decision, not
only of the private disputes but of the public disputes as well; so that, in former
times, they even arbitrated cases of war and made the opponents stop when they
were about to line up for battle, and the murder cases, in particular, had been turned
over to them for decision. Further, when there is a big yield from these cases, there is
forthcoming a big yield from the land too, as they think. However, not only the
Druids, but others as well, say that men's souls, and also the universe, are

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 indestructible, although both fire and water will at some time or other prevail over
them.3

This being said, it was well understood that the druids, much like Socrates, did not
commit themselves to outward cults, nor did they show devotion, to lesser spirits, such as
daemons, who were called dusioi in the old Gallic tongue. Let’s also note that the
common folk were free to express personal devotion, or belief, and that these were
ministered by priests and priestesses called eccones and ecconai in Gallic.4

And as Caesar remarked in his War Commentaries, Book VI, Chapter 21, this theocratic
dominance of the elite over the common folk did not seem to prevail in all of the Indo-
European societies:

The Germans differ much from these usages, for they have neither Druids to
preside over sacred offices, nor do they pay great regard to sacrifices. They
rank in the number of the gods those alone whom they behold, and by whose
instrumentality they are obviously benefited, namely, the sun, fire, and the
moon; they have not heard of the other deities even by report.

The following table is but a limited overview of this ideological trifunctional grouping
discovered by Georges Dumézil in 1930 and refined by Guyonvarc’h and Le Roux in the
1980s.

So let’s address the structural-ideological differences between the three Celtic

social functional orders:
1. The clerical orders were basically philosophically monist in belief. That
is, above the supreme personal being of death and dissolution is the
Monad, the unifying principle and ethereal essence of the Cosmos.
2. The beliefs of the warriors’ class were mainly dualistic and legalistic
where order opposes disorder and fault for the maintenance of the
Cosmos.
3. The laborers, producers, and merchants, were pluralistic in the belief

Basically, Indo-European religion, in its worldview, essentially cosmic. That is to say that
all beliefs and philosophical thoughts are centered on the concept of the above, of light, and
of darkness, of the sky, luminaries, and stars thereon. And in in this ethereal setting, godly
factions compete for the restoration of the cosmic order and balance.
In his Gallic Wars Commentaries, Book 6, Chapter 18, Julius Caesar writes
that: “All the Gauls assert that they are descended from the god Dis, and say
that this tradition has been handed down by the Druids. For that reason they
compute the divisions of every season, not by the number of days, but of nights;
they keep birthdays and the beginnings of months and years in such an order
that the day follows the night.”

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In other words, the Celts claim to all descend from the god Dis, the equivalent
of the Roman Dis Pater.

So, who is this god, Dis Pater, from whom all the Celtic peoples descend? This we will
see shortly.

The Supreme Godhead

For the Druids, the order (recton / rexton) of the Cosmos or Multiverse reveals the
presence of a higher state of being, a higher intelligence, which is not definable through
human standards. This monist conception of the universe implied that the Supreme
Being, referred to as Gutton Uxellimon5, is both transcendent and immanent. Henceforth,
this non-anthropomorphic, omnipresent, divinity could not be defined or named through
the limited language of man. For these reasons, neutral terms were used to evoke this
abstract entity. Theon, was the neutral or collective Greek form of the name theós, for
“god.” It is also found in the Greek name Pantheon meaning “all the gods.” It also
appears in the name of the Mother Goddess: Meter Theon. This was a title given to both
the Greek and Phrygian goddesses Rhea and Cybele. In the old Greek translation of the
Gospels, God the Father, is respectfully referred to as Theon. The Hindus also used the
neuter case to designate the Brahman, or Atman, as Soul of the Universe.
The gods were seen as projected manifestations, or creations, of the unified
Cosmic Mind creations, reflected at thoughts in the mind of the impersonal
Godhead. These Hypostases, as defined by Dumézil’s tri-partition, are declined
in groups of three, thus threefold. The essential abstract God was called by the
neuter case: *Deiwon, Greek, Theon, while the gods were called to the plural as
*deiwoi, Greek theoi, “those of light.” The Proto-Indo-European root being
*dëyw-, "daylight," yielding day in English. Although the gods share character
traits with fleshy mortals, their beings are mainly seen as constituted of light.
The other category of mythological beings were the Fomorii6 who were identical to the
Greek Telchines. The Fomorii were deformed creatures from under the sea having Tory
Island as their capital. They manifest their opposition upon the arrival of Ireland’s first
mythic people such as the Partholonians… As they later do with the other comers such
as the Nemedians, the Tuatha Dé Danann, and the men of Belgium, Gaul, and
Dumnonia. They lose their pre-eminence after the second Battle of Magh Tuireadh. Then,
they mingle with the Danann gods with whom they have fabulous children. Their rulers
include Balor of the Evil Eye, father of Cian and Bres, Conann, Morc, and Cical. Cian was
Lugh’s father. In short, the Fomorii are the primordial otherworldly ancestors of the
gods and mortals and are the embodiment of their primeval chaotic origins.

Encrypted word elements of philosophy and theology uncovered in the Indo-European

proto-language show the workings of the polytheist organizational chart. The first
element is *upéri-, for “over, above, beyond,” which yielded the Latin super, hyper in
Greek, uber in Germanic, and upairi in Sanskrit. The Irish fer- and for- is from the Old
Celtic uer-, uor-, which mutated from uper-, upor- after the elision of “p.” This is
verifiable with Irish mythonyms such as Tuireann which derives from the Old Celtic to-

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ueres, and subsequently the Proto-Indo-European root *tod-uperes, meaning “that which
is over, above.” In turn, from to-ueres came the Gaelic thar and Welsh-Breton tra, for
“over of, above of.” Thus, the etymology of Tuireann stemming from to-ueres better
explains the inversion found in Taranis / Taranos given to mean “thunderer,” which
should be spelled Tanaros. It now becomes clear that both Tuireann and Taranis evolved
from To-Ueranos, in that this god is well over the others following the Old Irish axiom:
Dé druadh, mu dé tar gac ndé, “god of the druids above all gods.”

Therefore, this To-Ueranos is a cognate of the Greek Ouranos, Latin Uranus, and Vedic
Varuna. More than likely, this confusion resulted from an early bardic word play which
sought to cover the true name of the deity which was meant to be held in awe. And, as
Joseph Monard remarked, the Uranus / Varuna / Taranis analogy is of interest to
mythographers, in that, it better explains the old motif of the Indo-European Sky God as
the father of Saturn /Kronos, and grand-father of Jupiter, Pluto, and Neptune, found in
the Greco-Latin pantheon.

Another of the elements, is the PIE root *upo-, “under, bellow, beneath,” from which
derive the Greek hypo, Latin, sub-, both from ex-upo-, Gaelic fo-, from Old Celtic uo-.
Celtic mythonyms such as Fomoiri, which is from the compound roots uo-mori, “sub-
marine,” and Fochmarch, from Uo-comarcos, “inquiry, research,” both derive from it.
The Gallic theonym Uasso, which means, “he who is beneath, who is
subordinated,” and which is found in the English word vassal, carries the same
meaning as with the Sanskrit avatar.
Finally, for philosophical and mystic considerations, the PIE root *ambhi- <
*ant-bhi, "from both sides," giving the Greek word amphi, Latin and Celtic,
ambi- for “all around, on all sides, encompassing.” It is again found in Old Irish
names such as Imbolc7 and imradud8. Or again, in Gallic mythology, as
reported by Livy, the warlord Ambicatus, “he who fights on all sides.” This same
Ambicatus who was reputed to have founded the city of Milan in Italy. Along
these lines were the related prepositional Latin prefixes pre- and post-. The
Celtic ar-, ari- < are-, deriving from the PIE root para- < *prea-, *pe’ri-, *per-, and
having the meaning of: “in front of, facing, before, near, on, for, mostly.” It was
a cognate of the Greek para-. As for the Latin post-, for: “behind, after,
afterward,” issued from the PIE root *apo-, and from which derived the Greek
and Celtic prefix apo-.
To wit, the Old Celtic names areaia < *pareia, “guard, vigilance watch,” and
areianos, “watcher.”

Therefore, one needed to be an astute grammarian in order to master this complex

polysemous intellectual jargon. The undereducated classes had no idea of the reasoned
theological speculations of the druids. For them, polytheism was a self-evident fact, a
simple matter of faith.

Consequently, as Strabo remarked, the Callaicans, most likely of the druidical class,
claimed to have no god, while to the north, the Celtiberians offered sacrifice to a

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nameless god. Rituals to this un-named deity occurred at night on the advent of the full
moon during which entire households performed dances and sang in chorus all night. 9

This, only to say that nothing excludes the use of epithets given to this god as
proper names by the druids and thereafter passed on to the profane tribal
members. Certainly, these are the names which appear in Gallo-Roman
epigraphy all over the conquered territories.

