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(FCE- Grammar) Linking Words

Linking words show the logical relationship between sentences or parts of a sentence.

 Steve and his friends are coming to


1. Positive Addition And is used to connect words or phrases. dinner.
And may be used to connect two  He is waving his arms and shouting
independent clauses. at us.
and  It was raining hard, and there was a
strong wind.
 Both my mother and my sister are
2. We use both , neither, either when we here.
are talking about two things.  Both restaurants are very good.
both... and  Neither restaurant is expensive.
either.....or Two subjects connected by both.....and  We can go to either restaurant.
both/either/neither +of take a plural verb. Both + noun + and +  The research project will take both
noun. time and money.
 Either John or his friends are going
Affirmative Agreement Do not use both /both...and... in negative to the beach today.
 either sentences. Use neither / neither...nor...  Either John or Bill is going to the
 too Either/neither of are singular if they are beach today.
not used with or or nor.
 Both of these restaurants are very
Negative Agreement good.
 neither either + noun + or + plural noun +
 Neither of the restaurants we went
 either plural verb
to was (were-Am.E.) expensive.
 both either + noun + or + singular noun +
singular verb  Neither of them came to the
meeting.
 We can go to either of those
both restaurants.
either + of   Neither of the books is exactly what
neither I want.
 If either of you takes a vocation
the/these/ my/your...+noun now , we will not be able to finish
the work.
When we use both/ either  We accepted neither offer.
/neither with of you always need «the,  There were chairs on either side of
these, those, my, our, his...».You cannot the table.
say ‘both of restaurants’; you have to say
‘both of the restaurants / both of these
restaurants.
 Bill likes golf and Tom likes golf
3. Also, as well, too are used with a similar too.
too meaning.  Bill would enjoy a game and Tom
also would too.
as well subject + negative verb + either  I haven’t seen him either.
as well as (instead of too / also)  He didn’t like the book; I didn’t
either.
either

As well and too come at the end of the  She doesn’t smoke. She doesn’t
clause when you are adding something drink either.
to a list of things that you gave in the  Frank speaks French. He also
previous sentence. But also comes in the speaks German.
middle of a clause: before the verb , after  I can also play the piano.
an auxiliary, modal or to be.
 We have also decided to get a new
Also /Too / As well are not used with
car.
two negative statements ( use either)
 « I’m going to get bread, cheese,
tea, and sugar». «Can you get some
milk as well?»
 She’s got a car as well as a
motorbike.
These expressions are used to add  I hate asking for a pay rise.
4. information to what has already been Anyway, there’s no point.
said.  I don’t really need a new car.
Besides Anyway / Besides are used at the Besides, I can’t afford one.
anyway beginning of a sentence when you have  The city provides many cultural
moreover given one reason for doing smth and you opportunities. It has an excellent art
what is more want to add another. museum. Moreover /
Besides = in addition to Furthermore/ In addition , it has a
in addition to Moreover / furthermore / in addition = fine symphony orchestra.
also. They are used at the beginning of a  The city provides many cultural
furthermore sentence to add a more important fact opportunities. In addition to /
than the one that you gave in the Besides an excellent art museum, it
previous sentence. has a fine symphony orchestra.
In addition to / besides are used as  Besides doing the cooking I look
prepositions. They are followed by an after the garden.
object, not a clause.

Nether...nor / not only...but also... +  Neither John nor his friends are
5. Negative Addition singular noun + singular verb going to the beach today.
Nether...nor / not only...but also... +  Neither John nor Bill is going to
neither... nor... plural noun + plural verb the beach today.
nor Neither takes an affirmative verb.  Not only my mother but also my
not only...but also.... sister is here.
 Not only my sister but also my
neither parents are here.
 Mary is rich, while John is poor.
6. Contrast While and whereas are used to show  Mary is rich, whereas John is poor.
clear contrast between two subjects  Whereas Mary is rich, John is poor
while within one sentence. They are followed  John loves playing outdoors all day,
whereas by a clause. while / whereas Harry likes playing
computer games.
But is used to join two words or phrases  It was cold, but I went swimming
7. when the second one has the opposite anyway.
meaning.  It was cold , but I still went
but They show contrast (unexpected result) swimming .
yet
still
but...anyway  It was cold, yet I still went
but... still swimming.
yet... still  Mary is rich, but John is poor.
because is used to express expected
results; even though is used to express  Even though / Although / Though
8. unexpected results. it was cold, I went swimming.
Although is followed by a clause and a  Because I wasn’t tired, I didn’t go
comma. After Although we use a subject to bed.
Although + verb.  We went out although it was
even though Even though is stronger than although. raining.
though Although can’t be at the end of a  Even though I wasn’t tired, I went
because sentence; though- can. to bed.
We use though to mean ‘however’ at the  Although he studied very hard, he
end of a sentence. Think of although as didn’t pass the exam.
«before the fact» and however as «after  He didn’t finish the job, even
the fact». though he worked all night.
 The room is very small. It’s quite
comfortable though.

