polymers

Article
Effects of Fabric Counts and Weave Designs on the
Properties of Laminated Woven Kenaf/Carbon Fibre
Reinforced Epoxy Hybrid Composites
H.A. Aisyah 1 , M.T. Paridah 1, *, A. Khalina 1,2 , S.M. Sapuan 1,2 , M.S. Wahab 3 , O.B. Berkalp 4 ,
C.H. Lee 1 and S.H. Lee 1, *
1 Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products (INTROP), Universiti Putra Malaysia,
43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia; a.humaira.aisyah@gmail.com (H.A.A.);
khalina@upm.edu.my (A.K.); sapuan@upm.edu.my (S.M.S.); leechinghao@upm.edu.my (C.H.L.)
2 Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
3 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussien Onn Malaysia (UTHM),
86400 Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia; saidin@uthm.edu.my
4 Faculty of Textile Technology and Design, Istanbul Technical University, İnönü Caddesi. No.: 65,
Gumussuyu, Beyoglu, 34437 Istanbul, Turkey; berkalp@itu.edu.tr
* Correspondence: parida@upm.edu.my (M.T.P.); lee_seng@upm.edu.my (S.H.L.);
Tel.: +60-38947-1880 (M.T.P.)




Received: 4 November 2018; Accepted: 26 November 2018; Published: 28 November 2018


Abstract: The effects of different fabric materials namely weave designs (plain and satin) and fabric
counts (5 × 5 and 6 × 6) on the properties of laminated woven kenaf/carbon fibre reinforced epoxy
hybrid composites were evaluated. The hybrid composites were fabricated from two types of fabric,
i.e., woven kenaf that was made from a yarn of 500tex and carbon fibre, by using vacuum infusion
technique and epoxy resin as matrix. The panels were tested for tensile, flexural, and impact strengths.
The results have revealed that plain fabric is more suitable than satin fabric for obtaining high tensile
and impact strengths. Using a fabric count of 5 × 5 has generated composites that are significantly
higher in flexural modulus as compared to 6 × 6 which may be attributed to their structure and design.
The scanned electron micrographs of the fractured surfaces of the composites demonstrated that
plain woven fabric composites had better adhesion properties than satin woven fabric composites,
as indicated by the presence of notably lower amount of fibre pull out.

Keywords: fabric; woven kenaf; plain; satin; hybrid composites

1. Introduction
Composite materials with natural fibre as a means of reinforcement are becoming increasingly
prevalent in many applications such as semi-structural building component, automotive, furniture,
and other applications. The most significant criteria of natural fibres are renewability, bio-degradability,
light weight, good mechanical properties, and having low density with good strength. On the
other hand, substitution of conventional materials with natural fibres textiles as a reinforcement
agent prevails all over the world as they offer several advantages including high strength and
stiffness, are durable and have superior design flexibility [1,2]. Many researchers have studied
the utilisation of natural fibres as textile reinforcement with polymer matrix such as those from
hemp [3,4], jute [5–8], flax [9,10], and kenaf [11–15]. Over the years, kenaf fibre has been utilised
extensively as a reinforcement agent in many productions of polymer composites. Low density and
high specific mechanical properties of kenaf have become a pulling factor for kenaf as a preferred
natural reinforcement fibre in the biocomposite industry. Akil et al. [16] has stated that kenaf fibre

Polymers 2018, 10, 1320; doi:10.3390/polym10121320 www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers

Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 2 of 19

reinforced polymer composite, and thus has good potential among other natural fibres due to its
excellent properties.
Woven materials are formed by interlacing vertical yarn (warp) and horizontal yarn (weft) to
form a fabric. Performance of woven composite is governed mainly by the textile/fabric properties.
According to Das [17], the main elements and critical factors that control the fabric properties are yarn
properties, fabric count, and weave design. The manipulation of these elements would produce fabric
with different physical and mechanical properties. For instance, Alavudeen et al. [18] has found that
the plain fabric of banana/kenaf reinforces polyester composite and shows improved tensile properties
compare to the twill fabric weave design. A study by Wahab and co-workers [19] on woven composite
have shown that the performance of woven kenaf composite are affected by yarn size and weave
design that determine the woven fabric porosity and crimp percentage. These are the main factors
that control the mechanical properties of the composite. Furthermore, the addition of woven material
improves the fracture toughness of the flax composites as has been reported by Liu and Hughes [20].
Numerous researches have been done by utilising natural fibre in a form of fabric to produce
woven composite (Table 1). Saiman et al. [21] have fabricated a series of woven kenaf composite with
different yarn linear densities and weave structures using a polyester (PE) matrix through a vacuum
infusion technique and have found that both parameters have a significant influence on the tensile
properties of the composite. Research that has been done by Azrin Hani et al. [12] have demonstrated
that woven kenaf and coir have a high potential to be used as reinforcing materials, and they also
concluded that fibre type and reinforcement structure parameters affect the mechanical properties of
the composites. Unfortunately, the mechanical properties of natural fibres composite do not match up
to those of synthetic fibre composite. One solution to this problem is to replace only a fraction of the
synthetic fibres, thus making a hybrid composite. Hybridisation of synthetic fibre with natural fibre
has many benefits such as excellent thermal and mechanical properties.

Table 1. Some reported studies on woven natural fibre reinforced polymer composites.

Fibre Types Matrix Type References

Woven jute and glass fibre Polyester (PE) Ahmed et al. [8]
Woven flax Epoxy Liu and Huges [20]
Woven coir and Kevlar Epoxy Azrin Hani et al. [22]
Woven kenaf fibre Glass, nylon fibre Me et al. [13]
Plain and twill hemp fabric Polylactic acid (PLA) Song et al. [4]
Woven banana and woven kenaf Polyester (PE) Alavudeen et al. [18]
Hemp woven fabric Polylactic acid (PLA) Baghaei et al. [23]
Woven kenaf and Kevlar fabric Epoxy Yahaya et al. [24]
Woven jute Epoxy Abdellaoui et al. [6]
Jute fabric Poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) Khan et al. [5]
Woven kenaf and non-woven mat bamboo Epoxy Chee et al. [25]

In order to optimise the performance of the woven composite from natural fibres, hybridisation
with synthetic fibre is believed to improve the plant based material for composite due to its comparable
composite performance for several applications. According to Jambari et al. [26], hybridisation in
composite area is a method of the combination of different resources and processes with different
properties for the improvement of existing material. Several studies have been carried out on utilising
kenaf yarn for fabric composite production [18,19,21,24,27]. The idea of hybrid weaving between
synthetic fibres and kenaf fibres is highly recommended to compensate for the dramatic loss of strength.
One study has found that pure woven kenaf and pure woven Kevlar epoxy composite has a tensile
value of 16MPa and more than 250 MPa, respectively. The hybridisation affected the intermediate
mechanical properties compared to the highest Kelvar/epoxy properties and the lowest properties of
kenaf/epoxy composite [28].
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 3 of 19

