Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

Terms of reference towards coastal management

and sustainable development in Latin America:
introduction to Special Issue on progress and
experiences
Alejandro Yán ez-Arancibia*
Department of Coastal Resources, Institute of Ecology A.C., Km 2.5 Antigua Carretera Coatepec, P.O. Box 63,
Xalapa 91000, Veracruz, Me& xico
Received 1 May 1998; accepted 1 August 1998

Abstract

This paper is the introduction to a Special Issue Progress on Ocean and Coastal Manage-
ment in Latin America: Experiences Towards Sustainable Development. This volume presents
a variety of perspectives on the meaning, forms, methods, international cooperation, and
experiences in integrated coastal management in 14 countries through 13 papers authored by
experts in Latin American experiences. At present, the new international forums and the
economic and environmental globalization induce different strategies for evaluating the real
problems and advance towards planning the integrated coastal management, both from
a national or regional perspective. At the opening of the new millenium Latin America has new
scenarios under NAFTA, MERCOSUR, APEC, CARICOM, moreover a number of bi- or
trilateral international agreements. The purpose of this Special Issue is to expose various
definitions and points of view on integrated coastal management, providing an up-to-date
assessment of key issues and country experiences, but not necessarily to resolving or reconciling
divergent perspectives. Latin America is a ‘‘new world mosaic’’. A mosaic of authors’ training
and experiences; of roots and cultural/heritage resources; of social development; of ecosystems
and ecological approaches; of biogeographical regions and biodiversity; of climatic zones; of
pristine areas as well as highly degraded zones. This Special Issue has four key word/concepts in
its title: (a) coastal zone; (b) integrated coastal zone management; (c) sustainable development,
and (d) Latin America. In this introductory paper I offer what are the terms of reference
meaning of each of this concern, as a framework for the invited papers/countries included in this
volume. In the last section each contribution is summarized and a classification inside ‘‘coastal
management techniques’’ is presented, concluding that the papers incise on: Coastal manage-
ment plans, Land-use zoning and setbacks, Marine protected areas, Management and

*E-mail: aya@ecologia.edu.mx

0964-5691/99/$ — see front matter  1999 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 9 6 4 - 5 6 9 1 ( 9 8 ) 0 0 0 8 6 - 6
78 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

restoration of coastal habitats, Coastal pollution control, Shoreline stabilization, Close access
regimes, Capacity building, Inter-agency coordination, Conflict resolutions, Environmental
assessment, and International cooperation. The variations in scope and the amount of progress
made by different Latin American countries show the difficulty of creating a single integrating
management approach. Nevertheless, at the opening of the new millenium Latin America will
arrive at a competitive maturity stage concerning ICZM.  1999 Published by Elsevier
Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

This volume is a part of the Special Issues Series on the state of the world’s ocean
and coast, under the initiative ‘‘Ocean and Coasts at the Opening of the
New Millenium’’ defined by the Editors of Ocean and Coastal Management Journal.
Under this frame of work this volume presents a variety of perspectives on the
meaning, forms, methods, international cooperation, and experiences in integrated coastal
management in 14 countries through 13 papers authored by experts in Latin American
experiences. The papers were selected after changes and corrections by the authors,
following the standard peer reviewing process of Ocean and Coastal Management.
The idea of this Special Issue came out during a delightful and stimulating
working meeting with Biliana Cicin-Sain, Robert W. Knecht and myself, which
was held on 14 March 1997 at Campeche Mexico. We were talking around five
main aspects: (1). Anticipation of the 21st century creates not only an opportunity
for reflection but a time for creation of new paradigms and new ideas for ocean
and coastal management in Latin America. (2) The academic institutions
perspectives on the status of coastal management. (3) The NGO’s roles in public
mobilization in responding to the challenges concerning coastal development and
conservation. (4) Trends in coastal development and the health of ecosystems and
coastal resources. (5) The assimilation of the 1992 United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) [1], by Latin American countries as
expressed in chapter 17 of Agenda 21. In light of such a framework and the interna-
tional development and recommendations [2], it is timely to focus on the Latin
American countries responses to the global call for integrated ocean and coastal
management.
More than ten years ago [3] pointed out five criteria for comparing 19 coastal
countries within Latin America in terms that are relevant to the management of
coastal resources or environments. All the same this represented a broad effort, from
my experience any comparison in Latin America, at present only produce risk
generalities which do not reflect any pattern and conduce to a far way solutions for
particular and specific country-problems on coastal management towards sustainable
development. Nevertheless, those authors have rightly shown that those efforts
present the following benefits: (a) facilitate information transfer among nations; (b)
allow new entrants to benefit from the experience of predecessors; (c) assist in defining
the scope and components of the field; and (d) aid international assistance agencies in
setting priorities as well as aiding the design of a country’s program. At present, the
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 79

new international forums and the economic and environmental globalization induce
different strategies for evaluating the real problems and advance towards planning the
integrated coastal management, both from a national or regional perspective. At the
opening of the new millenium, Latin America has new scenarios under NAFTA,
MERCOSUR, APEC, CARICOM; moreover, a number of bi- or trilateral interna-
tional agreements.
Because of this, the purpose of this Special Issue is to expose various definitions and
points of view on integrated coastal management, providing an up-to-date assessment
of key issues and country experiences, but not necessarily to resolving or reconciling
divergent perspectives. However, the readers will note that there appears to be basic
agreement among the authors on major concepts, although the authors use different
terminology and have somewhat different approaches.
Latin America is a ‘‘new world mosaic’’. A mosaic of authors’ training and
experiences. A mosaic of roots and cultural/heritage resources. A mosaic of social
development. A mosaic of ecosystems and ecological approaches. A mosaic of bio-
geographical regions and biodiversity. A mosaic of climatic zones. A mosaic of
pristine areas as well as highly degraded zones. How can we deal with common terms
of references? in such a broad region, from the Northern to the Southern hemisphere,
from Central America to the Caribbean, from the temperate and tropical latitudes
in the North to the fjords in the Southern end, including polar cold to coastal
deserts and tropical rain forest. Moreover, a broad region containing one of the
highest reserves — at world level — of fresh water, petroleum, minerals, forests, fisheries,
fertile soils, fruits, cattle raising, food supplies, and natural or wild landscapes and
seascapes.
There are several reasons why integrated coastal management has gained attention
globally in Latin America, since the UNCED Rio ’92. From coasts energy, materials
and food are extracted, cities are developing, industries and ports are growing,
transport and tourism are in expansion, and general infrastructure and environmental
technology marketing are increasing. In year 2025, three-quarters of the world’s
people will be living in the 50-mile band along the world’s coastal oceans, enclosed
seas and great lakes. By then, the number of coastal inhabitants will be as great as the
entire world population was in 1990. The problem that this inexorable migration
towards the world’s coast carries with it will impact every facet of life — social,
environmental, and economic — and will make careful management of the ecosystem’s
resources necessary. Integrated management of all three critical sectors will be
necessary to sustain these resources so that future generations may benefit from them
as well.
This Special Issue has four key word/concepts in its title: (a) coastal zone; (b)
integrated coastal zone management; (c) sustainable development, and (d) Latin
America. In this paper I would like to offer what are the terms of reference meaning of
each of this concern, as a framework for the invited papers/countries included in this
volume. In the last section I am presenting 13 papers which deal with a variety of
issues relevant to ecosystem management, fishery management, international co-
operation, social, policy, and legal issues, planning strategies, management tools,
training programs, and ecosystem restoration.
80 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

