Power Station Protections Guy Rostand Kougang

REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON REPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN
PEACE-WORK-FATHERLAND PAIX-TRAVAIL-PATRIE
--------------------- --------------------
UNIVERSITY OF BAMENDA UNIVERSITE DE BAMENDA
----------------- -----------------
HIGHER TECHNICAL ECOLE NORMALE SUPERIEURE DE
TEACHER’S TRAINING L’ENSEIGNEMENT TECHNIQUE
COLLEGE --------------------
---------------------- DEPARTEMENT DU GENIE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ELECTRIQUE
AND POWER ENGINEERING ---------------------
-----------------------
OPTION: ELECTROTECHNICS
POWER STATIONS’ PROTECTIONS

SIMULATION: Case Study of Bamenda Power
Station
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

FULFILLMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DIPET II IN
ELECTROTECHNICS
By: KOUGANG Guy Rostand

Matricle: 13T0902
Supervisor: Dr CHEUKEM André
Academic Year: 2014/2015

CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this thesis entitled “‘POWER STATIONS’ PROTECTIONS

SIMULATION: Case Study of Bamenda Power Station” has been carried out by KOUGANG
GUY ROSTAND
with registration number 12T0902 in the Department of Electrical and Power Engineering
and of the option Electrotechnics of the Higher Technical Teacher Training College
(H.T.T.T.C.) Bambili, University of Bamenda.
Date .................................. Date .........................................

Supervisor Head of Department
.......................................... ….............................................
Signature............................ Signature ...................................
i
ATTESTATION
I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. I authorize the Higher Technical Teacher
College (H.T.T.T.C.) Bambili to blend this thesis to other institutions or individuals for the
purpose of scholarly research.
I understand the nature of plagiarism, and I am aware of the University’s policy on this.
I certify that this dissertation reports original work by me during my University project.
Signature and Date: ……………………………
KOUGANG GUY ROSTAND
ii
DEDICATION
I dedicate this work to
My Son KOUGANG DJOUMESSE Joy Arthur
&
My wife DJATSA DJOUMESSE Eliane
iii
Digitally signed by
Guy Rostand
KOUGANG
DN: cn=Guy Rostand
KOUGANG, c=CM,
ou=GEDH,
email=g.rostandkouga
ng@gmail.com
Reason: J'ai revu ce
document
Location: gauche
Date: 2020.03.23
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS
23:27:42 +01'00'
I wish to express my sincere thanks and deep sense of gratitude to Dr. CHEUKEM ANDRE who
accepted to supervise me and for his advices.
I thank Dr. NFAH MBAKA EUSTACE Head of the Department of Electrical and Power
Engineering for providing me facilities to carry out my work.
My sincere gratitude to all the teachers of Electrical Power Engineering particularly, for their
availabilities and in general to all the teachers of H.T.T.T.C and H.T.T.C who contributed to our
training through their lectures.
Special thanks to NGUEPONG, YONTA, TANGUFOUET, DJOUMESSE families, Bethel city
residents specially Ermine and Alvine then my class mates.
iv
Abstract
An electrical power station is one of the key points of a whole electrical network; its protection
against faults is then inescapable. This work studies a local power station layout, equipments,
protections, a numerical modelization and simulation of inverse time relay, recloser and
differential relay in the protection of such station equipments in Matlab/Simulink environment.
The inverse time relay protection operates only when a fault occurs and its time delay is within
the standard range of 20ms. The recloser isolates permanent fault and clears fugitive fault (in
16ms) which are the 90% of faults occurring in power systems, therefore it is more advantageous
than a simple overcurrent relay protection which trip permanently once a faulty current is
detected. The differential relay protection, when a fault occurs outside the protected area, the
protection does not trip while when the fault is inside the protected area, the fault is cleared
(selectivity criteria met) with a delay of 19ms that is within the standard range of 100 ms. The
developed models of power transformer current related numerical protections have been
simulated and the results are within the standard range, therefore these models can be used in the
simulation of dynamic electrical power systems, power station protective relay technology
enhancement, virtual lab, as didactic material both in technical and grammar schools. From this a
user can easily and rapidly master a power station layout, equipments and understand how their
protections are constituted and how they behave by means of simulation without necessarily
being in touch with the real equipments which the access is limited.
Key words: Electrical power station, study, protections, Numerical modelization, simulation.
Résumé
Un poste de transformation dans un réseau électrique est un point clé dont la protection est
indispensable. Ce document étudie la présentation d’un poste local de transformation, ses
équipements, ses protections, une modélisation numérique et simulation d’un relais à temps
inverse, d’un déclencheur et d’un relais différentiel pour la protection des équipements d’un tel
poste dans l’environnement Matlab/Simulink. Le relais à temps inverse fonctionne
exclusivement quand survient une surcharge et son temps de fonctionnement se trouve dans la
plage de 20ms. Le déclencheur quant à lui isole les défauts fugitifs (constituant près des 90%
des défauts du réseau) pendant un court instant pour lequel ils disparaissent le plus souvent,
diminuant ainsi les temps morts. Quant aux défauts permanents, après trois isolations successives
à intervalle de 2 à 3 s d’un défaut qui persiste, il finit par isoler définitivement la partie du réseau
concernée. Le relais différentiel protège exclusivement la zone concernée (sélectivité assurée)
contre les défauts internes comme courant de défauts de mise à la terre, court-circuit des
enroulements du transformateur. Son temps de fonctionnement est de l’ordre de 19ms qui est
dans la plage standard de 100ms. Les résultats de la simulation sont dans les plages standards,
ainsi ces modèles peuvent être utilisés pour la simulation des systèmes électriques dynamiques,
la technologie des relais pour poste de transformation, les labos virtuels, comme matériel
didactique. A partir de ce travail, l’utilisateur peut facilement et rapidement avoir la maîtrise de
la présentation d’un poste de transformation, ses équipements, et comprendre de quoi les
protections sont faites et comment elles se comportent via la simulation sans nécessairement être
en face du matériel en question dont l’accès reste assez limité.
Mots clés: poste de transformation électrique, étude, protection, modélisation numérique,
simulation.
v
Contents
CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................................... i
ATTESTATION ......................................................................................................................................ii
DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................... iv
Abstract ................................................................................................................................................... v
Résumé ....................................................................................................................................................v
List of abbreviations ................................................................................................................................ x
List of variables ...................................................................................................................................... xi
List of figures ........................................................................................................................................ xii
List of tables ......................................................................................................................................... xiii
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... 1
I-Background and context of the study .................................................................................................... 1
II-Problem statement ............................................................................................................................... 1
III-Research question .............................................................................................................................. 1
IV-Research hypothesis .......................................................................................................................... 1
V-Scope and objectives of the study ........................................................................................................ 2
VI-Achievements .................................................................................................................................... 2
VII-Overview of Dissertation .................................................................................................................. 2
VIII-Definition of terms .......................................................................................................................... 2
CHAPTER 2: LITTERATURE REVIEW ON POWER STATION PROTECTION ................................ 4
INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 4
I-Power station And Protections .............................................................................................................. 4
1-Power station equipments ................................................................................................................ 4
2- Substation layout ............................................................................................................................ 5
2-1 Single bus bar ........................................................................................................................... 5
2-2 Ring bus bar .............................................................................................................................. 5
2-3- Space Requirements ................................................................................................................. 5
3- Transformers .................................................................................................................................. 6
4- Regulators....................................................................................................................................... 7
5- Circuit Breakers............................................................................................................................... 8
6-Reclosers ......................................................................................................................................... 9
7-Disconnect Switches ........................................................................................................................ 9
8-Lightning Arresters..........................................................................................................................10
vi
9-Bus bars ..........................................................................................................................................10
10-Reactors........................................................................................................................................10
11- Static Var Compensators ..............................................................................................................11
12-Control Buildings...........................................................................................................................11
13- Protection role .............................................................................................................................11
II- Types of faults on power transformers ...............................................................................................12
III-Power transformers protections .........................................................................................................12
1-Overcurrent protection of power transformers .................................................................................13
2-Conventional differential protection scheme ....................................................................................14
3- Differential protection difficulties ..................................................................................................18
3-1 Magnetizing inrush current .......................................................................................................18
3-2 Faulty trip due to C.T characteristics ........................................................................................19
3-3 Faulty trip due to tap changer ...................................................................................................19
4- Relay performance and relay technology ........................................................................................20
4-1 Relay performance ...................................................................................................................20
4-2 Relay technology .....................................................................................................................20
IV- Examples of the use of multipurpose relays in protecting power station equipments using IEEE
Standard ( C37.91-2000) ........................................................................................................................21
1- Protection of a power transformer .................................................................................................21
2- Protection of bus bars ....................................................................................................................23
3- Protection of sending ends.............................................................................................................23
CONCLUSION .....................................................................................................................................24
CHAPTER 3: POWER STATION LAYOUT AND NUMERICAL PROTECTIONS .............................25
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................25
I- The power station layout ....................................................................................................................25
1- Diagram of the station ....................................................................................................................25
2- Functioning of the single core diagram of figure 2.2 .......................................................................26
3- The transformation.........................................................................................................................27
II- Equipments Protections .....................................................................................................................27
1- Power transformer protections........................................................................................................27
2- Bus Bar protection .........................................................................................................................27
3-Sending ends protection ..................................................................................................................28
4- Personnel protection.......................................................................................................................28
III- Main types of protections .................................................................................................................28
1 - Overvoltage protections ................................................................................................................29
vii
1-1 First level overvoltage protection .............................................................................................29
1-2 Second level overvoltage protection .........................................................................................29
1-3 Third level overvoltage protection ............................................................................................29
2-Overload protection ........................................................................................................................29
2-1 Overloads.................................................................................................................................30
2-2 Short circuits ............................................................................................................................30
IV- Protection, monitoring, protective relay ...........................................................................................30
V- Solution proposal to the power station ...............................................................................................31
VI- Models of numerical protections of power transformers ...................................................................31
I-The overcurrent relay.......................................................................................................................32
II- The recloser ..................................................................................................................................32
III-The differential relay ........................................................................................................................35
1-Characteristic equations of numerical differential relay ...................................................................35
2-Harmonic-based methods ................................................................................................................36
2-1 Harmonic restrain techniques ...................................................................................................36
2-2 Harmonic blocking techniques .................................................................................................37
3- Wave shape recognition methods ...................................................................................................37
IV- Presentation of the developed differential relay model .....................................................................37
1-The operating current block ............................................................................................................37
2- The restraining current block..........................................................................................................38
3- The operating and restraining currents combined blocks .................................................................38
4- The harmonic blocking block .........................................................................................................39
5-The overall differential relay block..................................................................................................39
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................40
CHAPTER 4: SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS............................................................41
Introduction ...........................................................................................................................................41
I- Simulation of overcurrent time inverse relay .......................................................................................41
1-Steps to be followed in order to run the relevant files ......................................................................41
2-Fault detection ................................................................................................................................41
3-Simulation file layout ......................................................................................................................42
3-Simulation parameters ....................................................................................................................43
4-Simulation results ...........................................................................................................................44
5-Result analysis ................................................................................................................................45
II-Simulation of a recloser......................................................................................................................45
1- Procedure to run the simulation: .....................................................................................................46
viii
2-Fault detection ................................................................................................................................46
3-Simulation layout ............................................................................................................................46
4-Simulation parameters ....................................................................................................................47
6-Results comment.............................................................................................................................49
III-Simulation of differential relay .........................................................................................................49
1-Procedure to run the simulation: ......................................................................................................50
2-Fault detection ................................................................................................................................50
3-Simulation layout ............................................................................................................................50
4-Simulation parameters values ..........................................................................................................51
6-Results comment.............................................................................................................................52
III-Advantages and disadvantages ..........................................................................................................52
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................53
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ................................................................54
I- Recommendation................................................................................................................................55
II- Advantages and disadvantages ..........................................................................................................55
III- Suggestions for further studies .........................................................................................................55
Conclusion.............................................................................................................................................56
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................57
ix
List of abbreviations
ADC: Analog to Digital Converter