A number of studies have reported on the hybridisation of natural fibres with carbon fibre to
Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 20
produce a woven
Polymers 2018, 10,hybrid
x FOR PEER composite
REVIEW for several applications [29–31]. In these studies, reinforcement 3 of 20 is
by addingAone or more
number layers have
of studies of natural
reportedfibres
on in
thean interlaminate
hybridisation of carbon
of natural fibre
fibres composite
with carbon fibrethatto would
produce
lead to A number
a woven
a formation ofhybrid
of astudies
hybrid have
compositereported
composite on the
for several
with hybridisation
aapplications
great of of
[29–31].
diversity natural fibres
In these
material with carbon
studies,
properties. fibre to
reinforcement
Furthermore,
isproduce
alterationby adding a woven
of fabric orhybrid
oneproperties composite
more layers for several applications
suchofasnatural
weavefibres
design in anand
[29–31]. of
interlaminate
the fabric count
In carbon
these studies,
givefibre
reinforcement
composite
flexibility that the
to tailor
is
wouldby adding
lead toonea or more
formation layers
of a of natural
hybrid fibres
composite in an
withinterlaminate
a great of
diversitycarbon
of fibre
material composite
properties.that
final composite properties according to the requirements, which is one of the major advantages of
would lead to a formation of a hybrid composite with a great diversity
Furthermore, alteration of fabric properties such as weave design and the fabric count give flexibility of material properties.
the textile composites. Thus, in this study, fabrics from kenaf
designfibre and carbon fibre were used to
toFurthermore,
tailor the finalalteration
compositeof fabric properties
properties such asto
according weave and the
the requirements, fabric
which count
is one give flexibility
of the major
fabricate a three-layered
to tailor theoffinal laminated
composite wovenaccording
properties hybrid composite,
to the fabrics where woven
requirements, which kenaf
is and is
of the
one carbonthe core
major layer
advantages the textile composites. Thus, in this study, from kenaf fibre fibre
and carbon
advantagesfibresof is
the the top
textile and bottom
composites. layers.
Thus, in The
this kenaf
study, woven
fabrics fromfabric
were used to fabricate a three-layered laminated woven hybrid composite, where woven kenaf is the kenaf was
fibre made
and from
carbon different
fibre
fabriccore
counts
were used
layer and
and weave
carbondesigns
to fabricate fibres is as
thethese
a three-layered parameters
top laminated
and bottom woven would
layers. have
hybrid
The some
composite,
kenaf woveneffects
where on
fabric the performance
woven
was kenaffrom
made is the of
core
the hybrid
differentlayer and
composite. carbon
fabric counts fibres
Thisand is
article the
weave top
reports and bottom
on as
designs thethese layers.
physical, The kenaf
mechanical
parameters woven
would (tensile, fabric
have some was
flexural,made on from
effects and impact
the
different
strengths),
performance fabric counts
and morphological and weave designs
properties This
of the hybrid composite. as these
of laminated parameters
woven
article reports would
on kenaf/carbon have some effects
fibre reinforced
the physical, mechanical on the
(tensile, epoxy
performance
flexural, of the strengths),
and impact hybrid composite. This article properties
and morphological reports onofthe physical,woven
laminated mechanical (tensile,
kenaf/carbon
hybrid composites.
flexural,
fibre and impact
reinforced strengths),
epoxy hybrid and morphological properties of laminated woven kenaf/carbon
composites.
fibre reinforced epoxy
2. Materials and Methods hybrid composites.
2. Materials and Methods
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Materials
2.1. Materials
The materials used in this study were woven kenaf, carbon fibre fabrics and epoxy resin.
2.1. Materials
The materials used in this study were woven kenaf, carbon fibre fabrics and epoxy resin. Kenaf
Kenaf yarn Thewith 500texused
materials (Figure 1a) waswere
in this weaved using a carbon
hand loom machine and(Gulas Makine, Fatih,
yarn with 500tex (Figure 1a) wasstudy
weaved usingwoven kenaf,
a hand loom fibre(Gulas
machine fabrics epoxy
Makine, resin.
Fatih, Kenaf
Istanbul,
Istanbul,
yarnTurkey)
with (Figure
500tex 1b) 1a)
(Figure to produce
was woven
weaved usingfabric
a hand(Figure
loom 1c), with(Gulas
two weaving designs, plain and
Turkey) (Figure 1b) to produce woven fabric (Figure 1c), withmachine Makine,plain
two weaving designs, Fatih, Istanbul,
and satin
satin structure.
structure. The
Turkey) (Figure plain
1b) to structure
produce is the
woven simplest
fabric weave
(Figure 1c), where
with the
two yarn
weaving interlaces
designs,
The plain structure is the simplest weave where the yarn interlaces in alternate order.
in alternate
plain and order.
satin
SatinSatin
structure
structure. was
The weaved
plain by four
structure is of
the the weft
simplest yarns
weave floating
where over
the yarn a warp yarn
interlaces in
structure was weaved by four of the weft yarns floating over a warp yarn or four warp yarns or four
alternatewarp yarns
order.
Satin
floating over
floatingstructure
a single
over was
a single weaved
weft yarn.
weft by
Two
yarn. four
Two of the weft
different
different yarns
fabric
fabric floating
counts
counts over
were
were a warpthey
selected,
selected, yarn
they or four
were
were 5 ×55warp
× yarns
6 × 66 × 6
5 and
and
floating
fabricfabric
(number over a single
of warp
(number weft
yarn
of warp yarn. Two
× ×number
yarn number of different
of weft fabric
yarn).
weft yarn). counts were selected, they were 5 × 5 and 6×6
fabric (number of warp yarn × number of weft yarn).

Figure 1. (a)1.Kenaf
Figure yarnyarn
(a) Kenaf withwith
500tex linear
500tex density
linear wound
density onon
wound cylindrical
cylindricalbobbins;
bobbins;(b)
(b)hand
hand loom
loom used
Figure
used in 1.
the (a) Kenaf
weaving yarn with
process; (c) 500tex
kenaf
in the weaving process; (c) kenaf woven fabric. linear
woven density
fabric. wound on cylindrical bobbins; (b) hand loom
used in the weaving process; (c) kenaf woven fabric.
Carbon
Carbon fibrefibre (Figure
(Figure 2a)2a)
in in a fabricform
a fabric form with
with aa plain
plainwoven
wovenstructure
structurewas supplied
was by Spinteks
supplied by Spinteks
Carbon fibre (Figure 2a)Turkey).
in a fabric form with a plainofwoven structure was supplied by in
Spinteks
Tekstil Ins. (Honaz, Denizli, Turkey). Specific properties of the carbon fibre were tabulated Table
Tekstil Ins. (Honaz, Denizli, Specific properties the carbon fibre were tabulated in Table 2.
2.Tekstil
The matrix
Ins. (Honaz,
The matrix
used used
to toDenizli,
fabricate
fabricate the
Turkey).
the
samples
Specific
samples properties
EPIKOTE of
wasEPIKOTE
was
the carbon
Resin
Resin 240
240
fibre were
(Chemrex
(Chemrex
tabulated Cheras,
Corporation,
Corporation,
in Table
Cheras,
2. The matrix
Selangor, used to industrial
Malaysia), fabricate the samples
liquid wasresin
epoxy EPIKOTE
with Resin 240 (Chemrex
a density Corporation,
of 1.12 3g/cm Cheras,
3 and hardener
Selangor, Malaysia),
Selangor, industrial
Malaysia), liquidliquid
industrial epoxyepoxy
resin with
resin awith
density of 1.12of
a density g/cm and hardener
1.12 Selangor,
g/cm EPIKURE
3 and hardener
EPIKURE Curing Agent 3090 supplied by Chemrex Corporation Sdn. (Cheras, Malaysia).
Curing Agent 3090
EPIKURE Curing supplied by Chemrex
Agent 3090 supplied byCorporation Sdn. (Cheras,
Chemrex Corporation Sdn. Selangor, Malaysia).
(Cheras, Selangor, Malaysia).

Figure 2. (a) Carbon fibre and (b) Three-layered woven hybrid composite sample prepared using
vacuum infusion process.
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 4 of 19

Table 2. Properties of carbon fibre supplied by Spinteks Tekstil Ins.

Properties Carbon Fibre

Density 1.78 g/m3
Thickness 0.20 mm
Tensile Strength 3800 MPa
Tensile Modulus 240 GPa
Strain 1.6%

2.2. Fabrication of Woven Kenaf/Carbon Fibre Hybrid Composite

The composite was prepared through vacuum infusion in order to efficiently pull the epoxy resin
into the layer of woven kenaf and carbon fibre by removing the air from the system. Each composite
consists of a single ply woven kenaf as the reinforcement at the centre, and carbon fibres at the upper
and lower layers (Figure 2b). The compositions of laminated hybrid composites are shown in Table 3.
The ratio of woven kenaf-carbon fibre and epoxy resin was 30:70 by mass. The samples were prepared
by hand lay-up method followed by vacuum bagging. The release agent was applied to the surface
of a glass mould to ease the sample removal once cured. Then, the vacuum pump was switched on
until the infused materials are compact. The epoxy was infused from the resin tank until excess resin
flowed into the resin trap vessel. The resin was then allowed to flow for a few minutes to ensure that
the resin penetrated all the layers. Finally, the infused fabric composite was left to cure for 24 h at room
temperature. The carbon fibre epoxy specimens were also prepared as the control sample.

Table 3. Composition of kenaf woven in the hybrid composite.