2. Terms of reference
2.1. The coastal zone

Ideally for management purposes, the boundaries of a coastal area should be

defined by the extent of the area of relevant interaction, including biophysical,
economic, and other social factors. Island or small nations such as the Lesser Antilles
or the Caribbean in general, can be practically managed in their entirely. Unfortunate-
ly, for most other countries, the scale puts a practical limit on the extent of a manage-
able area. In these cases, there are rarely a clearly defined physical boundary, either
landward or seaward, which incorporates all the relevant factors. Fig. 1 from Scura
et al. [4], is well documented, suggesting typical coastal area boundaries. For
example, (1) prominent physical landmarks or other physical criteria; (2) political
boundaries; (3) administrative boundaries; (4) arbitrary distances; or (5) selected
environmental units are often used.
In general terms, numerous Latin American countries, specially academic institu-
tions, follow the coastal zone definition, as
Coastal zone is a broad space of interactions between the sea, the land, the fresh
water drainage, and the atmosphere [5].
One of our chapters in this Special Issue suggest to use a broader and more
functional definition whose flexibility permits considerations of biological, biophysi-
cal, social, and economic aspects:
Coastal zone is understood as the geographic space in which the principal
interchanges of material and energy are produced between the marine and
terrestrial ecosystems [6].
It is clear that both definitions are quite similar, and are functional complement to
Fig. 1. Functional criteria must be established in each case for delimitation based on
the objectives to be achieved.
The boundaries of coastal regions encompass the coastline itself, namely the
physical transition between land and sea, the adjacent terrestrial systems that affect
the sea, and marine ecosystems affected by their proximity to the land [5, 7], i.e.,
Fig. 1. In practice, several countries have enacted legislation which sets aside a narrow
strip (usually between 20 and 200 m of land preceeding the shoreline (or mean high
tide) as public or under state jurisdiction [7]. For example, Mexico has a terrestrial-
maritime zone of 20 m; Uruguay has one of the broadest legally defined coastal zone
in Latin America at 250 m; Ecuador 8 m and the mangrove greenbelt; Brazil 33 m;
Colombia 50 m; Costa Rica 50 m public zone and 50—200 m restricted zone;
Venezuela 50 m; Chile 80 m. The delimitation of maritime boundaries is an important
element of State sovereignty and from an integrated coastal management perspective.

2.2. Integrated coastal area (zone) management (planning)

Coastal zone management represents many different things to different people. To

the conservation minded, the concept represents either a panacea for every excess of
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 81

Fig. 1. The coastal zone. Overlapping biophysical, economic, institutional and organizational boundaries
in coastal areas [4]. CB* indicates the coast baseline is a series of straight lines that interconnect coastal
headlands and promontories; it is the reference point used to map the ocean wards boundary of both the
territorial sea and the exclusive economic zone. Towards the landward common features are low-land
wetlands, dunes, lowest river basins, coastal plains, coastal lagoons and estuaries.
82 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

the private sector or governmental agencies, or the solution to every unsolved coastal
related problems. In reality, sound coastal zone management is none of these ex-
tremes. A successful programme is based on a comprehensive and integrated planning
process, which aims at harmonizing cultural, economic, and environmental values and
balancing environmental protection and economic development with a minimum of
regulation [8]. Management without an appropriate planning process tends to be
neither integrated nor comprehensive, but rather a sectorial activity.
There is an emerging consensus, after UNCED [1], has acquired the popular level
integrated coastal area management (ICAM) . What was for over two decades coastal
zone or coastal area management has recently come to be referred to as integrated
coastal area management. The new acronym ICAM and the old ICZM are used
interchangeably. There is no consensus about the utility of adding the word ‘‘marine’’
to pair off with ‘‘coastal’’ and the word ‘‘planning’’ to pair off with ‘‘management’’
[8, 9].
This Special Issue assumes the marine area is subsumed within the term coastal
(which includes land and sea areas as was defined above) and further assumes
planning as a function in a given and ongoing prerequisite component to the
management processes.
There is no shortage of definition of integrated coastal area management [10—12].
A slightly more activist, interventionist definition is as follows:
Integrated coastal management is a dynamic process by which decisions are
taken for the use, development and protection of coastal areas and resources to
achieve goals established in cooperation with user groups and national, regional
and local authorities. Integrated coastal management recognizes the distinctive
character of the coastal zone — itself a valuable resource — for current and future
generations. Integrated coastal management is multiple purpose oriented, it
analyzes implications of development, conflicting uses, and interrelationships
between physical processes and human activities, and it promotes linkages and
harmonization between sectoral coastal and ocean activities [13].
The dimensional aspects of ICAM are a fuction of the kinds of integration required,
which set the pattern of outreach, peripheral involvement, and the nature of partner-
ship, participation and negotiation with other coastal resources users and institutions.
There are at least seven different kinds of integration, each of which has its own
dimensional limits [8]: (a) intergovernmental, (b) land—water interface, (c) intersec-
torial, (d) interdisciplinary, (e) institutional, (f ) temporal, (g) managerial.
It is to be noted that the inclusion of NGOs and the local public in both the
planning and the management process is of vital importance for a successful ICAM
programme. Sorensen [10] is correct when he says the essential ingredients are: (a)
a coastal system perspective, and (b) a multisectorial approach.
The conceptual and terminological evolution of coastal area or zone management
matured during last decade [14]. Fig. 2 shows that this maturity stage started in the
early 1980s and, at the present time, is still developing as suggested in our modified
figure. The rapid technological advances, and the growing consciousness of the
importance of coastal management for national policies have had important
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 83

Fig. 2. The conceptual and terminological evolution of coastal area or zone management during the last
three decades, in the context of United Nations. Modified from Vallega (1992).

implications (Fig. 2): (a) the objectives of coastal area management have changed, so
that environmental protection and preservation have become objectives to be pursued
together with the exploitation of marine resources and the implementation of sea uses;
(b) coastal area management has evolved towards a multiple-use pattern requiring the
resolution of conflicts between uses; (c) integrated management has evolved towards
exploiting living (and non-living) resources, protect critical habitats, minimize con-
flicts between uses, from ecological—social—economic approaches towards sustainable
development.