BB: Bus Bar
CB: Circuit Breaker
CT: Current Transformer,
CTI: Coordinating Time Interval,
DSP: Digital Signal Processors
EI: Extreme Inverse,
EMTP: Electromagnetic Transient Program,
GUI: Graphical User Interface,
IEC: International Electrotechnical Commission,
IEEE: Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers
NI: Normal Inverse
OLTC: On-Load Tap-Changer,
RMS: Root Means Square
VI: Very inverse Curves
x
List of variables
k: is the time multiplier,

I: is the fault current level,
Ipickup: the pick-up current,
Ip : the primary side current of the power transformer,
Ii : the secondary side current of CTi.
Ni : the number of turns in the secondary side of CTi
and : primary and secondary side turns of the power transformer, respectively
: Differential current
I D1 and I D2 are the currents on the pilot wires of the current transformers connected on the
primary side and on the secondary side of the transformer respectively.
: Operating current,
: Restrain current,
: the pickup current
Iopf : the fundamental component of the operating current ,

I2h, I5h, : third and fifth harmonics of the operating current,
SLP: the slope
xi
List of figures
1Figure 1.1: Single bus bar arrangement ................................................................................................. 4
2Figure 1.2: Bushing CT [14] .................................................................................................................... 7
3Figure 1.3: (a) LV PT, (b) HV PT [14] ....................................................................................................... 7
4Figure 1.4: Three phase regulator [14] .................................................................................................. 8
5Figure 1.5: circuit breaker , (a) oil insulated type, (b) gas insulated type,(c) vacuum insulated type [14] 9
6Figure 1.6: Recloser [14] ....................................................................................................................... 9
7Figure 1.7: Horizontal break switch [14] ................................................................................................ 9
8Figure 1.8: Station lightning arrester [14] .............................................................................................10
9Figure 1.9: bus bar found in power station [14] ....................................................................................10
10Figure 1.10: Differential protection for single phase two winding transformer ....................................15
11Figure 1.11: Output currents of the CTs are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction ...................16
12Figure 1.12: Output currents of the CTs are not equal in magnitude and not opposite in direction .......16
13Figure 1. 13: Connection of differential protection of 3-phase -Y transformer ..................................17
14Figure 1.14: The relationship between line to line voltages in Y- or -Y connected transformers .....18
15Figure 2.15. Use of a multipurpose relay for the protection of a HV and MV power transformers.......22
16Figure 1.16: Protection of a bus bar....................................................................................................23
17Figure 1.17: Protection of a sending end ............................................................................................23
18Figure 3.1: BRGM Power station, (a) transformers, (b) monitoring room [13] ....................................25
19Figure 2.2: One core diagram of the BRGM (Brigade Régionale De Géologie Minière) power station
[13]........................................................................................................................................................26
20Figure 2.3: (a) HV CT, (b) HV PT, (c) HV lightning arrester [14] .......................................................28
21Figure 2.4: Programmable relay SEPAM 80 series [14] ......................................................................30
22Figure 2.5: Overcurrent relay block diagram built in Matlab Simulink ................................................32
23Figure 2.6: A recloser seen as combination of inverse time relay and a processing block, built in
Matlab/Simulink ....................................................................................................................................35
24Figure 2.7: Differential relay with one slope characteristic .................................................................36
25Figure 2.8: The operating current block diagram built in Matlab Simulink ..........................................38
26Figure 2.9: The restraining current block diagram built in Matlab Simulink ........................................38
27Figure 2.10: The operating and restraining currents combined block diagram built in Matlab Simulink
..............................................................................................................................................................38
28Figure 2.11: The harmonic blocking block diagram built in Matlab Simulink .....................................39
29Figure 2.12: The overall differential relay block diagram built in Matlab Simulink .............................40
30Figure 4.1: Layout of the Simulation file and blocks ...........................................................................43
31Figure 4.2: Simulation result when no fault occurred ..........................................................................44
32Figure 4.3: Result of starting the simulation on fault ...........................................................................44
33Figure 4.4: A fault is created during the simulation.............................................................................45
34Figure 4.5: General layout of the simulation file .................................................................................46
35Figure 4.6: Simulation without fault ...................................................................................................48
36Figure 4.7: Starting the simulation with fault ......................................................................................48
37Figure 4.8: Running the simulation with persisting faults ....................................................................49
38Figure 4.9: General layout of the simulation file; fault F2 is to simulate internal fault in the protected
area between B1 and B2, the other faults are considered as external from this area. ................................50
39Figure 4.10: Simulation without fault .................................................................................................51
40Figure 4.11: Simulation with faults both external and internal to the protected zone ............................52
xii
List of tables
1Table 1.1: Safety clearances to enable operation, inspection, and cleaning, repairs, painting and normal
maintenance work to be carried out [14] ................................................................................................ 6
2Table1.2: IEC 60255constants for standard overcurrent relays [12] .....................................................14
xiii
CHAPTER 1: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
I-Background and context of the study

The energy supply quality of any electrical network as that of the Bamenda is dependent upon
many factors such as:
Substation power input quality,
Faults survey in the power substation and distribution network,
Substation protections setting and reliability,
II-Problem statement
With the above mentioned context which is common in many electrical networks, there is a need
of critical study of systems’ protections. The local power substation being the key node of our
network, we have decided to investigate but on its protections through a research topic titled
‘Power stations’ protections simulation: case study of Bamenda power station’. By that we are
to:
Study the power station faults, hazards, existing protections setting and operation,
Propose some numerical models of power stations’ protections which can be
implemented or used both as research tool and as didactic material in technical school for
electrical systems’ protections simulation environments as in Matlab/Simulink
environment where the electrical power equipment exist but the relevant protections do
not.
III-Research question
Is our work going to be useful, easy to use, practicable, reliable, valid and accessible to learners,
teachers and professionals? At the end of our work we shall be able to answer these questions.
IV-Research hypothesis
For our work, although the network protections are spread throughout the system, we assume
that the main protections are implemented around the power station itself. As research
hypothesis we have:
- The main power equipments (as the main transformer ) are still reliable,
- The upstream electrical network of the power station inputs energy is of good quality by
means of good protection system and continuity of service,
- If the protection system is well implemented the output energy quality of the power
station is going to be enhanced.
1
V-Scope and objectives of the study
This research is aimed at studying the protection system of an electrical power station. Therefore
we are to understand how a power station works and mock (simulate) some numerical
protections of such power stations:
- To record faults, remedies and prevention in an electrical power station,
-Propose some numerical models of an electrical power station’s protections,
-Simulate our proposed models and compare their capacity with existing ones.
VI-Achievements
We achieve to come out with a work which will be useful in:
-Electrical power station protection study,
-Simulating dynamic electrical systems with protections,
-Further research in electrical system protections,
-Enhancing old protective devices and/or developing new protecting devices
VII-Overview of Dissertation
Many researchers as Didier FULCHIRON [1], C. Russell [2] have been working on electrical
power station protections. Nowadays, new model of protecting electrical power station are being
proposed as multi-purpose numerical protective devices as the MC and M sets of MICROENER
- MICROELETTRICA SCIENTIFICA [3], while other researchers are still focusing on the
enhancement of the existing protection models as Armando Guzmán [4].
VIII-Definition of terms
Key words: Electrical power station, Power transformer, Protection, Numerical, Modelization,
simulation.
Electrical power station: An electrical network node/area where the electrical power is
transformed from one voltage level to another voltage level without affecting the frequency.
Power transformer. An equipment using electromagnetic induction to transfer electrical

alternating energy from one circuit to another (i.e., without direct connection between them). In
its simplest form, a transformer consists of separate primary and secondary coils wound on a
common core of ferromagnetic material, such as iron. When an alternating current flows through
2
the primary coil, the resulting magnetic flux in the core induces an alternating voltage across the
secondary coil; the induced voltage can cause a current to flow in an external circuit.
Protection: Restriction from fault or threat or an equipment used to protect anelectrical
equipment against faults.
Numerical: A mathematical approach of something
Model [5]. 1. A working or mockup version of a circuit, system, or device, illustrative of the
final version. 2. A mathematical representation of a process, device, circuit, or system.
Modelization: process of creating models.
Simulation [5]: 1. Imitation of the performance of a process, device, or system. 2. The use of a
mathematical model to represent a physical process, device, or system. 3. The use of a
computer, sometimes with virtual reality hardware and software, to mimic a real-life situation.
3
CHAPTER 2: LITTERATURE REVIEW ON POWER STATION PROTECTION
INTRODUCTION
For substation protection, choosing a suitable relay type or relay’s setting is essential. Generally
speaking, we may make the fault analysis and the test by the simulation software, and according
to the actual system requirement, choose the suitable protective relay, but for reliability and
security considerations, the massive simulations tests are usually undertaken. In this chapter, we
present an overview on power station equipments and protections.
I-Power station And Protections
1-Power station equipments