Therefore, the manner of devotion practiced by the members of the third social function
was that of relativistic personalism which excluded the pure monism of the intellectual
elite. The theology of personalism maintained that the individual soul partook of the
same essential nature as that of the Supreme Being. It differed only because of its
distinctive separateness, thus, individually different, but of the same essence.

In short, the immanent Cosmic Soul was exteriorized and replicated by way of
its many hypostases called Uassones in Old Celtic.

If Mûrti was the Vedic doctrine which explained these aspects of divine
manifestations, then how did the druids explain polytheism?

Again, we must turn to the Old Celtic nomenclature:

1. Ambiluceto defines a “manifestation,” and Uostos > Uostatos > *Upostatos
carries the precise meaning of “subordinate manifestation.” This word is
attested in the Gallic feminine theonym Ambiluceto, for “apparition, luminous
manifestation.”

2. Lounos > Lunos defines the aspect as an outward form, a configuration, an

allegory, or an effigy; hence the adjective triloun-os/-a/-on, meaning “of triple
aspect” such as for the Trinity, or Trimûrti, found in Roman and Vedic theology.
Who was this Celtic or Gallic Trinity?
The Gallic triune Godhead was given by Lucan in his Pharsalia in these prosaic terms:

First of the long-haired nations, on whose necks

Once flowed the auburn locks in pride supreme;
And those who pacify with blood accursed
Savage Teutates, Hesus’ horrid shrines,
And Taranis’ altars cruel as were those
Loved by Diana (Divona), goddess of the north;
All these now rest in peace. And you, ye Bards,
Whose martial lays send down to distant times
The fame of valorous deeds in battle done,
Pour forth in safety more abundant song.
While you, ye Druids, when the war was done,
To mysteries strange and hateful rites returned:
To you alone ‘tis given the gods and stars
To know or not to know; secluded groves

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 Your dwelling-place, and forests far remote.
If what ye sing be true, the shades of men
Seek not the dismal homes of Erebus
Or death’s pale kingdoms; but the breath of life
Still rules these bodies in another age —
Life on this hand and that, and death between.
Happy the peoples ‘neath the Northern Star
In this their false belief; for them no fear
Of that which frights all others: they with hands
And hearts undaunted rush upon the foe
And scorn to spare the life that shall return.
Ye too depart who kept the banks of Rhine
Safe from the foe, and leave the Teuton tribes
Free at their will to march upon the world. 10

Etymologies for the Gallic theonyms:

Diana, was the Roman equivalent of the Gallo-Roman Divona, from the Old Celtic
Diuonna, “the light-emitting waters.”

Hesus, from the Gallic Esus, Old Celtic: Aisus < Aisuuos, “terrible, awsome, spirited,
inspired, theological master,” also connoting esu- > eu-/su-, “good,” is to be compared
with the Germanic ases, or aesir, the plural of áss, from ansuz, “vital force, spirit, god,”
both probably derivatives of the Proto-Indo-European prefix *ais-, “to be in awe, to
worship.”

Taranis, from the Old Celtic Toueranos, “the supreme,” coalescing with: tanaros,
“thunderer,” and Taranos < to-ueranos, “greatly overly,” and is of the same etymology as
for the Irish Tuireann, and in parallel Tabharn, Germanic Thor, and partly Greek
Ouranos, and Vedic Varuna.

Teutates, is from the Gallic Teutatis / Toutatis, “tribal agent,” punning with tout-
tatis/tatos, “national father,” and teutanos / toutanos, “tribal, or national, chief/lord.”

Teuton, is from the Gallic Teuton / Touton, neuter of teutos / toutos, tribe, nation, people,
ethnic group,” also yielding teutonos / toutonos, “farming community, settlement.”

These gods of the Gallic pantheon find their cognates in Hinduism with :

- Brahma, for creation, which compares with Toueranos, “the lofty, the
supreme.” Let’s note that the impersonal Monad was named to the neuter case as
Tabharn < Toueranon, there expressing awe, reverence, and distance.

- Vishnu, for maintenance, was similar to Esus, or Aisus, “the divine breath, the
master, and the very good.”

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 - Rudra Shiva, for destruction, compares with Dits Ater, “the father of
dissolution,” otherwise called Teutates/Toutatis in Gallic.

Projections of the subordinate deities of the Supreme being in the Irish Texts

Tabharn (< Toueronon, the Supreme)

│
Tat (< Tatos, Father) / Bilé *Dithathir
│
Allaoi (< Ollioi, the total, the all, ones)
│
Ionnaoi (< Ionauoi, the pure ones)
│
┌──────────────────────────┐
Néid (< Neitos, Hero) Ordan (< Ardanos, the pedestal, platform)
│ │
│ Eardarlàm (< Eterolamios, wing hand)
┌─────────┐ │
│ Easarg Eachtach / Echtach < Ectacos, the outsider)
│ │ │
Dealbaeth ┌──────┐ Nuada (< Nodons, plutocrat)
│ Goibhniu Diancecht
Ealadha (Smith) (< Diuannocextis, the light grip, the brutal grasp)
│
┌─────────────────────────────┐
Eochaid (Iuocatus, clear fighter) Ogma (Ogmios, mystic champion)

As explained Claude Sterckx, a professor at the Université libre de Bruxelles, this

theological ranking of gods corresponds entirely to the Dumézilian tripartition of social
functions, but nonetheless puts the accent on the first and then the second order. And, if
we are to complete this genealogy, we inevitably stumble on the third with Goibhniu,
the smith god.
Goibhniu, along with Cian and Samhain, formed a trinity of craft deities. His two
brothers were given as Credné Cred, the bronze-smith, and Luchtar, the carpenter.
Goibhniu’s Brythonic counterparts were the Welsh Gofannon, and the Gallic Ucuetis,
whose companion was the toponymal Bergusia, “the mountaineer” goddess.
The name Tabharn is generally translated as meaning “ocean,” but as McBain points out
in his etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language (section 37), tabh is from the
Norse haf or Anglo-Saxon haef, and from Norse also comes the Shetland Scottish haaf, for
the open sea. Therefore, this is surely a Viking Age interpretation of an older
misunderstood Celtic name. Monard compared it to the parallel evolution of Tuireann <
Toranis. At the top of the monist druidical pantheon, one is expected to find a neuter
case theonym along the lines of the Greek Theon and Vedic Atman as “Soul of the
Cosmos.” Tabharn was, therefore, a neuter theonym.
Tat, the Father, which was a possible Dithathir, an aspect of Bilé who is identifiable to
the Gallic Dits-Ater who has the many Allaoi and Ionnaoi as hypostases or avatars. Then
the organizational chart splits into two lines, one for the warrior heroes and another for

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the royal seat of power. And predictively, according to Indo-European practice, a seat is
left for Eachtach, the foreign, or outsider, god. In the Irish myths, Echtach is given as the
father of Nuada, first of the Danann god-kings of Ireland. It was said that the Tuatha Dé
Danann came from the north of the world where were situated the four citadels of
Falias, Gorias, Finias, and Murias. There was also a goddess by the name of Eachtach (<
Ectaca) who was the daughter of Diarmuid, “of the Love Spot,” and the sun goddess
Gráinne.
As for Diancecht, his son Cian has an affair with Balor’s daughter Ethlinn and fathers the
mercurial Lugh Lámhfada. As supreme ruler of gods and mortals, Lugh replaces Nuada
who is slain by Balor during the second battle of Magh Tuireadh. Here follows the
genealogy of these mythological deities from The Fomorians on to the Dananns and
Ulster champions:
Buarainech (< Bouareneqos, bovine face, Minotaur)
│
Balor (< Balaros, luminescent) + Cethlenn (< Cetlino, bonded, tied)
│
Ethlinn (< Itolanda, corn field) + Cian (Cenos, distant)
│
Lugh (< Lugus) + Dechtiré (< Dexsitera, right handed)
│
Cúchulainn (Cu-culantios, the dog of Cuslanos, the hazel) + Aoife (< Auia, beach
grass), of the land of shadows
│
Conlai (< Conlemnos, peer, of equal rank)

The Irish Triune Godhead

1. Dagda < Dagodeuos, “good god,” an equivalent of Jupiter / Zeus, called Taranis by
the continental Celts;

2. Echu < Aecuos, “equalized,” connoting Eqos, “horse,” similar to Vishnu, and called
Esus on the continent; also known as Eochaidh Ollathar < Iuocatus Olloater, “clear
combat the all-father;”

3. Ruad Rofessa < Roudios Rouessos, “the red-one of great knowledge,” similar to the
Vedic Rudra, “howler,” and referred to as Toutatis on the continent.