2.3. Sustainable development

In the last few years, much has been written about the concept of sustainable
development to the point where whole books or extensive papers are devoted to
defining it [15—19]. The term, is in fact, so vague that it has been used not only by
advocates of precaution to refer to the environmental sustainability of economic
activity but also by advocates of growth to refer to the sustainability of economic
expansion.
In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED),
attempted to provide a definition of environmentally sustainable development which
has, almost ten years hence, passed into common parlance:
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the current
generation without compromising the needs of future generations [20].
84 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

Unfortunately, this definition is conceptually flawed because it is imposible to know

what the preference of future generations will be. Logically, precaution would dictate
the preservation of the natural environment in its unaltered state, and we thus arrive
at the so-called ‘‘strong’’ definition which is
Sustainability is the economic development that does not compromise environ-
mental integrity [19].
The concern related to sustainable development has been present for many years.
But, it is only within the past few years that sustainable development has assumed
prominence as an important concept and philosophy to guide economic development
and environmental management. Consequently, there is still much confusion about
sustainable development, even among environmental professionals. Frequently there
is a tendency to view and present sustainable development in rather narrow terms,
such as ‘‘new environmental technologies’’, or ‘‘population stabilization’’ [18]. And
yet, if the developed and developing countries are to adopt sustainable development
as a central organizing principle — as they must to obtain life support systems, secure
a healthy environment and promote widespread property — a multifaceted approach is
necessary.
The real value of a comprehensive conception of sustainability is its ability to shed
light on how to make the best use of all available opportunities. Making sustainability
operational is really a matter of predicting and measuring it, far more than just
defining it [21]:
At the UNCED 92, Principle 3 characterized sustainable development as:
The right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitability meet develop-
mental and environmental needs of present and future generations [1]
UNCED 92 Principle 4 further states ‘‘in order to achieve sustainable development,
environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process
and cannot be considered in isolation from it’’. These two principles, stated as part of
Agenda 21, have some very profound implications for use and stewardship of natural
resources, ecology and environment. Because of misunderstandings there are a tend-
ency in official gathering and agency programs to focus upon areas of consensus and
very specific missions [18]. Issues of controversies are swept aside, and the operating
principle is that continued economic growth and new technology will solve problems
of poverty and environment for all peoples. Table 1 includes some of the more
fundamental, root causes, as well as economic, environmental and technology dimen-
sions which are more frequently mentioned in sustainable approaches. Analytical
details can be found in Muschetts [18].
Although many different definitions of the term/concept ‘‘sustainable development’’
abound in the recent literature, a good understanding of the basic meaning can be
gleaned by aggregating and extrapolating on points made in various parts of WCED
[20], which provided the intellectual underpinning of the Earth Summit negotiations.
Cicin-Sain [15] pointed out that ‘‘sustainable development’’ may be thought of a new
paradigm, a new mode of thinking that serves as a guide to action. Achieving
sustainable development entails a continuous process of decision-making in which
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 85

Table 1
Elements of sustainable development (Muschett 1997)

Population stabilization
New technologies/technology transfer
Efficient use of natural resources
Waste reduction and pollution prevention
‘‘Win—win’’ situations
Integrated environmental systems management
Determining environmental limits
Refining market economy
Education
Perception and attitude changes (paradigm shift)
Social and cultural changes

certain questions are asked and whereby the right choices and decisions are made.
Thus, there is never an ‘‘end-state’’ of sustainability, since the equilibrium between
development and environmental protection must constantly be readjusted [15]. Fig. 3
shows how the sustainability of sustainable development can be observed as ‘‘the
point of equilibrium’’ where decision-making on uses, development, and protection of
coastal areas and the natural resources, must be balanced between the public and
private sectors, between the environmental regulations and ecological feasibility,
between the local and regional development, between national and international
requirements, between short-term productivity and long-term sustainable develop-
ment.
Cicin-Sain [15] is right when he pointed out that ‘‘sustainable development is
a process of change in which the exploitation of resources, the direction of invest-
ments, the orientation of technological development, and institutional change are
made consistent with future as well as present needs’’. Two ideas are underlined in this
concern: (1) the concept of ‘‘needs’’, specially those of the Third World, and (2) the idea
of ‘‘limitations’’ on the environment’s ability to meet present and future needs.
Before the ‘‘sustainable development’’ concept, there has been growing realization
that the world is facing a series of environmental crises [15], some ‘‘global’’ in
nature which threaten the future viability of life on earth, and some more ‘‘local’’ in
nature which threaten the attainment of development and quality of life. Fig. 4 from
Cicin-Sain [15], shows in a simplified and abstracted manner, that these
environmental crises are linked to patterns of economic development prevalent in
the North and in the South and in the economic relationships between North and
South. In summary, sustainable development involves three major emphasis: (1)
economic development to improve the quality of life of people, (2) environmentally
appropriate development, and (3) equitable development. Detailed analysis can be
found in [15].
At the opening of the new millenium, the central point is to use the coastal zone
without conflicts, to sustain its productive capacity, to stop deterioration and loss of
its resources, and protect it for future generations.
86 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 87

Fig. 4. The interdependence of environment and development. Asterisks indicated level at which most
environmental stress occur. In [15].

2.4. The mosaic scenario: Latin America and the Caribbean

For a number of reasons, not to be discussed here, Latin America has been in
general terms poorly represented in some key proceedings. For instance, in Cicin-Sain
[2] only one paper from Latin America was included, in spite of Sorensen [10] who
indicated 10 Latin American countries in which integrated coastal zone management
projects are developing. Actually, a literature exploration shows that there are
valuable information from Latin America, not only from a coastal zone management
perspective, but also from a conservation and sustainability approach (Table 2). This
table offers a broad panorama standing out some very active countries dealing with
this concern, i.e., Brazil, Ecuador, Costa Rica, and others; in contrast with other

䉳
Fig. 3. Sustainable development. (A) Key elements that encompass the viewpoint of ecologists, economists
and sociologists. (B) Sustainable solutions is achieved through the interactions of the three key elements. (C)
Sectorial components that encompass the social, legal, economics and ecological approaches. (D) ‘‘Point of
equilibrium’’ where decision-making on uses, development, and protection of coastal areas and the natural
resources, secure sustainable development. There is never an ‘‘end-state’’ of sustainability, since the
equilibrium between the component must constantly be readjusted. A and B functioning at global scale, and
C and D at local scale.
88 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

Table 2
Latin America selected references and approaches towards integrated coastal zone management, conserva-
tion and sustainability

Countries References

Chile [3, 22—27]