Code Weave Design Fabric Count

CP5 Plain 5×5
CP6 Plain 6×6
CS5 Satin 5×5
CS6 Satin 6×6

2.3. Evaluation of Composite Properties

All samples were tested for physical (fibre volume fraction, density, and void contents) and
mechanical properties (tensile test, flexural test, and impact test) according to the ASTM Standard.
The density of the woven kenaf, carbon fibre and woven hybrid composite were measured based on
ASTM D3800-99. The samples were conditioned for 24 h, and the density of both fibres was measured
using the Mettler Toledo (XS205) density kit (Columbus, OH, USA). The average density of woven
kenaf (kf), carbon fibre (cf) and composite of ten specimens were taken and recorded.
The volume fractions of composite (Vf ) was calculated by using Equation (1). The fibre volume
fraction for woven kenaf (kf) and carbon fibre (cf) were calculated based on Equations (2) and (3),
respectively.
Vf = (W/ρ)fibre /((W/ρ)fibre + (W/ρ)epoxy ) (1)

Vkf = (W/ρ)kenaf /((W/ρ)kenaf + (W/ρ)carbon + (W/ρ)epoxy ) (2)

Vcf = (W/ρ)carbon /((W/ρ)carbon + (W/ρ)kenaf + (W/ρ)epoxy ) (3)

where (W/ρ) are the known weights and density of woven kenaf, carbon fibre and epoxy resin,
respectively. Based on the determined volume fraction of composite, woven kenaf, carbon fibre and
matrix, voids (Vv ) in the composites were calculated according to Equation (4).

Vv = 1 − (Vkf + Vcf + Vf ) (4)

Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 5 of 19

Tensile specimens were cut into 250 × 25 mm × actual thickness with gauge length of 170 mm.
The test was conducted based on ASTM D3039 using a universal testing machine (Instron P5567,
Norwood, MA, USA) at the crosshead speed of 2 mm/min. For each variable, 10 specimens were
tested and the average values for tensile strength and tensile modulus were obtained. The rectangular
specimens with dimension of 100 × 20 mm were cut and flexural test was conducted through
three-point loading using a universal testing machine (Instron P5567) according to ASTM D790
at the crosshead displacement rate of 5 mm/min. Ten specimens were tested for each sample and
average values were recorded. Modulus of elasticity of the composites was calculated based on the
slope (m) of load–displacement curves using Equation (5).

E = (L2 m/4bd2 ) (5)

where, L, b, and d represent support span, width of sample and depth of samples, respectively.
The impact strength was measured using Charpy impact test machine (Instron Ceast 9050,
Norwood, MA, USA) according to the ASTM D6110. Ten specimens for each composite sample
were cut into a dimension of 127 × 12.7 mm × actual thickness for the striking hammer energy of 5 J.

2.4. Morphological Observation

Hitachi 3400 SEM (Chiyoda, Tokyo, Japan) was used to observe the tensile fracture surfaces of the
woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite laminated composite. The fractured part of the samples
was cut and the SEM micrographs were taken to investigate the fractured mechanisms and interface
adhesion of the composites. All samples had been sputter-coated with gold with the acceleration
voltage at 1 kV to avoid charging.

2.5. Data Analysis

The data were statistically analysed using a statistical analysis system (SAS) software
(SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA) that applied analysis of variance (ANOVA) and the least significant
difference (LSD) method for mean separation, to evaluate the effects of types of fabric count and
weave design on the panel properties. LSD method calculates the least difference that must occur
between two means and compare them at p ≤ 0.05. Means that differ more than the value is considered
significantly different from each other and is ranked as a, b, c, d and e. According to this method,
means having the same letters are not significantly different from each other at p ≤ 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Volumetric Composition of Woven Kenaf/Carbon Fibre Hybrid Composite

Table 4 shows the results for the density, fibre volume fraction and the void content of the
composite as a function of fabric count and weave design. It can be seen that, the density of the
composites varies between samples. CP5 (composite with plain fabric and 5 × 5 fabric count) shows
the lowest density of 0.98 g/cm3 , while CS6 (composite with satin fabric and 6 × 6 fabric count) shows
the highest density of 1.24 g/cm3 , about 26.5% denser than CP5. Obviously, the high variation in the
density of the three-layered woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite is attributed to the fabric
areal density. Satin fabric has a higher areal density and thickness than plain fabric owing to its design
structure and fabric arrangement. In addition, the fabric count had also contributed to the increase in
weight and consequently resulted in density increment. For instance, fabric having fabric count 6 × 6
has a higher density than those made with 5 × 5 since it contains more fibres, i.e., 6 yarns in warp and
weft directions, as compared to 5 yarns in warp and weft directions.
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 6 of 19

Table 4. Composite density and volumetric composition of woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite.

Woven Kenaf Carbon Fibre

Type of Density Total Fibre Vol. Void Vol.
Wt. Frac. Vol. Frac. Wt. Frac. Vol. Frac.
Composite (g/cm3 ) Frac. Vf (%) Frac. (%)
Wkf (%) Vkf (%) Wcf (%) Vcf (%)
CP5 0.98 20.37 17.45 11.27 12.27 28.62 0.32
CP6 1.19 20.95 16.33 11.33 12.31 29.74 0.38
CS5 1.11 21.98 20.14 11.45 12.23 31.11 0.62
CS6 1.24 22.60 18.89 11.85 12.25 32.33 0.75

The fibre volume fractions of woven kenaf (Vkf ) were found to be higher than that of the carbon
fibre (Vcf ). Fibre volume fraction is the ratio of fibre volume by composite volume and is mostly
dependent on the density of the materials that are used in composite production [32]. Composites made
from woven kenaf significantly increased its weight fraction and volume fraction as different weave
design and different fabric count were used. On the other hand, carbon fibre maintained its weight
fraction (11.27–12.0%) and volume fraction (12.23–12.31%) irrespective of weave design or fabric
count used. Composite of 6 × 6 of fabric count was found to have higher value in Vf than those of
5 × 5. The introduction of fabric count of 6 × 6 increases the Vkf by 8 to 10%, which implies that Vf is
more governed by woven kenaf than carbon fibre.
The void content of the composite for different types is shown in Table 4. Apparently, CS6 (Satin,
6 × 6 fabric count) gives the highest void content in spite of having the highest density and Vf .
Two plausible explanations for this are: (1) satin fabric has a loose structure compare to plain fabric,
thus results in higher void content and (2) 6 × 6 fabric count structure is very tight, thus the flow
of the resin is less efficient-creating voids and delaminations between the fibres. According to
Goodwin et al. [33], in the satin fabric laminates composites, the number of voids is higher than
in plain fabric laminates composites and is reflected in the reduction on shear strength value.

3.2. Mechanical Properties of Woven Kenaf/Carbon Fibre Hybrid Composite

The results of the ANOVA shown in Table 5 suggest that the weave design has highly significant
effect on tensile strength (p ≤ 0.01) while flexural modulus, impact strength and impact energy were
also significantly influenced (p ≤ 0.05). On the other hand, fabric count was found did not exert any
significant influence on the mechanical properties of woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite
(p > 0.1). The ANOVA results also suggest that there are no interaction effects between both fabric count
and weave design on all the properties except for flexural strength. Hence the following discussions
are based on factors that exert significant effects to the mechanical properties of woven kenaf/carbon
fibre hybrid composites.

Table 5. Summary of ANOVA on the mechanical properties of woven kenaf/carbon fibre

hybrid composite.

p-Value
Variables df Tensile Tensile Flexural Flexural Impact Impact
Strength Modulus Strength Modulus Strength Energy
Weave Design (WD) 2 0.0002 *** 0.2526 ns 0.5636 ns 0.0232 ** 0.0227 ** 0.0422 **
Fabric Count (FC) 2 0.1430 ns 0.1182 ns 0.1675 ns 0.7831 ns 0.1174 ns 0.3522 ns
Interaction (WD × FC) 4 0.2546 ns 0.2338 ns 0.0661 * 0.9206 ns 0.9825 ns 0.6036 ns
df: degree of freedom; ***: Significantly different at p ≤ 0.01; **: Significantly different at p ≤ 0.05; *: Significantly
different at p ≤ 0.10; ns: not significant.

