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Engineering Properties of Soils

Technical Report · February 2017

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.16181.06887

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 ENGINEERING PROPERTIES OF SOILS

By
Prof. A. Balasubramanian
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
University of Mysore, Mysore

Objectives:

A soil is composed primarily of minerals which are produced from parent material that is weathered or
broken into small pieces. Plants and animals have important roles to play in soil.
Both plants and animals change the composition and structure of soil in many different ways. Plants with
roots obtain nutrients and moisture from soil through their roots. Soils are characterised by their
physical, chemical and biological properties. In addition, soils are good materials used in engineering
projects. soil foundation, use of soil in constructions and industrial applications is another dimension of
soils. The objective of studying this module is to know about the engineering properties of soils and their
significances.

1. Introduction:

The term "soil" can have different meanings, depending upon the field in which it is considered.
To a geologist, it is the material in the relative thin zone of the Earth's surface within which roots occur,
and which are formed as the products of past surface processes. The rest of the crust is grouped under the
term "rock".
To a pedologist, it is the substance existing on the surface, which supports plant life.
To an engineer, it is a material that can be:
built on: foundations of buildings, bridges
built in: basements, culverts, tunnels
built with: embankments, roads, dams
supported: retaining walls

2. Soil Mechanics

Soil Mechanics is a discipline of Civil Engineering involving the study of soil, its behaviour and
application as an engineering material.
Soil Mechanics is the application of laws of mechanics and hydraulics to engineering problems dealing
with sediments and other unconsolidated accumulations of solid particles, which are produced by the
mechanical and chemical disintegration of rocks, regardless of whether or not they contain an admixture
of organic constituents.
Soil consists of a multiphase aggregation of solid particles, water, and air. This fundamental composition
gives rise to unique engineering properties, and the description of its mechanical behavior requires some
of the most classic principles of engineering mechanics.
Engineers are concerned with soil's mechanical properties: permeability, stiffness, and strength. These
depend primarily on the nature of the soil grains, the current stress, the water content and unit weight.

3. Soil engineers:

Soil engineers' calculations are necessary both for designing a foundation for a structure and for
designing the structure itself. Soil engineers take borings and soil samples and investigate soil
composition and grade, among other factors. This analysis is needed not only for buildings but also for
bridges, levees, roads, and reservoirs.
A soil engineer's consultation may be sought when retrofitting an existing structure.

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Engineering properties of soil comprises of physical properties, index properties, strength parameters
(shear strength parameters), permeability characteristics, consolidation properties, modulus
parameters, dynamic behavior etc.

4. Methods of Determining Soil Properties

Geotechnical soil and rock properties of geologic strata are typically determined using one or more of the
following methods:
• In-situ testing data from the field exploration program;
• Laboratory testing; and
• Back analysis based on site performance data.

Laboratory Testing :
Laboratory soil testing is used to estimate strength, stress\strain, compressibility, and permeability
characteristics.

5. Cohesion :

It is the internal molecular attraction which resists the rupture or shear of a material. Cohesion is derived
in the fine grained soils from the water films which bind together the individual particles in the soil mass.

Cohesion is the property of the fine grained soil with particle size below 0.002 mm. cohesion of a soil
decreases as the moisture content increases. Cohesion is greater in well compacted clays and it is
independent of the external load applied.
For cohesionless soils (or soils without any fines), the standard compaction tests are difficult to
perform. For compaction, application of vibrations is the most effective method. Watering is another
method. The seepage force of water percolating through a cohesionless soil makes the soil grains occupy
a more stable position. However a large quantity of water is required in this method. To achieve
maximum dry density, they can be compacted either in a dry state or in a saturated state.

6. Angle of Internal Friction

The resistance in sliding of grain particles of a soil mass depends upon the angle of internal friction. It is
usually considered that the value of the angle of internal friction is almost independent of the normal
pressure but varies with the degree of packing of the particles, i.e. with the density.