 I went swimming despite / in spite


9. in spite of / despite + Ving of the cold weather.
in spite of / despite + noun  I went swimming despite the fact
in spite of in spite of / despite + pronoun that / in spite of the fact that the
despite in spite of = despite weather was cold.
despite the fact that....  Despite / In spite of her excellent
in spite of the fact that.... qualifications , Carol didn’t get the
job.
 Despite / In spite of having
excellent qualifications , Carol
didn’t get the job.
Use this at the beginning of a sentence  Mary is rich. John, on the other
10. when you have just mentioned one side hand, is poor.
of an argument And you are going to  Nuclear power is relatively cheap.
on the other hand mention the opposite side. On the other hand, you could argue
that it’s not safe.
 It was cold. Nevertheless , I went
11. swimming.
However and nevertheless link  I like him very much. However /
however contrasting ideas in two different Nevertheless, we are very different.
nevertheless sentences.
nonetheless

12. Giving Examples  There are many interesting places to


for example = for instance visit in the city. For example, the
for example These expressions introduce particular botanical garden has numerous
for instance examples to illustrate what has been said. displays of plants from all over the
world.
e.g. = for example  There are many interesting places to
e.g. = exempli gratia (Latin) visit in the city. The art museum,
for instance, has an excellent
collection of modern paintings.
such as  I prefer to wear casual clothes, such
like such as = for example as jeans and a sweatshirt.
 Some countries, such as Brazil and
especially Canada, are big.
in particular

 Since Monday is a holiday, we


13. Cause/ Reason As / since = because, and they can begin don’t have to go to work.
a sentence; they are followed by a clause.  Since you are a good cook and I’m
not, you should cook the dinner.
as  As it was a public holiday, all the
since shops were shut.
 As they live near us, we see them
quite often.
Because introduces an adverb clause; it  Because the weather was cold, we
14. is followed by a subject and verb. stayed home.
Because of / due to are phrasal  Because of the cold weather, we
because (of) prepositions ; they are followed by a stayed home.
noun object.  Due to the cold weather, we stayed
due to home.
 Due to the fact that the weather was
cold, we stayed home.
 We stayed home because of / due
to the cold weather.
now that now that = because now  Now that the semester is over
Now that is used for present causes of ( =because the semester is now
present or future situations. over) , I’m going to rest a few days
and then take a trip.
 Jack lost his job. Now that he’s
unemployed, he can’t pay his bills.
 Hundreds of people lost their homes
15. as a result of smth. = because of smth as a result of the war.
Use as a result of to say what made  Con died as the result of a heart
for this reason something happen. attack.
Use the simple/good/obvious reason  We can’t take you all, for the
as a result (of) (that) to explain why something simple reason that there isn’t
happened enough room in the car.