3.2.1. Tensile Strength

Since the ANOVA showed tensile strength had been significantly affected by the weave
design only, a further evaluation on means separation-using least significant difference (LSD) method,
was conducted and the results are shown in Table 6. Composites made from satin-designed woven
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 7 of 19

kenaf had a significantly lower tensile strength and modulus by 14.76% and 8.42%, respectively,
than plain-designed woven kenaf. Tensile strength is dependent on the weaving factors such as yarn
linear density,
Polymers 2018, 10,weave design,
x FOR PEER fabric density or yarn spacing, and fabric crimp. It is also influenced by
REVIEW the
7 of 20
lamination structures (fibre/fabric orientations, fibre volume fraction) as well as the inherent properties
thethe
of lamination
materials, structures (fibre/fabric
i.e., fibres and orientations,
matrix [28,34,35]. This fibre volume
finding fraction) by
was supported as Chow
well aset the inherent
al. [36] who
properties of the materials, i.e. fibres and matrix [28,34,35]. This finding was supported
found that plain woven composite lead to an improvement in tensile strength and modulus, this was by Chow et
al. [36] attributed
mainly who found to that plain woven
the minimum composite
force lead that
development to anwas
improvement
caused by the in tensile strength
distribution and
of load
modulus, this was mainly
transfer along the fibre direction. attributed to the minimum force development that was caused by the
distribution of load transfer along the fibre direction.
Table 6. Effect of kenaf weave design on the tensile strength of woven kenaf/carbon fibre
Table 6.
hybrid Effect of kenaf weave design on the tensile strength of woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid
composite.
composite.
Weave Design Tensile Strength (MPa)
Weave Design Tensile Strength
a
(MPa)
Plain
Plain
122.04
122.04 a
Satin 104.96 b
Satin 104.96 b
LSD
LSD 8.3841
8.3841
Note: Means followed by the same letters a, b, are not significantly
Note: Means followed by the same letters a, b, are not significantly p ≤ 0.05 according
different at different to Least
at p ≤ 0.05 Significant
according to
Difference (LSD) method.
Least Significant Difference (LSD) method

Figure
Figure3 3compares
compares thethe
tensile strengths
tensile of all types
strengths of alloftypes
woven ofkenaf/carbon fibre hybrid
woven kenaf/carbon composite
fibre hybrid
and carbon fibre composite produced in this study. In general, it can be seen that
composite and carbon fibre composite produced in this study. In general, it can be seen that tensiletensile properties of
the plain-designed
properties composite were
of the plain-designed much higher
composite werethan
muchthose of satin-design
higher than those of composite, irrespective
satin-design composite,of
fabric count (5 × 5 or 6 × 6). This finding was probably due to a more uniform
irrespective of fabric count (5 × 5 or 6 × 6). This finding was probably due to a more uniform distribution of tensile
load transfer of
distribution in both warp
tensile and
load weft direction
transfer in both in a plain
warp andfabric
weft than in satin
direction in afabric.
plainThe former
fabric thancontains
in satin
symmetrical fabric structure thus it can provide a much more consistent transfer
fabric. The former contains symmetrical fabric structure thus it can provide a much more consistent of stress from one
layer to another fibre layer [37].
transfer of stress from one layer to another fibre layer [37].

Figure 3. Tensile strength and tensile modulus of woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite.
Figure 3. Tensile strength and tensile modulus of woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite.
When loaded in tension, i.e., tensile test, the composite experienced fractures in the transverse
When
direction, loaded
which in tension,
normally i.e. tensile
is associated test,
with the composite
extensive experienced
longitudinal splitting fractures
or failure in the specimens,
of the transverse
direction,
as shown inwhich
Figure normally is associated
4. Morphological analysiswith extensive
on damaged longitudinal
areas splitting
suggests that or failure
the transversal of are
cracks the
specimens, as shown in Figure 4. Morphological analysis on damaged areas suggests
apparently developed perpendicularly to the loading direction, i.e., in the transverse direction [38,39].that the
transversal cracks are apparently developed perpendicularly to the loading direction, i.e. in the
transverse direction [38,39]. The crack promotes further delamination and failure of the specimens.
Rios-Soberanis et al. [38] explained that transversal cracks would usually led to small delaminations
in the interlacement interface area between yarns. They have also identified that the interlacement of
warp-weft yarn is the origin of the cracks that occur due to high stress concentrations, hence acting
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 8 of 19

The crack promotes further delamination and failure of the specimens. Rios-Soberanis et al. [38]
explained that transversal cracks would usually led to small delaminations in the interlacement
interface area between yarns. They have also identified that the interlacement of warp-weft yarn is the
origin
Polymersof2018,
the 10,
cracks
x FORthat
PEERoccur due to high stress concentrations, hence acting as crack-initiation points.
REVIEW 8 of 20

Figure 4. Development of failure perpendicular to the loading direction i.e., in transverse direction [35].
Figure 4. Development of failure perpendicular to the loading direction i.e. in transverse direction [35].
This is in agreement with the findings of Salman et al. [40], who have found that higher tensile
Thisand
strength is in agreement
tensile modulus with ofthe findings
plain fabric isofassociated
Salman et with al. [40],
thewho have found
differences in thethat higher tensile
load-distribution
strength and
properties of thetensile
yarns along modulus of plain and
the longitudinal fabric is associated
transverse directions,with
whichtheresults
differences
in higherinstress
the
load-distribution properties of the yarns along the longitudinal and transverse
uptake capacity. In another study conducted by McDaniels et al. [41], tensile loading in fabrics induces directions, which
results in higher
transverse loads at stress uptake capacity.
warp-weft yarn overlap In another
sectionstudy(yarnconducted by McDaniels
interlacement) as crimped et al. [41],tend
yarns tensile
to
loading in fabrics induces transverse loads at warp-weft yarn overlap section
straighten. This reduces the translation of fibre strength to fabric strength and decreases long-term (yarn interlacement) as
crimped yarns tend to straighten.
fatigue and creep rupture performance. This reduces the translation of fibre strength to fabric strength and
decreases
Figures long-term
5 and 6fatigue show and the creep
cross rupture
section performance.
view of (a) warp direction and (b) weft view of
Figures 5 and 6 show the
laminated woven composite from plain fabriccross section viewandofsatin
(a) warp
fabric,direction and (b)
respectively weftoptical
under view of laminated
microscope.
woven composite from plain fabric and satin fabric, respectively
The frequency of yarn interlacing and the linearity of the yarn segments distinguish both fabrics.under optical microscope. The
frequency
The of yarn
plain weave hasinterlacing
the highestand the linearity
frequency of yarn of interlacing,
the yarn segments
whereas distinguish
the satin weave bothhas fabrics. The
the least
plain weave has the highest frequency of yarn interlacing, whereas
number of yarn interlacing. Due to a more consistent and higher amount of yarn-to-yarn interlacement the satin weave has the least
number
in of yarncomposite,
plain-designed interlacing. the Due
applied to stress
a more consistent
is distributed and higher
uniformly and theamount
cracks ran of transversally
yarn-to-yarn
interlacement in plain-designed composite, the applied stress is distributed
in all direction, perpendicular to the loading direction due to isotropic woven packing. Therefore, uniformly and the cracks
ran transversally in all direction, perpendicular to the loading direction
it can withstand greater tension that hold to each other, stress transfer gradually to the adjacent due to isotropic woven
yarn
packing. Therefore, it can withstand greater tension that hold to each other,
and results in less slippage in the structure. Nonetheless, in the satin-designed composite, there is stress transfer gradually
to the adjacent
anisotropic yarn andof
arrangement results
yarnsin inless slippagestructure,
the packing in the structure. Nonetheless,
thus, lacking uniformindistribution
the satin-designed
of force
composite, there is anisotropic arrangement of yarns in the packing
along the applied stress to support the transference of load. Hence, cracks and damages are easilystructure, thus, lacking uniform
distribution
formed. of force along
In addition, the higher
there are appliednumbers
stress toofsupport
floatingthe transference
yarn of load. Hence,
in satin arrangement that cracks and
cooperate
damages are easily formed. In addition, there are higher numbers
with loose satin structure. This led to stress being transferred intermittently to neighbouring yarn of floating yarn in satin
arrangement
and consequently thatreducing
cooperate the with
strengthloose satin failure
because structure.
couldThis led
easily to occurred
have stress beingat thistransferred
zone and
intermittentlytotothe
disseminated neighbouring
adjacent yarns. yarn and consequently reducing the strength because failure could
easily have occurred at this zone and disseminated to the adjacent yarns.
Polymers 2018,
Polymers 10,10,
2018, x FOR
1320 PEER REVIEW 9 of 2019
9 of
Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 20

Figure 5. Cross section view of (a) warp direction and (b) weft view of laminated woven composite
Figure
Figure5.5.Cross
Crosssection
sectionview
viewofof(a)(a)warp
warpdirection
directionand
and(b)
(b)weft
weftview
viewofoflaminated
laminatedwoven
wovencomposite
composite
from plain fabric under optical microscope.
fromplain
from plainfabric
fabricunder
underoptical
opticalmicroscope.
microscope.