The power station station equipment discussed in this chapter includes:
Transformers
Regulators
Circuit breakers and reclosers
Air disconnect switches
Lightning arresters
Electrical buses
Capacitor banks
Reactors
Static VAR compensators
Control building
1Figure 1.1: Single bus bar arrangement
4
2- Substation layout
2-1 Single bus bar

The single bus bar arrangement (figure 1.1) is simple to operate, places minimum reliance on
signaling for satisfactory operation of protection and facilitates the economical addition of
future feeder bays.
1. Each circuit is protected by its own circuit breaker and hence plant outage does not
necessarily result in loss of supply.
2. A fault on a feeder or transformer circuit breaker causes loss of the transformer and feeder
circuit one of which may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker.
3. A fault on a bus section circuit breaker causes complete shutdown of the substation. All
circuits may be restored after isolating the faulty circuit breaker and the substation will be
‘split’ under these conditions.
4. A bus bar fault causes loss of one transformer and one feeder. Maintenance of one bus bar
section or disconnector will cause the temporary outage of two circuits.
5. Maintenance of a feeder or transformer circuit breaker involves loss of that circuit.
6. The introduction of bypass isolators between the bus bar and circuit isolator (Figure 1.1)
allows circuit breaker maintenance facilities without loss of the circuit. Under these
conditions full circuit protection is not available.
2-2 Ring bus bar

The ring bus bar offers increased security compared to the single bus bar arrangement since
alternative power flow routes around the ring bus bar are available.
2-3- Space Requirements

For safety, a certain clearance distance is always considered when working under energized parts
of an electrical network (see table 1.1).
5
1Table 1.1: Safety clearances to enable operation, inspection, and cleaning, repairs, painting and normal maintenance work
to be carried out [14]
Nominal Basic Safety Safety Insulation Phase-phase

system electrical working working height clearance (m)
voltage (KV) clearance clearance clearance (pedestrian
(phase-earth) (vertical) (m) (horizontal) access) (m)
(m) (m)
6.6 0.5 2.9 2.3 2.1 0.25
11 0.5 2.9 2.3 2.1 0.25
33 0.5 2.9 2.3 2.1 0.43
66 0.7 3.1 2.5 2.1 0.78
132 1.1 3.5 2.9 2.1 1.4
275 2.1 4.8 3.9 2.4 2.4
400 2.8 5.5 4.6 2.4 3.6
3- Transformers
Transformers are essential components in electric power systems. They come in all shapes and
sizes. Power transformers are used to transform alternating high voltage power to low-voltage
power and vice versa. Power can flow in both directions: from the high-voltage side to the low-
voltage side or from the low-voltage side to the high-voltage side. Generation plants use large
step up transformers to raise the voltage of the generated power for efficient transport of power
over long distances. A number of fault conditions can arise within a power transformer. These
include: Earth faults, Core faults, interturn faults, Phase-to-phase, Tank faults.
Bushings
Bushings are used on transformers, circuit breakers, and many other types of electric power
equipment as connection points. Bushings connect outside conductors to conductors inside
equipment. Bushings provide insulation between the energized conductor and the grounded
metal tank surrounding the conductor.
Instrument Transformers
The term instrument transformer refers to current and voltage transformers that are used to scale
down actual power system quantities for metering, protective relaying, and/or system monitoring
equipment. The application of both current and potential transformers also provides scaled-down
quantities for power and energy information.
6
Current Transformers
Current transformers (figure 1.2) or CTs are used to scale down

the high magnitude of current flowing in high-voltage
conductors to a level much easier to work with safely. For
example, it is much easier to work with 5 amperes of current in
the CT’s secondary circuit than it is to work with 1,000 amperes
of current in the CT’s primary circuit.
2Figure 1.2: Bushing CT [14]
Potential Transformers
Similarly, potential transformers (PTs) (figure 1.3) are used to scale down very high voltages to
levels that are safer to work with. For example, it is much easier to work with 115 Vac than 69
kVac. PTs are also used for metering, protective relaying, and system monitoring equipment.
The instruments connected to the secondary side of the PT are programmed to account for the
turn ratio scale factor.
(a) (b)
3Figure 1.3: (a) LV PT, (b) HV PT [14]
4- Regulators
It is important for electric utility companies to provide their customers with regulated or steady
voltage all the time, otherwise several undesirable conditions might occur. Normally, residential
220 Vac is regulated to ±5%. The first residential customer outside the substation should not
have voltage exceeding 1.05*220 Vac and the last customer at the end of the distribution feeder
should not have voltage less than 0.95*220 Vac. Power companies try to regulate the distribution
voltage to be within a nominal 0.95*220 Vac to 1.05*220 Vac.
7
4Figure 1.4: Three phase regulator [14]
5- Circuit Breakers
The purpose of a circuit breaker (figure 1.5) is to interrupt current flowing in the line,
transformer, bus, or other equipment when a problem occurs and the power has to be turned off.
Current interruption can be for normal load current, high-fault current (due to a short-circuit
current or problem in the system) or simply tripped by protective relaying equipment in
anticipation of an undesirable event or disturbance. A breaker accomplishes this by mechanically
moving electrical contacts apart inside an interrupter, causing an arc to occur that is immediately
suppressed by the high-dielectric medium inside the interrupter. Circuit breakers are triggered to
open or close by the protective relaying equipment using the substation battery system.
The most common types of dielectric media used to extinguish the arc inside the breaker
interrupter are listed below: -Oil (clean mineral), -Gas (SF6 or sulfur hexafluoride), -Vacuum, -
Air
These dielectric media also classify the breaker, such as oil circuit breaker (OCB), gas circuit
breaker (GCB), and power circuit breaker (PCB). Compared to fuses, circuit breakers have the
ability to open and close repeatedly, whereas a fuse opens the circuit one time and must be
replaced. Fuses are single-phase devices, whereas breakers are normally gang operated three-
phase devices. Breakers can interrupt very high magnitudes of current. They can close into a
fault and trip open again. They can be controlled remotely. They need periodic maintenance.
8
(a) (b) (c)
5Figure 1.5: circuit breaker , (a) oil insulated type, (b) gas insulated type,(c) vacuum insulated type [14]
6-Reclosers
Similar to circuit breakers, reclosers (figure 1.6) provide circuit
breaker functionality and they also include basic system-protective
relaying equipment to control the automatic opening and reclosing
of power circuits. Reclosers are most commonly used on
distribution systems. They offer cost advantages over standard
circuit breakers that require separate protective relaying equipment.
6Figure 1.6: Recloser [14]
7-Disconnect Switches
There are many purposes for disconnect switches (figure 1.7) in power station and power lines.
They are used to isolate or de energize equipment for maintenance purposes, transfer load from
one source to another in planned or emergency conditions, provide visual openings for
maintenance personnel (an OSHA requirement for safety against
accidental energization), and other reasons. Disconnect switches usually
have low current interrupting ratings compared to circuit breakers.
Normally, power lines are first deenergized by circuit breakers (due to
their high current interrupting ratings), followed by the opening of the air
disconnect switches for isolation.
7Figure 1.7: Horizontal break switch [14]
9
8-Lightning Arresters
Lightning arresters (figure 1.8) are designed to limit the line-to-ground
voltage in the event of lightning or other excessive transient voltage
conditions. Some of the older gap-type lightning arresters actually short-
circuited the line or equipment, causing the circuit breaker to trip. The
breaker would then re close when the transient overvoltage condition was
gone. The lightning arrester protects the equipment near the lightning
arrester from experiencing high-voltage transient conditions.
8Figure 1.8: Station lightning arrester [14]
9-Bus bars
The purpose of the electrical bus (figure 1.9) in power station is to connect equipment together.
A bus is a conductor, or group of conductors, that serves as a common connection between two
or more circuits. The bus is supported by station post insulators. These insulators are mounted on
the bus structures. The bus can be constructed of 8–16 cm rigid aluminum tubing or wires with
insulators on both ends, called a “strain” bus. The bus work
consists of structural steel that supports the insulators that
support the energized conductors. The bus work might also
include air disconnect switches. Special bus configurations
allow for transferring load from one feeder to another and to
bypass equipment for maintenance.
9Figure 1.9: bus bar found in power station [14]
10-Reactors
Reactor is another name for a high-voltage inductor. They are essentially one-winding
transformers. Reactors are used in electric power systems for two main reasons. First, reactors
are used in a shunt configuration (i.e., line to ground connections), to help regulate transmission
system voltage by absorbing surplus reactive power (VARs) from generation or line charging.
Shunt Reactors—Transmission
The electrical characteristics and performance of long, high-voltage transmission lines can be
improved through the use of shunt reactors. Shunt reactors are used on transmission lines to help
10
regulate or balance reactive power flowing in the system. They can be used to absorb excess
reactive power.
Series Reactors—Distribution
Distribution power station occasionally use series reactors to reduce available fault current.
Distribution lines connected to power station that have several transmission lines or are near a
generation plant might have extremely high short-circuit fault current available if something
were to happen out on the distribution line. By inserting a series reactor on each phase of each
distribution line, the fault current decreases due to the fact that a magnetic field has to be
developed before high currents flow through the reactor. Therefore, the circuit breaker tips the
distribution line before the current has a chance to rise to full magnitude. Otherwise, the high
fault current could cause excessive damage to consumers’ electrical equipment.
11- Static Var Compensators

The Static Var Compensator (SVC) is a device used on ac transmission systems to control power
flow, improve transient stability on power grids, and reduce system losses. The SVC regulates
voltage at its terminals by controlling the amount of reactive power injected or absorbed from the
power system. The SVC is made up of several capacitors and inductors (i.e., reactors) and an
electronic switching system that enables ramping up or down reactive power support.
12-Control Buildings
Control buildings are commonly found in the larger power station. They are used to house the
equipment associated with the monitoring, control, and protection of the substation equipment
(i.e., transformers, lines, and bus).
13- Protection role