The soils subjected to the higher normal stresses will have lower moisture contents and higher bulk
densities at failure than those subjected to lower normal stresses and the angle of internal friction may
thus change. The true angle of internal friction of clay is seldom zero and may be as much as 260. The
angle of internal friction fro granular soils may vary in between 280 to 500.

7. Capillarity :

It is the ability of soil to transmit moisture in all directions regardless of any gravitational force. Water
rises up through soil pores due to capillary attraction.

The maximum theoretical height of capillary rise depends upon the pressure which tends to force the
water into the soil, and this force increases as the size of the soil particles decreases.

The capillary rise in a soil when wet may equal as much as 4 to 5 times the height of capillary rise in the
same soil when dry. Coarse gravel has no capillary rise; coarse sand has up to 30 cm; fine sand and soils
have capillary rise up to 1.2 m but dry sand have very little capillarity. Clays may have capillary rise up
to 0.9 to 1.2 m but pure clays have very low value.

8. Permeability :

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Permeability of a soil is the rate at which water flows through it under action of hydraulic gradient. The
passage of moisture through the inter-spaces or pores of the soil is called ‘percolation’.

Soils having porous enough for percolation to occur are termed ‘pervious’ or ‘permeable’, while those
which do not permit the passage of water are termed ‘impervious’ or ‘impermeable’. The rate of flow is
directly proportional to the head of water.

Permeability is a property of soil mass and not of individual particles. The permeability of cohesive soil
is, in general, very small. Knowledge of permeability is required not only for seepage, drainage and
ground water problems but also for the rate of settlement of structures on saturated soils.

9. Soil plasticity :

Soil plasticity is a property that enables the moist soil to change shape when some force is applied over it
and to retain this shape even after the removal of the force from it. The plasticity of soil depends on the
cohesion and adhesion of soil materials.

Cohesion refers to the attraction of substances of like characteristics, such as, that of one water molecule
for another.

Adhesion refers to the attraction of substances of unlike characteristics. Soil consistency depends on the
texture and amount of inorganic and organic colloids, structure and moisture contents of soil.

10 . Elasticity :

A soil is said to be elastic when it suffers a reduction in volume (or is changed shape & bulk) while the
load is applied, but recovers its initial volume immediately when the load is removed.

The most important characteristic of the elastic behavior of soil is that no matter how many repetitions of
load are applied to it, provided that the stress set up in the soil do not exceed the yield stress, the soil does
not become permanently deformed. This elastic behavior is characteristic of peat.

11. Compressibility :

Gravels, sands & silts are incompressible, i.e. if a moist mass of those materials is subjected to
compression; they suffer no significant volume change.

Clays are compressible, i.e. if a moist mass of clay is subjected to compression, moisture & air may be
expelled, resulting in a reduction in volume which is not immediately recovered when the compression
load is withdrawn.

The decrease in volume per unit increase of pressure is defined as the compressibility of soil, and a
measure of the rate at which consolidation proceeds is given by the ‘co-efficient of consolidation’ of the
soil.

Compressibility of sand & silt varies with density & compressibility of clay varies directly with water
content & inversely with cohesive strength.

12. Uniaxial Compressive Strength (UCS) Test

Compressive strength is the capacity of a material to withstand axially directed compressive forces.
The most common measure of compressive strength is the uniaxial compressive strength (a.k.a.
unconfined compressive strength).

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Triaxial Compression :

The triaxial compression test is a more sophisticated testing procedure for determining the shear strength
of a soil. The test involves a soil specimen subjected to an axial load until failure while also being
subjected to confining pressure that approximates the in-situ stress conditions.

13. Moisture Content & Available water capacity

The moisture content (w) is defined as the ratio of the weight of water in a sample to the weight of solids.

Available water capacity refers to the quantity of water that the soil is capable of storing for use by
plants. The capacity varies, depending on soil properties that affect the retention of water and the depth
of the root zone. The most important properties are the content of organic matter, soil texture, bulk
density, and soil structure.

