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59155 {l)
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OILFIELD PROCESSING
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VOLUME 1WO: CRUDE OIL
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- Francis S. Manning, Ph.D., P.E.
Professor of Chemical Engineering 1
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OILFIELD PROCESSING
VOLUME TWO: CRUDE OIL
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DEDICATED TO

The Grandchildren of Francis F. and Eileen Manning

Frances Patricia

William John
Mary Eileen
Frank Charles
Helen Eileen
and
The Children of Marilyn and Richard Thompson
Gary David
Julia

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 Contents No. DE LIBRO --.;.i51-v1.5.. ..__
CATEGORIA (APil 5�--
f/PO D[ UBRO 5 7
yOO IDIOMA -------"'c,'-'----
Precio dt Libro Qgg '17 · 'l8S
CO#IIPUOO OONAOO

Preface xi Chapter 5
Chapter 1 Field Processing of Crude Oil 61
,- lntroduction and Scope 1
lntroduccion 61
Review Questions 4 Design Bases 61
Processing Operarions 63
,- References 4
Processing Scope 65
Chapter 2 Environrnenral Considerations 73
Characterization of Crude Oils 5 Review Questions 76
Introduction 5 Problems 76
Crude Oil Sampling and Analysis 16
Nomenclature 77
,- Product Specifications
Review Quescions
18
21
References 77
Problems 21 Chapter 6

,- Nomen el ature
References
21
22
Phase Separation of Gas, Oil, and Water
Inrroducrion
79
79
Terminology 79
Chaptcr 3
Physical Description 80
Phase Behavior 25
Compa_rison of Separators 90
lntroduction 25
Phase Separation Theory 91
Fluid Phase Behavior 25
Design Considerarions 95
Equilibrium Calculations 27
Design Examples 101
Thermodynamics of Vapor-Liquid Equilibria 29
Maintenance and Troubleshoocing 108
Nomenclarure 35
Review Questions 109
Review Quesrions 36
References Problems 109
36
Nomenclature 110
Chapter 4 References 111

,- Watcr-in-Crude Oíl Emulsions

Introduction 39 39 Chapter 7
Dehydration of Crude Oíl 113
Emulsions 39

,- Wellhead Emulsions 41 lntroduction 113

Emulsion Stabiliry 44 Terminology 114
Sertling/Rising Velocities 45 Treating Merhods 115
Potencial Emulsificacion Tendencies Design Considerations 131
r of Production Practices 52 Design Examples 136
Emulsion Prevention 52 Operation and Maintenance 138

,- Review Questions
Problems
56
57
Review Questions
Problems
140
141
Nomenclature 57 Nomenclacure 141
r References 58 References 142
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 � VIII Contents

Chapter 8 Lease Auromatic Cusrody Transfer (LACT)

Desahing of Crude Oil 145

,_
Units 213
Inrroduction 145 Turbine Meters 217
Process Description 146 Orifice Merers 219
Design Considerations 149 Meter Proving 221
Design Procedures 150 Mass Flowrnerers 227
Operation 154 Multiphase Flow Merering 229
Troubleshooting 155 Meter Selection 231

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Review Questions 155 Metering Error 232
Problems 156 Review Quescions 234

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Nomenclarure 156 Problems 235
References 157 Nomenclarure 235
Appendix S--1 157 References
Appendix 8-2
237
158
Chapter 12
Chapter 9 Firetube Heaters 239
Stabilization and Sweetening of Crude Oil 159 Introduction 239
Introducrion 159 Combusrion 240
Multistage Separation 160 Firetube Heaters 244
Condensare 165 Design 254
More-Complex Processing 167 Operarion 263
Sweetening 168 Review Questions 265
Summary 172 Problems 266
Review Questions 173 Nomenclature 266
Problems 173 References 267
Nomenclarure 173
Chapter 13 References 174
Transportation of Crude Oil 269
Chapter 10 Introduction 269
Pipeline Design 269
Pumps 175 Heavy Oil Transpon 281
lntroducrion 175 Pipeline Pump Selecrion 285
General Considerations 175 Pipeline Operarion 286
Centrifuga! Pumps 176 Pipeline Construcrion 288
Posirive Displacement Pumps 182 Pipeline Cosr 288
Drivers 184 Review Quesrions 288
Pump Selecrion 185 Problerns 289
Pump Design Theory 188 Nomenclarure 290
Design Procedure 191 References 291
I nstallarion and Operation 195
Troubleshooting Chapter 14
197
Review Questions E 197 nergy Conservation 293
Problems Inrroduction 293
199
Nomenclature Energy Audirs 295
200
References Fired Heaters 297
200
lnsularion 297
Chapter 11 Prime Movers 300
Measuremenl of Crude Oil 203 Waste Hear Recovery 302
lntroduccion 203 Dehydration of Crude Oil 303
Types of Meters 203 Operating Pressure and Vapor Recovery 304
Storage Tanks 206
 Conrents 1X

Electrical Power 306 Chaptcr 17 379

Miscellaneous 311 Case Studies 379
r Summary 313 Inrroduction 379
Review Quesrions 314 Case
Case Srudy
Srudy No.
No. 21 384
Problems 314
r Nomenclarure 315 Review Questions 388
316 Problerns 388
References
References 390
I"" Chaptcr 15
Instrumcntation and Procesa Control 319 Appendix I
Glossary of Terms 391
lnrroduction 319
I"" Process Control Concepts 319 Appendix 2
Feedback Control 321 Material Balances 399
Advanced Control Loops 322
324 Appendix 3
Sensing Devices 403
324 Energy Balances
Control Valves
Controllers and Control Acrion 331 Appendix 4
Safery and Control Applications 334 OPSIM 406
Control of Processing Plants 338 Imroducrion 406
Review Questions 347 Use of the Program 406
Problems 348 OPSIM Execurion 409
Nomenclature 348 Example Problems 411
References 349 Description of rhe Modules 416
Structure of OPSIM 422
Chapter 16 423
References
Pressure Relief and Flaring 351
Inrroduction 351 Appendix 5
Depressuring, Emergency Relief, and Fiare Conversion of Units 424
Sysrerns 352 Conversion Factors 425
General Considerations 354
Appendix 6
Pressure Relief Devices 356 426
Physical Properties of Fluids
Flaring 365
374 lndex 430
Review Questions
Problerns 375
Nomenclature 375
References 376
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59155
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Preface

Oiljieid Procming is rhe second book in the rhree-vol- Coasral Chemical Company Don Ballard
ume series on che various surface unir operations corn- Bill Manning
monly used in production facilities. Natural gas was Conoco Inc. Albert Peck
covered in Volume I which was published in 1991. Scorr Dalron
Oilfield warers (borh produced and injecrion) will be Garvin Fryar
covered in Yolume 3. Bob Gibson
Hopefully, rhis book will serve three needs. First, in Gene Morrison
the form of ryped notes, che current material has been Joe Provine
used as a text for a senior-level, petroleum engineering Harry Sharkis
design course on surface producrion and processing. Duane Wilson
The aurhors do appreciate che numerous suggesrions Wayne Wilson
from che Universiry ofTulsa seniors who have used these Flow Con Mike Hein
notes. Hughes Anderson Ed Flaxbart
Second, chis book material has been used in short NATCO B. E. Harrell
courses for engineers and foremen working in field han- Floyd Premidge
dling of crude oil. Ir is hoped rhat rhis book will help Gary Sams
engineers in ocher disciplines learn petroleum produc- Harry Wallace
rion concepts. Ken Warren
Third, rhis book should serve as a refresher and hand- The Pro Quip Corp. Ron Key
book for ali engineers inreresred in field handling of Don Love
crude oil. Radco !ne. Reed Melron
The marhemarical background required to use this Shannon Melron
book has been kepr to a minimum ro make ir easily read- T. H. Russell Company Tom Russell
able and immediacely useful. \X.'here advantageous, cur-
renr computer simularion has been identified bue corn- While ali these friends were exceedingly helpful, sorne
puter expertise is not required. conrribucions demand individual recognirion. Dr. Bill
The aurhors were shocked and deeply saddened by the Manning coaurhored Chapter 12. Professor Kerry
sudden dearh of Nelda Whipple on May 21, 1991. Sublette's critiques of Chaprers 4. 7, and 8 were tanta-
Nelda ryped and reryped numerous drafrs of Volume 1 mount to coauchorship as were Al Peck's suggesred revi-
and rhe early versions of much of volume 2. '�./e miss her sions fo, Chapter 15 and Bob Gibson's review ofChapter
very much. 16.
The authors express rheir grarnude and thanks to rhe The authors have colleccively and individually taughr
Universiry of Tulsa for providing rhe opportuniry and numerous short courses worldwide for Amoco
environment to wrice this book. The Universiry ofTulsa Production, OGCI. Rike Service lnc., and Texaco. This
enjoys many long-standing and close relarionships with experience preved invaluable, as did Professor Thornpson's
the petroleum industry. In facr, so many petroleurn 15-year experience wirh Crest Engineering and Furlow-
industry engineers helped so much rhar ir is impossible to Philbeck Engineering.
document every kindness. The senior author rhanks rhe Universiry ofTulsa
Neverrheless, rhe authors are pleased to rhank rhe fol- and rhe College of Engineering and Applied Sciences
lowing friend.s and companies for providing up-to-dare for granring him a sabbaucal leave during rhe 1993
information and for reviewing drarts: fall semester to v,.:ork on this volume.
xn Prcfacc

The authors would also like to thank ali their T. U.

The authors rhank Sandra Whitaker for ryping many
colleagues; however, the following deserve special recog-
revisions and changing rhe formar of many chapters.
nition. Dr. E. T. Guerrero encouraged thern to teach a
senior-leve! perroleum engineering course on surface The aurhors acknowledge rhe hdp and infinite
patience provided by Maria Patterson and Sue Rhodes
production. Dr. Keirh Wisecarver helped the senior
Sesso of Penn Wdl Books.
aurhor wirh PC and prinrer problems on many occa-
Finally, and most importantly, rhe authors thank their
sions. Ca rol Guy and Virginia Wood of the Universiry's
wives, Ardis Arnold Manning and Marilyn Thompson
Perroleum Abstracts Division compíled numerous litera-
for their patience, understanding, and encouragement.
rure searches. Joan Ahrens, Ellen Boswell, and Jim
Murray in rhe Sidney Born Technical Library cheerfully Ali too often the authors spent rhe weekend ar the office.
found every reference requested.