Figure
Figure Cross
6. 6.Cross section
section view
view ofof
(a)(a)warp
warp direction
direction and
and (b)weft
(b) weftview
viewofoflaminated
laminated woven
woven composite
composite
Figure
from 6. Cross
satin section
fabric underview of (a)
optical warp direction and (b) weft view of laminated woven composite
microscope.
from satin fabric under optical microscope.
from satin fabric under optical microscope.

TheThemorphology
morphologyofofthe thetensile
tensiletested
testedcomposites
compositesofofthe thewoven
wovenkenaf/carbon
kenaf/carbonfibre fibrehybrid
hybrid
The morphology
composite for plain andof satin
the tensile
fabric tested
are shown composites
in Figure of Figure
7. the woven 7a,b kenaf/carbon
show the fibre hybrid
cross-sectional view
composite for plain and satin fabric are shown in Figure 7. Figures 7a,b show the cross-sectional
composite
of the for plain and satin fabric are shown in Figure 7. Figures 7a,b show the cross-sectional
view offractured
the fractured surface from the
surface fromtensile failure test
the tensile failurefor plain
test for andplain
satin andwoven satincomposite, respectively.
woven composite,
view
More ofsevere
the fractured
broken surface
yarns werefrom the tensile
observed on failure
the failed test for plainofand
specimens the satin woven composite,
satin-designed composite
respectively. More severe broken yarns were observed on the failed specimens of the satin-designed
respectively.
comparedcompared More severe
to those of broken yarns were observed on the failed specimens of the satin-designed
composite to thethose plain-designed
of the plain-designed composite. The latter
composite. Theappears to have to
latter appears better
havebonding
better
composite
(Figure compared
7c) as is shown to those
by the ofpresence
the plain-designed
where most composite.
parts of the The
failedlatter appears
fibres are to in
still have better
aggregates
bonding (Figure 7c) as is shown by the presence where most parts of the failed fibres are still in
bonding
form except (Figure 7c)
forexcept as is number
a small shown by the presencepull-outwhere most parts of the failedcomposite
fibres areseems still in
aggregates form for a small of individual
number of individual fibres. pull-outSatin-designed
fibres. Satin-designed compositeto
aggregates
experience form except for
serious interfacial a small number
debonding of individual
particularly pull-out
at the fibre fibres. Satin-designed composite
seems to experience serious interfacial debonding particularly at bundles
the fibreof the kenaf
bundles yarns
of the (Figure
kenaf yarns 7d).
seems
It is to experience
noted that serious
empty interfacial
fibres regions debonding
(i.e., voids) particularly
are also at the fibre
present which bundles
are of theby
caused kenaf
the yarns
tensile
(Figure 7d). It is noted that empty fibres regions (i.e. voids) are also present which are caused by the
(Figure 7d). Ittension
force force
under is notedloading.
that empty High fibres regions (i.e.ofvoids)
magnification SEM are alsoofpresent
images which
theoffailure as are caused bybythe
determined the
tensile under tension loading. High magnification of SEM images the failure as determined
tensile force under tension loading. High magnification of SEM images of the failure as determined
byfractured
the fracturedsurface confirmed
surface that the
confirmed mode
that the ofmodefailure was due
of failure wasto either
due tofibre fracture,
either pull-out pull-out
fibre fracture, fibres and
byvoids
the fractured
and their surface confirmed
combinations which thathad theresulted
mode of failure
from was due
different fibre tostructure
either fibre in fracture,
the core pull-out
layer of the
fibres and voids and their combinations which had resulted from different fibre structure in the core
fibres
woven and voids
kenaf/carbon and their combinations
fibre hybrid which
composite had resulted
(Figure 7e,f) from
According different fibre structure in the core
layer of the woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite (Figures 7e,f)toAccording
Zhou et al.to[42],Zhou theetinterfacial
al. [42],
layer of the woven
debonding and kenaf/carbon
matrix failure fibre
are hybrid
closely composite
associated to (Figures
the interlaced 7e,f)constitution
According of to the
Zhou wovenet al.fabrics.
[42],
the interfacial debonding and matrix failure are closely associated to the interlaced constitution of
the interfacial debonding
Additionally, the tensile and matrix
stresses from failure
tensile are
load closely
shiftingassociated
from load to the
matrix to interlaced
yarns constitutionupon
arematrix
dependent of
the woven fabrics. Additionally, the tensile stresses from tensile shifting from to yarns
the woven
optimum fabrics.
stresses Additionally, the tensile stresses from tensile load shifting from matrix to yarns
are dependent uponthat can overcome
optimum stressesthe thatfriction resistance.
can overcome the The weak resistance.
friction bonding strength The weak of epoxy-yarn
bonding
are dependent
makes the fibreupon optimum
bundles break stresses
and that
pulls outcanfromovercome
the the friction resistance. The weak bonding
matrix.
strength of epoxy-yarn makes the fibre bundles break and pulls out from the matrix.
strength of epoxy-yarn makes the fibre bundles break and pulls out from the matrix.
 Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 10 of 19
Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 20

Figure
Figure7. The SEMSEM
7. The micrograph of tensile
micrograph fracture
of tensile surface
fracture of laminated
surface woven
of laminated kenaf kenaf
woven composite: (a)
composite:
fracture surface
(a) fracture at low
surface atmagnification of plain-designed
low magnification composite
of plain-designed andand
composite (b) satin-designed composite;
(b) satin-designed composite;
(c)(c)
yarn
yarnfracture
fractureininplain-designed
plain-designedcomposite
composite and (d) yarn
yarnfracture
fractureininsatin-designed
satin-designed composite;
composite; (e)(e)
fibre
fibre pullout
pullout in plain-designed
in plain-designed composite
composite at×100×
at 100 magnification
magnification and and (f) fibre-matrix
(f) fibre-matrix debonding
debonding and
and pullout
pullout in satin-designed
in satin-designed composite
composite at 100at
× 100× magnification.
magnification.

Severalresearchers
Several researchers had
had highlighted
highlightedthat
thatthethe
fibre volume
fibre fraction
volume and void
fraction andcontent of composite
void content of
influenced
composite the mechanical
influenced properties
the mechanical particularly
properties tensile properties
particularly [35,43,44].
tensile properties Junior et Junior
[35,43,44]. al. [45]etfound
al.
that
[45] tensile
found behaviour
that of ramie/cotton
tensile behaviour polyester composite
of ramie/cotton polyesterwas governed
composite mainly
was by volume
governed mainly fraction,
by
rather than by yarn size and fabric compactness. On the other hand, Zhu et al. [46] reported
volume fraction, rather than by yarn size and fabric compactness. On the other hand, Zhu et al. [46] that tensile
strengththat
reported of carbon-epoxy laminated
tensile strength composite were
of carbon-epoxy reducedcomposite
laminated as the voidwere
content increased
reduced as because
the voidthe
void introduced initiation and formation of the cracks in composite structure.
content increased because the void introduced initiation and formation of the cracks in compositeHernandez et al. [47]
found the increasing of void content was related to the result of air trap and wrinkles
structure. Hernandez et al. [47] found the increasing of void content was related to the result of created during
air
lay-up
trap process. created during lay-up process.
and wrinkles

3.2.2.
3.2.2. Flexural
Flexural Strength
Strength
TheThe ANOVAininTable
ANOVA Table55also
alsofound
found that
that flexural
flexural strength
strength was
wasnot
notaffected
affectedby
byboth
bothweave
weavedesign
designand
fabric
and count.
fabric However,
count. flexural
However, modulus
flexural waswas
modulus significantly affected
significantly by the
affected byweave design.
the weave UponUpon
design. further
further analysis using LSD (Table 7), the plain design appears to give a significantly higher flexural
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 11 of 19

Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 20

analysis using LSD (Table 7), the plain design appears to give a significantly higher flexural modulus.
modulus.
This result This result
suggests suggests
that that by
by changing thechanging the
fabric type fabric
from type
satin from the
to plain, satin to plain,
flexural the flexural
modulus of the
modulus ofwould
composite the composite would
improve by 23%.improve by 23%.

Table7.7. Flexural
Table Flexural properties
propertiesof
ofwoven
wovenkenaf/carbon
kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite at different
different weave
weave design.
design.