Traditionally, Dagda was the god of druids, Echu, the god of warriors, and Ruad
Rofessa, the god of fertility pertaining to producers.

The Gallic Order of Godly Hypostases

Taranis Dits Ater + Aericura
│

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 ┌────────────────────┐
Toutatis + Nemetona Esus Sucellos + Nantosuelta
│ │

Artios + Rosmerta Belenos Grannos Moritasgos + Sirona Magusia

Damona

│
Geni Cuculatii Cuculates

Irish Primordial Ancestors

First Social Function Second Social Function
│ │
Bilé + Danu Tuireann + Danu
│ │
┌──────────┐ ┌──────────┐─────────────┐
Dagda Brigid Brian Iuchar Iucharba

Third Social Function

│
Bilé (= Noah ?) + Danu
│
Bith + Biren, Barran, Bairrfhind
│
Fintan + Cesair

When looking into the early genealogies of these mythical characters it quickly becomes
apparent that they function along specific hierarchal lines and lineages belonging to the
Indo-European trifunctional model. Most often, these come to a dead-end with
mythological events such as wars of titans and gods, or end time cataclysms such as the
Deluge. Before one of these events, the people of Bith said to be the son of Noah, land on
the coast of Ireland to escape this universal flood. This is exactly where the Irish myth
becomes muddled with the Biblical Deluge account. This mix-up is the result of a re-
writing by Christian commentators in order to have the older mythological theme
conform to the Biblical story. In other Indo-European stories of the Deluge, as found in
the Vedic texts, it was Manu who escaped the flood by boat and resettled his people. We
know through compared myths, that Manu, or Mannus for the Teutons, is identifiable to
the Celtic and Hellenic Belos. Henceforth, Noah = Bilé.

Herewith, are the etymologies for some of the names:

Bith < Bitu, Bitus, “world, the world of the living,” punning with bitus < buiuotus,

10
“life.”
Barran < Barrana, “the bar spar, bolt, something that is cut off;”
Biren < Birrina, “of the short, the shorty,” and punning with birron, “greatcoat;”
Bairrfhind < Bairrfind < barriuinda, “the white top, of the white haughty, jaunty, lofty
white one.”
Fintan < Uindonos, “the white one, of the white;” connoting Uindosenos, “white elder;”
Cesair < Cassris < Cadtris, “fall of hail, hail stone.”

The major gods of the Irish pantheon operate under a relativist personalist mode of
devotion in accordance with their hypostases:

Eochu, from the Old Celtic pun aecuos, “equalized, balanced,” and eqos, “horse,” also
called Eochaid < Iuocatus, from iuo-, “clear, fair, yew,” and catus, “combat, fight.”

Ogma / Ogme < Ogmios < Ogambios, “champion, mystic hero,” and connoting ogmon,
“notch, groove, ogham.”

Nuada < Nodons “plutocrat,” ruling alternatively with Lug / Lugus, “desired, darkish.”

This tripling of gods expresses the social functions of divine and mortal order as
potentialities or capacities.
In turn, these are featured as the three Irish allegories of the divine Absolute. We learn
from the Vedas that there were three potentialities of the Absolute or rasas, as
they were called in Sanskrit. These were: Cit, “absolute knowledge,
consciousness,” Jiva, for the living entity, and Màyà, “the illusion, illusory
energy, magic,” and all materiality other than vital energy. A parallel of this is
also found in the Irish texts, these being: Eula, Easar, or Easarg, and Delb.

Here follow the etymologies and to these names:

Easarg, “tumult,” easard, “quarrel,” Ealadha, “creeping, science,” and Dealbhàeth,

“configuration.”

The older meanings:

Easargh < Exsargos, “out of brilliance, of whiteness, length,” exsartos, “clearing;”

Ealadha < Euletos / Suletos, “curious;” suletis, curiosity, yearning;”

Dealbhàeth < Deluatios, “of the configuration, the conformation, potentiality;” or again,
Deluatis, “shape agent;” from dealbh < delua, “shape, appearance, paradigm,” deluos,
“form, shape, material form.” These can be likened to the concept of the three
Vedic potencies called Cit-śakti, Jiva-śakti, and Màyà-śakti, for: “perceiving
individuality, and illusion or magic.”

And these, with the implied meanings of:

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1. Exsera, “out of age, out of the prime of life;” exsaro, “cut;”

2. Eula, “science, wisdom;”

3. Delua, “form, shape appearance.”

The Three Supports Defined11

1. Andia < Andios, “great and superior;” Andeuotados, “the superior support;” for
Fothad Canann < Uotados Connonos, “the support of intelligence, knowledge, and
cunning.”
2. Trendia < Trenodios, “great strength, tremendous;” Trenouotados, the strong,
vigorous support; for Fothad Airgthech < Uotados Argantacos, “the silver support.”

3. Candios, “clear, candid, quasi-luminous;” Candouotados, the candid and clear

support,” for Fothad Cairpthech < Uotados Carpantacos, the structured, carpentered
support,” and/or, > Fothad Dolus < Uotados Doluas, “the support of the rule of
conduct, the appearance to withhold.”

Artaios and Rosmerta holding giant cornucopias along with a mead-cup and a bread
basket. Gallo-Roman stele found at Vitteaux and kept at the museum of Saint-
Germain-en-Laye, musée d'Archéologie Nationale et Domaine national de Saint-
Germain-en-Laye.

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The Ancestral Divine Couple

In Gallo-Roman epigraphy few dedications to the god, Dis Pater, was found. Those
found were accompanying mentions of Herecura. In other examples, the correct Gallic
spelling for this godly consort was given: Aerecura or Aericura. Although she could be
taken for Proserpina, a Roman goddess of prosperity, agriculture, and wine, she was
clearly represented as a Matra, a mother goddess. The name Aericura means “the
grower, the increaser,” and Aericura carries the literal meaning of “she who has the care
of watch, the watcher.” This name is parallel to the Greek Titan goddess Hêra-Koura,
daughter of the gods Cronos and Rhea and wife of Zeus.

At first, the primordial ancestral couple seems difficult to extract from the multitude of
gods and characters found in the different Celtic myths. However, this difficulty
dissipates when using the Dumézilian methodology of compared Indo-European
mythologies. From the names gathered in the many Indo-European myths, a
reconstructed model for the early pantheon was devised. Accordingly, the names for the
mythological couple went as follows:

*Bhelos Manus, “Bright Man,” the original father of gods and mortals simultaneously
described as a dwarf and a giant; the name is found in Kalashi mythology as Balomain,
Belos in Gaul, Greece, and Palestine, Belus in Rome, Beli in Britain, and Bilé in Ireland.
Manus is found in Germanic mythology as Mannus, Vedic myths as Manu, father of the
Manavas, and in Celtic myths as the Maines.

*Hana Dhenwa, from PIE root ḫ-an-, a male or female ancestor; *Hana is found in
the Hittite tablets written as An-na-aš, “mother,” and Haḫanḫnaḫaš, Ĥannaš,
“grand-mother.” Same as for the Irish Anu, “grandmother,” Gallic and Germanic
Ana, “grand-mother.” *Dhenwa < *dh[e]n(w)-a, is from the PIE root *dhen-, “to flow, to
run,” Old Celtic, Dânu-a, “strong flow, rushing current, torrential, of impetuous
character,” hence the Welsh Dôn, Irish Dana or Danu, akin to the Vedic Danu, goddess
of celestial waters, and mother of the Danava godly dynasty.

*Dg'hem-Mater, “earthly, chthonian mother,” and in Greece, *Démos Mater > Déméter,
“mother of the people,” seen as a storm goddess; is a cognate of the Gallic Matra,
“mother,” or Matrona, “matron,” and Phrygian Ma. The Hittites called her Dagan-zipas,
the “earth spirit;” cf. Old Russian Mat’ syra zemlja, “mother earth.” She couples with
*Deiwos Patér > Jupiter / Zeus, “god the father,” the day sky god and gives birth to
mortal beings, the *dg'hem-, the humans, from which derives the Latin terms humus,
“earth,” and homo, “man.”

The godly hypostases of the Godhead come in couples, both male and female.
Thus the gods, deuoi, were expressed in gender as deuos and deua, and deuon
to the neuter case.

Dits ater, the “father of death,” and deua Ana, “grand-mother goddess,” as
hypostases of Oinalion, the neutral “monad.”