Chapter 1
lntroduction and Scope
A, produced, wellhead fluids-s-crude oil, natural gas, and
brine-must be processed before sale, transpon, reinjec-
tion, or disposal. Therefore, oil and gas production involve
a number of surface unic operarions berween che wellhead
and che poinr of custody rransfer or transpon from che pro-
duction facilines (Figure 1-1). Collectivdy these opera-
tions are called field handling or oilfield processing.
Accordingly oílfieldprocessíng is defined as rhe processing of
oil andlor gas for safe and economical srorage and.Jor rrans-
port by pipeline, ranker, or cruck. Oilfield processing also
includes water treannent, wherher produced warers for dis-
posal and/or reinjecting, or addirional injection waters used
far formarion flooding or reservoir-pressure rnaintenance.
The present work is Volume 2 in a rhree-volume treatise
on Oilfie!.d ProceJú11g of Paroleum. Process descriptions,
design rnethods, operacing procedures, and troubleshoot-
ing are covered in derail and nearly every chapter concludes
with review quescions and practica] nurnerical problems.
Volume I discussed oilfield processing of natural gas in
detail (Manning and Thompson, 1991). A solurions man-
ual and updace ro \'olume I is available (Manning, 1994).
The presenr \'olume 2 describes oilfield processing of
crude oil. A solurions manual will be available (Manning
and Thompson, 1995). Oilfield waters. boch produced
and injecred. will be discussed in Volume 3.
In chis volurne "condirioning," "processirig," and
"handling" are used synonymously to refer to ali oilfield
operat1ons.
"Separarion ." "deh ydracion," "desalting," · ''
sweet- ening, '' and "stabilizauon" describe specific
operarions as follows:
• Separacion: Separating rhe vapor, oil, and water
phases of a produced wellhead stream.
Dehydration: Removing water droplers or S & W or
B S & W from crude oil (somerimes
called treating).
t
• Desalring: Reducing the salt content of a crude
oil by diluting rhe entrained/ernulsi-
fied water and rhen dehydrating.
• Sweetening: Removing H2S and orhersulfur corn-
pounds.
• Stabilization: Removing rhe most volatile compo-
nents of a crude oil ro reduce rhe
Reid vapor pressure {RVP). or more
cor- rectly che bubblepoinr pressure.
As shown in Figure 1-1, the scope of oilfield process-
ing of crude oil starrs ar rhe wellhead and ends wirh
a pipeline, storage cank, or tanker. As is afso shown in
Figure 1-1, oilfield processing generally consists of rwo
discinct categories of operations:
1. Separarion of rhe gas-oil-brine wellstrearn inro ics
individual phases.
2. Rernoval of impurities from rhe separared phases to
rneer sales/transportJtion/ reinjection specificst ions
and/or environmenral regulations.
Obviously. rhe selecnon and operation of field-handling
equipmcnt depend very srrongly on the vob,nze and char-
acteristícs of the strrams produced ar the u e!/liead.
,A.ccordingly. Yolume 2 starts with rhree chaprers describing
crude oils:
• Chapter 2-Characterizarion of Crude Oíl,
Chaprer 3-Phase Beh.-·ior of Crude Oil
• Chaprec 4-Warer-in-Crude-Oil Emulsions
A similar descrip1ion of natural gas is av.:ulab!e in
Volume J.
In every siruacion che actual processing scheme depends
not only on che ,vellhead stream, bue also on produ(r sele(-
rion and delivery specifications. Therefore, overall crude oil
processing considerations such as design basis and process-
ing scope and objecrives are re,·iewed next in Chaprer 5.
Natural gas processing schemes are discussed in \'olume l.
:Jv155
2 Introduction and Scope

Acid Gas
Sulfur !--------...� Fiare
AemovaJ

Sulfur
Transpon

Gas Compression J
Condensa te Pipeline/
Treating
Removal Ae1njaction I
Fiare
ondensate

tabilization Storage í
Pipeline

Phase ehydraUo ¡_-11-.H S Remova�-l�tabilization Storage

2
Separation Oesalting Pipeline

Water
Soh.emng/ Oisposal/
'---� Skimming Filtratio
; Deaeration Remjecnor-
n

Sand
Claanup ;....----------------- Deposar
1..._.

Bacteriocide Scale lnhibitor

Flltration
Oeaeration
L-H_;_:_:_9-�
' 1

'
Corrosion tntubucr

Seawater

Figure 1-1 Typical Oilfield Processing

Phase separsrion of rhe produced natural gas, crude • Chaprer 7

-Dehydrarion of Crude Oil
oil, and brine is a very important part of field • Chapter 8-Desalting of Crude Oil
handling, and rhis is discussed in grear detail in Chaprer • Chaprer 9-Srabilizarion and Swcetening of Crude Or!
6. • Chaprer l 0-Pumps
Then the following individual unir operations com- • Chaprer 11-Measuremem of Crude Oil
monly used in field handling of crude oil are described:
 lnrroduaion and Scopc 3

• Chapter 12-Firerube Hearers Table 1-1 World's Major Crude Oil Reserves
• Chapter 13-Transporration of Crude Oil
r
Reserves Share
Counuy (1 o9 bbll (%)
Next, the following tapies rhat apply nor only (O
crude oil but also to ali oillield processing are addressed. Saudi Arabia 25'.6 25.9
Iraq 100.0 JO.O
• Chapter 14-Energy Conservarion Kuwait 94.0 9.4
• Chaprer 1 5-lnstrumenration and Process Control lran 92.9 9.3
• Chapter 16---Pressure Relief and Flaring Abu Dhabi 92.2 9.2
Venezuela 62.7 6.3
Finally, in Chaprer 17, design or sizing calcularions C.l.S. 57.0 5.7
are presented far rwo wellsrreams. First, rhey are pre- México 51.3 5.1
China
United States 24.0
24.7 2.4
2.5
limired for
sented volume,
a largeonshore.
volume,Each case study
offshore, starts wich
and second, for aa Libya 22.8 2.3
computer simularion rhac provides complete material Nigeria 17.9 1.8
Algeria 9.2 0.9
and energy balances and sizes che compressors, pumps,
Norway 8.8 0.9
and hear exchangers. Then hand-held methods are Egyp< 6.2 0.6
used to size sorne of the majar process modules ar India 6.0 0.6
Ali orher counrries 69.7 7.1
equipment. These case histories illusrrate how field
processing objec- rives. equipment, and operarion can TOTAL WORLD 99".0 100.0
vary. Source: Oi/ ér Gaf JourJUI.Í, 1993
Following the formar established in Volume 1, rhe fol-
lowing auxiliary and fundamental tapies are covered in
separare appendices: Table 1-2 World's Major Crude Oil Producers

• Appendix 1-Glossary of rerms and lisr of Production Share

abbrevia- Country (1,000 BPD) (%)
tions used
Saudi Arabia ',981 13.4
• Appendix 2-Marerial balances C.!.S. -.846 13.2
·r •
•
Appendix
Appendix
3-Energy balances
4-0PSIM compurer simularion
United
lran
$1.1.tes 6.896
3.6-iO
11.6
6.1
Ch1n, 2.895 4.9
• Appendix 5-Conversion of unirs
Mcxico �.663 4.5
• Appendix 6-Physical properries of fluid, Venezuel¡¡ 2.332 3.9
'.',;or.,..ay 2.117 3.8
The terms and abbreviarions presented in Appendix
I
perraín to che enure volume. Each chapter conrains a
nomenclarure for perrinenr symbols arid abbreviarions. �igena 1.896 3.2
The concepc of a rhree-volurne trearise demands that lJnited K.ingdom 1.866 3.1
Abu Dh,bi 1.-84 30
copies common to natural gas, crude oil, and oilfield
Kuw.i.it 1.69:! 2.8
warers be assigned sornewhat arbirrarily ro a particular Canada 1.684 2.8
volurne. Volurne 1 treats prevention of hydrate forma- Liby.:. 1.36- 23
tion and hear exchange. As indicared, Volume 2 covers Indonesia 1.323 2.2

phase separarion, firerube heaters. energy conservation,

insrrumenrarion and proct"ss control, and pressure relief
Egyp•
A.!geria -,o
894 1.5
1.3
All other coun1r1�� <l.863 16.">
and flaring. Volume 3 will treat corrosion and garhering
TOTAL WORLD 59,619 100.0
lines. Safery and environmental concerns are addrcssed
rhroughour ali rhree volumes. 5011,cc. niJ & GJ! }oun1Jf. 19'>3

Oilfield produc rion of crude oil is a major industrial

undenaking. Worldwide about 60 MMbbl of crude oil
are produced every day. Table )- l presenrs recenr esti- preven reserves are locared in rhe �1idJle Easr. The
mares of rhe largest proven reserves, while rhe world's three largesr producers (ú., C.I.S., Saudi Arabia,

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and rhe
largesr currenr production rates are summarized in Table
L1nired States) account for s!ighd�· over one-third of rhe
1-2. As is widely known, over one-half rhe
world's \Vorld's produccion.
 4 Introduction and Scopc

Afrer field treatment, crude oil or perroleum cannot

4. Define phase separation, crude dehydrarion, desalt-
be used direcrly. ir musr be processed further in refiner-
ing, crude sweetening, and crude stabilizarion.
ies to produce fractions rhar are themselves useful, or that
S. Whar is rhe difference berween "crude stabilization"
become useful when chemically processed and/or prop-
and "crude vapor-pressure control"?
erly blended. Bur rhis is anorher ma¡or indumy (and,
6. Name rhe two durincr caregories of oilfield procc . . �-
perhaps. anorher book!J.
1ng operanons.

Review Questions
References

1. Wha, is "oilfield processing"'

Manning, Francis S. ( 1994), "Oilfield Handling of
Why is oilfield processing required?
Natural Gas." Short Course Notes, Universiry of Tulsa,
2. Wha, are rhe goals (requirements) of field processing? Tulsa, OK.
What are rhe overriding factors?
Manning, Francis S., and Richard E. Thompson
3. Which of rhe following operarions are involved in
(1991 ), Oilfield Procming ofPerroleum, � \1,/. !: 1\'atura!
field processing?
Gas. PennWell Books, Tulsa, OK.
• sepa rae ion of na rural gas, crude oil, and brine
Manning, Francis S.. and Richard E. Thompson
• crude oil dehydrarion
(1995), "Oilfield Handling ofCrude Oil." Shorr Course
• crude oil desalring
Notes, The Universiry oí Tulsa, Tulsa, OK.
• crude sweetening and srabilization
Manning, Francis S. and Richard E. Thompson,
• pipeline transport of crude oil
"Oilfieid Processing of Pecroleurn--Vofu,ne 3: Produced
• artificial lift
and lnjection Warers." Penn IX'ell Books, Tulsa, OK.
• refining of crude oil
"Worldwide Production Reporr." (1993), Oil e' G,u
steam ílooding
}ourna!Vol. 91, No. 52, (December 27) pp. 45-46.
• NGL recovery
• preventing formar ion of hydrates