Weave
WeaveDesign
Design Flexural
Flexural Modulus
Modulus (GPa)
(GPa)
Plain 7.74 a
Plain 7.74 a b
Satin 6.28
b
Satin
LSD 6.281.209
LSD 1.209
Note: Means followed by the same letters a, b, are not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 according to
Note: Means followed by the same letters a, b, are not significantly different at p ≤ 0.05 according to Least Significant
Least Significant Difference (LSD) method
Difference (LSD) method.

Comparison of the composite flexural properties as affected by different combination of fabric

Comparison of the composite flexural properties as affected by different combination of fabric
count and weave design are shown in Figure 8. From the figure, CP5 exhibited the highest flexural
count and weave design are shown in Figure 8. From the figure, CP5 exhibited the highest flexural
strength (224.33 MPa) and CP6 exhibited the highest flexural modulus (7.79 GPa), while CS6 showed
strength (224.33 MPa) and CP6 exhibited the highest flexural modulus (7.79 GPa), while CS6 showed
the lowest flexural strength (185.04 MPa) and CS5 showed the lowest flexural modulus (6.17 GPa).
the lowest flexural strength (185.04 MPa) and CS5 showed the lowest flexural modulus (6.17 GPa).

Figure 8. Flexural
Figure 8. Flexural strength
strength and
and flexural
flexural modulus
modulusof
ofwoven
wovenkenaf/carbon fibre hybrid
kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite.
composite.

All the hybrid composites have a significantly lower flexural strength than the 100% carbon fibre
All the hybrid composites have a significantly lower flexural strength than the 100% carbon
laminates. This is expected as carbon fibre can transfer and withstand flexural load more efficiently
fibre laminates. This is expected as carbon fibre can transfer and withstand flexural load more
because the strength and rigidity of a carbon fibre component have been created by positioning fabrics
efficiently because the strength and rigidity of a carbon fibre component have been created by
in a specific way. The relatively higher flexural strength for composite made from plain fabric was
positioning fabrics in a specific way. The relatively higher flexural strength for composite made from
largely attributed to the interlocking structure of plain fabric. In plain fabric, the warp and weft
plain fabric was largely attributed to the interlocking structure of plain fabric. In plain fabric, the
yarn are aligned and formed a criss-cross arrangement. This type of yarn arrangement prevents
warp and weft yarn are aligned and formed a criss-cross arrangement. This type of yarn
any extension of the yarn along the load directions, which increases the bending load capacity and
arrangement prevents any extension of the yarn along the load directions, which increases the
results in better composite strength properties. The effect of fibre orientation on the flexural modulus
bending load capacity and results in better composite strength properties. The effect of fibre
has been reported by many studies [16,37,48,49]. Fibre orientation affects the flexural properties by
orientation on the flexural modulus has been reported by many studies [16,37,48,49]. Fibre
influencing the whole yarn structure, yielding an improvement in fabric orientation. This better fabric
orientation affects the flexural properties by influencing the whole yarn structure, yielding an
arrangement can explain the increased in flexural strength of woven composite that are made from
improvement in fabric orientation. This better fabric arrangement can explain the increased in
plain-weave fabric
flexural strength of woven composite that are made from plain-weave fabric
On the contrary, in satin-weave fabric, there is a complex arrangement of warp and weft yarns,
On the contrary, in satin-weave fabric, there is a complex arrangement of warp and weft yarns,
which allows longer float yarns across the warp/weft yarns. The less stable arrangement in satin fabric
which allows longer float yarns across the warp/weft yarns. The less stable arrangement in satin
fabric obstructs distribution of this load, thus giving low flexural strength, as is shown by the fibre
breakage and pull-outs in Figure 9. In addition, plain weave fabric has better wetting properties
 In the case of flexural modulus, as expected the values that were obtained from samples with
100% carbon fibre was higher than those obtained from the samples of hybrid with woven kenaf.
However, it was observed that woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid composite have comparable
flexural modulus values when compared to pure carbon fibre composite. A significant increase of
the flexural
Polymers modulus
2018, 10, 1320 when woven kenaf of 6 × 6 fabric count are used, both for composites12with of 19
plain and satin design, has been observed when compared to composite with 5 × 5 of fabric count. In
the three-point flexural test, a vertical load is applied, the compression load associated with the
obstructs
deformation distribution of thison
is generated load, thus
that giving
upper low whereas
side, flexural strength, as is shown
on the opposite by the
side, fibre breakage
a tensile load is
and pull-outs in Figure 9. In addition, plain weave fabric has better wetting properties
generated, leading to a tensile deformation of test specimens. Since the sample experiences since it contains
both the
large amount and
compressive of fibres andforces
tensile higherduring
kineticsa rate of water
flexural test,absorption [50,51]. the
this may explain Thegreater
good wetting properties
sensitivity of the
give rise to resin penetration
flexural data to this phenomenon. and subsequently produced composite with better strength properties.

Figure 9. The
Figure 9. The SEM
SEM micrograph
micrograph images
images of
of the
the flexural
flexuralfailure
failuresurfaces
surfacesof
ofwoven
wovenkenaf/carbon
kenaf/carbon fibre
fibre
hybrid
hybrid composite: (a) fibre breakage and (b) fibre
fibre pull-outs
pull-outs and
and disorder
disorder arrangement
arrangement of fiber
fiber on
on the
the
tested
tested specimens.
specimens.

In the case oftoflexural

According Dhakalmodulus,
et al. [31], as expected the values
in the flexural test,that were of
surface obtained from samples
the composite with 100%
is subjected to
carbon fibre was higher than those obtained from the samples
higher compression stress at the core part. Therefore, the flexural modulus is controlled by theof hybrid with woven kenaf. However,
it was observed
strength that woven
of the intense kenaf/carbon
reinforcement, fibre
i.e. the hybrid
woven composite
kenaf in this have
study.comparable
The wovenflexural modulus
kenaf stiffness is
values
apparently whendependent
compared to onpure carbon
fabric fibre composite.
arrangements, such Aincrement
significantofincrease of the flexural
the modulus with the modulusfabric
when
structure wovenimpliedkenafa of 6 × dispersion
good 6 fabric count of thearereinforcements.
used, both for composites
The function with plain and
of woven kenafsatinas design,
a rigid
has been observed when compared to composite with 5 × 5 of
filler was assumed to have enhanced the stiffness of polymer matrix and its strong interaction fabric count. In the three-point flexural
with
test, a vertical load is applied, the compression load associated
epoxy matrix [52]. This implies that the stronger carbon fibres in the outer layers might have with the deformation is generated
on that upper
influenced theside, whereas
flexural strength on the opposite
of the hybridside,woven a tensile load is generated,
composites. Accordingly, leading
the wovento a tensile
kenaf
deformation
plays a major of role
test specimens.
in increasing Sincethethe sampleofexperiences
stiffness hybrid woven both the compressive
composites and tensile
by offsetting the forces
low
during a flexural
elongation of woven kenaf. test, this may explain the greater sensitivity of the flexural data to this phenomenon.
According
Even though to Dhakal
fabric et al. [31],
count hasinnothesignificant
flexural test, surface
effects onofboth
the composite is subjected
flexural strength andtoflexural
higher
compression
modulus, it isstress at the to
interesting corenote part.
thatTherefore,
fabric count theofflexural
5 × 5 has modulus is controlled
consistently produced bya the strength
higher flexuralof
the intense reinforcement, i.e., the woven kenaf in this study. The woven
strength and modulus. This may be due to the effectiveness of epoxy resin in the 5 × 5 fabric that is kenaf stiffness is apparently
dependent
spread intoon fabrickenaf
woven arrangements,
and carbonsuch increment
fibre, of the modulus
hence, enhancing with thebonding
kenaf–carbon fabric structure
adhesion. implied
Lee et
aal.good dispersion of the reinforcements. The function of woven
[53] have concluded that flexural modulus is dominantly affected by the effectiveness of epoxy kenaf as a rigid filler was assumed
to have
resin in enhanced
the reinforcement the stiffness of polymer
materials. In the matrix and its
5 × 5 fabric, lessstrong
fabric interaction
tightness was with epoxy
found thanmatrix
in the[52].
6×
This
6 fabricimplies
due to thatlessthe stronger
yarn numbers, carbonhencefibres in themobility
a higher outer layers might have
and wetting influenced
properties within thetheflexural
fabric
strength
structure. ofItthe hybrid that
appears woven thecomposites.
higher porosity Accordingly,
in the 5 the× 5 woven kenaf plays
fabric provides a major
better role in increasing
penetration of epoxy
the stiffness of hybrid woven composites by offsetting the low elongation
resin. Conversely, the higher tightness in the 6 × 6 fabric provides poor resin penetration resulting in of woven kenaf.
Even though
composites of lowfabric count
flexural has no significant
strength. This is dueeffectsto theonpresence
both flexural strength and flexural
of ‘resin-rich-area’ as more modulus,
resin is
it is interesting to note that fabric count of 5 × 5 has consistently produced
being accumulated on the surface instead of penetrating into the next layer. This area is the weakest a higher flexural strength
and
pointmodulus.
where poor Thisbonding
may be due to thefabric
between effectiveness
and epoxy of epoxy
creates resin × 5 fabric that
in the 5propagating
cracking, is spread
through the
into woven kenaf and carbon fibre, hence, enhancing kenaf–carbon bonding adhesion. Lee et al. [53]
have concluded that flexural modulus is dominantly affected by the effectiveness of epoxy resin in the
reinforcement materials. In the 5 × 5 fabric, less fabric tightness was found than in the 6 × 6 fabric
due to less yarn numbers, hence a higher mobility and wetting properties within the fabric structure.
It appears that the higher porosity in the 5 × 5 fabric provides better penetration of epoxy resin.
Conversely, the higher tightness in the 6 × 6 fabric provides poor resin penetration resulting in
composites of low flexural strength. This is due to the presence of ‘resin-rich-area’ as more resin is
being accumulated on the surface instead of penetrating into the next layer. This area is the weakest
Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