13
Gaulish Deities

Mercury: Lugus / Artaios + Rosmerta / Artio

Mars: Ogmios / Loucetios / Uisucios + Nemetona / Uisuia
Apollo: Grannos / Belenos / Maponos + Sirona

Jupiter: Taranis / Sucellos / Esus + Nantosuelta

Vulcan: Gobnios / Ucuetis + Bergusia
Minerva: Epona / Rigantona + Belenos Atepomaros

Irish Deities

Mercury: Lugh / Manannan mac Lir + Dechtiré / Fand

Mars: Ogma + Etain, the mother
Apollo: Dian Cécht + Etain, the daughter;
Alias Oenghus mac Óc + Caer Ibormaith
Jupiter: Dagda / Eochaid / Ruadh Rofessa + Morrigù / Boand / Etain (mother)
Vulcan: Goibniu + Brigit
Minerva: Morrigan / Morrigù + Ruadh Rofessa

Welsh Deities

Mercury: Llew / Mnawyddan + Blodeuwedd

Mars: Owain + Luned
Apollo: Mabon / Pryderi + Cicva
Jupiter: Bêli Mawr / Urien / Bran + Dôn / Modron
Vulcan: Gofannon + ?
Minerva: Morgane / Rhiannon / Arianrhod + Pwyll

14
 Forest of the Druids, colored engraving after a drawing by Villeneuve for the Théâtre
Royal Italien à Paris (1835), Paris, Bibliothèque de l’Opéra.

Nemedh as Founder of the Danann and Fir Bolg Druid

Lineages
Nemedh, from the Old Celtic Nemetos, “the holy, hallowed, sacred, heavenly,” is
of the first social function of the Nemetoi, or Nemedians. His Welsh equivalent
was Pwyll, companion of Rhiannon. The name Pwyll derives from the Old Celtic
Puelis, “reason, and intelligence.” After the saturnine rule of Partholon in
Ireland, the Danann druid-king Nemedh, the Holy, initiates the mortal lineage
of the Fir Bolg who arrive from the continent.

To quote from the Annals of the Four Masters:

The demolition of the tower of Conainn in this year, by the race of Neimhidh,
against Conainn, son of Faebhar, and the Fomorians in general, in revenge
for all the oppression they had inflicted upon them the race of Neimhidh, as
is evident from the chronicle which is called Leabhar Gabhala; and they
nearly all mutually fell by each other; thirty persons alone of the race of
Neimhidh escaped to different quarters of the world, and they came to

15
 Ireland some time afterward as Firbolgs. Two hundred and sixteen years
Neimhidh and his race remained in Ireland. After this Ireland was a
wilderness for a period of two hundred years.12

Their Geneology
Parents: Nemedh + Macha

Sons: Sdarn, Iarbhanel the prophet, Fergus Leithdheirg, and Ainninn

Sons’ wives: edu, Macha, Yba, and Ceara

The Three Prime Druids

In turn, each of the social functions and their devotional cults is seen over by a
godly, or an ascended druid-master. These were, in order:

From the Irish Texts (Lebor Gabal Erinn)

Fochmarc, Fius, and Eolas, that is,

1. Fochmarc < Uocomarcos, “the inquiry, the research;” a druid of the Tuatha Dé
Danann godly dynasty as one of the three druids who accompany Partholon to Ireland
from Iberia;
2. Fius / Fis < Uesos, “the knower;” a druid of Partholon and a chief-druid of Cormac
mac Airt, of the Tuatha Dé Danann godly dynasty; this name is also reminiscent of
Morfessa, a Danann druid who resided in the fabled city of Falias, the mighty fortress,
from which was brought the stone of Fal that cried under every new king;
3. Eolas < Eulaxs < Eulaxsos, “the expert,” or Tath < Tatis / Tatos, “father;”

Welsh Literature (Barddas)

Alawn, Gwron, and Plennydd, that is, the archetypal Brythonic druid master who were:

1. Alawn < Alaunos / Alounos, “the mirroring;” the name is simple and clear since it is
well attested in continental epigraphy as an epithet of Mercury. The feminine form
Alauna, mentioned by Claude Ptolemy in Geography, Book III, 3, 1-33, as the name of
the Axe River which flows in Dorset. Alawn is generally translated into English as
meaning: “harmony,” or “stone,” but what is certain though, is that this name is in
relation to reflected light. Alaunos was, therefore, Mercury in the role of a druid god. As
previously demonstrated, Alawn, as a light deity, forms a pair with Plennyd, an epithet
of Apollo.

16
2. Gwron < Uronos, “of the fire,” punning with Uaronos, “defender,” Welsh, Gwron,
“hero,” is an appropriate epithet for Mars as a druid god. This Gwron was, therefore, an
agent representing the second social function. All the more is the fact, as a solitary Mars
figure, he breaks away from the twins of Mercury and Apollo. At the old level, the name
also lends itself to a few words plays such as uros, “pure, fresh, green,” and uros, “bison,
auroch, wild bull.” He also seems to be a cognate of the Irish mythic druid Urias. Urias,
from the Old Celtic Urios, “of fire,” was in relation to Ur, Uron, “sacred fire,” and more
specifically, the fire of the offertory.

3. Plennydd < Plentuisos, for “glowing, gleaming;” also spelled: Plenyd, or Plennyd,
there casts a doubt on its true meaning and henceforth permits puns such as: plentyd,
“child, infant,” and plentynnaidd, “childhood, infancy,” both from the Old Brythonic
root *plant-, “clan, family, child.” Welsh translators generally give it to mean, “Light,”
but in fact, it rather defines refracted light, something that glows in the dark.

In short, each of the druid-masters overlooks a social class: Alawn, the first, Gwron, the
second, and Plennydd, the third. In turn, these acted as the yokes of daily devotion, or
again, as the embodiment of meditation and prayer.

The Four Druid-masters

There is a consensus within the scholarly community wanting that the theme of
the four Masters was a Christian addition to Irish lore involving the Evangelists,
Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. This a priori idea falls short since the notion
was much older and that it is found in most of the Indo-European mythologies.
In Puranic literature, these were known as the Rishis, or Kumaras, namely:
Sanaka, Sanatana, Sanandana, and Sanatkumara. The Greeks knew them as
the Anemoi, the four winds. These were the children of the godly keeper of
winds, Aeolus, and the Titaness Eos, which were: Boreas to the north, Notus, to
the south, Zephyrus, to the west, and Eurus, to the east. According to Vedic
tradition, the four Rishis were born from Brahma’s mind. As avatars of Brahma,
this sets them well in the caste of the Brahmans, thus in the first social
function. On the Celtic, side there is this stanza found in The Second Battle of
Moytura:
Four wizards there were in those four cities. Mór-fesae was in Falias: Esras
was in Gorias: Uscias was in Findias: Semias was in Murias. Those are the
four poets of whom the Tuatha Dé learnt lore and science.13

Stokes translates the Old Irish drui as “wizard,” but this was the later pejorative
meaning of the name. What we should retain here, is that these were the four
druid masters who instructed the Danann gods including the Dagda. This god
from who they came was, therefore, the impersonal god who was never named.

17
The Welsh Genealogy of Godly Hypostases
1. Penn Anwnn Pennos Andumnios “chief of the netherworld”
2. Beli < Belios, “of the bright, the Dôn < Danuuia “the impetuous,”
luminescent” connoting: Danu, “the torrent,
powerful stream,”
3. Amaethon < Ambactonos, “of the lieutenant, the delegate”
Gilwaethwy < Geluattios, “blond foster-father”
Govannon < Gobannos, “blacksmith”
Gwyddyon < Uidions, “knowing”
Arianrod < Argantoreta, “silver wheel”

Stele from the Alter of Reims depicting Cennunos, Apollo and Mercury, a photo of the
(Musée Saint-Remi, Reims.

Gods Galore
In short, just to recapitulate, the Celts understood the true nature of the gods as
disincarnate beings or abstract light manifestations. This very sophisticated concept
brings us closer to the original Indo-European understanding of the deiwoi, the gods, as
“beings of light.” The gods of the archaic pantheons were later reinterpreted as nature
forces or spirit manifestations seen as hypostases born of the deified cosmic conscience
called Purusha in Sanskrit, and seen as the source of the Manas, the lesser minds. For the
ancient Celts, Ménmania was the matrix of mind, spirit, and thought born of the

18
Supreme Being called Gutton Uxellimon. This explains why the druidical elite did not
worship the gods per se but maintained the notion of a monistic cosmic abstract mind-
soul. Devotion to the gods was always a popular expression of the third social function
and somewhat comparable to that of the many saints in Catholic practice. As can be
noticed from epigraphical data yielding hundreds of theonyms, there were domestic
gods, institutional gods, tribal gods, nature gods, topologic gods, personal gods, and
national gods. Ceasar in his War commentaries gave a short list of the most important
deities: Mercury, Apollo, Mars, Jupiter, and Minerva.