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� Chapter 2
Characterization of Crude Oils
JNTRODUCTION
Field proce�sing of crude oil for storage, rran�portation,
and sale i nvolves three process objecrtves:
l. Sep,rration of the crude oil from free and
cn1uls1fied
water or brine and entrained sol ids (pri111arily sand);
2. Stabi/iz,uion of the crude oil, (i.e., removal of dis-
solved natural gas to che extent required
provide an oil thar can be safely stored, transponed
and han-
dled); and
3. from tbe crude oil and any '<P"
Rt'n1oi:t1! oj.;n1purilles
arared gas ro meet sale�ftransporr/reinjection specifi-
carions while observing all environmental. safety,
and health rcgulations.
Sales specifications for crude oils are fe,, and farr!v
straightfor,vard and involve simple tests. (:rude oils are
usually dcscnhed bv rhe rypes of hvdrocarbons present
and by overall or J\·erage proper11es measured by
sunple.
tr.1ditional tests. 5election, design. and operat!,)11 of rhe
processes used co separare oil [rorn water, sedinH�nr:i.
and
dissolved gas and 10 removc impurities depend on rhe
wellstrearn properues. Therefore, ch.1ra1.. tenzarion of
crude oils is discussed using rhese copies: spectrun1 of
produced hydroc.1rbons, crude oil const1tuents, crude orl
sampling and analysis, and product specificarions.
Spectrurn of Produced Hydrocarbons
The desirab\e consriruents of crude oil and natural gas
are the hydrocarbons. These range from rnethane (CH4)
at rhe low-molecular weight end ali rhe way up to paraf-
fins or alkanes wirh 33 carbon atorns and polynuclear
aromatic hydrocarbons with 20 or more carbon arorns
-
(Table 2-3, Ha« h and Matar. 1977). ,\',u11ral gas is
mosdy methane. Cmde oi/ is principally liquid hvdrocar-
bons having four or more carbon atoms.
As also stated in Voiurne there is a tendency
1,
to regard crude oil as a liquid and natural gas as a gas
and to consider producrion of the two phascs as separare
opera.tions. However. crude oil in the reservoir almost
ajw avs co nr.nns diasolved merhane and orher light
hYdrocarbons thar are rele.1sed as gas when the pressure
on rhe otl is reduccd ..As rhe gas evolves. the remaining
crude-oi\ liquid volume decreases; chis phenomenon is
to known as .-hri11k<1ge. The gas so produced is called solu-
non or assocúued or sep,1n1tor g,1s or cu.,ingliead ga).
Shnnkage is expre)'.'>ed in h.:rms of b.1rre\., of stock-tanh
oil per barre! of reservoir fluid (shrinkage faLlüí,
�F).
Crude-oil ,hrinkage is the reciproca! of 1he (orn1arion-
t'olun1e f1,:tor \F\'F or
B,11.
:-:.aura! g.1s prod.uced fro,n a g.1� re ... c1\·01r may
con-
rain small <1n1ount, üf heJ,·ier hydroLarbun, rh,n are
sep- arated as a liquid c.11led t'ondr·ns,1te. �Jcural ga, rhat
con- ta1ns h�·droc.1rhon condensare is said to he u·et.
If no conden,ate forn,� \\hen 1he gas i� produced to
the sur-
tJ.ce, the gas is callcd dry. \lote che te:ms ··,\'e1" and
"dry" can refer to liquid \Va ter or liquid h� Lirocarbon.
( ;as from i..�)ndensate reser\'oirs is an 1nrermediate
rype of fluid (i.e., bet\\'een crude 011 .1nJ natural gas).
Condensare fluid contains a considerable amount of liq-
uefiable hydrocarbons .1nd is very rich in (ondensables.
:-,..:atura! gas is treated in \-'olume l, and it 1s not dis-
cussed further except as ir is produced in a separation
train such as sho'-,·n in Figure 2-1. The current
emphasis
1s on crude
oil.
Figure 2-1 sho\,·s a cyrical gas-oil separation sequence
rhat includes the usual ,,·arer and incidenral sedimenr
reinoval. \Xlhen crude oil is separated from its a.ssociated
gas during production, the total gas evolved \\·hile reduc-
1ng rhe oil to armospheric pressure di\'ided by the vol-
ume of rhe remaintng crude oil is called the g,n-od
rat10, or GOR. The GOR ts rhe total s,andard cubic feet
of gas
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 Ch.rr.uteriv.mon oJ ( tUJl Oil-

cv olvcd per GO'·f- b.rrrel of vtock-tank or arrnovpher ic- .\',uunil brt umrn (oi! sand, lar vand. natural J\ph:i.lt.!:
presc,ure oil f,-,cf/b<,101 in Eng!ish engineenng urnt c. and viscosirv > 10.000 el'
standard r.:ubic merers of gas per cubic meter of 15º(� Sl,ale. more e han 1 O gal/ton on desrruc · -vc
stock tank oil or. altemativelv, standard cubre mercrv of disrillation.
g,is per rnetric ron of 15ºC oil in SI or merric urn ts.
Su. . . h classifi . . .uions are only tne:1n1ngfu] hcc.auve th:.:y
�·.lndJrd condmc.n , for natural g:1\ are 60º1' and l \(.111-
prov.dc u,eful informatiou 10 che cngiuo.r. In 1h\. '- ..oc ,
dard armo sphere i 14.696 psia in Eng!i<,h
1! fi-Id process1ng of crude oil. cht:' char actc nzarion of
engincenng units) and I S''C and 1 standard
rhe orl must be only sufficienrly gooJ to provid,
atmmphere ¡ JOL52'í kPa in SI or rnetnc unirs). reJsonJ.bly
The total <;OR depends on rhe number of stage,
accurate esttrnares of gas-oil scparator flows and con1po-
uved
suions. As shown in Figure 2-2. Penick's
in the sepa rarion sec¡uence, as well as the operd.ting pn:c,-
ll.1,'iifi1..au0n
su re of each srage. For rhree or more srages. the (�()R
approaches a limiring value. Optimizarion of rhe �epara- ( 1983) indicares ihe general picrurc or usual t rcnd
rion sequence usuallv involves eithcr maxrrmzmg crudc- \\Jth res.peer ro oil con1positiun and GOR. !\.'oti1..e rhar
oi\ yield or minimmng recompression hor sepower. This Figure
2-2 LO\'en, the range from lü\\'-shrinkag.e oil in10 che
optimization ÍS drvcuv-ed fulJy in (:haplcf 9.
con-
If
gas is cvolved whcn a crude oil is. re-duc cd ro
no
armospheric pre�sure. ir is. said ro be a de11d 01L If thc Jcn�Jte reser\'oÍr gas region.

quantiry of dissolved g.1s is not largt: (up to abour 2,000

scf/bsro). rhe oil is said ro be a lou•-shr1nkage, ordmarv. Crude Oil Constituents
or �J.tural ¡;a� cornpositton i-. CO\"('re-d in \'olumt' l.
b!t1(k 01/, J\.1..ord1ng. ro .\·1c(�.lÍn (1990) lf thc (;C)R (�rudt od ha'i J. much broader range of con1re>nen1,.
J.', Crude petroleun1, or oil. conrains hundreds of rhousands
between 2.000 ro 3.300. the oil is said tu be a of dis-
lugl1- sh,inki1gt· Oí 1·0/,¡:,fe 01/. Table 2-} shows su'nrlar t1nc: chemical con1pounds; i1 is a \·er�· cun1�..,Jc\ n1ixturc.'
d.1,'.,Jfi- carions for condensare reservoir gas, and wer or thac b�, necessity. is described h�· O\'t'rall or J\"t.'fJ�e char-
drv n at- ac::-;:ristics ,;uch a, densiry (º:\PlL d1s.tilbtion Cllf\t.·,
ural gases. ·h,\d-
Alternarivclv. crudc «r! can be 1..l.1ssitled as. c onvcn- 1ng po1nr rJ.nges), and so forch. ratht'r d 1n che cun\en-
tionaL heavv. and extra heavv as follow s l[)u\,d. ,lnd nona.l indi\'1dual component 111ole or ,ve1ght fractions
Kuuskraa. 19881: C�rude 01ls ,·.1r,· \videh·. Thc\· \ Jr,· ali che ,., ..1\ Íron1
hcJ\)', .1Jmost solid, oiJs thJt ".>ink Ín \\:llt:r ur ;:,1 111,Ht:fl-

aL rhar ga<.o!ine or
resemble kerosene in .
1ppe.:1rance. except for rheir darker color. This ,\"ide
\'arie�· cun1pli-
Comenrional (rude: viscosirv < 10,000 .P '.-\PI > 20
c:i.re;;; tleld proce,sing.
lfea1�v e rtule· ', iscosiry < 10,000 cP, l U< - -\I1l <
CruJe petroleum from the ,vellhead generall�· cunt.11n,
20
Fxtra he,1vy crnde. º.-\PI < 1 O brine. ,.\.s discussed in Chaprers 4 and 7, ali 1..rud� oils are,
Do-vd and Kuusk-aa complete rheir classtfic anon of in fa.et, emulsions (i.e., son1e drops of brinc rema.in dis-
hvdrocarbon resources by detlning natural bitumen and per�ed rhroughour [he conrinuous crude-oil rhase C\en
shale: .1.fter fie1J processing). [\·en in fonnarion::i \\·irh linle or

Table 2-1 Petrolcurn fluid Spe..:trum

-
F::.ud ShrrnL1�e GOR
B,tu rl"' �)hl
¡·.r� <t b,ro º:\PI Color

Lo\\-shr:nka!:, Crudc 011 >Ü ") <2,UUU Verv d3rk. ohen bl.ick
(low-GC)R. bl.1ck. or ordinary)
High-,hrinl-. ·�· Crudt' Oil <Ü .:; >40
(t�igh-GL)R or \ob1ile)
Cond:n�Jtc R.-,.-r\OH G3� -� .;11r, ... .: ;o ooo 50--60 Light SlrJW (O hb.k
\\'et (;3,; :- �• 1 IJUU >')0 \'fJ!cr whill
Dry GJ�
-
-
 8

100
...j--j-- Mot11an,•
Table 2-2 Couvrirucnr . . ot c:ruJc <.)il

f ivdrocarbonv
Paraffinic -.:,.1r:1igh1 cbam
-c-branched chain
20
Xaphthcnic -c-.rlkvl cvclopcntanc-,
--,111,\1 ("\"(J,lhl\JJH,
Aromar IL - -.dk v] hl n:.·1h·,
tluorcnc-
-Jf(IITI.IIÍl-ll.1ph1hi:ni,

-c polvnuclcar .. romauc ,

Hoxane plus -nitt11gcn

Propane -LJrhon dioxidc
2 -�-+-��-!-�-+- -c-hvdrogcu suhid ...
-t-"""'-.:cF""-----==- B1utare Sulfur ( .unpounds
-mc:rcaptJn�
1
Pentane
,������������� ()r�,:n1c '.\"nrogt'n Compoundc
100 200 500 1.000 2000 5.00� io ooo 20000
Gas·01l rana, scVb:,• OGJ Organrc Oxvgen Ccmp •• undv

Figure 2-2 Typical Reservo,r Cornposrtion (Penick, C)rf1n re \ lctalhc ( "ompoundv