epoxy
Polymersmatrix
2018, 10,(Figure
1320 10) causing decohesion and separation of fibrils and consequently reduced
13 ofits
19
strength.
Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 20

point
epoxywhere
matrixpoor bonding
(Figure betweendecohesion
10) causing fabric and epoxy creates cracking,
and separation of fibrilspropagating throughreduced
and consequently the epoxy
its
matrix (Figure
strength. 10) causing decohesion and separation of fibrils and consequently reduced its strength.

Figure 10. Matrix cracking is observed at resin rich area in 6 × 6 fabric.

3.2.3. Impact Strength

Figure 10.
Figure 10. Matrix
Matrix cracking
cracking is
is observed
observed at
atresin
resinrich
richarea
areain
in66×
× 6 fabric.
Figure 11 presents the impact strength and impact energy of woven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid
composite.
3.2.3. All of the hybrid composites CP5, CP6, CS5, and CS6 has low impact energy compares to
3.2.3. Impact
Impact Strength
Strength
100% carbon fibre laminated composite, CF. In contrast, the energy that has been absorbed by hybrid
Figure
Figure 11
11 presents
presents the impact
impact strength
thecomparable strength and impact
impactenergy of
ofwoven kenaf/carbon fibre hybrid
woven composite exhibits valuesand
to carbon energy
fibre woven
laminated kenaf/carbon
composite. fibre
Joseph hybrid
et al. [54]
composite.
composite. All of the
All ofthat, hybrid
the hybrid composites
composites CP5,
CP5, CP6, CS5, and CS6 has low impact energy compares to
have mentioned the impact strength of CP6, CS5, and
composite CS6 hasbylow
is driven impact
several energyincluding
factors, comparesthe to
100% carbon
100% carbon fibre laminated
fibre laminated composite,
composite, CF. In contrast, the energy that has been absorbed by hybrid
types of polymers, fibre-matrix interface,CF. In contrast,
structure and the energy thatofhas
arrangement been absorbed
materials that areby hybrid
used for
woven
woven composite
composite exhibits
exhibits comparable
comparable values
values to
to carbon
carbon fibre
fibre laminated
laminated composite.
composite. Joseph
Joseph etet al.
al. [54]
[54]
composite.
have mentioned that, the impact strength of composite is driven by several factors,
have mentioned that, the impact strength of composite is driven by several factors, including the including the types
of polymers,
types fibre-matrix
of polymers, interface,
fibre-matrix structurestructure
interface, and arrangement of materials
and arrangement that are used
of materials thatfor composite.
are used for
composite.

11. Impact
Figure 11.
Figure Impactstrength
strengthand total
and energy
total of woven
energy kenaf/carbon
of woven fibre hybrid
kenaf/carbon composite
fibre hybrid and carbon
composite and
fibre composite.
carbon fibre composite.

Based on the results, the impact strength and energy absorbed by sample CP6 indicated the
Based
Figure on
11. the results,
Impact the and
strength impact
totalstrength and
energy of energy
woven absorbed fibre
kenaf/carbon by sample
hybrid CP6 indicated
composite and the
highest values at 123.07 kJ/m2 and 4.62 J, respectively. Weave design plays an important role as plain
highest values
carbon atcomposite.
fibre 123.07 kJ/m² and 4.62 J, respectively. Weave design plays an important role as plain
fabric in the composite has a higher energy absorption capacity due to its interlocking structure that
Based on the results, the impact strength and energy absorbed by sample CP6 indicated the
highest values at 123.07 kJ/m² and 4.62 J, respectively. Weave design plays an important role as plain
Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 20
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 14 of 19

fabric in the composite has a higher energy absorption capacity due to its interlocking structure that
contributes to composite strength [55]. In addition, plain fabric also has high elongation capabilities
contributes to composite strength [55]. In addition, plain fabric also has high elongation capabilities
which leads to high impact strength compares to satin fabric. The tightening effect of plain fabric has
which leads to high impact strength compares to satin fabric. The tightening effect of plain fabric has
increased the specimen stiffness. Stiffer materials deform less and carry higher load and increase its
increased the specimen stiffness. Stiffer materials deform less and carry higher load and increase its
ability to absorb impacts [56]. When the impact load is applied on the specimen, the upper layer is
ability to absorb impacts [56]. When the impact load is applied on the specimen, the upper layer is
under compression stress while the lower layer is under tension stress. The middle layer is put in
under compression stress while the lower layer is under tension stress. The middle layer is put in
shear stress. The woven fabrics structure parameters in the middle layer affect the resistance
shear stress. The woven fabrics structure parameters in the middle layer affect the resistance behavior
behavior during load. Throughout the impact load, cracks start at the impact side and spread into
during load. Throughout the impact load, cracks start at the impact side and spread into the loading
the loading direction. Figure 12 shows the typical impact damage mode in composite laminate. The
direction. Figure 12 shows the typical impact damage mode in composite laminate. The middle layer
middle layer helps in absorbing a large amount of impact energy. The firm structure of plain fabric
helps in absorbing a large amount of impact energy. The firm structure of plain fabric offers an obstacle
offers an obstacle to the spread of further cracking by absorbing and disseminating the impact stress
to the spread of further cracking by absorbing and disseminating the impact stress before failure.
before failure. Conversely, satin fabric contains more floating yarn that can bring to the yarn slip
Conversely, satin fabric contains more floating yarn that can bring to the yarn slip phenomena [57].
phenomena [57]. This phenomena happens in satin fabric because of the lesser number of
This phenomena happens in satin fabric because of the lesser number of interlacements between
interlacements between warp and weft yarn. As a result, some yarns are not held firmly in the satin
warp and weft yarn. As a result, some yarns are not held firmly in the satin structure and result in
structure and result in low absorbing impact energy. Fibre breakage and fibre pull out occurred due
low absorbing impact energy. Fibre breakage and fibre pull out occurred due to maximum energy
to maximum energy absorption which lead to delamination.
absorption which lead to delamination.

12. Schematic
Figure 12. Schematic representation
representation showing
showing aa typical
typical impact
impact damage
damage mode for a composite
composite
laminate [58].