And, quoting Julius Caesar in his War Commentaries, Book VI, Chapter 17, the
Interpretatio Romana went as follows:
They worship as their divinity, Mercury in particular, and have many images
of him, and regard him as the inventor of all arts, they consider him the
guide of their journeys and marches and believe him to have great influence
over the acquisition of gain and mercantile transactions. Next to him they
worship Apollo, and Mars, and Jupiter, and Minerva; respecting these deities
they have for the most part the same belief as other nations: that Apollo
averts diseases, that Minerva imparts the invention of manufactures, that
Jupiter possesses the sovereignty of the heavenly powers; that Mars presides
over wars.

Julius Caesar’s short list of the Gallic pantheon with possible Irish and Welsh
equivalents

Roman deities Gallic Irish Welsh

Mercury Lugus Lugh Lleu
Artaios Mathu Brann
Brannos Math
Jupiter Taranis Dagda Arawn
The triple faced Toutatis Eochaid Ollatir Llyr
Esus Ruad Rofessa
Lir
Mars / Hercules Ogmios Ogma Owain
Nodons Nuada Nudd, Lludd
Apollo Belenos Bíle Beli Mawr
Grannos Mac Grein Mabon
Maponos Oengus, Mac Óg Manawydan ap Llyr
Dian Ceacht
Manannán mac Lir
Minerva Matrona Dana, Ana Modron
The triple goddess Belisama Brigit, Boann Dôn, Anna
Brigantia, Brigindo Mórrígan Arianrod

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Mercury

For the Celts, Mercury was the high god, and not Jupiter or Zeus. Unlike
Mercury, god of commerce, Lugus transcends the entire ethic order and rules at
the top of the pantheon. In Irish myths, he shares the title of high king
alternatively with his alter ego Nuada, “the silver hand.” As the polytechnician,
nothing is out from the reach of this “long-handed” Lugh. His son Setanta, “the
path,” rides his chariot on the celestial horizon or the ecliptic. And in light of
this, his name makes for many puns: Lugios, “desired, under oath,” Lugos,
“bird, raven,” Lugus, “darkish,” there connoting Leuxs, “light.” He is both god of
the light, and the dark, skies. Therefore, Lugh was the prime motivator of the
Sky God’s cosmic wheel.

Mars

The Celtic Mars, Ogmios, belongs to the second social class. He is king of gods
and is the twin-like counterpart of Mercury, that is Lugus. Together, along with
Apollo, form alternating couples which the Greeks called the Dioscuri, Castor,
and Pollux. Contrary to Jupiter, Mars represents all that is dark and
troublesome. He is the equivalent to the Vedic Varuna and Greek Ouranos and
has an inclination for the tantric and magic arts coupled with brutal and
warlike violent overtones. As lord of death, he is the conductor of the souls of
the departed into the underworld. On a brighter note, Ogmios was lord of poetry
and eloquence and writing as a dead letter. This is the god Caesar refers to as
Dispater, the “father of dissolution.” Although the Welsh Owein is not of the
same etymology as of the Irish Ogma, it is likely that this name is but a
derivation of his epithet, that is: Owein, from Auentos / Euentos, “morally just,
fair, righteous,” as opposed to Ogma, from Ogmios, “champion.” One of the
Greek names for Chronos, the god of linear time, was the Chronocrator, a name
also applied to the Christian Helios, Khristos Chronocrator, and the Sol
Invictus. The Vedic god of time was called Kalanatha, for “Lord of Time." This
was also one of Siva’s pseudonyms. It is difficult to make out the pan-Celtic
name for this god but at the oldest level, the Gaulish Sucellos, “good striker,”
seems to be one of his names. Another one of his qualifiers seems to be Albiorix,
the “World ruler.”
As evidenced by a Gallo-Roman epigraphic mention of Vaucluse, Albiorix was
qualified by that of Mars, which included Mars Loucetius, Mars Nabelcus, and
Mars Smertrius. The Roman “Mars7” label logically takes us closer to the Vedic
Maruts, an aspect of Sûrya8, the Sun deified. The italic etymology of Mars is
given as Mavors < *Mâuort-, compounded from PIE roots *mar- “to harvest,”
and *wert- “to turn, to rotate.” He was god agriculture and of war linked to the
ardent sun of the spring vernal period. Let’s add that his Greek counterpart was
Aries after whom the zodiacal sign of April was appropriately named. As the
Gallo-Roman Mars Nabelcus, he presides over Meteorology and seasonal winds.
Therefore, the Gallic Mars was also seen as the ruler of the Cosmos.

Ogmios as Hercules in Diodorus, Library of History, 5. 24:

20
 Now Celtica was ruled in ancient times, so we are told, by a renowned man
who had a daughter who was of unusual stature and far excelled in beauty
all the other maidens. But she, because of her strength of body and
marvelous comeliness, was so haughty that she kept refusing every man who
wooed her in marriage since she believed that no one of her wooers was
worthy of her. Now in the course of his campaign against the Geryones,
Heracles visited Celtica and founded there the city of Alesia, and the maiden,
on seeing Heracles, wondered at his prowess and his bodily superiority and
accepted his embraces with all eagerness, her parents have given their
consent. From this union, she bore to Heracles a son named Galates, who far
surpassed all the youths of the nation in quality of spirit and strength of
body. And when he had attained to man’s estate and had succeeded to the
throne of his fathers, he subdued a large part of the neighboring territory and
accomplished great feats in war. Becoming renowned for his bravery, he
called his subjects Galatae or Gauls after himself, and these, in turn, gave
their name to all of Galatia or Gaul.

Apollo

The Celtic Apollo, more than a Sun or Love God, is found in the company of
Venus Aurora, or Belisama in Gaulish. As the god of medicine and healing, he
belongs to the two first social orders: 1, the doctor, and 2, the physician. That
is, the doctor of medicine as Ollam, partook of the first order, while the
physician drawing blood with operating tools partook of the second warrior’s
class. The name Belenos, “Bright,” hints at Abelio, “morning sun,” which was
the Celtic cognate for the Greek Apollo.

Vulcan

The Welsh Gofannon, “the smith,” was the son of the goddess Dôn. His Irish
equivalent was the Danann smith Goibhniu, god of the fire arts and of the kiln.
He was said to preside over the feast of Fled Ghobnenn in the underworld. His
two brothers were Cian and Samhain, when not Credné Cred, and Luchtar.

Jupiter

Jupiter referred to as the triple-faced god, also comes in triads. Jupiter is the
god of the first order since he is the companion of the Druids. As a triune God,
he is the creator, the maintainer, and the destroyer of worlds. Jupiter is also
dual in nature in that he is both light and dark in nature: Esus, “good,” and
Taranis, “thunder,” for the darkened skies. As Esus, he is the equivalent of the
Vedic god Mitra, lord of contracts and friendship. His Irish name is Dagda,
“good god,” and represents all that is clear, pleasant, right, lawful and orderly.
The Gaulish Toutatis, or Teutatis, is the “national father,” and has the Irish
Ollatir, the “all-father,” as a cognate. The difficulty arises when interpreting his
role as the high-god Lir, or Llyr, who is often given as a Celtic equivalent of the

21
classical god of the sea, Neptune / Poseidon. The fact of the matter is that Lir /
Llyr is but one of the triple aspects, the many faces, of the Celtic Jupiter as lord
of the earthly waters and of the seas. His ties with swans also enforce this idea.

Saturn

Partholon, son of Sera, husband of Dealgnaid, and father of Eber and Rudraidhe. He
murders his parents hoping to inherit their kingdom. Failing to gain the throne, he escapes
to Ireland only to oppose the terrible Fomorii chief, Cichol Grinchenghos. He introduces
agriculture to Ireland and two of his companions were plowmen. Partholon is one of the
most misunderstood Irish mythonyms. Guyonvarc’h and Le Roux saw it as stemming
from Bartholomaios, that is Bartholomew, “son of Ptolemy,” but this is but a later
Christian interpretation of the name. In all likelihood, the name derives from an epithet of
an earlier Celtic deity linked to Saturn if we are using the Roman interpretation.14
In The Morals, Plutarch mentions that Painon, or Saturn, was called Nyktouros,
the “night-watchman,” in the language of the Ogygians. At the Old Goidelic
level, this translates as Nucturos, “the nightly, the nocturnal one.” In all
probability, his Welsh equivalent was none other than Arawn, lord of Annwn.
Arawn is from the Old Celtic Areianos, also for “watchman.” Annwn, from
Andumnon, being the underworld. We can, therefore, discern here the
underlying theme as recorded in the Annals of the Four Masters, Age of the
World, the year 2520:

From the Deluge until Parthalon took possession of Ireland 278 years; and
the age of the world when he arrived in it, 2520. The age of the world when
Parthalon came into Ireland, 2520 years. These were the chieftains who were
with him: Slainge, Laighlinne, and Rudhraidhe, his three sons; Dealgnat,
Nerbha, Ciochbha, and Cerbnad, their four wives.