1983) Coll,,td.1] Particlcv - -ovphaltcnc,
-c-resms
-p.ir.illln w.n,·,

no wa ter drive, interstitia! or connate water is presenc and \X".;rer (S & \X' or BS &. \\'\ .. -frcsb or valine
is produced. Connare waters vary from alrnost fre�h ro -r1oduc.J �anJ
saturated wirh dissolved solids (princtpallv NaCI). lf -- pipeline <cale din
- -v orrovmn produ, r ,
saline, water has \·er�· litdt" (if any) comrnerc ial value,
and
ir conrribuces to excessive pressure drop in gachenng
lines and corrosion of carbon sreel field equipment. H H H H
\\'arer also increases transportation cosrs b�· increasing 1 1 1 1
pressure drop and corrosion. After separatlun, brine must HC� C -C -CH or C:H,CII:( H,t·H,
1 1 1 1
be disposed of in a manner rhar is env rronme-ntallv H H H H
acceprable; che cose of disposal can be considerable.
H
Water drive will inc rease water

-
production. ll-- c�H
-\s summarized in Table 2-2, crude or] cunsisrs fl I H
pn- marily of hydrocarbons, but also includes 1 1
HC:-C-Oi
cornpounds containing sulfur. nirrogen. oxygen, and i-bu:ane 1 . 1
metals. Everv crude perroleum contains abour rhe same H H 11

--
kinds of com- pounds, but in ditterenr proporrions, as
-rared bv Rossini
(1960) (from whom the descriptions are raken. exceptas
nored). Crude pctroleum also conrains colloidal parti-

-
eles. sedimrnt a11d u·ater (5& W') oc as formerly called,
b,hit· sediment and u'ater (BS& U�), and
solids.

-
Hydrocarbons. The three rnain building blocks of
rhe hydrocarbons are rhe ,zlkrl. or paniff:11. cham. the
saturared ring (naphzhene ring). and the aromatic ring
(Table 2-3).
;\lmosr ali of rhe compounds in crude oil are composed of
these rhree blocks. alone or in combinanon.
Para_lfin or aliplinric hvdrocarbo ns are composed of
srraight or branched chains of carbon aroms ,,·irh attached
hvdrogen aroms ha,·ing a rype formula CnH 2n ... 2.
Typical examples are normal butane and isobutane.
:\"oce that borh n- and i-burane ha,·e che .'..1n1L cn1p1rical
forn1ula. (C'+H 10) Jnd che san1e molcLul.1r \\t 1�hr
�58.123 l, so rher �lít' :.,o,ncn. ·1.1hle .:!- � sho,,·� hu\\ ,·ery
rapidl:i,· rhe number of possible aliphatit ison1er� increases
a::. rhc nun1ber uf c.lrhon .110111.'. in..:rea<;c-:,
Th1, o,er,\"hcltning nl11nbc-r of po!>sible bon11:r� con- firn1s the
previous scarement rhar crude oil conrain5 hun- drcds of rhouo;ands oí
individual lOn1pounds. ()h\ 1ou�h·.
rhe idenr1ficarion of each one is cechnically imposs1ble
and prohibitively cxpen.,ive.
ParJt11.n hydrocarbons are also c1lled ,1f/..'i1nt.'. :-\.n alkane ,,irh
one h�·drogen ren10\'ed ':,o that che cJrbon aron1 in,·olved c:1n bond
ro anorher carbon) i<; (.1lled an
----
--
-
Charactenvation ofC:ruJe ()1ls 9

Table 2-3 fvfajor T�·pcs of �--ly<lrocarhon\ m Crude Orl Ivolatcd by API Projcct (1
������������������--��������-

-
Typt·
Formula Percent
Paraffin Hvdrocarbons (Alkanes)
Nornul
14

CH,
1
Iso CH3-CH-R
18
CH
1 .,

Branched CH,-CH - CH-

2R

Cydoparaffins (N'aprhenes)
q-J,
Alkyl Cyclopeneanes
/�
CH, CH-R
JO
1 . 1

CH2- CH2

-
q-1,
/ "'(
CH2 CH-R 6
Alkyl Cydohexanes 1 1
Cf·f, ( H,
-....:.. / .
CH,

q.¡,/H q.¡,
Brcvclcparaffins
/"'(/"'(
CH, C: C.H-R
1 . 1 1 5
CH, C. CH,
-.. .:. /\"-s / .
CH 2 H CH2

0-R
Arornancs

18
Aikvlbcncenes

Aroma, ic -Cvclopar
affins

Fluorenes
ce nR CH
CH,
j

Binudear Aromarics
�
vV--R 17

Polynuclear Aromarics
Like bmuclear but more rings
4
R is usuallv CH -
3
Sourcc: Hatch and �1.uu, 1977

10 Characteriv.nion ofCrudc: Oils

Table 2-4 Aromatic hydrocarbons have as rheir basic mernber

 Carbón Atoms lsomcrs
H
4 2 /
j .l
G
'\_
5 HC CH
7 9 11 1
8 18
9
12
JS
355
HC -. ,/ C

15 4,347
18 60.523 H

-
2S 36,797,588
40 62 X JO):! H
benzene

AJ] possible combinations of naphrhene, arornanc

rings, and alkyl groups occur 1n petroleum. These
include rhe following:
alkyl group and it is given rhe symbol R. The
H
simplesr alkyl group is rhe merhyl group.
c
,/ -,
H
1
H
1
H
1 HT ?i- CH)

'/
l!C-C-CH 3
Merhyl group -CH 1 1
1 HCH HCH
H <, / HC e C
HCH

H
H
The srraight-chain or normal paraffin hydrocarbons
r» ethvl cyclo pen tan toluene
from Cl to C33 have been found in crude oil e
(Rossmi, H H
e c
» <>
1960). So-called paraffin wax consim of alkanes of H
C
car· bon number 16 ,o 20. Branched-chain
»< . ¡
».
hvdrocarbons are tcund .11 the gas and gasoline fracrions
H
(i.e., carbon nurn- bers frorn 4 ro 10). The merhyl group
HC C C-R
is the mosr com- mon side chain and is atrached most HC C-C-R 1 11 1
cornmorilv ro the second carbon atom in rhe primary 1 11 1 JIC C CH
HC C HCH
chain, then ro rhe third carbón, and rhen ro rhe founh.
Singly branched compounds predominare, rhen doubly,
'/"-./
C CH
'c-<.c,/
H H
and rhen tripk. H H
naphrhalenes
,Vaphrhrnrs are similar to paraffins except rhat rhe inda ns
chain is joined at che ends to form five- or six- Arornarics have high octane numbers bur cause healrh
rnernbered rings. The basic members of rhe family are and environmental problems. Benzene is a documeu
cyclopentane ted carcinogen anda prioriry pollurant. Arornarics have
and cvclohexane. low
HcH srnoke poinrs {i.e .. burn \\·ith a srnokv tl.lme).
H H
1 1
HC-CH
r >.
HCH HCH
Table 2-3 (afrer Harch and Matar, 1977)
summarizes rhe hydrocarbon rypes isolated from ene
1 1 1 1 reference crude oil. The rabie confirms rhar rhe rhree
majar srrucrures
HCH HCH
<, /
HC
- HCH
/ occur alone and in ali possible combinarions with each

HCH
H
. orher. Each srrucrure conrribures irs peculiar properries
HCH
cvclopentane cyclohexane
ro rhe properries of the individual compounds and rhus
to che crude oil.
Sid,· alkvl branches are ofren atrached, usually methvl Nelson (1966) pointed ou t rhe rrurh of rhe
groups and. less ofren, longer alkvl groups (e.g .. ethvl Jarrer sratemen r in an inreresring graph of
or propyl). Manv compounds have rwo or more branch characterizatíon fac tor vs. boiling poinr, shown in
chains. There are small amounts of bicycloparaffin,.
 --
Figure 2-3. The chnrac- terizatíon factor, CF, also cJ!led rhe L·op or Wárson

-
-
Characterizarion of Crude Oils 1]

-
1 l.l

::.:r� :J
111111 1 �
� Note Ooshtd � witfi orrows mtan odding poroff1oic chains (n � 1

� (� (, ( c., i;;;;..�)

-
1l
1' ; <, -c <, ', <, _ Paroffin< L---.:: �· ,... -· - ',,.,- 1,... . ...!
.5
, .... . . _ ..-.. . ._
·,
. . . . ._ .... .•._
<, -<; ..._ �-
.
- . ....-
1...... I ---:.
. ..<,······· . V.,,../ .. ,·::.- »:
� ;..--'"""" -�
11
o - ...... - - - -- �
..
-=---.... --
[',,....
"<, ..... .... .....
�---
-
---
.6,-- ,....
.•• • •• ••• •• --
••••••••••
-··· --=-=r------.,,.. • 1 t....,..... . ., . / ....., ., .. .1-�• ,,.- . ¡_.... 1 /1!
Ncphtb enes � · -

- - �-,----l-
• •• •• ••. •• • •
11 . . . . ............................................. ·: ! : - - yV- .> J -- ::. :-:1··· . �·
""¡..-
-:
•-
1

ü 11---.,,."-':--;'�....."'--1 .. . +-.,,-"�I;-'-'--+--·- .,.,,.

-e:"' 11
.2 •• /
V
..,.
..,. . �
-
_,1...;:---
- ...-
?:
-- : �: .... .... .. ..
- -
..,.., .. ··V
�
B
� � :'"·,¡·. _·_·_·_
•
) /
;;; ········ / _ 7 ./ ,.. v: · enzenes , , ,. • ! Dicydics (cnd bicyd1cs)
·� 11 (�
1-�+-c.7
• •••••••••
!l"'. --····c·;···-·c.
.... :.••••••••••• ,,.�-
.!""".......
.......-
..... , ,f
•
1
1
/,,
1"' -

ü"' / DKycliu {ond bkyrlics) .,,.;: � .... I ' •

r"o' 10 .l \ ( ,,,,,;�... . . ..-e .- .- / ,// /
_ .-·-·
»>: 1 _.i-·-·
.i=
'-' 1 1/
e,
o
:::, 10 t---t--.,./€....,. \ •• 1 // ·--+�'---l---;.---+-- -+---
.. , _ _ .n,tro in,l / ' 1
I . /

1
9. l
�BINZENI - - - - - - -f.. / / (Aiomolic) Polycydiu
1Diphenyl) 0
�t --
'
1/
1
-............. /
-... .... .... ,./
'
9
Characterization factors I
/