Argentina [3, 10, 23, 24]
Uruguay [3, 23, 24, 28]
Peru [3, 22—24, 27, 29]
Brazil [3, 10, 23, 24, 29—35]
Colombia [3, 10, 23, 24, 27, 29, 35, 36]
Ecuador [3, 10, 22, 24, 27, 29, 33—38]
Venezuela [2, 3, 10, 23, 24, 29, 35, 36]
Fr. Guiana/Guyana/Surinam [3]
Panama [3, 24, 29, 35, 36, 39—41]
Costa Rica [3, 10, 24, 29, 30, 35, 36, 39—41]
Nicaragua [3, 24, 29, 33, 36, 39—41]
El Salvador [3, 10, 24, 29, 35, 36, 39—41]
Honduras [3, 10, 36, 39—42]
Guatemala [3, 24, 36, 39—42]
Belize [3, 10, 33, 35, 39, 40]
Mèxico [3, 10, 24, 26, 30, 35, 36]
Puerto Rico [10, 35, 36]
Cuba [29]
Lesser Antilles, Jamaica, Trinidad & Tobago [29]

Countries considered in this Special Issue.

countries where only little information is available, i.e., French Guyana, Guyana,
Surinam, Cuba, and others from the Lesser Antilles. In light of the framework of
Table 2 and international development and recommendations, it is appropriate to
focus on Latin America, looking for a general strategy towards financing regional
programs on integrated coastal management. This is clearly developed in the papers
from Lemay [7, 43] and in the book written by Cicin-Sain and Knecht [34].
Meso America, as the bridge between the two American hemispheres, has 6603 km
of coastline which represent 12% of the coastline of both Latin America and the
Caribbean. The Meso American coast harbours 567 000 ha of mangroves (8% of the
extent of the world’s mangroves) which accounts for 7% of the regions forests cover. It
also comprises 1600 km of coral reef, specially in Belize and Mexico, which has the
second largest barrier reef in the world after Australia. The continental shelf, with
a total area of 237 650 km, has a significant fisheries value, and in addition the region
can use more than 1.1 million km of exclusive economic zone [41]. Meso America
also has many river basins, from Chetumal Bay in Mexico to Panama Bay, and at
least 107 wetlands of international importance in the coastal zone. An international
workshop reported by Foer and Olsen [39], and the regional round table in that
meeting, clearly demonstrate that there is a growing level of awarness and concern
about the deteriorating conditions in Central America’s coastal resources (Tables
3 and 4).
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 89

Table 3
Major coastal resource management issues in Central America [39]

Belize Guatemala Honduras El Salvador Nicaragua Costa Panama

Rica

Management issues
Degraded water quality 2 3 3 3 1 3 3
in estuaries/lagoons
Losses in estuarine- 1 3 3 3 2 3 3
dependent fisheries
Destruction of mangroves 1 3 3 3 1 3 3
Poor shorefront deve- 2 2 3 3 1 3 2
lopment practices
Degradation of scenic/ 1 2 3 2 2 3 2
cultural resources
Ocean storms and/or 3 1 3 2 3 2 1
severe flooding
Destruction of coastal 1 2 2 3 1 2 2
wetlands
Dams on major rivers 1 2 2 2 1 2 2

3"Priority, 2"Significant; 1"Minor, localized.

Table 4
Institutional issues in coastal resources management in Central America [39]

Belize Guatemala Honduras El Salvador Nicaragua Costa Panama

Rica

Issue
Inadequate implementation 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
of existing regulations
Lack of trained personnel 3 3 3 3 3 2 3
Overlapping jurisdictions/ 2 3 3 3 2 3 3
interagency conflict
Inadequate public support 2 3 2 2 3 2 3
for existing management
initiatives

3"Priority; 2"Significant; 1"Minor or localized.

Not only coral reef, or river basins and associated wetlands, are a common coastal
landscape in Latin America, but the most important critical habitats are the man-
groves in the coastal line. The relative importance of mangroves for each Latin
American country is illustrated by comparing the ratio between total mangrove area
and total surface area of each country and the ratio between mangrove surface and
coastline length (Table 5). This rough representation shows that mangroves are the
most important forest formation in certain countries and they should be given priority
in management and conservation. Notwithstanding differences, recent data confirm
90 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

Table 5
Recent estimates of mangrove cover and the respective percentage of total countries area and length of the
coastline in Latin America and the Caribbean. Extracted from Lacerda [29]

Area (ha) % country surface Mangrove area/

coastline

Continental countries
USA 190,000 0.02 10
México 524,600 0.27 56
Belize 73,000 3.10 189
Guatemala 16,040 0.15 40
Nicaragua 60,000 0.50 66
Honduras 121,340 1.08 148
Costa Rica 41,330 0.08 32
El Salvador 35,235 1.65 45
Panamá 171,000 2.22 69
Colombia 358,000 0.31 148
Ecuador 161,770 0.60 72
Peru 4791 0.01 2
Venezuela 250,000 0.27 76
Guiana Francesa 5500 0.06 15
Guyana 150,000 0.70 326
Suriname 115,000 0.70 298
Brazil 1,012,376 0.12 134
Insular countries
Trinidad & Tobago 7150 1.40 20
Jamaica 10,624 1.02 7
Cuba 529,700 4.80 142
Haiti 18,000 0.65 10
Republica Dominicana 9000 0.20 7
Puerto Rico 6500 0.71 —
Bahamas 141,957 10.18 40
Bermuda 20 (0.01 (1
Guadelope 8000 4.49 20
Martinique 1900 1.73 7
Cayman Islands 7268 27.60 45
Antilles 24,571 — —

Includes only the islands from where reliable mangrove surveys have been reported (Anguilla, Antigua,
Aruba, Barbados, Barbuda, Bonaire, Cuaracao, Dominica, Grenada and Grenadines, Montserrat, Nevis,
St. Kitts, St. Lucia, St. Vicent, Turks & Caicos).

relative distribution of mangroves of Pacific and Atlantic coasts of Latin America and
the Caribbean (Table 6). Only in the southern countries of Latin America, mangroves
are not present. Another valuable natural resource in Latin America is the exclusive
economic zone, which presents a great surface extension of the continental shelf,
similar to that which occurs in the southern Gulf of Mexico and the shelf off
Argentina, in dramatic contrast to that which occurs in the continental shelf off Chile,
Meso America and the Pacific coast of Mexico.
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 91

Table 6
Mangrove forest cover in the Atlantic and Pacific coasts of Latin America, including the Caribbean islands,
compared to world mangrove forest areas. Extracted from Lacerda [29]

Mangrove area (ha) % of the total

Atlantic Coast 2,143.356 (52.8)

Pacific Coast 1,154.289 (28.5)
Caribbean Islands 764.690 (18.7)
Total 4,062.335 (100)(28.6)
Africa 3,257.700 (22.9)
Southeast Asia 6,877.600 (48.5)
World total 14,197.635 (100)