Available water capacity is an important factor in the choice of plants or crops to be grown and in the
design and management of irrigation systems. Available water capacity is not an estimate of the quantity
of water actually available to plants at any given time.

14. Atterberg Limits :

When a clayey soil is mixed with an excessive amount of water, it may flow like a semiliquid. If the soil
is gradually dried, it will behave like a plastic, semisolid, or solid material depending on its moisture
content. The moisture content, in percent, at which the soil changes from a liquid to a plastic state, is
defined as the liquid limit (LL).

Similarly, the moisture contents, in percent, at which the soil change from a plastic to a semisolid state
and from a semisolid to a solid state are define as the plastic limit (PL) and the shrinkage limit (SL),
respectively. These limit a referred to as Atterberg limits.

The behavior of the soil is therefore related directly to the amount of water which is present. In 1911, A.
Atterberg defined the boundaries of four states of consistency in terms of limits.

15. The consistency limits of the soil are controlled by the pore fluid pressure. The fluid in a
unconsolidated material promotes inter-granular cohesion. Fluid in a soil will promote excess pressure to
cause fluid like behavior of the soil.

A. Plastic Limit(PL):
The plastic limit (PL) is the moisture content at which a soil transitions from being in a semisolid state to
a plastic state.

B. Liquid Limit (LL) :

The liquid limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content at which a soil transitions from a plastic state to a
liquid state.

C. Plasticity Index :
The plasticity index (PI) is defined as the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit of a soil
PI = LL − PL. The PI represents the range of moisture contents within which the soil behaves as a plastic
solid.

PI Range Description
0 Nonplastic
1–5 Slightly Plastic
5 – 10 Low Plasticity
10 – 20 Medium Plasticity

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20 – 40 High Plasticity
> 40 Very High Plasticity
The liquid limit, plastic limit, and shrinkage limit are extremely useful in correlating anticipated soil
behavior with previous experience on soils in similar consistency states. Each limit represents a water
content at which the soil changes from one state to another.

Activity :

The degree of plasticity related to the clay content is called the Activity of the soil. In most natural clays,
the actual clay-sized material (smaller than 2 μm) comprise only a fraction of the total.

16. Specific Gravity of Soils

The specific gravity of soil, Gs, is defined as the ratio of the unit weight of a given material to the unit
weight of water.

Weight-Volume Relationships: In nature, soils are three-phase systems consisting of solid soil particles,
water, an air (or gas). To develop the weight-volume relationships for a soil, the three phases can be
separated.

17. Soil Strength :

Soils consist of individual particles that can slide and roll relative to one another. Shear strength of a soil
is equal to the maximum value of shear stress that can be mobilized within a soil mass without failure
taking place.
The shear strength of a soil is a function of the stresses applied to it as well as the manner in which these
stresses are applied. A knowledge of shear strength of soils is necessary to determine the bearing capacity
of foundations, the lateral pressure exerted on retaining walls, and the stability of slopes.
The shear strength is the internal resistance per unit area that the soil can handle before failure and is
expressed as a stress. There are two components of shear strength; the cohesive element (expressed as the
cohesion, c, in units of force/unit area) and the frictional element (expressed as the angle of internal
friction, φ).

Soil strength tests are performed on high quality, relatively undisturbed in-situ specimens. However, it is
difficult and frequently impossible to sample, transport, extrude and set-up testing for granular,
cohesionless soils (Sand or Gravel) without excessively disturbing or completely obliterating the soil
specimen.

It is difficult to obtain good strength values through lab testing of disturbed (remolded) specimens since
the soil matrix (i.e., cohesion/ bonding of soil particles) is destroyed and the in-situ density and moisture
content are very difficult to recreate.

18. Consolidation Test :

The amount of settlement induced by the placement of load bearing elements on the ground surface or the
construction of earthen embankments will affect the performance of the structure.