8.51---l of hydrocarbons
1 ANTHRAIEN[ �-'-if_'�
' fig. 1
8101o--1====;oor===�====i�oo;===::r:====.0�====1---,s�o,--�--�6oo j i
700-���
800
Normal boiling point. ºF
Figure 2-3 Characterizallon Factors of Hydrocarbons (Nelson, 1966)

characterization [actor, L'OP K, is defined as che cube The UOP K or charaneri,arion factor
root of the boiling point of a compound (in degrees should no, be con rused wirh rhe K factor
Rankine) divided by the specijic gravity, SG, of the liq- used in vapor/liquid equi!ibrium
uid ar 60'F {referred to water ar 60'F). calculations.The rwo K's are cornplerely
differenr.
CF ª l.JOP K ª (Tb, .J59.67)1f5/SG @}6c:ºF/60ºF (2-1) Consider the three C6 compounds n-
wherc:: T b = normal boiling point, ºF hexane, cyclo- hexane, and benzene. The
characrerization factors are given in Figure 2-3 and
Table 2-5 as 12.81, 10.98, and
9.72. The trend is clear from Table 2-5 and Figure 2-3.
AJkyl chains have the highesr UOP K, naphrhene rmgs
an inrermediate K, a nd finally aromanc s the lowcsr K
Nelson also showed in Figure 2-3 rhe effecr of inter-
mixing rhe basic blocks. For example, compare rhe addr-
t1on of a side alkvl group {e.g., merhyl) to each of rhe
above rhree CG cornpounds. The K's for 2-n1echylh�\Jnc,
methylcyclohexane. and roluene are 12.59, 11.11, and
9.86. The effecr of adding rhe alkyl group is ro lower
slighrly rhe normal-paratlin K, bu, 10 raise rhe naphrhene
and aromatic K's. Figure 2-3 sho,,·s these trends.
l\.1an�· parallels of che previous effects can also be seen
in Figure 2-3. Nore in particular rhar a!though che K fa(-
tor decreases at first as boiling poi ne increases (orher fac-
rors be1ng equal). ar high boiling poinrs rhe K t.icror
reverses and begins ro increase. This behavior is also
observed in crude oils.
!,-.�����--------------------------------------
12 c:h,HJCteri1Jtion of Crudc Oil,

Table 2-5 Characrenzanon Factors oí Hvdrocarbon-,

Compound SG @60"Fl60"F

n-Hexane ! 15 i: 0.66383
Cyclohcvane l :--";' 29 0 .... 8347
Berwcnc 1 "1'6 l k 0.88448
2- Meth vlhcx a nv J l)4 ()!J O (,8310
Meth ylcvdohcxa ne 21 � 68 {J 7:400
Tolucnc 231.11 O 87190

Sulfur Compounds. Su{{ur compou nd: occur ro Table 2-6 Sulfur Compounds in Peucleurn
sorne exten r in ali crude oils, although sorne
Type Formula Occunence
crudes contain very small amounts. Sulfur compounds
are "poisons" for many refinery catalyscs le.g., noble Hydrogen Sulfide H2S CO, SRP. CP
metal catalysts) and cause corrosion in refinerv
Mercaptans
cquipment. Sulfur compounds oxidize ro sulíur dioxide, Aliphatic R-SH CO. sRP. CP
which is an atmospheric pollurant. High-sulfur cru.ies
are expcn- sive to refine and process, as ..vell as
Aromauc 01 -SH CP
dangerous. The main problems are meering sulfur ,,,;
lin1Írs in rcfined products and environmenral
emission regularions. As Suifides
A.liphatic R-S-R SRP. CP
derailed in Volume 1, hydrogen sultide (H2S).
con- s
rained in rhese crudes and/or produc ed by rheir pro· Cydic /'-.,_ SRP. cr
CH,-(CH,)"
cessing. is extrenu'/y
toxic, Duuitldes
Table 2-6 (after Harch and Marar. 1977) shows rhe Alip} JtJC R-S-ó-R �RP
rypes of sulfur compounds found in crude oíl and Í<>
products. A crude oil is rermed sour if H�S i� presenr in
Aromatic o-s-s-R CP
concenrrarions higher rhan 3,700 pprn\' {Hatch and /,,

Matar). However pipeline conveyor\ call crudes wirh

more rhan O. 5 weight percent sulfur sour (Table 2-1 Polvsu!fides R-5-n R SRP. CP

Q
O). Furrhcrrnore. rhe sulfur co n tenr of a c rcde oil
tcnds to concentrare in rhe higher boi!ing [racnons. \
1
olarile su]-
fur compounds such as hydrogen sultide and rhe IO\,-
molecular weight mercaptans are srripped off wirh rhe Thiophene and CP
volarile hydrocarbons in field processinc. Homologs

Nitrogen Compounds. l\'irrogen comtóu nds occur in CO =

in Crude Oi\
relatively small concentration, usuallv less than 0.1 SRP =
in St-Run Producu
CP = in Cracked Prod. ..:b
weighr percenr as :'J2_. As with sulfur ,:ompounds, rhe
nurogen rends ro concentrare in rhe higher boiling frac- Sourcc: Hatch and Matar, 19--
tions, Table 2-7 (after Harch and Mar,ir. 1977) shows
rvpical nirrogen compounds rhar occur in crude oils.
Nirrogen compounds may poison noble mera! and nickel are concained in crude oil. 1\1aphthenic acids, a simple
catalyscs in refining processes. example oí which is gi,en in Table 2-8, occur in crude oíl
in appreciable amounts and are imporrant feed stocks
Oxygen Compounds. The rypes of oxigen for rhe producrion of surface·acrive agents (surfacrants).
compounds rhat occur in crude perroleum are shown in
Table 2-8 (alter Hatch and Matar, 1977). Most of rhe Metallic Compounds. Two groups of metal com-
,/"' pounds occur in crude oíl. The first are che ligh, merals
oxvgcn com- pounds are organic acids, which because of
rheir acidiry can be removed by neurralizarion. In rhat are rhe carions in rh� brine rhat accompanies crude
addirion, phenols
 Table 2-7 �i1rogen Corupounds in Metal compounds concentrare in rhe heavy ends of che
Pctroleum

Type crude. Upan cornbusrion vanadium compounJs form

Strucrurc"
vanadium pemoxide (V :05), which caralyzes rhe oxida-

o'"
Basic Nitrogen Compoundv rion of sulfur cornpounds ro 501, thus decreasing rhe
SC..J, dcw poim. Vanadium pentoxide and, ro .1. lesser
exrent, sodn.m ox1de attack refractory brick by
fonning eurecrics. (Sce Chaprcr l 2 for more derail.)
Vanadiurn and nickel poison catalytic cracking cara-
Quinolines
lysrs, causing acnviry loss and increased coke and hydro-
gen formarion.

lscqurnolines
Particles, Crude orls are colloidal S)'S' cms. rather
than homogeneous solurions. Solid par r.cles of two
rypes of marerials are suspended in che rnain
Acndines liquid solution rnass: asplmltrnes and resíns. Each such
parti- cle is composed of severa! molecules.

-
Non-Basrc Nirrogen Compounds Asphalrene par ti-
Pvrroles
cles remain suspended in the oil because they are pep-
riz.ed by the resins, 1ccording ro Leontaritis a nd
Mansoori (1989). The nonhydrocarbon co nstituent s of
perroleum are highly concemr ared in rhe asphaltene
Jndoles rr'¡¡--¡i and resin particles.
Asphalrenes coruain polycyclic rir1g compounds rhac,
�}
·"H, by definirion, are insoluble in paraffinic solvems. such
as n-pentane, but are soluble in aromatic solvems. Nor
mal paraftin hydrocarbons flocculace asphahenes from
crude oils. Resins also concain polycyclic ring
cornpounds rhar (again by definition) are insoluble in
rhe bulk of the
crude oil but are soluble in n-paraffins; chey are nor
rloc-
culated. Asphaltenes are higher in particle mass than
resins, b.rger in size ( 10-35 nm). and rend ro ccnrain che
Porphvrin
oxygen and sulfur cornpounds. organic and
inorganic salts. and porphynns (and thus che metals).
Resins are smaller (<10 nm) and are mainlv
hvdrocarbons along with nitrogen compounds
(Newinann et al., 1981 ). Boch
asphaltcnes and resins agglornerare either individuallv
or collecrively inro colloidal-sized parricles (about 1
µmi. Borh asphalrenes and resins conrribute to
e1nulsion sta·
hilizarion in field r,rocessing if they :setde out ar
inter-
• \hny oi these nuy also have alkyl groups anached faces (Gonz.lez and Travalloni-Lou,·isse, 1993). The,·
Source. Harch and M.1ci.r. 1977
may also cause foaming.

oil producrion; these are mainly sodium \\ ith lesser metallic porphyrins or similar compounds. A
amounts of calcium and magnesium. Meral soaps, con· typical por- phyrin srructure is shown in
taining organic anions, also occur in crude oil. Table 2-9 (McCain, 1990).
The second group of metals includes vanadium,
nickel, cobalr. and iron, which occur in che higher boil-
ing fraccions of crude oils, apparently in the form of
 Asphalcene and Wax Deposicion. h is appropwt to precipitare as solids during the field handling of
commenc on operaring problen1s . . aused by t\VO of rhe "componenrs" crude oil. or e,·en downhole. The deposicion of such
of crude oil; namely, asphalrenes and p.1raftin \vax. ([,1ch of these is solids can be so sig- nifican, that they foul eguipment
a mixture, bur \\"t' refer to them collectively.) Both materials can surfaces and (in rhe

14 Charactcrizarion ofCrude Oils

Table 2-8 Oxvgen Compounds ín Pctroieum

Tvpe Formula

o11
Alipharic Carboxvhc Acrds cH,-(cH,)n-C-OH

R O
1 11
Brancbed Alipharic Carboxylic Acids )
CH3-(CH n-CH-C-OH
1

/e� �
C H C H-CH -C-OH
1 l\.1onocydic Naphrhenic Acids I I
,,... -CH -CH,
l l
R

/c� �
Bicvclic Naphrhenic Acids C H C H-CH -C-OH
I l I l
R-CH CH2
""-/ CH,

/c�p/c� ;;
Polvnoclear Xapluhenic Acids CH, C CH-C-OH
1 . 1 1
R-CH C CH,
"/\"-. / .
CH, H CH,

o
11
�C-OH
Arornaric Ac.ds
R-V
o
11
Bmuclear Aromatic Acids �C-OH
R�

Polynuclear Aromatic Acids

o
OH

Phenol

OH

R i� usually -
CH3
Ó-R
Sourct. Harch and .\1,1111. }1)7":'
-
-
Characterization of Crude Oils 15

Tablc 2-8 Oxygen Compounds in

Pecroleum
Formula
Type

-
o11
CH,(CH2)0C-D(CH2),CH3

Non-Acidic o
Ami
"
CH3(CH2)¡¡-C -NH(CH2l.,CH3
des
o11
CH ,(CH2)n-C-(CH2),CH,
Ketones

Benzofurans
R-Co o
Dibenzofurans
�
R�.�
o
R is usually CH 3-

SourcC' Harch and �1..ltar. 1977

Table 2-9 Tvpical Porphyrin
Structure asphalrenes will flocculare and aggregare, and form
CH3 a deposir (Thawer. et al., 1990). Changes in
remperature
and pressure of [he crude oil can result in parcial vapor-

H3C �/
,;/
�
"\ ,H,
ization of rhe crude. \X!hen this occurs rhe composition
of the liquid phase changes, and rhis also can trigger
floc- cularion. Alrhough rhe deposirion is seldom (if

N
N
-, ever)
capable of blocking Aow, ir can cause many operaring
/ � problerns.