Minerva

The Celtic equivalent to the Roman Minerva carried many names. The goddess
always comes in groups of three, termed Matrai or mothers in the Celtic of
Gaul. The role of the goddess was misunderstood in many ways, in that she
defies natural law being all at once, mother, daughter, and wife. That is, to the
same entity could be attributed many epithets as she shared many different
competing companions in the same mythological account.
She is also dual in nature, and as Riia, Venus, she resides in the reddening
skies. The goddess, as the allegory of Sovereignty and Mind, and as matron of
the fire arts, is the soul of matter or mater materiae, “the mother of matter,” of
the real world. Indeed, let’s recall that in Irish mythology, Brigit holds the áes
dána, the artisans, under her patronage. She is also represented by three
cranes, fates, or fairies, who look over the destinies of mortals. The goddess, not
unlike the god Lugus, transcends all three social functions, in that she is

22
alternatively the mother, the daughter, and the spouse, of the gods. As a
mother, daughter, and companion of the gods, she is Matrona (Welsh, Modron),
“the matron,” Mara Riga (Irish, Mórrígú), and Rigantona (Welsh, Rhiannon),
both for “great queen,” and Sirona, “the starly.”
Charles Robert in Revue Celtique discusses the many examples where the name
Sirona is mentioned in epigraphy.
In four of five of the inscriptions where she is named alone, she is invoked
under the title of Dea I. In the fifth mention she is simply called by her
theonym. In other inscriptions, where she is found in the company of Apollo,
Dea is replaced by Sancta. Her consort bears many aliases and epithets such as
Granno, Grannus.

In the Études celtiques review of 1976-77, p. 151 to 156, Michel Lejeune also
reported a Celtic inscription in Roman characters that was deciphered by
Robert Marichal and which bore the inscription: e(bo) ieuri Rigani Rosmertiac,
which I translated as meaning: “for them by the maker the artifact of queen
Rosmerta.”
The pan-Celtic Brigid < Brigindo/Brigantia, as a cognate of Minerva, also acts
much like the Hindu goddess Devi, purveyor of Śakti, “energy, power, and
strength.” That is, the power of animation imparted to the gods and mortals was
provided by the mother goddess. Again, the names of this concept can be
retrieved in the old nomenclature: nebo < neibo, “vital energy,” brigo, “power,
valor, virtue, vitality, merit, prestige,” therefore, the theonyms Brigindo,
“sublimity,” and Brigantia, “moral elevation, nobility,” there punning with
brixtia, “bewitching, and enticing.” In her role as a cognate of Śakti, the Irish
Scathach (< Scataca, the « shadowy ») she incarnates the tantric and martial
forces of the warrior. And sure enough, the Sanskrit name Śakti, from Cakti,
finds its parallel in the Old Celtic Cacto, for: “might, and power.”
As a mother of the real world, she also represents the three basic elements of
the earth, to wit: Irish, Tailtiu, Fotla, water: Irish and Gallic, Ana and Anu, air:
Gallic and Welsh, Auentia and Awen. Fire being under the tutelage of the god
Aedh in Ireland and Aedus in Gaul. But above all, as the lunar Medb (Medua,
“intoxication of mead”), she is the allegory of the mind and its psychic powers.
This being Mana or Ménmania in the old tongue. The Matres Sulsegiai or
Matres Xsusigiai, the “fascinating mothers, the mothers of hypnotism,” were
they not the Gallic nymphs of psychic powers? The Gallic goddess Nantosulta,
the wife of Sucellos, is found depicted in Gallo-Roman art holding a staff topped
the model of a house in her right hand and a beehive in her left. These symbols
cannot be clearer. The fairies were called Sebarai, or in Goidelic Sidai, while the
naiads went by the name of Nexai, or Niscai.

23
Gallo-Roman Roman high-relief sculpture of the goddess of the home Nantosuelta. Alter
of Sarrebourg, Moselle, France.

Epithets of the Gods in British and Gallo-Roman Epigraphy

Mercury:
Alaunus < Alaunos, “brilliant, reflective, mirroring;”
Alisanus < Alisanos, “steeped, cliff-like;”
Arvernorix < Aruernorixs, “king of the Arvenii,” Aruernos, “of excellence,
excelling;”
Gebrinius < Gebrinios, “of frost, the frosty;”
Magniocus < Magniocos < Macniacos, “the stony, stonely;”
Toutatis, Teutatis, “ethnic, national, tribal, agent;”
Medrus < Medros, “joyous, merry.”

Mars:
Budenicus < Budenicos, “of the army, soldier;”
Buxenus < Buxenos, “of wood, woody;”
Cemenelus < Cemenelos, Cemenellos, “of the summit, lofty;”
Condatis, “the confluence, reunion, meeting;”
Loucetius < Loucetios, “the light bearer;”
Matunus < Matunos, “bear cub;”
Rigonemetis, “of the royal sanctuary;”

24
Rudianus < Rudianos, “the red, ruddy;”
Rudiobos, “reddish, reddened, ruddy;”
Veraudinus < Ueraudinos, “the small of the over-privileged lord;”
Vorocius < Uorocios, “advanced, foremost.”

Hercules:

Andossus < Andossos, “unvanquished;”

Ilunnus < Illunnos, “one of many;”
Magusanus < Magusanos, “the very great,” connoting: “helpful;”
Saegon, “searcher;” neuter nominative epithet.

Apollo:

Abellio, Abelio < abellia, aballia, wild apple orchard, connoting abolos, abulos, “chief;”
cf. Greek Apóllōn, Latinized as Apollo, Hittite, Appaliunaš.
Atepomarus < Atepomaros, “responding, responding well;”
Belenus < Belenos, “the bright, brilliant;”
Cunomaglus < Cunomaglos, “bold prince,” connoting “kennel lad;”
Grannus < Grannos, “beaming, beardy;”
Moritasgus < Moritasgos, “navigator, sea pilot;”
Vindonnus < Uindonnos, “flashing, dazzling;”
Virotutis < Uirotutis, “philanthropist.”

Jupiter:
Accionis,
Beissirissos, beissos < bessos, wildish, savage + irissos, “ultra, from beyond;”
Brixianus < Brixianos, “the overbearing, the prevalent, force, or power:”
Ladicus < Ladicos, “executioner;”
Poenius < Poenicos, “of the summit, of the acme;”
Uxellinus < Uxellinos / uxellonos, “high dignitary.”

Saturn:

Areianus < Areianos, “watchman;”

Nycturus < Nucturos, “nocturnal, night guard.”

Goddesses:
Beissirissa, the feminine of Beissirissos;
Dea Alouna < Deva Alouna < Deua Alouna, the goddess of reflected light;
Inciona < Iacciona, “healthy, of good vitality;”
Matres Comedovae < Matres Comedouai, “commensal mothers;”
Sena, “dean priestess.”

25
Topological deities:
Arduinna, “the slope, the steep,” titular goddess of the Arden mountains;
Bergusia, “of the mountain;”
Biviae, Latin for “byways;” an epithet of the titular goddess of roads.
Ialonus < Ialonos / Ialona, “of the clearing, glade;”
Icovellauna < Icouellauna, “excellent water,” a goddess of wells;
Matres Griselicae < Matres Griselicai, “mothers of gravel pits;”
Matres Nemausicae < Matres Nemausicai, “mothers of the sky;”
Natosuelta, “swirling in vales;”
Telo, “spring, fountain,” titular goddess of Tolosa, Toulon in the Dordogne.
Vintius < Uintios, “of the hill, hill dweller;”

Religion, painting by Charles Sprague Pearce (1851–1914). Photo by Carol Highsmith

(1946–), public domain, Library of Congress.

Cults and Devotions to the Gods

On this topic, Diodorus of Sicily, in Library of History, 5.27, writes the following:
And a peculiar and striking practice is found among the upper Celts, in
connection with the sacred precincts of the gods; as for in the temples and
precincts made consecrate in their land, a great amount of gold has been
deposited as a dedication to the gods, and not a native of the country ever
touches it because of religious scruple, although the Celts are an exceedingly
covetous people.

26
On the advent of the full moon, the people of the island of Britain and the
continent would travel to Ogygia, Ireland for a religious pilgrimage to honor the
gods Heracles, alias Ogma, and Cronus, alias Partholon.