The amount of settlement is a function of the increase in pore water pressure caused by the loading and
the reduction of this pressure over time.

The reduction in pore pressure and the rate of the reduction are a function of the permeability of the in-
situ soil. All soils undergo elastic compression and primary and secondary consolidation.

19. Shrinkage and Swell :

Certain soil types (highly plastic) have a large potential for volumetric change depending on the moisture
content of the soil. These soils can shrink with decreasing moisture or swell with increasing moisture.

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Shrinkage can cause soil to pull away from structure thus reducing the bearing area or causing settlement
of the structure beyond that predicted by settlement analysis.

Swelling of the soil can cause an extra load to be applied to the structure that was not accounted for in
design. Therefore, the potential for shrinkage and swelling should be determined for soils that have high
plasticity.

20. Bulk density :

Bulk density data are used to compute shrink-swell potential, available water capacity, total pore space,
and other soil properties.

The moist bulk density of a soil indicates the pore space available for water and roots. A bulk density of
more than 1.6 can restrict water storage and root penetration.

Moist bulk density is influenced by texture, kind of clay, content of organic matter, and soil structure.

21. Erodibility:

It refers to the ease with which soil materials can be removed by wind or water.

Easily eroded materials include unprotected silt, sand and other loosely consolidated materials, Cohesive
soils (with more than 20% clay) and naturally cemented soils are not easily removed from its place by
wind or water and, therefore, have a low erosion factor.

22. Total Stress

When a load is applied to soil, it is carried by the solid grains and the water in the pores. The total
vertical stress acting at a point below the ground surface is due to the weight of everything that lies
above, including soil, water, and surface loading. Total stress thus increases with depth and with unit
weight.

23. Pore Water Pressure

The pressure of water in the pores of the soil is called pore water pressure (u). The magnitude of pore
water pressure depends on:
 the depth below the water table.
 the conditions of seepage flow.
The natural level of ground water is called the water table or the phreatic surface. Under conditions of
no seepage flow, the water table is horizontal. The magnitude of the pore water pressure at the water table
is zero. Below the water table, pore water pressures are positive.

24. Effective Stress in Unsaturated Zone

Above the water table, when the soil is saturated, pore pressure will be negative (less than atmospheric).
The height above the water table to which the soil is saturated is called the capillary rise, and this
depends on the grain size and the size of pores. In coarse soils, the capillary rise is very small. Water is
incompressible, whereas air is compressible. The combined effect is a complex relationship involving
partial pressures and the degree of saturation of the soil.

25. Compaction of Soils

Compaction is the application of mechanical energy to a soil so as to rearrange its particles and reduce
the void ratio. It is applied to improve the properties of an existing soil or in the process of placing fill

6
 such as in the construction of embankments, road bases, runways, earth dams, and reinforced earth walls.
Compaction is also used to prepare a level surface during construction of buildings. There is usually no
change in the water content and in the size of the individual soil particles.

The purpose of compaction are:

 To increase soil shear strength and therefore its bearing capacity.
 To reduce subsequent settlement under working loads.
 To reduce soil permeability making it more difficult for water to flow through.

26. Conclusion:

Soil mechanics deals with the application of the laws and principles of mechanics and hydraulics to
engineering problems dealing with soil as an engineering material. Soil has many different meanings,
depending on the field of study. To a geotechnical engineer, soil has a much broader meaning and can
include not only agronomic material, but also broken-up fragments of rock, volcanic ash, alluvium,
Aeolian sand, glacial material, and any other residual or transported product of rock weathering.

The engineering properties of soils is much concerned with the deformation and strength of bodies of
soil. It deals with the mechanical properties of the soil materials and with the application of the
knowledge of these properties to engineering problems. In particular it is concerned with the interaction
of structures with their foundation material. These properties play a dominant role while controlling the
problems of soil erosion and promoting soil conservation.

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