-
,;/ Paraffin wax consisrs of ':16 to C20 n-paraffins

/
that have meJting poinrs above ambient rernperatures.
v= � Pure wax is a whinsh salid, bur can be a paste,
--...::: N N H,
H3C depending on rhe composition or presence of liquid
oil. \X1ax deposi-
rion causes excessive pressure drop in flow lines. lf suffi-
� � � As stated previously, asphaltenes are
parricles thar are peprized, or suspended, in
CH2 CH, crude oil bv the presence of resins. If for
1 .
1
CH, CH, any reason che resins are removed, che
1 - 1
-
COOH COOH
V.a.nadium porphyrin
complex

Source· McCain. 1990

extreme case) cause cessarion of flow and/or extreme dif-

ficulry in iniciaring flow,
cient wax is presenr in an oil and crysrallizes in a flow line, rhe D 97). discussed iater. Second, as in rhe case of
line can be plugged so badly thar ir can be diffi- culr or even asphalrenes, flashing of the crude oil in Aow
irnpossible to restare flow. equipment can cause wax formarion (Carnahan, 1989).
Two facrors can cause wax deposirion. The firsr is sirn- ply rhe lighrer hydrocarbons thar help to keep rhe liquid
lowering of rhe crude oil temperature unril ihe wax comes out of pour poinr high, or solubilize the wax, go preferemially
solurion. This phenornenon is prt"- to rhe vapor phase. This changes rhe liquid
dicted by the laboraron· pour-poinr test (A:--:SI/AST�1 cornposirion.

-
CRUDE OIL SAMPLING
AND ANALYSIS

-
Quanticarive crude oil cornposirion is
16 Characteriz.ation of Crude Oils required if any processing calculations
are going to be rnade fo, the oil.
(Methods of analysis are now discussed.)
NORM. A recent concern in petroleurn processing
However, rhe best analysis is obviously
is che presencc of naturally occurring radioacsioe
useless if rhe sample analyzed is not
materials, or NORM (Gray, 1990, 1993). Uranium
representative of the actual crude oíl.
and thorium are present in most rocks and soils in
rhe earth's crust. Therefore, sam- pling is discussed first.
The major source of NORM is uranium 238,

-
which decays radioactively through a series of S
reacrions. Underground waters can dissolve soluble a
m
radium salts
p
kg.. RaCl2) and bring thern to the surface. The l
parent i
dements of radium are U-238 and Th-232, which n
are Iess soluble, so rhey remain in rhe formation. g
Radium coprecipirares wirh barium and strontiurn Two cypes of sampling are discussed. The
sulfates, and ir is incorporared into scale. R.adioactivc
first is rhe sam- pling of a reservoir fluid
scale can contara- inate downhole tubing, surface to be used in mathematical sim- ulation
processing equiprnenr, and transpon equiprnent,
merhods to predice rhe behavior of the
including sludge from pigging facilities. Also
fluid both
contaminated are sludge pies, filter de- rnents, brine-
disposal injection equipment, and soil and equipment
ar pipe-scale rernova] sites.
Radon gas is the source of natural-gas NORM
conta- minarion, (See Gray (1990, 1993] for details.)
The API (1992) Bulletin E2 discusscs NORM in
derail. Procedures for handling produced NORM are
reviewed
in Chaprer
5.

Arsenic and Mercury. Arsenic and mercury are rwo

elements occurring in narure thar have caused
problems in rhe natural gas industry. lt follows rhat
rhese material, will cause problems in crude-oil
processing as well, as a recent repon so srates (Sarrazin
et al., 1993). These mate- rials may cause corrosion
and caralysr poisoning. A detailed discussion is
beyond rhe scope of rhe present work, but rhe reader
should be aware of the problem and see rhe work of
Sarrazin et al. These authors discuss processes rhar can
be used ro rernove arsenic and mercury.

on the surface and in rhe formation. The second cype is the routine
sampling of produced oil for custody transfer.
Meses (1986) points out the importan! fact that once the pressure
in a reservoir falls below rhe initial bubble- point or dew poinr, fluid
samples will no longer be rep- resentarive of rhe original reservoir
fluid. Therefore, reservoir fluid samples should be taken before
significant reservoir pressure decline has been experienced.
Reudelhuber (1954a, l 954b, 1957) discusses rwo
types of reserooir sampling; namely, surface and subsur- face.
Subsurfaa sampling involves the use of a sample container placed
in the borrorn of the tubing string opposite the perforarions (i.,.,
in the producing ione). Surface sampling consists of taking separate
vapot and liq- uid samples and recombining these in the laboratory.
In either cype of sampling, the reservoir condition is very
imporcant. lf che reservoir is sacuraced (che usual case), chen flow
into che wellbore causes che pressure near it to be less than saturation
and gas breaks out. The dif- ference in permeabiliry causes the fluid
flowing into the wellbore to be somewhat different from the
original
reservoir fluid. To allow for rhis effect, which cannot be avoided,
Reuddhuber recommends flowing the well ata very low rare for 24
to 72 hours, then shutting in for 24 to 72 hours before
taking a subsurface sample.
The situation far a sacurated reservoir wich surface
sampling is even more difficulc. If che gas and liquid
samples are recombined in che \Vrong proportion, the
combined-sample bubblepoint pressure could be
higher than che reservoir, which cannor be true. Far a
saturated reservoir, Reuddhuber implies that the
correct GOR used to recombine samples is the one that
gives the bub- blepoint pressure equal to che reserYoir
pressure.
Far undersaturaced reservoirs, the situation is better,
but care must still be taken that the pressure drop into
rhe wellbore ís sufficiencly lo,v to preven e excessive
draw- down. Reuddhuber (1957) also discusses pumped
reser- voir sampling.
Parrott (1991) has describe& an automatic technique fo,
sampling crude oil for custody transfer. Small samples are
removed from time to time in order ro obrain a overall
sam- ple representative of the total oil transferred. He
points out one very importan! difficulcy in such a system.
The sample will be analyzed to obtain ,,·arer contenr.
The resulting S&W content allows the actual oil flow
to be calcdated from the total metered ílow. The
problem is that rwo- phase, wacer-oil flo,v does nor occur
in a homogeneous par- rern, even if the water is ali in
suspended droplets. Parrott
• Reservoir

L Simulation, and
• Surface
Processin

L
g.

-
m:ommends use of a static mixer followed by a slipstrearn
pipe. The sampler wichdraws from che larrer, rather chan
che full pipe srrearn (Figure 2-4). An orífice place can be
used to provide che pressure drop to produce che slipstrearn
Aow. Alcernatively, a pump can be used.
Sample frequency or amount often do nor reflecr che
relative oil flow ar che rime che sample is withdrawn.
Parrott describes a relay device for regulacing sarnple fre-

-
quency. He rnakes other useful recornrnendations for rhe
sample receiver and sample verification.

Crude Oil Analysis

Crude petroleum is a complex mixture of hundreds of
chousands of hydrocarbon and allied compounds, nor
merely a mulcicomponent mixture. Deterrnination of che
true composicion of a crude oil is obviously out of che
quesrion. Simplified merhods muse be used to character-
ize che composicion of crude oils. For present purposes,
crude oil cornposirion is discussed in terms of che three
main needs for composirion characterizacion:

• Crude Assays,

Characterization of Crude Oils 17
Crude Assays. Refining engineers muse evaluare che yields of che
various cut; or produces obcained from a crude oil in order to
determine how che oil will be processed in a refinery to produce
che numerous salable produces. Complicated computer models of
rhe refinery are used. These models demand a fairly complete
crude oil analysis.
Analycical methods used for escimacing yields by vari-
ous cornpanies vary somewhac, bue most involve a corn- bination of
rwo analycical methods; namely, gas chro- macography and mu
boiling-point discillarion ( TBP). Chromatography is
used ro determine che content of che light hydrocarbons
mechane chrough pentanes or hexa- nes. True boiling-
poinr discillarion is used to define che heavier
hydrocarbons in rerrns of a plot of disrillarion
ternperature versus volurne percent disrilled.
One rnighr suppose cha, a standard merhcd would have
been developed in che industry for such an importan! rool
as a crude assay. This is not the case, as discussed by Vercier
and Mouton (1979). Mechods used by severa! companies
are derailed in che references tabulaced below:
Crude Oil Assay Merhcds
Company Reference

Total Vcrcier and Mouton (1979)

OeMVA.G. Csok/ich "al. (1983)
Chevron O'Donndl (1983)
Exxon McNelis (1983)
Gulf Wampler and Kirk (! 983)
Flow
Texaco Nelson et 11/. (1983)
Phillips /1,kCleske,· md )off, (1983)

Water ph.ase
mixture
A TBP analysis is perfurmed in a packed batch-<listillarion
(a) Oil mixer and in-line probe
column having a large number of theoretical stages ar a
high reflux ratio (i.,., ratio of condensed overhead liquid
returned to che column top as reflux divided bv chat raken
off as disrillace produce). The disrillacion has been termed
Slipstream Oil and water
r,il'1ure
a
15-5 distillarion (McNelis, 1983) because of che use of
approximacely 15 cheorerical stage equivale.ns and a reflux
ratio of 5: l. The charge sample is large: 1 to 5 lirers,
One such TBP discillarion is described in che ASTM D
2892 method. The atmospheric pressur< ponion of che
Water phase Static mixer Oriftee
TBP muse be disconcinued when che still pot temperature
(b) Samcte pump in slipstream configuration approaches cracking temperature (approximardv 590'F).
Flgure 2-4 Crude Oil Samp/e Systems (Parrott, 1991). The mixture is cooled and rhen che TBP is continued at a
Reprinted witn permission from HYDROCARBON reduced pressure (about 2 ro I O mm Hg). The vacuum
PROCESS/NG, March 1991, copyright 1991 by Gulf temperatures muse be converced to 760 mm Hg to excend
Pub/ishing Co., al/ rights reserved. che atmospheric ponion of che TBP up to 900-950ºF.