These people consider and call themselves continentals and the inhabitants
of this land islanders because the sea flows around it on all sides; and they
believe that with the peoples of Cronus there mingled at a later time those
who arrived in the train of Heracles and were left behind by him and that this
latter so to speak rekindled again to a strong, high flame the Hellenic spark
there which was already being quenched and overcome by the tongue, the
laws, and the manners of the barbarians. Therefore Heracles has the highest
honors and Cronus the second.
This ranking in popular worship does not contradict Caesar’s statement where
Mercury and Mars had preference over Jupiter. Saturn, that is Cronus, was not
mentioned by him.

Now when at intervals of thirty years the star of Cronus, which we call
Phainon, “Splendent” but they, our author said, call Nyktouros, “Night-
watchman,” enters the sign of the Bull, they, having spent a long time in
preparation for the sacrifice and the expedition, choose by lot and send
forth a sufficient number of envoys in a correspondingly sufficient number of
ships, putting aboard a large retinue and the provisions necessary for men
who are going to cross so much sea by oar and live such a long time in a
foreign land. 15

So according to Plutarch, the Celtic Saturn, Nucturos, completes the saturnine

cycle of 27 to 29 years as it enters the Taurine constellation. This marks the
period for celebrations in honor of Saturn. And as Plutarch further explains,
this sea quest for Cronus was accomplished in hope of a prophetic revelation,
similar to the Delphi Oracles.
Now when they have put to sea the several voyagers meet with various
fortunes as one might expect; but those who survive the voyage first put in at
the outlying islands, which are inhabited by Greeks, and see the sun pass
out of sight for less than an hour over a period of thirty days; and this is
night, though it has a darkness that is slight and twilight glimmering from
the west. There they spend ninety days regarded with honor and friendliness
as holy men and so addressed, and then winds carry them across to their
appointed goal. Nor do any others inhabit it but themselves and those who
have been dispatched before them, for, while those who have served the god
together for the stint of thirty years are allowed to sail off home, most of them
usually choose to settle in the spot, some out of habit and others because
without toil or trouble they have all things in abundance while they
constantly employ their time in sacrifices and celebrations or with various
discourse and philosophy, for the nature of the island is marvelous as is the
softness of the circumambient air. Some when they intend to sail away are
even hindered by the divinity which presents itself to them as to intimates

27
 and friends not in dreams only or by means of omens, but many also come
upon the visions and the voices of spirits manifest. For Cronus himself sleeps
confined in a deep cave of rock that shines like gold — the sleep that Zeus
has contrived like a bond for him —, and birds flying in over the summit of
the rock bring ambrosia to him, and all the island is suffused with
fragrance scattered from the rock as from a fountain; and those spirits
mentioned before tend and serve Cronus, having been his comrades what
time he ruled as king over gods and men. Many things they do foretell of
themselves, for they are oracular; but the prophecies that are greatest and of
the greatest matters they come down and report as dreams of Cronus, for all
that Zeus premeditates Cronus sees in his dreams and the titanic affections
and motions of his soul make him rigidly tense until sleep restores his repose
once more and the royal and divine element is all by itself, pure and
unalloyed.16
This passage: “for all that Zeus premeditates Cronus sees in his dreams,” is in
itself very interesting.
Partholon and Nemedh make for opposing pairs, one martial and the other one
mystic. Or as Dumézil would have it, Nemedh represents the first social
function while Partholon, the second. That is, what Plutarch terms as Zeus and
Cronus. This implies that the Irish Dagda, as a cognate of Zeus, is the druid
god and Nemedh, his hypostasis. The Welsh parallel examples are Arawn for
warriors and Pwyll for druids. This force Plutarch to conclude that: “the royal
and divine element is all by itself, pure and unalloyed.”

Mercury with two ravens and a dog, high-relief stele, from Corgoloin, the village of
Moux, Burgundy, France. Photo: Cl. Fr. Perrodin, from the Musée archéologique de
Dijon.

28
The Cult of Mercury
According to Caesar, Mercury was undoubtedly the most celebrated god of the
pan-Celtic pantheon. But the comparison between the Roman Mercury and the
Celtic Lugus ends here. The later plays a much larger role in theology than the
former. As Guyonvarc’h and Le roux phrased it, more than just “transcend the
entire pantheon,” Lugus, was no usual avatar. Indeed, as Toutatis, not only
does he take on the role of Mars and Jupiter, but also, not unlike the goddess
in her many shapes and forms, he is the father and the son wrapped all in one,
and all at once. This ambivalence similar to that of the Goddess was also
implied by Strabo in the following passage about Gallic soldiers:

There is a procedure that takes place in their assemblies which is peculiar to

them: if a man disturbs the speaker and heckles him, the sergeant-at-
arms approaches him with drawn sword, and with a threat commands him to
be silent; if he does not stop, the sergeant-at-arms do the same thing a
second time, and also a third time, but at last cuts off enough of the man's
"sagus" to make it useless for the future. But as for their custom relating to
the men and the women (I mean the fact that their tasks have been
exchanged, in a manner opposite to what obtains among us), it is one which
they share in common with many other barbarian peoples.17
As mentioned, Caesar in his War Commentaries, Book VI, Chapter 17, did
expressly argue that for the Gauls, Mercury was the prime devotional god.
“They worship as their divinity, Mercury in particular, and have many images of
him, and regard him as the inventor of all arts, they consider him the guide of
their journeys and marches and believe him to have great influence over the
acquisition of gain and mercantile transactions.”
In Gallo-Roman representation, Lugh, much like the Godhead, is at times
represented triply faceted, three faces, three penises, etc. Cities, towns, and
important sanctuaries were consecrated to him. At Lyon, Lugudunum, “citadel
of Lugus,” There was also a remote mountain shrine at Le Donon, in the Vosges
dedicated to him.

Lugdunum itself, then, (a city founded at the foot of a hill at the confluence
of the River Arar and the Rhodanus), is occupied by the Romans. And it is
the most populous of all the cities of Celtica except Narbo; for not only do
people use it as an emporium, but the Roman governors coin their money
there, both the silver and the gold. Again, the temple that was dedicated to
Caesar Augustus by all the Galatae in common is situated in front of this city
at the junction of the rivers. And in it is a noteworthy altar, bearing an
inscription of the names of the tribes, sixty in number; and also images from
these tribes, one from each tribe, and also another large altar. The city of
Lugdunum presides over the tribe of the Segusiavi, which tribe is situated
between the Rhodanus and the Dubis.18

29
Even before the time of Caesar, as Diodorus reports, Lugdunum was the larger
agglomeration of all of the kingdoms of independent Gaul. Therefore, if an
important commemoration was held at Tailltinn, there is no reason to believe
that no such celebrations were held in Gaul in the vicinity of Lyon. The
Guyonvarc’hs, when looking at the Welsh, Breton, and French, names for the
August festival noticed that in these respective languages it was called: Gwyl
Awst, Gouel Eost, and Goule aoust. All from the Celto-Roman Ueilia/Vigilia
Augusti. It seems that, after the conquest, these summer games were replaced
by the imperial cult of Rome in honor of Caesar Augustus and renamed
Concilium Galliarum or Council of the Gauls.

Statuette of the Gallo-Roman Mars, in Les bronzes antiques de Paris by Velay, Philippe,
et al., Paris, éditions Paris-Musées, 1989.

The Cult of Mars

Mars was the god of eloquence, and on the left bank of the Moselle facing Trier,
Germany, was erected a Celto-Roman temple theater furnished with a
monumental alter. This site was probably used for the enactment of ritual
drama. At Craôn, in Mayenne, France, was found a circular oratory dedicated to
Mars Mullo, “the mule.” And inscriptions from Rennes testifies to the practice of
official public cults in celebration of Mars.
The main cult of the warrior was performed in honor of the horse goddess
Epona. There is an interesting statement made by Diodorus in Library of History
concerning the ritual dances performed by the Lusitanian warriors.

30
 Since they are nimble and wear light arms, they are swift both in flight and
in pursuit, but when it comes to enduring the hardships of a stiff fight they
are far inferior to the Celtiberians. In the time of peace they practice a kind of
elfin dance which requires great nimbleness of limb, and in their wars, they
march into battle with even step and raise a battle-song as they charge upon
the foe.19

Also of interest in Library of History is this comment on how the Celtic Iberian
Vettonians remain silent and motionless between battles.
The Vettonians, when they visited the camp of the Romans for the first time,
upon seeing some of the officers promenading up and down the streets
merely for the sake of walking around, supposed they were crazy and
proceeded to lead the way for them to the tents, thinking they should either
remain quietly seated or else be fighting. 20

God with a Lyra, Exposition de Bibracte, photo J.F. Bradu.