On the other hand, the coastal and insular countries of the Caribbean are among
the most heavily exploited coastal areas because of their landscape attractions, and
present or potential resources to be exploited. All share a common resource, their
regional seas the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, which together with the
adjacent land areas constitute the Wider Caribbean Region [8]. The number of people
in the region living near the sea is increasing, along with the size and densities of
coastal cities. Throughout the entire region, coastal areas are identified with principal
industrial complexes, trade centres and resort tourisms enclaves. Competition for
space along continental shorelines in the western and more southerly reaches of the
region, is almost as severe.
As a consequence, pollution along the more densely settled and heavily used
segments of these coastlines has become pervasive as discharges have risen from both
terrestrial and marine sources, including cruise ships and the oil industry. Tables
7 and 8 summarizes the common problems and coastline activity in the Wider
Caribbean. The high productivity (because higher nutrient levels from rivers, estuaries
and local upwellings) of those coastal marine ecosystems is also threatened by the lack
of an adequate policy management and enforcement framework in which to manage
resources for ecologically sustainable development [44]. Habitat loss and environ-
mental degradation is the primary threat to the region’s marine productivity. The real
challenge lies in the improvement of coordinated support to planning, monitoring,
managing, and restoring coastal marine ecosystem in the Wider Caribbean Region
[8, 45].
In general terms, coastal resources are often common property resources with open
free-access to all users. One author in this Special Issue pointed out that free-access
often leads to excessive use, and the degradation or exhaustion of resources defining
the ‘‘tragedy of commons’’ [46]. This absence of exclusive use rights is the source of
both biological and economic waste and conflict. Management intervention is gener-
ally necessary to achieve and maintain desired levels of maximum sustained yield, as
well as desired levels of quality of coastal resources. Coastal management pro-
grammes can prevent the loss of natural resources throughout development regula-
tions, proper monitoring and enforcement. Most of the common problems in the
Table 7
Wider Caribbean coastline activity in selected states [8] 92

Maritime area (000 km) Average annual volume of goods Annual petroleum Proven oil and gas
loaded and unloaded 1988—90 production reserves
Length of Shelf to Exclusive Urban popula- (000 metric tons)
marine 200 m economic tion in large Petroleum Oil Gas Oil Gas
coast (km) depth zone coastal cities (1,000 (millon (Millon (billion
(in 1000) crude products Dry cargo metric cubic metric cubic
tons meters) tons meters
1980 2000 1992 1992 1992) 1992)

Caribbean
Antigua/Barbuda 153 ; ; ; ; 0 61b 83 0 0 0 0
Bahamas 3542 85.7 759.2 ; ; 10524 3702 3222 0 0 0 0
Barbados 97 0.3 167.3 100 146 107b 51b 573 0 0 0 0
Cayman Islands 160 ; ; ; ; 1357 36b 117
Cuba 3735 ; 362.8 6628 8942 5850b 3821 14244 0 0 0 0
Dominica 148 ; 20.0 ; ; ; 5b 93 0 0 0 0
Dominican Republic 1288 18.2 268.8 2787 5797 1630b 785b 4358 0 0 0 0
Grenada 121 ; 27.0 ; ; ; 22b 71 0 0 0 0
Guadeloupe 306 ; ; 142 196 ; 370b 1221
Haiti 1771 10.6 160.5 1216 2845 ; 11b 838 0 0 0 0
Jamaica 1022 40.1 297.6 1016 1689 1210b 1203 10122 0 0 0 0
Mártinique 290 2.4 ; 217 279 231b 282 876
Trinidad & Tobago 362 29.2 76.8 623 1110 6518 2670 5638 6922 5799 78 261
Central America
Belize 386 ; ; ; ; 0 106b 306 0 0 0 0
Costa Rica 1290 15.8 258.9 1050 2258 464b 336b 2662 0 0 0 0
Guatemala 400 12.3 99.1 780 932 683 204 4232 0 0 0 0
Honduras 820 53.5 200.9 583 1923 397b 204 1849 0 0 0 0
México 9330 442.1 2851.2 6529 9501 71817a 7377 19833 85656 11370 5712 1926
Nicaragua 910 72.7 159.8 1166 2837 495b 183b 1280 0 0 0 0
Panama 2490 57.3 306.5 989 1749 1192b 441 1939 0 0 192.77
A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

South America
Colombia 2414 67.9 603.2 2926 3926 9442 6901 15231 0 0 10 40
French Guiana 378 ; ; ; 137b 273 0 0 0 0
Guyana 459 50.1 130.3 213 425 ; 474b 1919 0 0 0 0
Suriname 386 ; 101.2 140 216 ; 615b 6185 0 0 0 0
Venezuela 2800 88.1 363.8 5158 9324 58367a 23564 26768 42728 5375 966 765

Notes: ; — not available, a — Goods loaded, b — Goods unloaded.

 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 93

Table 8
The Wider Caribbean region under threat

Thirty-five states and territories in two connected basins the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean sea
Eighty millions inhabitats in the region’s coastal zone
Twenty millions tourists per year dependent on marine environment
Major marine-based industries are fisheries, sea transportation, oil and gas extraction, tourism, tropical
coastal lowlands agriculture
There is a great productivity, high biodiversity, and a lot of food supply
Critical habitats such as coral reefs, seagrass beds, estuaries and coastal lagoons, mangroves, fluvial deltaic
systems, are under serious threat by growing populations, unsustainable development practices, insuffi-
cient management attention, and limited public understanding of their role. Habitat loss and environ-
mental degradation are the primary threat to the regions coastal productivity

Table 9
Coastal crises: common problems and solutions

Issues and problems Effective actions

Depletion of inshore commercial and recreational
fisheries from overfishing
Degradation of coastal habitats
Damage of coastal areas from uncontrolled
development
Beach damage from sand mining and vegetation
removal for resort development
Water pollution from oil, sewage, urban runoff and
sediments
Harbor and estuarine pollution, congestion, and
siltation
Nutrient pollution of coastal waters from agricultural
fertilizers and pesticides
Loss of coastal wetlands and estuarine habitats
Loss of scenic landscapes and seascapes, and historic
areas
Sustainable fisheries management for long-term
productivity; possible limited entry
Improved management of biodiversity
Control of coastal development through plann-
ing, zoning and permitting procedures
Management of tourism for minimal erosion and
reduced environmental impact
Improved control of watershed effluents and
urban waste disposal practices
‘‘Special Area’’ management planning, including
use of EIA process, for harbors, wetlands, estua-
ries, industrial sites, and urban areas
Development of non-point source pollution con-
trol programme
Establishment of no net loss policy for wetlands
Landscape management and easement strategies
to protect scenic coastlines and historic sites

coastal crises in Latin America, and suggested direction for solutions, can be sum-
marized in Table 9.
Activities that add further value to coastal resources in Latin America include
recreation and tourism, which has become major sources of domestic and foreing
exchange earnings in many Latin American coastal nations. The intrinsic economic
value of coastal resources (Fig. 5), represent a ‘‘capital’’ investment for humankind by
nature. The goods and services derived from them are the ‘‘interest’’ generated by the
investment. Hence, the destruction of the resource base means depletion of the
‘‘capital’’ and therefore less interest and the ultimate exhaustion of what nature has
freely provided. The economic value of resources is in function of ecosystem health,
94 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

Fig. 5. Sustainability. Economic values of the ecosystem as a function of the ecological integrity.

and this principle described in Fig. 5 represents an important term of reference for
management decision in coastal ecosystems in Latin America.