16. Condition Whether or not expresses the idea that


neither this condition nor that condition  I’m going to go swimming
if /whether matters; the result will be the same. tomorrow whether or not it is cold.
whether or not Even if gives the idea that a particular (or : whether it is cold or not)
even if = even though condition does not matter. The result will  I’ve decided to go swimming
not change. tomorrow. Even if the weather is
cold. I’m going to go swimming.
 You must go tomorrow if you are
ready.
 You must go tomorrow even if you
aren’t ready.
 I’ll be at my uncle’s house in case
17. In case / in the event that express the you (should) need to reach me.
idea that something probably won’t  In the event that you (should) need
in case happen , but it might. It means «if by to reach me, I’ll be at my uncle’s
in case of chance this should happen». house.
in the event that In case is followed by a present /past  I always slept by the phone in case
tense or should. he rang during the night. = I always
(do not use will after in case) slept by the phone because (I knew)
In case of... = if there is... he might ring during the night.
 We bought some food in case Tom
came.
 In case of fire, please leave the
building as quickly as possible. =if
there is a fire.
unless = if...not = except if  I’ll go swimming tomorrow unless
18. unless + affirmative verb = it’s cold.
if + negative  Don’t tell Sue what I said unless
only if We often use unless in warnings: (We’ll she asks you. (= except if she asks
unless be late unless we hurry.) you)
 I’ll go swimming tomorrow if it
isn’t cold.
 You’ll get wet unless you take your
umbrella.
 Unless you start at once you’ll be
late = If you don’t start at once
you’ll be late.
Otherwise expresses the idea «if the  I always eat breakfast. Otherwise , I
19. opposite is true, then there will be a get hungry during class.
certain result».  You’d better hurry. Otherwise,
otherwise Or else and Otherwise have the same you’ll be late.
or (else)) meaning.  Take your umbrella. Otherwise,
you’ll get wet.
 I always eat breakfast, or (else) I
get hungry during class.
 Take your umbrella, or (else) you’ll
get wet.
Provided that can replace if when there  You can camp here provided you
20. is a strong idea of limitation or restriction leave no mess.
(mainly used with permission)  Provided you pay me back by
provided (that) / Provided / Providing - only if a Friday, I’ll lend you the money.
providing (that) particular thing happens or is done.  It’s a lot easier to get good marks
as /so long as As / so long as is used before saying the on a short -answer question,
on condition (that) conditions that will make something providing you do it well.
else happen or be true.  My parents don’t care what job I do
as long as I’m happy.
 They spoke on condition that their
names would not be used in the
article.
Like is followed by a noun object or a  It looks like rain.
21. clause. As if /as though are followed by  It looks as if it is going to rain.
a clause. Usually the idea following as if/  It looks as though it is going to
as if / as though as though is «untrue». In this case, verb rain.
usage is similar to that in conditional  It looks like it is going to rain
sentence. (informal)
 She talked to him as if he were a
child.
 He acted as though he had never
met her.
In order to is used to express purpose, it  He came here in order to study
22. Purpose answers the question «Why?». It is English.
followed by a verb.  I turned off the TV in order to
So that also expresses purpose. It has the enable my roommate to study in
in order to same meaning as in order to. So that is peace and quiet.
often used instead of in order to when  I turned off the TV so (that) my
in order that the idea of ability is being expressed. roommate could study in peace and
Can is used in the adverb clause for a quiet.
so that present/future meaning. So that I can buy  I’m going to cash a check so that I
= in order to be able to buy. Could is can buy my textbooks.
in case used after so that in past sentences.  I cashed a check so that I could buy
In order that = so that my textbooks.
in case + present tense = because this  I turned off the TV in order that my
may happen/ because this will happen roommate could study in peace and
in case + past tense = because this might quiet.
happen /because this would happen  I don’t let him climb trees in case
he tears his trousers.
 I carry a spare wheel in case I have
a puncture.
 I always kept candles in the house
in case there was a power cut.

 It was such nice weather that we


23. Effect / Result such ....that = so.... that went to the zoo.
such + adjective + noun +  The weather was so nice that we
that went to the zoo.
so + adjective/adverb + that  It was such good coffee that I had
such/so... that so...that is used with many, few, much, another cup.
and little.  It was such a foggy day that we
couldn’t see the road.
 The coffee was so hot that I can’t
drink it.
 I’m so hungry that I could eat a
horse.
 She speaks so fast that I can’t
understand her.
 She made so many mistakes that
she failed the exam.
 Al didn’t study. Therefore, he
24. Therefore and consequently mean « as a failed the test.
result» . They connect the ideas between  Al didn’t study. Consequently, he
consequently two sentences. They have several failed the test.
positions and are separated from the rest
therefore of the sentence by commas.  =..... He, therefore, failed the test.
so So ( meaning therefore, as a result )  =....He failed the test, therefore.
connects two sentences. So has only  Al didn’t study, so he failed the test.
one possible position: between the two
sentences.

When = at that time  When I arrived, he was talking on


25. Time. the phone.
 When was in Chicago, I visited the
when (когда) museums.
 When I see him tomorrow, I will
ask him.
While / as = during that time  While I was studying, the phone
26. We use as when two things happen at rang.
the same time.  While I was walking home, it began
while to rain.
as  As I was walking home, it began to
rain.
 George arrived as Sue left.
A present tense, not a future tense is  After she graduates, she will get a
27. used in time-clause. job.
After and before are commonly used in  After she (had) graduated, she got a
after the following expressions: job.
shortly after/ before;  I will leave before he comes.
before a short time after/ before;  I (had) left before he came.
a little while after / before;
not long after / before;
soon after