The function of protection is not to prevent the fault itself but to take immediate action upon
fault recognition. Protection devices detect, locate and initiate the removal of the faulted
equipment from the power network in the minimum desirable time. It is necessary for all
protection relays, except those directly associated with the fault clearance, to remain inoperative
during transient phenomena which may arise during faults, switching surges or other
disturbances to the network. Protection schemes are designed on the basis of: • safety, •
reliability, • selectivity.
11
II- Types of faults on power transformers
Faults on power transformers can be classified as through faults and internal faults. A through
fault is located outside the protection zone of the transformer. The unit protection of the
transformer should not operate for through faults. The transformer must be disconnected when
such faults occur only when the faults are not cleared by other relays in pre-specified time.
Internal faults can be phase-to-phase and phase-to-ground faults. Internal faults are dangerous
for the integrity of the power transformer.
These internal faults can be classified into two groups.
Group I: Electrical faults that cause immediate serious damage but are generally detectable by
unbalance of current or voltage. Amongst them are the following.
• Phase-to-earth fault
• Phase-to-phase fault
• Short circuit between turns of high-voltage or low-voltage windings
• Faults to earth fault on a tertiary winding or short circuit between turns of a tertiary winding
Group II: These include incipient faults, which are initially minor faults but cause substantial
damage if they are not detected and taken care of. These faults cannot be detected by monitoring
currents or voltages at terminals of the transformer. Incipient faults include the following:
• A poor electrical connection between conductors
• Core fault which causes arching in oil
• Coolant failure, which causes rise of temperature
• Bad load sharing between transformers in parallel, which can cause overheating due to
circulating currents
For a group I fault, the transformer should be isolated as quickly as possible after the occurrence
of the fault. The group II faults, though not serious in the incipient stage, may cause major faults
in the course of time. Incipient faults should be cleared soon after they are detected.
III-Power transformers protections
Power system development is reflected in the development of all the power system devices
generators, transformers with different sizes, transmission lines and the protection equipment.
Modern power transformer is one of the most vital devices of the electric power system and its
12
protection is critical. For this reason, the protection of power transformers has taken an important
consideration by the researchers.
Over-current, differential and gas accumulator are three types of protection that are normally
applied to protect power transformers.
Overcurrent protection provided the first type of transformer protection, and it is still in use for
small capacity transformers. Differential protection replaced overcurrent technology as the
principal electrical protection for power transformers. An electric arc in oil decomposes the oil
producing gases. The emission of gas is used in gas accumulator and rate-of-pressure-rise relays
to detect internal arcing faults.
One of the most effective transformer protection methods is the differential protection algorithm.
Typically, transformer protection is focused on discriminating the internal faults from the
magnetizing inrush currents in the power transformers and overcoming the CTs related issues.
1-Overcurrent protection of power transformers
Overcurrent relays are common devices that are used as part of a primary and/or back-up relay
protection in distribution networks. Overcurrent relays issue a trip signal to the circuit breaker
when the monitored current exceeds a predetermined minimum operating current value. They are
classified into definite-time and inverse-time based on their tripping time. Definite-time
overcurrent relays operate when the current exceeds a preset value over certain predetermined
time period. On a contrary, inverse-time overcurrent relays operate within a time interval which
is inversely proportional to the fault current. This relay type can thus ensure short tripping time
for very high currents. They are classified in three categories according to their characteristic
curve: inverse, very inverse and extremely inverse relays. The operation time of the inverse-time
relay is defined according to IEC60255 (IEC: International
Electrotechnical Commission) by the following expression [12]
(1.0)
Where the parameters determine the type of characteristic, k is the time multiplier, I is
the fault current level and Ipickup is the pick-up current. The parameters of the IEC
60255 standard curves are displayed in table 1bellow. For definite-time overcurrent relays, the
generic rule for the selection of the minimum load current and lower operating current is to set it
higher than 200% of the maximum load current and lower than 50% of the minimum end-end-of-
13
line phase-to-phase fault current. For inverse-time overcurrent relays, the pick-up current is
usually set to 1.5*Inom of the protected element to allow some overload. The protection system
demonstrates an acceptable level of selectivity only when the protection device closest to a fault
operates. A coordinated operation between two successive relays is obtained by applying a
coordinating time interval (CTI) which is also known as time grading. Relay coordination
process requires that the farther the relay is from the fault, the longer is its time setting. In other
words, the time setting of overcurrent relays is in an increasing order from the fault location.
2Table1.2: IEC 60255constants for standard overcurrent relays [12]
Relay type
Inverse 0.02 0.14

Very inverse 1.00 13.50
Extremely inverse 2.00 80.00
2-Conventional differential protection scheme

This scheme is based on the principle that the input power to the power transformer under
normal conditions is equal to the output power. Under normal conditions, no current will flow
into the differential relay current coil. Whenever a fault occurs, within the protected zone, the
current balance will no longer exist, and relay contacts will close and release a trip signal to
cause the certain circuit breakers (CBs) to operate in order to disconnect the faulty
equipment/part. The differential relay compares the primary and secondary side currents of the
power transformer. Current transformers (CTs) are used to reduce the amount of currents in such
a way their secondary side currents are equal. Fig. 1 shows the differential relay in its simplest
form. The polarity of CTs is such as to make the current circulate normally without going
through the relay, during normal load conditions and external faults.
Current transformers ratings are selected carefully to be matched with the power transformer
current ratings to which they are connected so as the CTs secondary side currents are equal.
However, the problem is that the CTs ratios available in the market have standard ratings. They
are not available exactly as the desired ratings. Therefore, the primary ratings of the CTs are
usually limited to those of the available standard ratio CTs.
Commonly the primary side of the current transformer has only one turn and the secondary side
has many turns depending on the transformation ratio (N) of the CT, which is selected to match
the ratings of the power transformer. Since the transformation ratio of transformers is the ratio
between the numbers of turns in the primary side to the number of the turns in the secondary
14
side. Therefore, the turn ratio of the primary current transformer is 1/N1 and the turn ratio of the
secondary side current transformer is 1/N2 . The secondary current of the CT (CT1)
located in the primary side of the power transformer is.
I1=Ip/N1 ; equ.1.1
Where:
Ip : the primary side current of the power transformer,
I1 : the secondary side current of CT1.
N1 : the number of turns in the secondary side of CT1
In the same manner for the CT (CT2) located at the secondary side of the power transformer, the
CT secondary current is:
I2=Is/N2 (1.2)
Where:
Is : the secondary side current of the power transformer,
I2 : the secondary side current of CT2.
N2 : the number of turns in the secondary side of CT2
10Figure 1.10: Differential protection for single phase two winding transformer
Since the differential current is: Id= I1-I2, then, from equation (1.1) and equation (1.2) the
differential current flowing in the relay operating coil current Id can be calculated as;
(1.3)
If there is no internal fault occurring within the power transformer protected zone, the currents I 1,
I2 are assumed equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. That means the differential current
=0 as shown in figure 1.11. The primary and secondary side current of the power transformer
are related to each other by equation (1.4);
; (1.4)
Where:
15
and : primary and secondary side turns of the power transformer, respectively
: power transformer transformation ratio.
11Figure 1.11: Output currents of the CTs are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction
If there is any fault in the power transformer protected zone, the currents I1, I2 are no longer
equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. That means the differential current
has a significant value as shown in figure 1.12.
12Figure 1.12: Output currents of the CTs are not equal in magnitude and not opposite in
direction
The amount of current induces the relay operating coil to operate in order to
send
a trip signal to the circuit breakers to isolate the transformer.
From equation (1.4) the secondary current with respect to the primary current of the power
transformer is ;
(1.5)
Therefore, by manipulating equations (1.3) and (1.5),
(1.6)
From equation (1.6) it is obvious that the term must be equal to zero in order to make
; that means
(1.7)
Equation (1.7) gives the condition for the security of the differential relay, which means the
reciprocal of the ratio of the secondary side turns of the CTs must equal to the turns ratio of the
16
power transformer. In power transformers, the input power is equal to the output power.
However, the voltage and the current in both the primary and secondary sides are different
depending on whether the transformer is step up or step down. For instance, if the transformer is
step up that means; the input voltage of the power transformer is low and the current is high,
meantime the voltage in the secondary side is high and the current is low. This action makes both
the input and output power equal. Due to this nature the CTs in the primary and the secondary
sides of the power transformer do not have same turn ratio. However, they are carefully selected,
in terms of turn ratio and magnetizing characteristics, so that they have the same output current
at normal conditions of operations. If identical CTs are not available, the closer ones are chosen
and then the mismatch between them is compensated by using the interposing CTs. The
interposing CTs can fix the mismatch in the CTs; however they add their own burden to the
output of the main CTs. The same argument is applied for three phase transformers, except
some extra issues may appear in poly-phase transformers. Figure 1.13 shows the schematic
diagram of the 3 phase (3 ) differential protection.
In some cases, of 3 power transformer connections as shown in figure 1.14, a 30° phase shift
between primary and secondary currents is taking place. This phase shift occurs in the Y- or -
Y connected transformers due to the transformation of the current from Y- or -Y as illustrated
in the figure 1.13. This phase shift can be corrected easily by connecting the CTs secondary
circuits in opposite way to the way that the power transformer phases are connected. I.e. if the
transformer windings are connected in Y- the CTs secondary windings should be connected in
-Y and vice versa. As shown in figure 4 the relation between the line-to-line voltage (VLL) to
the phase voltage (VLn) can explain the phase shift between the -Y transformer connection. The
following equation gives the relationship between the line-to-line voltage to the phase voltage
[8].
13Figure 1. 13: Connection of differential protection of 3-phase -Y transformer
17
14Figure 1.14: The relationship between line to line voltages in Y- or -Y connected
transformers
3- Differential protection difficulties

Generally, three main difficulties handicap the conventional differential protection. They induce
the differential relay to release a false trip signal without the existing of any fault.
These complications must be overcome in order to make the differential relay working properly
[8]:
-Magnetizing inrush current during initial energization,
-CTs Mismatch and saturation,
-Transformation ratio changes due to Tap changer.
3-1 Magnetizing inrush current

This phenomenon, the transient magnetizing inrush or the exciting current, occurs in the primary
side of the transformer whenever the transformer is switched on (energized) and the
instantaneous value of the voltage is not at 90°. At this time, the first peak of the flux wave is
higher than the peak of the flux at the steady state condition. This current appears as an internal
fault, and it is sensed as a differential current by the differential relay. The value of the first peak
of the magnetizing current may be as high as several times the peak of the full load current. The
magnitude and duration of the magnetizing inrush current is influenced by many factors, some of
these factors are [8];
-The instantaneous value of the voltage waveform at the moment of closing CB,
-The value of the residual (remnant) magnetizing flux,
-The sign of the residual magnetizing flux,
-The type of the iron laminations used in the transformer core,
-The saturation flux density of the transformer core,
-The total impedance of the supply circuit,
-The physical size of the transformer,
-The maximum flux-carrying capability of the iron core laminations,
18
-The input supply voltage level,
The effect of the inrush current on the differential relay is false tripping the transformer without
of any existing type of faults. From the principle of operation of the differential relay, the relay
compares the currents coming from both sides of the power transformer as explained above.
However, the inrush current is flowing only in the primary side of the power transformer. So
that, the differential current will have a significant value due to the existence of current in only
one side. Therefore, the relay has to be designed to recognize that this current is a normal
phenomenon and to not trip due to this current.
3-2 Faulty trip due to C.T characteristics