3. Latin American contributions

The papers in this Special Issue are presented from ‘‘South to North’’ changing the
common geographical literature impact.
Roland Paskoff (Professor in the Department of Geography at Lyon 2 University,
France) and Hermann Manriquez (Academic in the Military Geographical Institute in
Santiago) discuss the coastal fringe of central Chile from an ecosystem level integrat-
ing the legal framework for seaside human occupation, and given recommendations
for an harmonic development, presently affected by increasing demographic pressure,
mainly related to a boom of seaside tourism within the framework of a growing
market economy. It represent one of the first contributions in Chile towards effective
coastal zone management.
Patrico A. Bernal (Dean in the Universidad Austral de Chile, and ex-Undersec-
retary of State for Fisheries), Doris Oliva (Professor in the University of Valparaiso
Chile), Bernardo Aliaga (Academic in Department of Economy, University of Concep-
cion Chile) and Carmen Morales (Academic in Department of Oceanography, Univer-
sity of Concepcion Chile) describe the large industrial fishery development that turned
Chile into the third fishing nation in the world, and review recents regulatory
innovations introduced by the New Fishery and Aquaculture Legislation. These for
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 95

the first time include new ‘‘management tools’’ as allocation of resources in the form of
Individual Fishing Quotas (IFQs) and Individual Transferable Quotas (ITQs); at the
same time Territorial Users Rights in Fisheries (TURFs) were incorporated in the law
to enhance self-regulatory practices among artisanal fishermen.
Adolfo Alvial (Coordinator Unit of Environment and Aquaculture, Department of
Marine Resources, Fundacion Chile) and Denise Recule& (Consultant of NGO Orbe
XXI S.A. in Santiago) present an analytical point of view where a great flexibility must
be the key approach towards management models that are implemented. That is
because the diverse and variable Chilean coastal zone, fishery heterogeneity, oceano-
graphic characteristics, the sustained population increase in coastal areas, develop-
ment in roads, transport, communications, pollution, and threats to the coastal zones
biodiversity. A coastal zone management plan for Chile, more than creating new
regulations — many of which already exist — should be able to set up an effective
mechanism among different sectors involved in the use of the coastal zone, generate
mechanisms to resolve differences, provide adequate scientific and technical informa-
tion for decision making, and establish simple mechanisms for education and citizen
participation. The major features of this approach are presented and discussed in this
paper.
Edison Gonza& lez ¸apeyre (Ambassador and Member of the Delegation which
negotiated the Treaty of the Rio de la Plata and its Maritime Front, Uruguay)
provides an outline of the wealth of experience obtained by Argentina and Uruguay
through the reciprocal cooperation framework provided by the Treaty of the Rio de la
Plata and its Maritime Front. This is a long-term successful management tool as an
instrument for binational fishery management in one of the major deltaic systems in
the coastal zone at the world level
Carlos M. Martı& nez (Professor in the Program of Marine Science and Atmosphere,
Faculty of Science, Uruguay) and Robert Fournier (Associate Vice-President in Dal-
housie University at Halifax Nova Scotia) present essential elements which describe
the genesis, development, results and status of the EcoPlata instrument, an
Uruguayan bi-national multi-institutional approach to integrated coastal zone man-
agement. Emphasis is made in the following four successive phases: planning, institu-
tional scientific research, institutional arrangements and participants, decision pro-
cess into the realm of integrated management.
Antonio Carlos Diegues (Coordinator NUPAUB and Professor in the Research
Center on Wetland Conservation, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil) describe the main
factors responsible for the degradation of the coastal areas in Brazil and their impact
on coastal human population. It also analyses the main policies of the Brazilian
government concerning the management of coastal areas, focusing on the shortcom-
ing of the methodologies used. It emphasises that for the solution of the ecological and
social problems existing in the coastal areas, the establishment of marine protected
areas is an important tool for coastal management.
Enir Gironde Reis (Director of the Train-Sea-Coast Programme in Brazil and
Professor University of Rio Grande Foundation), M. ¸. Asmus, J. P. Castello and ¸. J.
Calliari (Professors University of Rio Grande Foundation, Brazil) focuses on the main
problems identified along the Brazilian coast that can be solved through adequate
96 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

human education. A description of how these problems were identified, the skills,
knowledge and attitude of personnel necessary to adequately perform their task and
the structure of a training course proposed to improve human resource are presented
in this paper. The authors feel that appropriate education throughout international
training courses, is the right way towards integrated coastal zone management.
¸uis Arriaga (Director Coastal Resources Management Programme PMRC-Ecua-
dor), Mariano MontanJ o (Professor Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral ESPOL
Guayaquil) and Jose& »a& sconez (Consultant of ONG COPADE in Guayaquil) describe
the main economic activities of the ‘‘Special Management Zone’’ Bahia de Caraquez,
including agriculture, aquaculture, fishing and tourism, under the framework of the
Coastal Resources Management Project CRMP established in a cooperative program
with the Coastal Resources Center of the University of Rhode Island, USA. This
paper illustrates how bi-national cooperation can show success in a number of
initiatives managing the coastal problems in one of the most important mangroves
areas at the world level.
¸eonor Botero (Coordinator of the National Program of Science and Technology
COLCIENCIAS, Colombia) and Horst Salzwedel (German Agency for Technical
Cooperation GTZ) describe the project implemented by the Colombian government
rehabilitating the Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta a key mangrove ecosystem in the
Caribbean coast. This multi-institutional and bi-national initiative focuses on man-
agement of hydrological resources, management of faunal and floral resources, the
role of social development, and institutional strengthening.
Nestor J. ¼indevoxhel (Coordinator of the IUCN Mesoamerican Wetlands
and Coastal Zone Conservation Program), Jose& J. Rodrı& guez (Consultant of
UICN/ORMA, Costa Rica) and Enrique J. ¸ahmann (Regional Director of
UICN/ORMA Costa Rica) analyse the Central America coastal zones including
Panamá, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, Salvador, Belize and Guatemala, under-
lying the ecosystem health, landscapes and seascapes, and biodiversity, pointed out
that the Central America’s coastal zone is devoted to tourism. Integrated coastal zone
management in this region has been limited by information gaps, restricted technical
and financial capacity, and strong sectoralism. Population density, tourism, fishing
and aquaculture, agriculture, are analysed at the regional level, and the role of natural
protected coastal areas as management tool is underlying. Some key ‘‘study cases’’ in
different countries and the participation of international foundations as CATIE,
TNC, WWF, DANIDA, OAS, SRI, and others, are described which focus on the
importance of international cooperation and inter-agency coordination. Progress and
experiences indicate a potential initiative towards the ‘‘Alliance for Sustainable
Development’’ in Central America.
Alejandro ½a& n ez-Arancibia (Head Department of Coastal Resources and Professor
in the Institute of Ecology A.C. Xalapa, México, and ex-Former Director of the
EPOMEX Programme), David Za& rate ¸omelı& (Academic Department of Coastal
Resources, Institute of Ecology A.C, Xalapa), Mamerto Go& mez Cruz (Professor De-
partment of Ecology, University of San Carlos Guatemala), Rodolfo Godı& nez Orantes
(Consultant, Guatemala Institute of Tourism INGUAT) and »icente Santiago Fan-
din o (International Environmental Technology Centre, UNEP Japan), describe the
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 97