.,.. 18 Charactcrizarion of Crude Oils

The TBP disci!larion is exrremely rime consuming hydrocarbons. The calcularions are made and rhe

.,.. and expensive, alrhough ir can be autornated

(Vercier and Mouron, 1979). An alternare test is ro
resulrs
generated by a microcomputer connected
chro-
to che
determine rhe boiling range disrriburion by gas
,.. chromatography (ASTM D 2887). This procedure
requires a much smaller sample, which is injected
marograph,
The
analysis time
wirh reporrs prinred out

per sample is a few

immediately.

inro a low-resolunon, temperature-prograrnrned gas minutes.

chromatograph. The out- put curnularive peak is As previously stated, rhe gases and hydrocarbons !O

recorded as a funcrion of rime. The result is es

converred ca tempera tu re versus percenr dis- rilled or e6 or possibly es are dererrnined in a separare
using a calibration curve generared from standard gas
chro rnined from rhe TBP and the component is represented The basic problem in field-processing calcularions
mato br its mid-boiling poinr, 325ºF. The volume can be is che representation of the C7 + materials. For most
grap converred to mass using standard corrclations.
hic phase- equilibriurn calcularions, the number of e7 +
One addirional property, such as the specific graviry,
analy compo- nents used is notas critica! as for reservoir
is required ro best characterize rhese boiling point
sis simularion, In man y instances, a single C7 +
as ranges or pseudo-components. The TBP disnilarion componenr is sufficient for reasonable predicrions.
indivi has an advan- iage over rhe simulared This view is controversia], bue ir is hased on che
dual chromatographic TBP because samples can be collecred following:
com and rhe specific gravity measured.
pou l. The represenrarion of separarors as perfecr phase
nds Reservoir Simulation. Probably the mosr separarors and pipelines as having
or complete represenrarion of crude oil composirion is homogeneous phase-equilibrium flo\\' is
actua needed far reservoir calculations. In essence. an assay- erroneous.
l qualiry analy- sis is required. Proper characcerizacion of 2. Two-phase, pressure-drop calculation merhods
com are
che high boiling fracrions is deerned essenrial. -\ grear
pone approximate ar besr (plus or minus I O or 20
deal of work has been done on how to represent rhe
nts. percent).
so-called e?+ frac- tion accurarely for rhe phase-
The 3. The calculared amounr of vapor in a separator
highe equilibriurn calcularions required in reservoir or ílowing pipe is primarily dependent on the
r simulations. Recenc work includes rhar of Pedersen et compo- sirion of rhe low-boiling macerials
boili al. (1992). \Xlu and Fish (1989), and Chorn and presenc.
ng Mansoori (1989). 4. The fluid rhar is or will be llowing in rhe
mate e.quipmenr
Surface Processing, For surface processing, ihe being modeled probabl)· doesn'r ha.e rhe
rial is
need far an analysis is to provide a composicion for composi-
repre
- rhermody- namic property calcularions, including rion being used in che calcularions.
sente densiry, enrhalpy, enrropy, and phase-equilibrium ratios Thus, for field processing of crude oíl, a
d by (K-values}. Phase- equilibrium calcularions are used to
moderately accurare representation of a crude oíl, is
boili predice the amounts of gas and liquid flowing from a
probably ade- quate far most purposes.
ng separator orar any poinr in a pipeline for pressure-drop
point calculanons. Densities are needed to size separacors,
range pipes, and ocher ec¡uipmenr. Enrhalpies and enrropies PRODUeT
s or are needed to predice energv requirernents far hear SPEeJFICATIONS
pseu exchangers and compressors.
do- Crude-oil pipeline specificarions are relarively fe"· and
com simple. Shippers n1usc furn1sh crude perroleun1 assay on
pone carrier's request. Assay meaos laborarory analysis
nts. includ- ing API graviry. Reid vapor JJressure. pour
For point. \\'ater and sedimenr conrenr, salt conrenr.
exarn sulfur contenr, and h)·drogen sulfide. Of course. a
ple, company buving a crude oil must ha\'e all the
the information necessarv ro e\'aluare rhe crude in irs
volu refinery simularion model, and il \-\ ill ini- tially require
1

me a complere composicional analysis appro- priate to tl:e

of model. Ho\\'ever. for cusrody rransfer rhe specifications
rhe may include :\PI graviry plus ,varer and sediment (i.e ..
mate rhe properties needed to compute rhe oil ílow from
rial rhe toral ílow measurement). Table 2-1 O sum- marizes
distil crude-oil pipeline specificacions rypical of Texas and
led Oklahoma.
from lf the crude oi\ 1s not 1netered from an
300 armospheric
to storage rank. irs vapor pressure may be specified. lf
the oil i� one thar rends ro cong.eal. a pour poin1
330º míghr be
F is required. Also. if rhe water con cent is held to be a
derer cnrical factor. a more sophisricated ,,·arer
dere rminarion nia�· be oils. Dehydrating and desalting are discussed in derail
required. Table 2-11 presenrs a complete lisr of tests in Chap<ers 7 and 8.
for porent1al componenrs or properties of crude

-
Characteriution of Crudc Oils 19

Table 2-10 Typic.al Crude Oil Pipeline Specificanons During che early development of che pecroleum
Shipper Must Furnish Assay to Carrier industry, scienrific measurement in the field was

-
quite prirnitive. Yec, che business of processing crude oil
S&W < 1.0 wt%
had to As a resulr, che ceses devised 10 characcerize
proceed.
Pour Pomt < 50ºF oil and irs produces were simple, empirical tests that

-
Sour Crude > 0.5 wt % sulfur (ASTM D 1552 or D 129) could
be carried out in the field by untrained personnd. Many
RVP < 9.5 psia (ar IOOºF) of rhese tests are srill used. Others have been replaced by
Sweer Crude < 0.5 wt % sulfur (ASTM D 1552 or D 129) more sophisticared merhods.
RVP < 8.0 10 1 O.O psia (ar l OOºF) In the United States, pccroleum tests are carefully
< spcc-
Viscosiry 325 SSU" 60ºF
ified and documented by rhe American Sociery for Testing

-
Material, (ASTM), che American Petroleum lnstitute

-
Table 2-11 Tests for Potenrial Components or Properties of Crude Petroleum Streams

Graviry:
ASTM O 287. API Gravity ofCrude Petroleum and Perroleum Producrs (API Standard
2544) Liquid Products
ASTM D 1298. Density, Relarive Densiry (Spectfic Guviry) or API Graviry Crude
of Petroleum and Peuo)eum
by Hydromecer Method (AP! Manual of Prtroleum Measurement Standards, Ch.
9.1)
ASTM D 4052. Densiry and Relative Densnv of Liquids by Digital Densiry
Meter.

-
Hydrocarbon Distribution:
ASTM D 86. Distillation of Petroleum Products
ASTM O 2892. Distillation of Crude Perroleum ( 15 Theorerical Piare
Column) Gas Chromatography: Simulated Drstillanon
Gas Chromatography: Light Ends Analysis

Organochlorine Compounds (Halogenated hvdrocarbons, Solvenrs. PCB's, Degreasing

Agenrs): ASTM D 4929. Determination of Organ¡c Chlonde Conrenr in Crude
Oil
EPA Method 8080. Organochlorine Pesticides and PCB's.
Gas Chromatography wirh either J.. Hall aran electrón capture detector.
\.1erals (!ton, Nickel. Vanadium, Arsenic, Mercurv Sodiurn. Banum, Cakium, Lead, Lithium, Magnesium. !\1olybdenum, Phosphorus.
Zinc): Atomic Absorption specuoscopy
EPA Merhod 3040
lnductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Enussron spectroscopy
W'avdeng1h Dispersive X-Ray Fluorescence
Xeurralizarion Number:
ASTM D 664. Acid Number of Petroleum Producrs by Potennornetric Tirration
Salr:
ASTM D 3230. Sahs in Crude Oil (Elecrrornemc Merhodl
Sediment and/or W;, 1er:
ASTM D 96. Sedimenr and 'X'ater in Crude Ods bv Cenrrifuge Merhod (AP/ Manual ofPrtrokum ,W�aJurrmtnt Standa.rds, Ch. 10.1)
ASTM D 47 3. Sedimenr in Crude Oil- a.nd Fuel Oi!s by Extracrion Methcd (API Manual ofParoievm J!rt1Surrmrnt Standa.rds, Ch. 10.1)
AS'fl\-1 D 4006. Water in Crude Oíl by Drsnllauon (AP! Manual ofPetroleum Mrasuremem St.ind.irds. Ch. 10.2)
ASl-�1 D 4007. Water and Sediment in C rude Orls by rhe Centrifuge Method (Laboratorv Method) (API /vfanual of Pnroleum
Mrasurrmrnt Standa.rds, Ch. 10.3)
ASTM D 4928. Warer in Crude Oils by Karl Fischer Tirration (API Manual ofPetroleum Mran,rrmrnt S111nda.rds, Ch. 10.8)
'i.dfur:
ASTM D 129. Sulfur in Petroleum Producrc Ge�era.l Bomb Method)