The performance of the differential relays depends on the accuracy of the CTs in reproducing
their primary currents in their secondary side. In many cases, the primary ratings of the CTs,
located in the high voltage and low voltage sides of the power transformer, does not exactly
match the power transformer rated currents. Due to this discrepancy, a CTs mismatch takes
place, which in turn creates a small false differential current, depending on the amount of this
mismatch. Sometimes, this amount of the differential current is enough to operate the differential
relay. Therefore, CTs ratio correction has to be done to overcome this CTs mismatch by using
interposing CTs of multi taps.
Another problem that may face the perfect operation of the CTs is the saturation problem.
When saturation happens to one or all CTs at different levels, false differential current appears in
the differential relay. This differential current could cause mal-operation of the differential relay.
The dc component of the primary side current could produce the worst case of CT saturation. In
which, the secondary current contains dc offset and extra harmonics [9].
3-3 Faulty trip due to tap changer

On-Load Tap-Changer (OLTC) is installed on the power transformer to control automatically the
transformer output voltage. This device is required wherever there are heavy fluctuations in the
power system voltage. The transformation ratio of the CTs can be matched with only one point
of the tap-changing range. Therefore, if the OLTC is changed, unbalance current flows in the
differential relay operating coil. This action causes CTs mismatches. This current will be
considered as a fault current which makes the relay to release a trip signal [10].
19
4- Relay performance and relay technology
4-1 Relay performance
The following characteristics are related with a good performance of a relay in a power system
[11].
Reliability: The reliability of a relay is directly in correspondence with the concepts of
dependability and security. A relay is said to be dependable when it operates in the occurrence
of a fault relevant to its protection zone. Security is reached either when the relay will not
operate for a fault outside its operating zone, or when the system is in a healthy state.
Selectivity: Selectivity is the ability that a relay has to only open those breakers that isolate the
faulted element. Selectivity discrimination can be achieved by time grading or by unit
protection. Selectivity by time grading means that different zones of operation are graded by
time and that in the occurrence of a fault, although a number of protections equipment respond,
only those relevant to the faulty zone complete the tripping function. Selectivity by unit
protection means that the relay will only operate under certain fault conditions occurring within a
clearly defined zone.
Speed: In the occurrence of a fault, the greater the time in which the fault is affecting the power
system, the greater is the risk that the power system falls into an unstable operation point.
Relays are therefore required to clear the fault as quickly as possible.
Sensitivity: The relay is said to be sensitive if the relay operates to the minimum value of
faulted input signals.
4-2 Relay technology

The relay application for protection of power system date back nearly 100 years ago.
Since then, the technology employed to construct relays have improved dramatically relay size,
weight, cost and functionality. Based on the technology employed for their construction, relays
can be chronologically classified as electromechanical, static or solid-state, digital and
numerical.
Electromechanical relays: The first relays employed in the electric industry were
electromechanical devices. These relays worked based on creating a mechanical force to operate
the relay contacts in response to a fault situation. The mechanical force was established by the
flow of a current that reflected the fault current through windings mounted in magnetic cores.
Due to the nature of its principle of operation, electromechanical relays are relatively heavier and
bulkier than relays constructed with other technologies. Besides, the burden of these relays can
be extremely high, affecting protection purposes. However, electromechanical relays were so
20
largely employed, tested and known that even modern relays employ their principle of operation,
and still represent a good choice for certain conditions of application.
Solid-state relays: With the advances on electronics, the electromechanical technology

presented in the relays of the first generation started to be replaced by static relays in the early
60’s. Static relays defined the operating characteristic based in analog circuitry rather than in the
action of windings and coils. The advantages that static relays showed over electromechanical
relays were a reduced size, weight and electrical burden. However, static relays showed some
disadvantages since analog circuitry is extremely affected by electromagnetic interference and
the ranges of current and voltages values are strongly restricted in analog circuits, affecting the
sensitivity of the relay.
Digital relays: Incorporating microprocessor into the architecture of relay to implement relay
and logic functions started happening in the 80’s. Digital relays incorporated analog-to-digital
converter (ADC) to sample the analog signals incoming from instrument transformers, and used
microprocessor to define the logic of the relay. Digital relays presented an improvement in
accuracy and control over incoming signals, and the use of more complexes relay algorithms,
extra relay functions and complementary task.
Numerical relays: The difference between numerical relays and digital relays lies in the kind
of microprocessor used. Numerical relays use digital signal processors (DSP) cards, which
contain dedicated microprocessors especially designed to perform digital signal processing.
IV- Examples of the use of multipurpose relays in protecting power

station equipments using IEEE Standard C37.91-2000)
1- Protection of power transformer

The following figure 2.15 presents the layout of the protection of a power transformer using a
multipurpose relay.
21
15Figure 2.15. Use of a multipurpose relay for the protection of a HV and MV power transformers
Typical functions
87T Differential
86 Lockout auxiliaries
50/51 Overcurrent and short circuit
50G Ground fault
TT/TO Top oil temperature, windings hot spot temperature
49 Thermal overload
59 Overvoltage
67 Directional overcurrent
63 Pressure fault
87RGF Restricted ground fault
V,S Voltage and Power metering
52 Overcurrent circuit breaker
22
2- Protection of bus bars
Figure 2.16 shows a typical layout of the protection of bus bars
16Figure 1.16: Protection of a bus bar

Typical function
50 Overcurrent
50G Ground fault
3- Protection of sending ends

The figure 1.17 below shows a sending protection layout.
17Figure 1.17: Protection of a sending end
Typical function
27 Under voltage
50 Overcurrent
50G Ground fault
59 Overvoltage voltage
81L/H Frequency
23
CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we have presented the power station equipment and protections. After the
presentation of power transformers faults and multipurpose relays characteristics, we have
shown the layout of bus bar, power transformers and sending end protections in a power station.
In the following chapter, we shall present a specific power station and numerical protections
models which will be of great help in building and mastering numerical protections like some of
figure 2.15.
24
CHAPTER 3: POWER STATION LAYOUT AND NUMERICAL PROTECTIONS
Introduction
In this chapter, we present the layout and basic protections of a power station. In order to master
how the numerical protections related to power station function, we also develop some models of
current related numerical protections.
I- The power station layout

The Bamenda Tarinkon power station is just one example of power station, as we could not have
access to it; we have collected some information about another local power station which
operates like the former one; that is the BRGM (Yaoundé) power station.
1- Diagram of the station
(a) (b)
18Figure 3.1: BRGM Power station, (a) transformers, (b) monitoring room [13]
25
19Figure 2.2: One phase diagram of the BRGM (Brigade Régionale De Géologie Minière)
Yaoundé power station [13]
2- Functioning of the single core diagram of figure 2.2
The two inputs coming from Oyomabang (OYO1 and OYO2) (see figure 2.2) are constituted by
a distant monitoring circuit, a ground connector (for locking the input line or the station) and two
dismountable circuit breakers used to switch off each line in case of an absence of line isolator.
Each circuit breaker protecting the 2500 MVA power transformers (T1 and T2) is connected to
26
one 90 KV bus bar. Each power transformer secondary is connected to a 15KV bus bar through a
dismountable circuit breaker (AT1 and AT2). The two bus bars can be interlocked by means of
an interlocking circuit breaker. Each transformer is connected to a 15KV bus bar through a
circuit breaker. Each power sending end from the station has its own CT and dismountable
circuit breaker and an isolator. Capacitor banks (7.5MVAR and 8.5MVAR) and auxiliary service
transformers (AST) are connected on the 15KV bus bars.
3- The transformation
The transformation is done by the two power transformers T1 and T2 with 21 positions tap
changers on the HV side in order to compensate the voltage output according to the reference of
16KV in case of voltage drop on the receiving end.
II- Equipments Protections
1- Power transformer protections
As we said before in chapter 2 (figure 1.15), the power transformers T1 and T2 (figure 2.2)
protections are used to save them against faults as follows:
-excessive gas in the transformers, the buchkolz relay does this protection.
-excessive temperature, the thermostat is used in this case.
-core leakage, the grounding of the core is equipped with a CT to measure any faulty current to
the earth if the core is energized.
-overcurrent and overvoltage, it is done by means of CT and PT placed on the two receiving ends
and sending ends. The images of current and voltage from these CT and PT are analyzed by
multipurpose relay (in the protection room) which in case of faulty condition will trip the
corresponding circuit breaker (CB).
2- Bus Bar protection
The 90KV bus bar (BB) of figure 2.2 is protected against faulty current by the grounding of the
neutral point of the transformer primary windings (Y connected). A CT is installed on this cable
and the current image is analyzed in the monitoring room by the relay 50G which command the
tripping of the 52 circuit breaker (see figure 1.16). A lightning (figure 2.3.c) arrester is also used
27
to protect the station against lightning hazards. The 15KV BB is protected via the grounding of
the AST (Auxiliary Service Transformer) primary side neutral (Y connected). By doing so, the
homopolar currents circulating in this cable can be sensed by means of CT.
3-Sending ends protection
For each sending end, one CT and one PT (figure 2.3 a & b) are connected to its 15KV BB. So
doing, the current and voltage images can be analyzed and or compared to reference values for
proper decision taking like switching off a faulty end or capacitor bank.
(a) (b) (c)
20Figure 2.3: (a) HV CT, (b) HV PT, (c) HV lightning arrester [14]
4- Personnel protection.
This is done by the grounding of all metallic parts of the installation by connecting them to the
site equipotential grounded mesh.
III- Main types of protections
Out of thermal protections, the two main groups of protections are overload protections and
overvoltage protection.
28
1 - Overvoltage protections
The installation and human overvoltage protections are much better when the perturbation is
grounded closer to the fault source. This imposes the realization of very limited impedance
grounding system. Three overvoltage protection levels exist:
1-1 First level overvoltage protection
The objective is to avoid direct impacts on the installation by leading the lightning current to a
privileged area by means of:
-Lightning arrester which is installed on the highest point of the installation and conducts the
lightning current to privileged grounding point.
- Faraday mesh covering a protected zone and grounded
1-2 Second level overvoltage protection
Its role is to insure that the electric choc level is not superseded. It is done in high voltage by
elements which insure the grounding of the lighting wave. Some of them are:
- Disconnect rod,
- Surge arrester.
1-3 Third level overvoltage protection
They are used in low voltage as additive protection for sensitive equipments (computers,
telecommunication equipment…).
It is done by:
- Series filters,
- LV surge arrester
- LV lightning arrester.
2-Overload protection
Although fuses can be used to protect against overloads, CBs (52) are mostly used for their
advantages (can be monitored, easy maintenance, voltage relevant protection, signalization,
telecommunication).
29
2-1 Overloads
Overload protection is insured by the out staging of the circuit concerned before an abnormal
overheating occurs in the canalization. For CB, the NF C 15-100 (French Norm for electricity)
gives the following condition of normal operation
IB IN and IN IZ ; where
IB : operating current of the circuit,