The Cult of Apollo

This pan-Indo-European god, Apollo, is probably the most misunderstood of the
common pantheon and the etymology for his name has baffled scholars. The
Gauls called him Abellio, Grannos, and Moritasgos, the Welsh, Mabon, while
the Irish called him Aonghus the mac Óg.
On this god, Herodotus writes the following:

31
 The Keltoi who dwell along the ocean venerate the Dioskoroi above any of the
gods since they have a tradition handed down from ancient times that these
gods appeared among them coming from the ocean…21

One of the best recounts of Antiquity on the subject of the Apollonian cult is
found in Strabo’s Geography:
In the ocean, he says, there is a small island, not very far out to sea, situated
off the outlet of the Liger River; and the island is inhabited by women of the
Samnitae, and they are possessed by Dionysus and make this god propitious
by appeasing him with mystic initiations as well as other sacred
performances; and no man sets foot on the island, although the women
themselves, sailing from it, have intercourse with the men and then return
again.22

Let’s also note from Diodorus that the twins Dionysus and Apollo were sons of
Zeus.
Of those who have written about the ancient myths, Hecataeus and certain
others say that in the regions beyond the land of the Celts there lies in the
ocean an island no smaller than Sicily. This island, the account continues, is
situated in the north and is inhabited by the Hyperboreans, who are called
by that name because their home is beyond the point whence the north wind
(Boreas) blows; and the island is both fertile and productive of every crop,
and since it has an unusually temperate climate it produces two harvests
each year. Moreover, the following legend is told concerning it: Leto was born
on this island, and for that reason, Apollo is honored among them above all
other gods; and the inhabitants are looked upon as priests of Apollo, after a
manner, since daily they praise this god continuously in song and honor him
exceedingly. And there is also on the island both a magnificent sacred
precinct of Apollo and a notable temple which is adorned with many votive
offerings and is spherical in shape. Furthermore, a city is there which is
sacred to this god, and the majority of its inhabitants are players on the
cithara; and these continually play on this instrument in the temple and sing
hymns of praise to the god, glorifying his deeds. 23

32
Statuette of Epona, illustration board VIII, Cabinet des Antiques (Bibliothèque Nationale), Paris,
1896.

Cult to the Goddess

The many cults to the goddess were among, if not, the most popular of the
major Celtic countries. So much so, that it would not be possible in such a
short notice cover all the instances provided on these devotions. The general
cult was directed toward Matrona or the Matronai as the triple goddess of
Sovereignty. The cult to Matrona was far-ranging and shared even with the
Germanic nations of the Rhineland and Galatians of Asia Minor. Her Celto-
Germanic Latinized names were in Bonn, the Matronae Aufaniae and the
Matronae Vecallinehae of Pesch. At this temple complex, were found multiple
shrines and alters where pilgrims, mainly warriors, left bread offerings. Indeed,
one of the goddess’ main attribute was corn sheaf. The many Matres also attest

33
to a widespread goddess cult. These were the Matres Comedovae venerated at
Aix-les-Bains, and the Matres Domesticae worshipped at Chichester, York, and
in Cumbria. Their Celtic names were most likely Matres Comedouai, the
“commensal mothers,” and Matres Moguisai, the “domestic mothers.”

Better documented was the cavalier cult to Epona, which was also universal in
the Europe of Antiquity. Her devotion was so popular and enduring that she
was euhemerized as saint Eponinna in Christian Gaul.
On her, Tertullian in Apology for the Christians, p. 50, writes:
As for the objection of the ass's head, I cannot but admire you should insist
upon it against Christians, you who cannot deny but that you pay divine
honors to all the beasts of burthen, to asses' heads and bodies both, together
with their goddess Epona.

Another important goddess of Antiquity was Nemetona. As her name suggests, she was
the tutelary goddess of the Nemeton, the sacred grove. The Lady of the Lake of
Arthurian legend was called Viviane in French, and Nimuë in Breton. Nimuë is from the
later Gallic Nimida, which meant “the shrine, the sanctuary.” The Irish battle Fury,
Nemain, is of the same etymology. Her name is attested in many epigraphic finds from
Germany to Britain where she is coupled with Mars Rigonemetis and Mars Loucetius. A
variant of her name was Nemetara, “most sacred.”

The stele of Natalis and Regtilla from des Bolards necropolis of Nuits-Saint-Georges.
Photo from P.-A. Lamy, Musée de Nuits-Saint-Georges, France.

34
Patron gods of the Holy Calendar

Samhain < Samonios carried several literal and implied meanings: "(time) of the
gathering or reunion,” and “(time) of the sower,” here punning with Semonios which
also implied “of reverence.” Here is but a short list of the related terms:
samonia/samania, “reunion, gathering, meeting, ritual assembly,” samon/semon,
“seed, grain,” semon / sebon, “reverend,” samos, summer.” At this moment in time, all
the living mortals, the fallen heroes, the ancestral spirits, and the godly entities, were
convened to the gathering.
The ollodeuoi, the gods altogether were grouped in two categories, the ionoi, the pure
ones, and the anamones, the souls of the deceased. Under the patronage of Samonios,
Cenos, and Gobannis.

The feast of Lustrations, Imbolc < Ambiuolcaia, in February during the cold at wet
season was under the sign of the wolf-bitch and milking of ewes. Also called Feil Bide <
Ueilio Brigindo, “Eve of Brigit,” under the patronage of Brigit (< Brigindo / Brigantia,
“the lofty one”).

May Day celebrations of Beltaine, is from the Old Celtic root Belotepnia > Belotennia,
“bright fires,” or “bonfires.” The heliacal rising of the Pleiades heralds the month of
May. May was dedicated to the pan-Celtic Bilé / Beli (< Belos, “bright”), under the
patronage of Esus and the Pleiadean triple goddess Maia Rosmerta in the guise of the
Trigaranai, the tree cranes.

The late summer August celebration was called Lugnasad < Lugunaissatis, Lugh’s
assembly, which was celebrated in honor of the pan-Celtic high-god Lug/Lleu (< Lugus)
and his foster mother Tailtiu (< Talantio, the earth deified). In all likelihood, it was
formerly under the patronage of Toutatis, or Toutorixs. The muse goddess Carmán (<
Carmentis, “the poetic”) was also commemorated on this occasion in the province of
Leinster.

Samoindon, the end of the summer commemorations were marked at the end of the
month of September under the patronage of Taranis acting as Edrinos, judge arbitrator.
It was noted in the Gallic calendar as Mins Edrini, for “month of arbitration,” and thus
connoted “hot flux.” It was formerly spelled Aedrinios or Aedurinios in Old Celtic. From
indirect material, Monard believes that, in Ireland, the Dagda was also commemorated at
the end of summer on the advent of the September-October moon.

Endnotes
1. Diodorus, Library of History, 5.31.
2. Julius Caesar in Gallic War Commentaries, Book VI, chapter 13, p337.
3. Strabo, Geography, Book IV, chapter 4, p. 245.

35
4. Econnes / Ecconai, the plural of Ecco / Eccona, from the Proto-Celtic root aego,
“nearing, haunting, common priest, country priest.”
5. Gutton, He who is invoked as a divine entity, that is, Gutton Uxellimon, the supreme
being, or supreme deity.
6. Fomorii / Fomoire < Uomorioi, “submarine, subaquatic;” a category of dysfunctional
deities who oppose the gods and mingle with them.
7. Imbolc < Ambiuolcaia, “lustrations;” in connotation: ambi-uolca,
“surrounding the wolf-bitch.”
8. Imradud < ambirateia, “meditation;” often translated as meaning “thought,
mind,” in modern English.
9. Strabo, Geography, Book III, Chapter, Section 16, p. 109.
10. Lucan in Pharsalia, Book I, verses19 to 20.
11. After the Death of Fothad Canann, Reicne Fothaid Canainne, translated by
Kuno Meyer, H 3. 17 & B. IV. 2, Todd Lecture Series 16.
12. Annals of the Four Masters, The Age of the World, year 3066, pp. 12-13.
13. The Second Battle of Moytura, Whitley Stokes translation, Section I, p. 59.
14. Partholon as a derivative of Bar Ptolemaios? The hardening of the initial “B” into “P”
is also a later evolution. Therefore, the best etymology is Partholon < Bardalios,
Bardalionos, “the epic.”
15. Plutarch, in Morals, The Face of the Moon, Section 26, p. 185.
16. Plutarch, Moralia, Concerning the Face Which Appears in the Face in the
Moon, Chapter 26, p. 182-89.
17. Strabo, Geography, Book IV, Chapter 4, p. 245.
18. Diodorus Siculus, Library of History, Book IV, Chapter 3. 2.
19. Diodorus, Library of History, Book V, Section 34, p. 191.
20. Diodorus, Book III, Chapter, section 16, p. 109.
21. Diodorus, Library of History, 4. 56. 4, translated by Oldfather.
22. Strabo, Geography, Book IV, chapter 4.6, p. 249.
23. Diodorus Siculus, The Library of History, Book II, 47, p39.

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