as soon as / once = when one event  As soon as it stops raining, we will


28. happens, another event happens soon leave.
afterward.  Once it stops raining, we will leave.
as soon as (как только)
once (когда-то,
однажды, как только)
by the time by the time = one event is completed  By the time he arrived, we had
before another event ( usually Past already left.
Perfect or Future Perfect)  By the time he comes, we will have
already left.
since since = from that time to the present.  I haven’t seen him since he left this
Ever since adds emphasis. The Present morning.
Perfect is used in the main clause.  I’ve known her ever since I was a
child.
until/till until / till = to that time and then no  We stayed there until we finished
longer. Till is used more in speaking than our work.
in writing; it is generally not used in  We stayed there till we finished our
formal English. work.
As long as / so long as as long as / so long as =  I will never speak to him again as
during all that time , from beginning to long as I live.
end  I will never speak to him again so
long as I live.
whenever = every time that something  Whenever I see her, I say hello.
29. happens.  Every time I see her, I say hello.
Whenever is used:  Whenever I smiled, he smiled back.
Whenever  as a conjunction (connecting two  Whenever have I been cruel to you?
clauses);  Whenever I hear that song , I think
every time  as an adverb of you.
every time = whenever something  We can’t keep calling the doctor
happens ; when one thing happens, every time you get a headache.
something else always happens.  My neck hurts every time I move.
the first time The first time / the last time / the next  The first time I went to New York,
time refer to a particular occasion. I went to an opera.
the last time  I saw two plays the last time I went
to New York.
the next time  The last time we met you promised
to join me on a trip to Beijing.
 The next time I go to New York,
I’m going to see a ballet.
Where can be used:  I know a place where you can hide.
30. Place  as a relative adverb (introducing a  I’ve hidden the money where no
relative clause); one will find it.
 as a conjunction (connecting two  She was followed by press
clauses) photographers wherever she went.
where Wherever can be used as a conjunction
wherever (connecting two clauses)

Except is used for introducing the only  We haven’t told anyone except
31. Exception thing , person, or fact that is not included Leslie’s dad.
in your main sentence; it is like saying  I like all musical instruments except
without, or minus. the violin.
except (for) Apart from is used:  I don’t know much about the man,
 except for someone or something. except that he’s a fool.
apart from  in addition to someone/something  Everything was perfect except for
the weather.
 I hardly know anyone in the village
apart from William and you.
 Apart from the violin, he plays the
piano and the flute. (=besides the
violin......)
 I like all musical instruments apart
from the violin. (=.........except the
violin)

 She’s the woman (who/ whom


who/whom/whose/which/ /that) I saw on TV last night.
32. Relatives that are used to introduce relative  That’s the dog whose owner was
clauses. They are called relative arrested.
who pronouns or relatives.  That’s the shop whose windows
were smashed.
whom for people: who/that/whom/whose  This is the house (which/that) we
for animals/things: live in.
whose which/that/whose  His wife, who is French, speaks
three languages.
which

that

 «Why were you annoyed?» -


33. Listing points/Events to begin with - is used for introducing «Well, to begin with, I hadn’t even
the first thing in a list of things you are invited her».
to begin with / to start going to say.  First, open all the windows. Then
with first / firstly / first of all introduce the turn off the gas and, if necessary ,
first item in a list or sequence. The next call an ambulance.
first / firstly / first of all item is normally introduced by then or  First(ly) , we need somewhere to
to continue secondly. live. Second(ly), we need to find
work. And third(ly)........
then

 In conclusion, I’d like to say that


34. Summarising To introduce a concluding statement, use everybody should be able to work if
in conclusion, by way of conclusion, or they want to.
in conclusion to conclude.  To conclude, I’d like to say that
Finally/lastly are used at the beginning everybody should read the book.
to conclude of a sentence to introduce the last point  Finally, I’d like to consider the
in a speech, reply, essay, etc. economic arguments.
finally/ lastly In summary is used at the end of a talk  Lastly, I’d like to thank you all for
or piece of writing for introducing a short coming and wish you a safe journey
in summary statement that gives only basic home.
information.  In summary, nobody knows where
to sum up Sum up = to give a summary of the disease originated.
something  I’ll sum up briefly and then we’ll
on the whole On the whole is used for talking about take questions.
the general situation.  It was a pretty good conference on
all in all All in all is used for showing that you are the whole.
considering every aspect of something.
 All in all, I think it has been a very
altogether Altogether / in short are used for
successful conference.
introducing a summary of what you have
 The weather was great and the
in short just said.
people were friendly- altogether a
perfect trip.
 Inflation is down, spending is up.
In short, the economy is in good
shape.

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