IZ : canalization admissible current,
IN : assigned current to the protective device
2-2 Short circuits

In order to resist the short circuit current, the maximum CB (52) assigned current must be greater
than the possible short circuit current.
The other protections not mentioned here can be found on figures 1.15, 1.16 and 1.17 of the
previous chapter.
IV- Protection, monitoring, protective relay
A monitoring room is always found in medium voltage power station, this room is generally
associated to instrument transformers (CT and PT), differential or ordinary CB and their relay
which can be electromechanic (analog) or digital and the signalization for abnormal situations.
Functions of a power station programmable relay
Generally, power station programmable relays play the following role:

- instantaneous measurement of parameters values,
-monitoring of the CB states and wear,
-focus faults,
-consignation of events,
-disturbances records.
21Figure 2.4: Programmable relay SEPAM 80 series [14]
To ensure the monitoring of the power station, the programmable relay as the SEPAM relay can
be connected to an interface and associated to instrument transformers. Its offers the following
possibilities:
-sending and receiving ends protections,
30
- faulty current detection,
- management of switches,
- record of events and data,
- supply automation,
- Scada communication,
- local and distance access via a server,
Four each application, the Sepam scale has dedicated relays adapted to the protection of the
network:
-application to sub-station (receiving and sending ends),
- BB application,
- power transformer application,
- capacitor application, …
V- Solution proposal to the power station
The existing Ethernet network does not function well, so the power station operators carry many
manual records and CB switching. Also some existing equipments are out of their capacity (out
of operating range) while others are out of their life span. Therefore, whatever the protection
setting is well done, we face regular tripping of this protections due to abnormal behaviors of the
equipments themselves and the network permanent overload. We propose to replace the old
equipments. The network overload is related to the energy demand which is higher than the
capability of the existing network. Some of the protection wear can also be attributed to the high
number of tripping due to under-voltage created by the drop across the transmission line; the
installation of stand by (peak) plant can be a palliative to this situation. As electromechanical
relay are mostly predisposed to abnormal behavior (noises) than digital relay, we propose to
substitute this analog relays by digital ones like SEPAM 80 series or CIPROTEC scale with the
distance-monitoring of the network.
VI- Models of numerical protections of power transformers

Many numerical algorithms have been used so far after the invention of the computer. These
algorithms do the same job with different accuracy and speed. The acceptable speed according to
IEEE standard for transformer protection is 100 msec. All modern algorithms are faster than this
IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers) standard. Nowadays, there are some
31
algorithms performs their function in less than 10 msec. In this chapter, a fast algorithm is
introduced. Its speed is in the range of 4 to 5 msec.
The proposed numerical differential relay is designed using a simulation technique in Matlab
Simulink environment. The design is implemented to protect the power transformer against
internal faults and prevent interruption due to inrush currents.
This algorithm is built on the principle of harmonic-current blocking, where the magnetizing-
inrush current is characterized by large harmonic components content that are not noticeably
present in fault currents. Due to the saturated condition of the transformer iron, the waveform of
the inrush current is highly distorted. The amplitude of the harmonics, compared with the
fundamental is is 49.2% for the third harmonic, 21.7% for fifth harmonics, 8.1% for the seventh
harmonic; the other harmonics are progressively less [4].
I-The overcurrent relay

(2^0.5)/CTR
I
In RMS -K- wvc
< u fcn y rvc out
To Trip
in
boolean to double Variable
IpicKup /CTR Time Delay Signal Latch
IpicKup /CTR
f(u)
t
22Figure 2.5: Overcurrent relay block diagram built in Matlab Simulink
The block of figure 2.5 has been built in respect to equation 1.0
The function f(u) computes the time t as function of the input ratio of the fault current and the
pick-up current. The variable time delay block delays the output tripping signal (converted from
boolean to double type) depending on the actual value of t. The signal latch is used to strengthen
the output tripping signal, if not a bouncing can occur due to the time varying amplitude of the
faulty current. It should be noted that the debouncing of the tripping signal is a powerful
technique of reducing the switching impact on the life of the circuit breaker which the life span is
limited by the number of switching. The very time-inverse overcurrent relay is the one being
presented here.
II- The recloser
A recloser or simply recloser is a protective device with the ability to detect phase and phase-to-
earth overcurrent conditions, to interrupt the circuit if the overcurrent persists after a
predetermined time, and then to automatically reclose to re-energize the line. If the fault that
32
originated the operation still exists, then the recloser will stay open after preset number of
operations, thus isolating the faulted section from the rest of the system. In an overhead
distribution system between 80 to 95 per cent of the faults are of a temporary nature and last, at
the most, for a few cycles or seconds. Thus, the recloser, with its opening/closing characteristic,
prevents a distribution circuit being left out of service for temporary faults. Typically, reclosers
are designed to have up to three open-close operations and after these a final open operation to
lock out the sequence. The counting mechanisms register operations of the phase or earth-fault
units which can also be initiated by externally controlled devices when appropriate
communication means are available. The operating time/current characteristic curves of reclosers
normally incorporate three-four curves based on the number of shots, one fast (Definite time,
extreme inverse (EI) or very inverse curves (VI)) and further delayed curves (coordinated normal
inverse (NI) or user defined curves). Most of the modern reclosers give flexibility for the
programmers to either program IEC 60255, ANSI/IEEE C37.112 or any user defined time
current characteristics. Curve settings, recloser settings and number of recloser shots can be set
different for phase and earth faults. Reclosers are used to apply fuse saving schemes in
distribution lines under transient fault conditions with the help of fast curves. Further numerical
Reclosers are programmed to detect under voltage, under frequency, live line protections.
Directional elements can be enabled for ring type feeders. Reclosers needs to be set with cold
load pickup and inrush restraint settings for better sensitivity. The recloser model is made up of a
combination of an inverse time relay, counting and processing units as presented on figure 2.6.
Model of a recloser
(a) inverse time relay
33
(b) counting
(c) processing
34
(d) Inside view of function3 block, the other functions are for variable type conversion (‘double’)
23Figure 2.6: A recloser seen as combination of inverse time relay and a processing block,
built in Matlab/Simulink
III-The differential relay

1-Characteristic equations of numerical differential relay
The differential relay offers a short fault clearing time while being selective. They are
categorized as non-restraint and restrain differential relay. In this paper we have used a new
setting of percentage restraint differential which uses the operating current with the restrain to
find out if an internal fault has occurred.
Except for very light internal faults, good discrimination is available to detect faults inside the
differential zone. Percentage differential protection overcomes the problems related with the
identification of light internal faults while keeping the advantages of the basic differential
scheme. In general, the operating current in the differential relay is [2] equal to
(2.1)
The restraint current is
(2.2)
Where
35
I D1 and I D2 are the currents on the pilot wires of the current transformers connected on the
primary side and on the secondary side of the transformer respectively, k is a constant =0.5;
The differential protection operates when the following condition is met [3]:
(2.3)
And (2.4)
Where SLP is the slope, is the pickup current, we have taken
Where
is the nominal current.
The characteristic curve of the relay should look like that of the figure bellow.
24Figure 2.7: Differential relay with one slope characteristic
To discriminate the inrush current abnormal situation, the harmonic blocking technique has been
adopted using the second and fifth harmonic components. The approach presented here uses two
variables to judge how far the trip signal can be blocked.
The methods presently used to discriminate inrush currents from internal faults fall in two
groups: those using harmonics to restrain or block relay operation, and those based on wave
shape identification.
2-Harmonic-based methods
2-1 Harmonic restrain techniques
The original harmonic-restrained differential relay used all harmonics to provide the restrain
function. The resulting high level of harmonics restraint provided security for inrush conditions
at the expense of operating speed for internal faults with CT saturation. As a result, the
harmonic-restrained differential relay compares the fundamental component of the operating
36
current with a restraint signal consisting of the unfiltered restraint current plus the harmonics of
the operating current. The basic operating equation for one phase can be expressed as follows
[12].
(2.5)
Where
Iopf is the fundamental component of the operating current ,
I2h, I5h, are third and fifth harmonics of the operating current,
Irt is the unfiltered restrain current ,
k1, k5 are constant coefficients
2-2 Harmonic blocking techniques
Typically, numerical transformer differential relays use second- and fifth-harmonic blocking
logic [12]. A tripping signal requires that Equation 2.3 and the following conditions are satisfied
(2.6)
(2.7)
3- Wave shape recognition methods
Other methods for discriminating internal faults from inrush conditions are based on direct
recognition of the shape of the differential current. Wave shape recognition methods are divided
between those methods that are based on the identification of the separation of different current
peaks and those methods that use DC offset or asymmetry in the differential current.
IV- Presentation of the developed differential relay model
We have developed a differential protection model in Matlab Simulink environment with inrush
discriminating method based on harmonic blocking technique.
1-The operating current block
ID 1 |u| |u|
u u Ia1 Running
|u|
RMS
Amp RMS Iop
ID2 |u| |u|
u u Ia2
37
25Figure 2.8: The operating current block diagram built in Matlab Simulink
The diagram of figure 2.8 is relevant to equation 2.1. The RMS block here intends to reduce the
bouncing of the output signal.
2- The restraining current block
ID 1
|u|
Running
-K -
RMS Irt
ID 2 SLP *K
|u|
26Figure 2.9: The restraining current block diagram built in Matlab Simulink
The diagram of figure 2.9 is relevant to equation 2.2. The RMS block here intends to reduce the
bouncing of the output signal. This block is used to delimitate the operation region of the
protection.
3- The operating and restraining currents combined blocks
-C-
Ipu
<
Operating
ID1 |u| |u|
NAND
u u Ia 1 Running
|u|
RMS
Amp RMS Iop >
ID 2 |u| |u|
u u Ia 2
ID1
|u|
Running
-K -
RMS Irt
ID2 SLP *K
|u|
27Figure 2.10: The operating and restraining currents combined block diagram built in
Matlab Simulink
38
The diagram of figure 2.10 is relevant to equations 2.1-2.4. When a fault occurs, the operating
current may become very high and will be checked if greater than the pick-up current and the
restraint condition. If both constraints are met, the relevant fault will be seen as internal fault, but
inrush current can also provoke this type of situation.
4- The harmonic blocking block
magnitude
signal |u|
angle u |u| eps2
K- Iop1 I1h
Amp 1
eps2 <
ID1
I2h In RMS
magnitude
|u|
ID2 signal
angle K- u K2 |u|
I2 eps3 OR
Blocking
Fourier K2 eps3
magnitude |u| In RMS <
signal angle
K- u K5 |u|
I5
I5h
Fourier 1 K5
28Figure 2.11: The harmonic blocking block diagram built in Matlab Simulink
The diagram of figure 2.11 is relevant to equations 2.6 and 2.7. This block intends to check is an
inrush current situation has been met. When an inrush current situation comes to be, as
mentioned in the paragraph above, the inrush current will be seen as an internal fault, it is the
harmonic blocking block which cancels (blocks or masks) the tripping signal generated by the
circuit of figure 2.10.
5-The overall differential relay block