Atlantic coast of Guatemala focus on ecosystem framework for planning and manage-
ment, including the most important ecological processes, the economic development,
environmental problematic, and guidelines for its management. The approach permit
to analyse the sectorial levels as tourism, hunting and fishing, agriculture and live-
stoke farming, urbanization, oil-related activities, ports and means of communica-
tions, and finally the integration of this activities into the ecosystem and critical
habitats providing management recomendation. Authors feel that the integrated
management plan for the Atlantic coast of Guatemala must be grounded in a develop-
ment strategy based on scientific knowledge, integrating the ecosystem, the econ-
omics, and the policy.
Alejandro ½a& n ez-Arancibia (Head Department of Coastal Resources and Professor
in the Institute of Ecology A.C. Xalapa, Me& xico, and ex- Former Director of the
EPOMEX Programme), Ana ¸aura ¸ara-Domı& nguez (Professor Area of Ecology and
Management of Coastal Ecosystem, EPOMEX Center, México), Jose& ¸uis Rojas
Galavı& z (Academic Department of Coastal Resources, Institute of Ecology A.C.
Xalapa, Mexico) and co-authors analyse the coastal zone of the State of Campeche,
the environment and its problems, commercial and artisanal fishing, maritime trans-
port, agriculture and cattle grazing in low-land areas, urban expansion, building of
highways, and tourism. After developing seven ‘‘study cases’’ integrating science into
policymaking, a management approach was developed considering four main actions:
promotion of institutional arrangements; strenthening of public awarness related to
coastal resources management policies and capabilities; gathering, analysis and dis-
semination of information related to coastal resources development; and provision of
technical solutions to coastal resource uses in conflict. This is a contribution where
science played a significant role in the politics of the policy process, both in protecting
key estuarine ecosystem and the planning process defining the ICZM plans, which
represent an advanced step after the books published by Yán ez-Arancibia and Day
[47] and Yán ez-Arancibia et al. [48].
David Za& rate ¸omelı& , ¹eresa Saavedra »a& zquez, Jose& ¸uis Rojas Galavı& z, Alejandro
½a& n ez-Arancibia (Department of Coastal Resources, Institute of Ecology A.C.
Xalapa, México), and Evelia Rivera Arriaga (Center for the Study of Marine Policy,
Graduate College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, USA) analyse the
ecological and socioeconomic importance of the Mexican coastal zone of the Gulf of
Mexico and the Caribbean and its main problems of pollution and environmental
impact. Also the legal, institutional, and technical framework that is applied to the
coastal management of the region is discussed, towards the definition and implemen-
tation of a Program of Integrated Management (PIM), proposing adjustments to the
main instruments of national environmental policy applied to the coastal zone in the
region, towards sustainable development and social communities well being.

4. Conclusions

The variations in scope and the amount of progress made by different Latin
American countries show the difficulty of creating a single integrated management
98 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

approach to all coastal ecosystems and resources, and foreshadowed the effort that
sustainable development and resource utilization will require.
ICZM usually focuses on three goals: (a) overcoming the conflicts associated with
sectoral management; (b) preserving the productivity and biological diversity of
coastal ecosystems; and (c) promoting an equitable and sustainable allocation of
coastal resources. This is exactly what happened with the Latin American contribu-
tions, following the terms of reference indicated in [7, 49]. The objectives of any ICM
program are specific to the coastal problems to be resolved for a defined area, the
coastal zone. An equitable, transparent process of governance is also central to ICM.
Coastal management relies on a variety of techniques to achieve its specific objectives,
in the sense of Lemay [7]. Following these approaches the 13 contributions in this
Special Issue can be arranged mainly inside this Coastal Management ¹echniques, as
follows:

z Coastal management plans

— Fundacion Chile and the integrated management of the coastal zone.
— Integrated management perspectives of the Bahia de Caráquez zone and Chone
River estuary, Ecuador.
— Situation of integrated coastal zone management in Central America: Experiences
of the IUCN wetlands and coastal zone conservation program.
— The ecosystem framework for planning and managing the Atlantic coast of
Guatemala.
— Integrating science and management on coastal marine protected areas in the
southern Gulf of Mexico.
— Terms of reference towards an integrated management policy in the Gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean.

z ¸and—use zoning and setbacks

— Ecosystem and legal framework for coastal management in Central Chile.
— The ecosystem framework for planning and managing the Atlantic coast of
Guatemala.

z Marine protected areas

— Human populations and coastal wetlands: Conservation and management in
Brazil.
— Situation of integrated coastal zone management in Central America: Experiences
of the IUCN wetlands and costal zone conservation program.
— The ecosystem framework for planning and managing the Atlantic coast of
Guatemala.
— Integrating science and management on coastal marine protected areas in the
southern Gulf of Mexico.
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 99

z Management and restoration of coastal habitats

— Rehabilitation of the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta, a mangrove—estuarine
system in the Caribbean coast of Colombia.

z Coastal pollution control

— Human populations and coastal Wetlands: conservation and management in
Brazil.
— Terms of reference towards integrated management policy in the Gulf of Mexico
and the Caribbean.

z Shoreline stabilization
— Ecosystem and legal framework for coastal management in Central Chile.
— Rehabilitation of the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta, a mangrove—estuarine
system in the Caribbean coast of Colombia.

z Close access regimes

— New regulations in Chilean fisheries and aquaculture: ITQs and territorial user
rights.

z Capacity building
— EcoPlata: an Uruguayan multi-institutional approach to integrated coastal zone
management.
— Building human capacity on coastal and ocean management: implementing the
Train-Sea-Coast Programme in Brazil.
— Rehabilitation of the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta, a mangrove—estuarine
system in the Caribbean coast of Colombia.
— Integrated management perspectives of the Bahia de Caraquez zone and Chone
River estuary, Ecuador.