Hybrid composite with woven kenaf resulted in better energy absorbed, particularly in the case
of CP6 that
that showed
showed significant
significant increment
increment (22.47%)
(22.47%) when
when plain
plain fabric with 66 ×
fabric with × 6 of fabric count was
used as the core in the composite. It was also found that hybrid with kenaf plain-designed composite
absorbed more energy than satin-designed composite, and was slightly higher than carbon fibre
composite. ThisThis finding
finding isis in
in agreement
agreement with
with the
the research
research work
work done
done by by Wambua et al. [59] that
attained better energy absorption by incorporating natural fibres (flax, hemp, and jute) in the woven
form to the middle
middle layer
layer of
of natural
natural fibres/mild
fibres/mild steel hybrids composite. This is related to the unique
energy absorption properties by natural fibres that have acted as a stiff layer to deflect and absorb
more impact energy,
energy, asas compared
compared to to carbon
carbon fibre
fibre that
that is
is more
more brittle.
brittle. Furthermore, fibres that are
derived from plants have low level of embodied energy than synthetic fibres and contain cellulose as
their major
majorstructural
structuralcomponent.
component. High cellulose
High content
cellulose and cellulose
content microfibrils
and cellulose which are
microfibrils aligned
which are
in the fibre
aligned direction
in the give higher
fibre direction giveperformance in energy
higher performance inabsorbtion apart from
energy absorbtion having
apart fromhigher
havingspecific
higher
Young’s modulusmodulus
specific Young’s and tensile
andstrengths than synthetic
tensile strengths fibres [60].
than synthetic fibres [60].
Based on the morphology of the impact fractured surface in Figure 13, it was observed that the
composites failed by a combination of intense fibre pull pull out,
out, fibre
fibre breakage,
breakage, delamination
delamination between
between
layers and voids in the composite. These failure modes modes occurred
occurred more
more in the satin fabric specimen.
specimen.
Some of these failure modes were also observed in the plain fabric samples, but the extent of the
failures differed from that of the satin fabric sample. Many researchers [61–63] had mentioned that
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 15 of 19

Polymers 2018, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 20

failures differed from that of the satin fabric sample. Many researchers [61–63] had mentioned that the
weave
the weavedesign waswas
design responsible for determining
responsible for determining the impact toughness
the impact of theofcomposite.
toughness the composite. Carbon fibre
Carbon
and epoxy
fibre matrix
and epoxy werewere
matrix sheared and delaminated
sheared and delaminated as shown in the
as shown in Figure 13a. 13a.
the Figure A crack through
A crack the
through
woven kenaf/carbon fibre and epoxy interface after the failure can be seen
the woven kenaf/carbon fibre and epoxy interface after the failure can be seen clearly, indicating thatclearly, indicating that
the phenomenon
the phenomenon of of fibre
fibre pull-out
pull-out happened
happened to to aa large
large degree
degree (Figure
(Figure 1313b,c). This failure
b,c). This failure mode
mode is is in
in
agreement with
agreement with Aly
Aly etet al.
al.[61]
[61]who
whohavehaveconcluded
concludedthat thatthe
theimpact
impact properties
properties areare
strongly
stronglyaffected by
affected
woven fabric structure and the resin properties. The failure mechanisms
by woven fabric structure and the resin properties. The failure mechanisms described above were described above were also
observed
also in this
observed in study. Another
this study. factorfactor
Another for causing
for causingthesethese
phenomenon
phenomenon mightmight
be related to thetoplain
be related the
fabric’s high cover factor and porosity values. Therefore, plain fabrics are better
plain fabric’s high cover factor and porosity values. Therefore, plain fabrics are better in interfacialin interfacial adhesion
which leads
adhesion to good
which leadsresin-fabrics penetration.
to good resin-fabrics Thus, the Thus,
penetration. composites experienced
the composites less kenafless
experienced fibrekenaf
pull
out and
fibre pullvoid in the
out and composite,
void resulting resulting
in the composite, in high impactin high resistance. PickeringPickering
impact resistance. et al. [60]ethave reported
al. [60] have
that the impact absorption capability of composite material depends upon
reported that the impact absorption capability of composite material depends upon the interfacial the interfacial strength
between between
strength the fibresthe
andfibres
the matrix.
and theThese findings
matrix. Thesewere also were
findings supported by Salmanby
also supported et Salman
al. [40] who
et al.have
[40]
stated that the plain fabric could add structural strength and leads to an
who have stated that the plain fabric could add structural strength and leads to an increase inincrease in strength as well as
energy absorption capacity of the composite.
strength as well as energy absorption capacity of the composite.

Figure 13.The
Figure 13. TheSEM
SEM micrograph
micrograph of impact
of impact fracture
fracture surfacesurface of laminated
of laminated satin
satin woven woven
kenaf kenaf
composite.
composite. (a) Delamination
(a) Delamination between
between layers; (b,c) layers; (b out,
fibre pull and breakage
c) fibre pull
andout, breakage
voids and voids
can be observed at can be
higher
observed at higher magnifications in satin-designed
magnifications in satin-designed composite. composite.

It was particularly
particularly noticeable
noticeable that
that the
the impact
impact properties
properties increased
increased with
with an
an increase
increase in fabric
count to66× ×
count to 6. This indicates
6. This thatthat
indicates the addition of fibre
the addition of content in the in
fibre content composites has increased
the composites energy
has increased
absorption capacity
energy absorption or makes
capacity the composite
or makes to betomore
the composite resistance
be more to to
resistance impact
impactstress.
stress.This
Thiscan
can be
interpreted that
that increasing
increasingthe
thenumber
numberof ofwarp
warpyarnyarnhas
hasincreased
increasedthe
thenumbers
numbers ofof yarns
yarns that
that areare able
able to
to bear
bear thethe impact
impact load.
load. Impact
Impact stressstress can
can be be distributed
distributed efficiently
efficiently in the composite
in the composite withamount
with higher higher
amount of fibres and delay delamination [64]. Closer weave structure improves energy absorption
because high fabric density slows down crack growth and results in a smaller damage length [22].
Moreover, woven composite with high fabric density has higher impact and damage tolerance due
Polymers 2018, 10, 1320 16 of 19

of fibres and delay delamination [64]. Closer weave structure improves energy absorption because
high fabric density slows down crack growth and results in a smaller damage length [22]. Moreover,
woven composite with high fabric density has higher impact and damage tolerance due to reduced
impact damage which is a result from the higher number of yarn interlacement in a preform [65].
Hosur et al. [66] observed that the impact response of plain fabric composites reduced the delamination
initiation due to fibre interlacement in their structure. They also indicated that the bottom layer of
the woven laminates did not split during impact loading. Plain fabric composite also have better
impact resistance due to the higher transverse strength in woven composites that are created by the
interlacement of the weft and warp yarns in the preform [67]. Furthermore, CP6 fabric and carbon
fibre bond better with the epoxy resin, provide better adhesion between fabric and resin, thus less fibre
pullout and create strong bonding. This bonding results in great amount of impact energy absorption.

4. Conclusions
The mechanical properties of woven kenaf/carbon fibre reinforced epoxy hybrid composites
were affected by the weave designs and the fabric counts of woven kenaf, with weave design being
significantly affected more by the mechanical properties. By using plain fabric, the tensile and impact
strength were improved compared with satin fabric, and using 5 × 5 of fabric count had improved
flexural modulus compared with 6 × 6. The tensile and impact strength of the composite at fabric
count of 6 × 6 was found to be higher than other composites indicating that composites were strongly
determined by the fabric structure, fabric strength and fibre content. Plain fabric and the 5 × 5 of fabric
count showed higher flexural strength due to the better adhesion of woven kenaf in the epoxy resin
compared to satin fabric and the 5 × 5 of fabric count. SEM examinations of failure test specimens
revealed poor adhesion in the composite structure and the failures were caused by fibre pullout,
fibre-resin debonding, and some voids. The increment in the fibre volume fraction and the reduction in
void content had increased the tensile strength of the composite simultaneously. The produced hybrid
woven composites could potentially be used for military applications such as the production of body
armour and a ballistic helmet. Other applications include automotive and construction industries.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, H.A.A., M.T.P., A.K., and S.M.S.; Methodology, H.A.A., M.S.W.,
and O.B.B.; Formal Analysis, H.A.A. and M.T.P.; Investigation, H.A.A., M.T.P., A.K., and S.H.L.; Data Curation,
H.A.A.; Writing-Original Draft Preparation, H.A.A., M.T.P., C.H.L., and S.H.L.; Writing-Review & Editing,
H.A.A., M.T.P., A.K., S.M.S., C.H.L., and S.H.L.; Supervision, M.T.P., A.K., S.M.S., M.S.W., and O.B.B.;
Project Administration, M.T.P.; Funding Acquisition, M.T.P.
Funding: This research was funded by Aerospace Malaysia Innovation Centre (AMIC) and Higher
Education Center of Excellence (HICoE), Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia (Grant number 9300426 and
6369109 respectively).
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to acknowledge Mustafa Yildirim (Faculty of Textile Technologies
and Design, Istanbul Teknik Universitesi), Zakaria Jazuli (Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Tun Hussein Onn
Malaysia) and Laboratory of Biocomposite (Institute of Tropical Forestry and Forest Products, Universiti Putra
Malaysia) for supporting this project.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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