Figure 2.12 is the combination of figures 2.10 and 2.12, with their outputs being the logically
multiplied to have the final tripping signal which opens the relative circuit breaker when value
equals 0, and closes it when value equals 1.
39
-C-
Ipu
<
Operating
ID1 |u| |u|
NAND
u u Ia1 Running
|u|
RMS
Amp RMS Iop >
ID 2 |u| |u|
u u Ia2
ID1
|u|
Running
-K -
RMS Irt AND
ID2 SLP*K Trip
|u|
magnitude
signal
|u|
angle u |u| eps2
K- Iop1 I1h
Amp 1
eps 2 <
ID1
I2h In RMS
m agnitude
|u|
ID 2 signal
angle K- u K2 |u|
I2 eps3 OR
Blocking
Fourier K2 eps3
m agnitude |u| In RMS <
signal angle
K- u K5 |u|
I5
I5h
Fourier 1 K5
29Figure 2.12: The overall differential relay block diagram built in Matlab Simulink
Conclusion
In this chapter we have presented the layout of a power station with the different protections. In
the order to master the numerical protection behaviors, we have modeled some current related
protection. The description and operating principles of time-inverse relay and differential
protection have been described in this chapter. The time-inverse and differential relays models
built in Matlab Simulink environment have been presented in this chapter. The discrimination of
inrush current has been done using the harmonic blocking technique. In the following chapter,
the simulation results will be presented.
40
CHAPTER 4: SIMULATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Introduction
In this chapter, we present the simulation and results of the prepared materials of chapter 3.
I- Simulation of overcurrent time inverse relay
1-Steps to be followed in order to run the relevant files

Files names:
* Simulation_Parameters.m which contains the simulation parameters values,
* TimeInverseRelay.mdl which is a simulation file of an inverse time relay in the protection of a
power transformer.
a-Start Matlab/Simulink version2008.a or earlier version,
b-Load the simulation parameters values in the work space by opening and evaluating the
Simulation_Parameters.m
c-Open the TimeInverseRelay.mdl, the file layout is that of figure 4.1(a) bellow.
2-Fault detection
When the Simulation is running, by switching the faults, the Time inverse relay should trip only
when the fault is both greater than the pickup current and the constraint current.
When the Time inverse relay detects a faulty current, the delay time before tripping the circuit
breaker is computed automatically. The higher the fault current the shorter the time delay as the
lower the fault current the longer the time delay.
Once a fault current is detected, the three phase circuit breaker S is switched off (opened) by
receiving a logical zero from the relay. The bouncing of the protection should be avoided in
order to keep the life span of the relevant circuit breaker.
41
3-Simulation file layout
(a) General lay out of the inverse time relay with control and power parts
(b) Three phase circuit breaker inside view
(c) Bus B1 block
(d) Power transformer block parameters
42
(e) Three phase fault block parameters
30Figure 4.1: Layout of the Simulation file and blocks
3-Simulation parameters
f0=50;% frequency (Hz)

%Very Inverse time parameters
AlfaVin=1;
BetaVin=13.5;
Tgrad=0.3;% Grading time
Tdirect=0.1038*0.1;% initial direct time
CTR=750/5;% current transformer turn ratio
Up=90e3; %primary voltage (V)
Us=30e3; % secondary voltage (V)
IpicKup=(1.5)*((6e6)/((90e3)*3^0.5));% pickup current
Ka=Tgrad;% time constant phase a
Kb=Tgrad;% time constant phase b
Kc=Tgrad;% time constant phase c
43
4-Simulation results
31Figure 4.2: Simulation result when no fault occurred
32Figure 4.3: Result of starting the simulation on fault
44
33Figure 4.4: A fault is created during the simulation
5-Result analysis
When no fault occurs, the inverse time relay does not trip as shown on figure 4.2. Therefore the
high abnormal transient current of the transformer is not interrupted as expected. When the
simulation is started on fault, the fault is isolated by the circuit breaker ‘S’ under the order of the
inverse time relay with time delay of one cycle (0.02 sec). As the circuit breaker interrupts the
faulty current only when it tends to be zero, an extra time delay (no more than half of cycle) is
observed before the faulted circuit is totally isolated. On figure 4.3, an extra delay of one quarter
of cycle (0.005 sec) is observed.
During the simulation, when a fault is occurs, the protection must be able to trip the circuit
breaker as presented on figure 4.4. The total time between the time the fault appeared and the
time the fault is isolated is T=0.4877 -0.4725= 0.0152 sec which is lower than one cycle,
therefore the time delay is acceptable.
From our observations, our protection operates only when a fault occurs and its time delay of
16ms is within the standard range of 20ms.
II-Simulation of a recloser
The relevant files:

1-Simulation_Parameters.m which contains the simulation parameters values,
45
2-Recloser.mdl which is a simulation file of a recloser in the protection of a power transformer
1- Procedure to run the simulation:
a- Load the simulation parameters values in the work space by opening and evaluating the
simulation_Parameters.m.
b- Open and run the the Simulink file Recloser.mdl.
2-Fault detection
When the Simulation is running, by switching the faults, the recloser should be able to trip (only
when the fault is both greater than the pickup current and the constraint current); after 1 second
delay from tripping, it resets the circuit breaker. If the fault persists, it trips again. After the third
tripping, if the fault is not cleared it trips forever.
Once a faulty current is detected, the three phase circuit breaker S is switched off (opened) by
receiving a logical zero from the recloser. The bouncing of the protection should be avoided in
order to keep the life span of the relevant circuit breaker.
3-Simulation layout
The simulation layout is presented in figure 4.5 bellow.
34Figure 4.5: General layout of the simulation file

46
4-Simulation parameters
f0=50;% Frequency (Hz)
%Very Inverse time parameters
AlfaVin=1;
BetaVin=13.5;
Tgrad=0.3;% Time constant
Tdirect=0.1038*0.1;% Initial direct time
CTR=750/5;% Current trnasformer transformation ratio
Up=90e3; %primary voltage (V)
Us=30e3; % secondary voltage (V)
IpicKup=(1.5)*((6e6)/((90e3)*3^0.5));%Pickup current
Ka=Tgrad;
Kb=Tgrad;
Kc=Tgrad;
%initialiazation value
dat.values=0;
dat.dimensions=[1 1];
dat.label='';
simin.time= 0;
simin.signals= [dat];
simin.blockName= 'test/To Workspace';
dat.values=1;
dat.dimensions=[1 1];
dat.label='';
simin1.time= 0;
simin1.signals= [dat];
simin1.blockName= 'test/To Workspace';
47
35Figure 4.6: Simulation without fault
36Figure 4.7: Starting the simulation with fault
48
37Figure 4.8: Running the simulation with persisting faults
6-Results comment
From figure 4.7, it is observed that starting the system with a fault, the recloser tempts to clear it,
as the fault persists, the recloser finally isolate the faulty in 61 ms.
In the case the system is normally started without a fault, during the operation, if a fault occurs
(figure 4.8) it will be isolated for few milliseconds after what, the previous faulted circuit is
powered again. There are two cases of faulty current:
a- If the fault was fugitive, the faulty part of the system would not has been power out for long as
if the protection was only an overcurrent protection. So the recloser helps to enhance the
continuity of service by reducing the power out staging time.
b-If the fault was permanent, the faulty part of the system would have been isolated for few
milliseconds then power on by the recloser, the persisting fault would have been seen once more
by the recloser therefore causing a second then third trip of the circuit breaker and finally the
permanent isolation of the faulty part would be done as presented on figure 4.8.
Finally, the recloser isolates permanent fault and clears fugitive fault which are the 90% of faults
occurring in power systems, therefore it is more advantageous than a simple overcurrent relay
protection which trip permanently once a faulty current is detected.
III-Simulation of differential relay
Relevant files:
49
1-Simulation_Parameters.m which contains the simulation parameters values,
2- Three_Phase_DifRelay.mdl which is a simulation file of a 3 phase differential relay.
1-Procedure to run the simulation:

1-Load the simulation parameters values in the work space by opening and evaluating the
Simulation_Parameters.m
2-Open and run the Simulink file 3_Phase_DifRelay.mdl.
2-Fault detection
When the Simulation is running, by switching the faults, the differential relay should trip only
when the fault is located in the protected zone (Transformer between Bus B1 and Bus B2).
The differential relay should be able to differentiate abnormal fault and the inrush current which
is an abnormal behavior of power transformer during transients (eg: switching). Once a
differential fault current is detected, the three phase circuit breaker CB1 is switched off (opened)
by receiving a logic zero from the relay.
3-Simulation layout
38Figure 4.9: General layout of the simulation file; fault F2 is to simulate internal fault in the
protected area between B1 and B2, the other faults are considered as external from this area.
50
4-Simulation parameters values
F0=50;%electrical frequency(Hz)
Un=90e3;%transformer primary nominal voltage (V)
Un2=30e3; % transformer secondary nominal voltage(V)
m=Un2/Un; %Transformation ratio
Sn=6e6; %transformer nominal power(VA)
In=Sn/(Un*3^0.5);
Ipu=1.5*In*0.45*0.1*1e-2;%pickup current
K=0.5;% current constrain coefficient
SLP=0.3;%slope
K2=(1/0.63)*2;%operation current Harmonic 2 coefficient
K5=(1/0.041)*2;%operation current Harmonic 5 coefficient
eps2=6*0.1*1e-5;%error between operation current and harmonic 2 component
eps3=10*0.1*1e-5;%error between operation current and harmonic 5 component
CT1R=150;%primary side Current transformer1 ratio
CT2R=150;%secondary side Current transformer2 ratio
39Figure 4.10: Simulation without fault
51
40Figure 4.11: Simulation with faults both external and internal to the protected zone
6-Results comment
The differential relay is used here to protect the section between B1 and B2 as presented on
figure 4.9(a), it therefore protects the power transformer from internal faulty current (differential
current) which can be simulated using fault F2.
When a fault occurs outside the protected area, the protection does not trip (figure 4.10) while
when the fault is inside the protected area, the fault is cleared (figure 4.11) with a delay of 1.537-
1.5186 = 18.4 ms that is within the standard range of 100 ms. Therefore this differential relay is
speedy in the protection of a power transformer against differential faulty current due to leakage
through the core, windings short circuit or grounding of energized part.
III-Advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
Our work has the following advantages
-No need to have the physical equipment to see how it behaves under faulty conditions,
-The cost of doing the simulation is by far lower than that of physical lab,
-Huge effective can attain the simulation during lectures by means of using video projectors in
the teaching rooms,
-It enhance the teaching and learning process by means of multi sensor approach,
52
-The user can easily change block settings,
-Unskilled user can work with this without the safety skills (habilitation to manipulate energized
equipments),
Drawbacks
-This simulation does not replace the real physical equipment; the user at certain time is forced
to be in touch will the real world equipments,
-The simulation blocks physical layouts are different from the real materials,
-The simulation is computer/Matlab/Simulink related
Conclusion
From the prepared materials for the simulation of power station protections as inverse time relay,
differential relay, recloser, we have been able to simulate the relevant power station protections
to protect a transformer in Matlab/Simulink environment. Although in the simulation we protect
a power transformer, our models can also be applied in the protection of others power station
equipments like bus bars and sending ends. We have shown that an inverse time relay is
advantageous vis-à-vis to time relay in term of higher continuity of service and fast isolation of
extremely high faulty circuit within reasonable time delay. The recloser being more
advantageous than the inverse time relay, it increases the continuity of service by clearing
fugitive fault in less than 61 ms and resetting the circuit breaker while the inverse time relay
cannot. These protections can be implemented in the downstream overcurrent protection of
power transformers, as in the grounding of power transformers neutral or core. For other current
related fault as inter turn short circuit, current leakage in power transformers a differential relay
have been presented with time delay of about 19ms that is in the standard range of 100ms.
53
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
The energy supply quality of any electrical network is dependent upon many factors such as
substation power input quality, faults survey in the power substation and distribution network,
Substation protections setting and reliability.
Although the network protections are spread throughout the system, we assume that the main
protections are implemented around the main power station, therefore the protection of the key
power station equipments is inescapable. In chapter one, we have presented the context and
scope of this work. Chapter two revises the different faults in power station, power station
equipments and protections. The majority of faulty conditions in power station being current
related, we have proposed models of protections (inverse time relay, recloser and differential
relay) for protecting these transformers from faulty currents in chapter 3 after studying a
90KV/15KV local power station electrical layout. Though the proposed models have been
simulated and analyzed in chapter 4 for protecting a power transformer, they can also be applied
in the protection of other power station equipments without limitations. The following
conclusions were obtained from the simulations:
-The inverse time relay protection operates only when a fault occurs and its time delay is within
the standard range of 20ms. This inverse time relay is advantageous vis-à-vis to time defined (1s)
overcurrent relay because for the inverse time relay, the higher the faulty current, the shorter the
tripping time and the lower the faulty current, the longer the tripping time.
- The recloser isolates permanent faults and clears fugitive faults (in 16ms) which constitute 90%
of electrical networks, therefore it is more advantageous than a simple overcurrent relay
protection which trip permanently once a faulty current is detected. After the third trip due to a
fault within 2 to 3 ms, if the fault persists, it trips permanently.
-In the case of differential relay protection, when a fault occurs outside the protected area, the
protection does not trip while when the fault is inside the protected area, the fault is cleared
(selectivity criteria met) with a delay of 19ms that is within the standard range of 100 ms.
Therefore this differential relay is speedy in the protection of a power transformer against
differential faulty current due to leakage through the core, windings short circuit or grounding of
energized part.
54
I- Recommendation
The developed models of power station current related numerical protections have been
simulated and the results are within the standard range, therefore these models can be used in the
simulation of dynamic electrical power systems, power station protective relay technology
enhancement, virtual lab, as didactic material both in technical and grammar schools.
II- Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
Our work has the following advantages:
-As to obtain a pass to visit a power station is not easy in our locality; by using our work, the
user can master a power station electrical layout, equipments and protections without being on
the site,
-There is no need to have the physical equipment to see how it behaves under faulty conditions;
our developed models behave like the physical materials,
-The cost of doing the simulation is by far lower than that of a physical lab,
-Large classroom population can attain the simulation during lectures by means of using video
projectors in the teaching rooms,
-It enhance the teaching and learning process by means of multi sensor approach,
-The user can easily change block settings,
-Unskilled user can work with our models without the safety skills requirements (habilitation to
manipulate energized equipments),
Drawbacks
-This simulation does not replace the real physical equipment; the user at certain time is forced
to be in touch will the real world equipments,
-The simulation blocks physical layouts are different from the real materials, a user may face
difficulties in relating the physical layout of our Simulink blocks to real materials,
-The simulation is computer/Matlab/Simulink related, therefore the user must be accessible to
the user for him to fully enjoy our work.
III- Suggestions for further studies

As noticed before, the tendency of using multipurpose relays than single task relays is increasing
very fast, the electromechanical (analog) relays technology is being abandoned in power stations
protections; therefore we should endeavor to come out with a relay block capable of carrying
55
multiple tasks as those of figures 1.15-1.17. As our actual work is limited on current related
protections, for further studies, we suggest to develop the numerical models of the other power
station protections as buckhols relay, over voltage protection, surge arrester and others.
Conclusion
Our main objective was to study power station protections; we have studied a 90KV/15KV
power station and modeled some current related protections in Matlab/Simulink environment.
The power station existing Ethernet network does not function well, so the power station
operators carry many manual records and CB switching. Also some existing equipments are out
of their capacity (out of operating range) while others are out of their life span. Therefore,
whatever the protection setting is well done, we face regular tripping of these protections due to
abnormal behaviors of the equipments themselves and the network permanent overload. We
propose to replace the old equipments. The network overload is related to the energy demand
which is higher than the capability of the existing network. Some of the protection wear can also
be attributed to the high number of tripping due to under-voltage created by the drop across the
transmission line; the installation of stand by (peak) plant can be a palliative to this situation. As
electromechanical relay are mostly predisposed to abnormal behavior (noises) than digital relay,
we propose to substitute this analog relays by digital ones like SEPAM 80 series or CIPROTEC
scale with the distance-monitoring of the network. To present how numerical protections in
power station function, we have developed three models in protecting power station equipments
from faulty currents, that is inverse time relay, recloser, differential relay. Our results are very
interesting as far as they fall under the standard ranges. Therefore the proposed models can be
used in further research on relevant protection, protective relay application, virtual lab of
electrical protection, they can also serve as didactic material in theoretical lesson and can
supplement without replacing real equipments where they do not exist.
56
REFERENCES
1- Didier FULCHIRON (1998), ‘Protection of MV/LV substation Transformers’ , Cahier

technique n°192 , Schneider-electric
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3- MicroEner (2008), ’Catalogue general’, Microener-Microelettrica Scientifica,
100T008125 Rév 2
4- Armando Guzmán et al (2000), ‘Performance Analysis Of Traditional And Improved
Transformer Differential Protective Relays’, Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories &
Universidad Autonoma de Nuevo Leo ,USA 20000830
5- Stan Gibilisco (2001), ’ The Illustrated Dictionary of Electronics’, Eighth Edition,
McGraw-Hill
6- EMTP (1987) ,“Alternative Transient Program Rule Book”, European EMTP Center,
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Relay Adaptation Purposes”.
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REPUBLIC OF CAMEROON REPUBLIQUE DU CAMEROUN

POWER STATIONS’ PROTECTIONS

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL

By: KOUGANG Guy Rostand

Supervisor: Dr CHEUKEM André

Academic Year: 2014/2015

I hereby certify that this thesis entitled “‘POWER STATIONS’ PROTECTIONS

Date .................................. Date .........................................

Signature............................ Signature ...................................

Signature and Date: ……………………………

KOUGANG GUY ROSTAND

I dedicate this work to

My Son KOUGANG DJOUMESSE Joy Arthur

My wife DJATSA DJOUMESSE Eliane

ADC: Analog to Digital Converter

k: is the time multiplier,

Iopf : the fundamental component of the operating current ,

I-Background and context of the study

Power transformer. An equipment using electromagnetic induction to transfer electrical

I-Power station And Protections

1-Power station equipments

1Figure 1.1: Single bus bar arrangement

2-1 Single bus bar

5. Maintenance of a feeder or transformer circuit breaker involves loss of that circuit.

2-2 Ring bus bar

2-3- Space Requirements

Nominal Basic Safety Safety Insulation Phase-phase

Current transformers (figure 1.2) or CTs are used to scale down

2Figure 1.2: Bushing CT [14]

3Figure 1.3: (a) LV PT, (b) HV PT [14]

6Figure 1.6: Recloser [14]

7Figure 1.7: Horizontal break switch [14]

8Figure 1.8: Station lightning arrester [14]

9Figure 1.9: bus bar found in power station [14]

11- Static Var Compensators

13- Protection role

III-Power transformers protections

1-Overcurrent protection of power transformers

Inverse 0.02 0.14

2-Conventional differential protection scheme

: power transformer transformation ratio.

Therefore, by manipulating equations (1.3) and (1.5),

13Figure 1. 13: Connection of differential protection of 3-phase -Y transformer

3- Differential protection difficulties

3-1 Magnetizing inrush current

3-2 Faulty trip due to C.T characteristics

3-3 Faulty trip due to tap changer

4-2 Relay technology

Solid-state relays: With the advances on electronics, the electromechanical technology

IV- Examples of the use of multipurpose relays in protecting power

1- Protection of power transformer

16Figure 1.16: Protection of a bus bar

3- Protection of sending ends

17Figure 1.17: Protection of a sending end

I- The power station layout

1- Diagram of the station

2- Functioning of the single core diagram of figure 2.2

II- Equipments Protections

1- Power transformer protections

2- Bus Bar protection

3-Sending ends protection

(a) (b) (c)

III- Main types of protections

1-1 First level overvoltage protection