z Inter-agency coordination
— The Maritime Front of the Rio de la Plata as an instrument for binational fisheries
management.
— Situation of integrated coastal zone management in Central America; Experiences
of the IUCN wetlands and coastal zone conservation program.
— Integrating science and management on coastal marine protected areas in the
southern Gulf of Mexico.

z Community-based management
— Human populations and coastal wetlands: conservation and management in
Brazil.
100 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

— Terms of reference towards an integrated management policy in the Gulf of Mexico

and the Caribbean.

z Conflict resolutions
— Fundacion Chile and the integrated management of the coastal zone.
— New regulations in Chilean fisheries and aquaculture: ITQ’s and territorial user
rights.
— The Maritime Front of the Rio de la Plata as an instrument for binational fisheries
management.
— Situation of integrated coastal zone management in Central America: Experiences
of the IUCN wetlands and coastal zone conservation program.
— Integrating science and management on coastal marine protected areas in the
southern Gulf of Mexico.

z Environmental assessment
— Ecosystem and legal framework for coastal management in Central Chile.
— Rehabilitation of the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta, a mangrove—estuarine
system in the Caribbean coast of Colombia.
— The ecosystem framework for planning and managing the Atlantic coast of
Guatemala.

z International cooperation
— The Maritime Front of the Rio de la Plata as an instrument for binational fisheries
management.
— EcoPlata: an Uruguayan multi-institutional approach to integrated coastal zone
management.
— Integrated management perspectives of the Bahia de Caraquez zone and Chone
River estuary, Ecuador.
— Rehabilitation of the Cienaga Grande de Santa Marta, a mangrove—estuarine
system in the Caribbean coast of Colombia.
— Situation of integrated coastal zone management in Central America: experiences
of the IUCN wetlands and coastal zone conservation program.
This classification is also useful in understanding the different stages of evolution
and approach of any country moving towards ICZM. Most papers in this Special
Issue are products of present or past ‘‘programs’’ in each country. Of all the existing
initiatives on coastal zone management, the following have now been in existence for
sufficient time to have made significant inroads in public policy:

z Chile with the Data Base System supported by Fundación Chile and the Navy’s
Maritime ¹erritory National Board.
z ºruguay/Argentina with the Binational ¹echnical Commission of the Rio de la Plata
and its Maritime Front.
 A. Ya& nJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104 101

z ºruguay with the EcoPlata Project, supported by the Universidad de la República,

Faculty of Science, Program of Marine Science and Atmosphere, and the Interna-
tional Development Research Centre (IDRC-Canada).
z Brazil with the Núcleo de Apoio á Pesquisa sobre Populacóes Humanas e Areas
ºmidas Brasileiras NºPAºB, ex-Program of Research and Conservation of Wet-
lands in Brazil PPCAUB, University of Sao Paulo, supported by IUCN and Ford
Foundation.
z Brazil with the ¹rain-Sea-Coast Programme, supported by the United Nations
Division for Ocean Affairs and the Law of the Sea DOALOS/UN, at the University
of Rio Grande Foundation.
z Brazil with the National Coastal Management Program.
z Ecuador with the Coastal Resources Management Program, initially supported by an
Agreement signed between the Government of Ecuador and the United States
Agency for International Development USAID. Ministry of Mines and Energy and
the Natural Resources Ecuador, and the University of Rhode Island CRC, USA.
z Colombia with the Environmental Management Plan Programme, developed by
CORPAMAG, INVEMAR and CORPES C.A. Colombia, and the German Agency
for Technical Cooperation (GTZ).
z Central America globally with the IºCN’s Mesoamerican ¼etlands and Coastal
Zone Conservation Programme, throught the Regional Direction Office
IUCN/ORMA, Moravia Costa Rica; and some support from CATIE, TNT, WWF,
DANIDA, NORAD, SRI, Royal Embassy of The Netherlands, The European
Community, Organization of American States.
z Costa Rica with the National Coastal and Marine Program.
z Barbados and its Coastal Conservation Program.
z Guatemala with the Integrated ¹ourism Management Plan for the Atlantic Coast,
supported by Guatemala Institute of Tourism (INGUAT), and UNDP Caribbean
Environment Programme.
z Guatemala/Honduras with the Bilateral Plan for Border Development (BIFINO),
partially supported by the Organization of American States, and the United
Nations Development Programme UNDP.
z Mexico with the Program of Ecology, Fisheries and Oceanography of the Gulf of
Mexico EPOMEX, started in July 1990 and finished in January 1997, supported by
the Secretary of Public Education SEP, and Grants from the Organization of
American States, United Nations Development Programme UNDP/CEP, the
IUCN Central America, the WWF, the National Council for Science and Techno-
logy CONACYT, and mainly The Government of the State of Campeche.

Others minor initiatives were reported in [44] during the workshop on Integrated
Planning and Management of Coastal Areas in the ¼ider Caribbean, chaired by A.
Yán ez-Arancibia. While it is difficult to isolate all the factors explaining the continuity
of these programs, one key factor appears to be focused on clearly defined coastal
problems. In addition, these programs have demonstrated an ability to evolve from an
initial, rather restricted focus towards a more integrated and participatory approach.
Lemay [7] analysing in detail the perspective of some of these programs, pointed out
102 A. YánJ ez-Arancibia / Ocean & Coastal Management 42 (1999) 77—104

that in every country the status of coastal ecosystems is only starting to be

documented, and reliable long-term data on resources or coastal water quality are
almost non-existent. In general terms, coastal management in Latin America — with
the exception of contributions in this Special Issue — is mainly a collection of project
or isolated papers which may or may not support economic development priorities in
the coastal zone.
Experiences towards sustainable development in Latin America shows that tradi-
tional sectoral approaches have not been effective in maintaining the productive value
of coastal areas. While the role of public sector institutions in maintaining coastal and
marine resources has gone through major shifts, responsibilities are not well articu-
lated nor have incentives been introduced to ensure that private sector intervention
addresses sustainability. The situation is now changing, new terms of reference are
available, the international scenarios are modulating sustainability, old paradigms are
staggering along, and at the opening of the new millenium Latin America will arrive at
a competitive maturity stage concerning ICZM.

Acknowledgements

To Biliana Cicin-Sain and Robert W. Knecht (Center for the Study of Marine
Policy Graduate, College of Marine Studies, University of Delaware, USA) who
strongly supported the idea of producing a Special Issue of the progress on ICZM and
experiences towards sustainable development in Latin America; also specially for
inviting me to be in-charge of producing and editing this global contribution. To
Michele H. Lemay (Coastal and Marine Specialist, Environment Division, Sustain-
able Development Department, Inter-American Development Bank), for her kind
literature support which stimulated the structure of this introductory paper.

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