-
ASTM D 1552. Sulfur in Peuoleum Products IH1gh Temperarure Merhod)
ASTM D 2622. Sulfur in Petroleum Products (X-Ray Spectrographic
Merhod)
Energy-Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence, wirh method similar to AST!-.1 D 4294.
Surfactants (Flow Improvers):
 Fie!d Desorprion��1ass Spectrometry
\\'](er Uptake
Vapor Pressure:
A 'l TM D 323. Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid Mechad)
Source· A�I. 1993
 20 Characteriz.ation of Crude
Oils
;,...
l¡,... (API), and rhe American Narional Standards lnsrirute
(ANSI). Four important tests for field handling are API
graviry, sediment and water (S&W), Reid vapor pressure
(RVP), and pour pcinr, Reíerence should be rnade to rhe
latest version of the ASTM or API Manual of Paroleum
Measurement ScandartÍJ manuals for actual procedures and
details, which rnust be adhered to rigidly for rhe tests to
have meaning (since many of the tests are empirical).
ASTM test nurnbers are prefixed by the lerter D, fol-
lowed by a number that indicares the individual test, a
hyphen, anda number indicating the last year of revisión
. ,... of the test. For example, ASTM D 287-78 refers to rhe
specific graviry test by hydrometer as [ast revised in 1978 .
.,...
In rhe following descripuons, rhe year of revisión will be
omined because these change whenever the test proce-
dure is eirher revised or reaffirmed, bur rhe main desig-
nation rernains che same.
Specific Gravity by Hydrometer (ANSI/ASTM D
1298). The liquid sample (Reid vapor pressure 26 psig
or less) is placed in a glass cylinder, and a weighred glass
hydromerer wirh an indicaring scale of appropriare
range on irs neck is placed in rhe sample. The scale
reading is taken ar rhe liquid meniscus. The
temperature of rhe sample is measured. The observed
graviry is reduced to
60ºF by means of standard tables. The scale reading at
60ºF/60ºF is called rhe API Cravity, and ir is relared
to the actual specific graviry by equarion (2-2).
ºAPl = (141.5/SG@ 60ºF/60ºFI - 131.5 (2-21
Other means of derermining the specific graviry direcdy
are used in laboratories, bue rhe specific graviry of crude
oil is usually reported as AP! graviry.
Water and Sediment in Crude Oils (ANSI/ASTM D
96). The liquid sample is placed in a Standard cenrrifuge
rubc wirh a bortorn tip of small diameter inscribed with
appropriare subdivisions. Use of toluene solvem, heat. or
demulsifier may be required, depending on rhe nature of
rhe sample. The rube is placed in a centrifuge and spun at
the required' speed for 3 minutes. The S&W volume is
read at rhe bottom of a shaded meniscus. Spinning is
repeated for 1 minute inrervals until the volumc is con-
stanr. The S&W is reported as volurne percent.
Barrios (1989) recenrly discussed obtaining the
water conrent by merhods rhar are more sophisricared
than ASTM D 97 or D 4007, because water conrear is
such an imporrant quanriry in derermining rhe
sales value of rhe oil. He reporced thar for 212 MMbbl
of oil purchased by LOOP, !ne. thar the water by
cenrrifuge method was zero. The water was derermined
by disril- lation (ASTM D 95 or D 4406) and
found to be
0.111 %. On this basis, 235.000 bbl of water were
boughr as oil.
Barrios comme�ts rhar LOOP, !ne. has also tested rhe
Karl Fischer merhod (D 17 44) and prefers ir over
other merhods where it is appropriate. Karl Fischer
reagent reacrs with \Yater in an oil sample in a
citramerric deter- minarion.
lhac rhe merhod is good for
The test standard states
50-1,000 ppm warer. The
diStillarion method can go ro higher water amounts.
Further detail on sam- pling
crude oils and measuring
percent S&W is pre- senred in Chaprer 11
"Measurement ofCrude Oil."
Vapor Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reíd
Method) (ANSI/ASTM D 323). The liquid sample is
placed in a cylinder and an air chamber attached to
rhe top. A pressure gage is atrached to rhe top of rhe
air chamber. The appararus is placed in a \Vater barh
ar
i OOºF and removed and shaken periodically until
rhe
gage pressure is conStant. This gage reading is the Reíd
vapor pmsure (RVP) in psia because rhe gage initially
reads O psig or I atmosphere of air. The R\'P is close
but some,vhat lo,ver rhan rhe true z,apor pressu1·e (7VP)
of the oil, because the Reid method measures che TVP
of the hydrocarbon liquid remaining in rhe cylinder. lt
is rhe more volatile hydrocarbons that ('vaporare
preferentiaJly.
The Reid vapor pressure is indicarive of che abiliry to
handle a crude oil safely. lf the Reid vapor pressure is suf-
ficienrly low, then the oíl can be handled and stored
safely ar armospheric pressure, pro\'ided proper precau-
cions are used to prevent vapor loss.
Pour Point of Petroleum Oils (ANSI/ASTM D 97).
The pour point of an oil is rhe lo\vest remperarure, ro che
nearesc 5ºF, ar which movement of che oil is observed.
The oil is placed in a prescribed cvlindrical test jar with
a rhermometer in the oil held in place b1· a cork. The
jar is placed in a jacket and rhe \vhole apparatus cooled
in a bath ar a prescribed ra(e. Ar a temperarure l SºF
above the expecred pour poinr, the cylinder is quickly
removed, tilted ro check for motion of ,he meniscus,
and replaced. The pour point is rhe remperature ar \Vhich
the meniscus does not move in 5 seconds time.
..
l Charactenzarion of Crudc Oils
Review Questions
l. What are the three main objectives of crude oil pro-
cessing?
2. Name the principie types of petroleurn fluids pro-
duced from subsurface reservoirs.
3. Define: natural gas, crude oil, condensare, solunon
ga'i, separator gas, forrnation-volume factor, shrink-
age, GOR, wet gas, dry gas, sweet crude {versus sour
; crude).
4. Define: conventional crude, heavy crude, extra-
heavy crude, natural bitumen, oil or tar sands, and
) shale.
5. List the consriruents of crude oil as produced ar
the
wellhead.
6. List che parameters commonly used to characterize
crude oil.
7. List rhe major types of hydrocarbons found in
crude oil.
8. 'What is an isomer?
Draw structures for the five hexane (C6H¡4) iso-
mers.
9. Define characrerizarion factor.
10. List che constiruents in crude oil chat can cause
problems.
ldenrify the porenrial problems caused by each con-
stituent.
11. What rypes of solids can be found in crude oils?
How do asphalrenes and resins differ'
12. What can happen when rhe reservoir pressure falls
below the bubblepoinr of rhe original reservoir
fluid?
13. How do subsurface and surface sampling of crude
oils differ'
Jdenrify one major difficulry in sampling a crude oil
for custody rransfer.
14. Lisr the commonly used crude-oil pipeline specifica-
nons.
ldentify che reses used to define these specifications.
15. Describe rhe Reid vapor pressure test (RVP).
Why is the RVP used much more frequenrly than a
true vapor pressure or bubblepoint pressure?
16. The RVP (in psia) is obrained by reading a gage
pressure. True or false' lf true, explain.
Why is rhe RVP always Iess rhan rhe lVP'
17. W'hat tests are involved in a complete assay of a
-
crude oil?
-
21
Problcms
l. One rhousand barreis (bbl) of a 30ºAPI crude oil are
blended wirh five hundred barreis (bbl) of a 20ºAPI
crude. Estimare rhe ºAPI of rhe resulring blend.
Sra te ali assumptions. [See Ashcroft et al. ( 1991) for
information on volume shrinkage when crude oils
are blended. J
2. Barrios {] 989) reporrs rhe following water measure-
ments on crude oil:
Centrifuge merhod (ASTM D 4007) 0.050 %
Water by disrillarion (ASTM D 4006) 0.208 %
Karl Fischer rnethod 0.226 %
Which merhod is che most accurace? Estimare che
loss in revenue if che cencrifuge method is used in
rhe cusrody transfer of 100,000 bopd. Who
loses- rhe buyer or the seller?
Nomcnclature
ANSI American Narional Standard, lnsriture for-
=
merly "ASA" and "USAS"
API = American Perroleum lnsrirute
ºAPI = liquid specific graviry scale defined
by:
ºAPI = (141.5 / SG @60/GOºF)- 131.5 (2-2)
ASTM = American Sociery for Testing and Marerials
bopd = barreis of oil per day
BS&W = basic sediment and water
bwpd = barreis of water per day
bsro = barreis of stock tank oil
CF = characterization factor (see UOP K) (2-1)
cP = centipoise
EOR = enhanced oil recovery
FVF or B0 = formarion volume factor for crude oil
GOR = gasoil ratio
MMS = Mineral, Management Service
OCS = Offshore Conrinenral Shelf
ppmv = parrs per million by volume
res bbl = barreis of reservoir fluid
RVP = Reid vapor pressure
SF = shrinkage, reciproca! of FVF or 80
S&W = sedimenr and water
SG = specific gravity (2-1)
-
T b = normal (i.,., ar I standard atm) boiling
po1nt
,.
. 22 Characteriution of Crcde Oils
TBP = true boiling poinr
TVP � true vapor pressure
UOP K = Universal Oil Producrs
characrerizarion factor (2-
1)
References
,. API (1992). "Bullerin on Management of
Naturally
.
Occurring Radioacrive Wasres (NORM},"
Bulletin E2,
American Petroleum Insrirure, 1220 L Srreer. N. W.,
Washington, DC 20005, April 1, 1 st ed.
API (1993), "Prorecring Crude Oil Qualicy," Report of
Ad Hoc Task Force, Pipeline Office, American Petroleurn
lnstitute, 1220 L Srreet, N.W., Washington, DC 20005.
ASTM (1979), Merhod ANSI/ASTM D 96, "Water
and Sedimenrs in Crude Oil," American Sociery for
Tesring and Macerials, 1916 Race Streer, Philadelphia,
PA 19103.
ASTM (1979), Method ANSI/ASTM D 97. "Pour
Poinr of Perroleum Oils," American Sociecy for Tescing
and Marerials. 1916 Race Streer, Philadelphia, PA
19103.
ASTM (1982), Method ANSl/ASTM D 323, "Vapor
Pressure of Petroleum Products (Reid Method),"
American Sociery for Testing and Materials, 1916 Race
Srreer, Philadelphia, PA 19103.
ASTM (1979), Merhod ANSI/ASTM D 1298,
"Densiry, Specific Gravicy, or APl Gravicy of Crude
Perroleurn and Liquid Petroleum Products by
Hydrometer Method (Inrernational Version}," American
Sociecy for Tesring and Macerials, 1916 Race Srreer,
Philadelphia, PA 19103.
Ashcroft, S. ].. D. R. Booker and J. C. R. Turner
(-1991 }, "Find shrinkage of spiked crudes," Hydrocarbon
Prowsing, Vol. 70, No. 10, pp. 109-111 (October}.
Barrios, R. J. (1989), "How LOOP Measures Water
Conrent in Crude Oil," Pipe Line lnd., Vol. 70, No. 6,
pp. 18, 22, (]une).
Carnahan, N. F. (1989). "Paraffin Deposirion in
Perroleurn Producrion." }ourna/ of Petroleum Technology,
Vol. 41, No. 11, pp. 1024-1025. 1106. (Ocrober).
Chorn, L. G., and G. A. Mansoori, ed., (1989), C7+
Fraction Cbaracterization, Taylor & Francis New York
Inc., New York.
Csoklich, B. Ebner, and R. Schenz (1983), "Modern
Crude-Oil Assay Pracrices: Aumia's OeMV," Oil & Gas
}ourna/, Vol. 81, No. 12, pp. 86--89. (:-.1arch 21 ).
Dowd, W. T., and V. A. Kuuskraa ( 1988}, "A
Technical and Economic Assessrnenr of Domestic
Heavy Oíl. Final Repon," DOE Repon,
DOEIBC/10840-1.
Gonzalez, G. and A. M. Travalloni-Louvisse
(1993). "Adsorption of Asphalrenes and lrs
Effect on Oil Producrion," SPE Produaion &
Faci/itirs. Vol. 8, No. 2,
pp. 91-95, (May).
Gray, P. (1990), "Radioacrive Material, Could Pose
Problems for the Gas Indusrry," Oil & Gas }ourna/, Vol.
88, No. 27, pp. 45-48, (]une 25).
Gray, P. (1993), "NORM Contaminarion in the
Perroleum lndustry," journa/ of Petroleum Technology,
Vol. 45, No. l. pp. 12-16, (January).
Harch, Lewis F. and Sami Macar, (1977) "Frorn
Hydrocarbons to Petrochernicals, Pan 2," Hydrocarbon
Processing, Vol. 56, No. 6, pp. 189-194, (]une).
Leonraritis, K. J., and G. A. Mansoori ( 1989), "Fasr
Crude-Oil Heavy-Component Characrerizarion Using
Cornbination of ASTM, HPLC. and GPC Merhods,"
}ourna/ of Perroleum Science and Engineering, Vol. 2. pp.
1-12.
McCain, William D., Jr. (1990), The Properties of
Petroleum Fluids, 2nd ed., Penn Well Publishing Co.,
Tulsa, OK.
McCleskey, Creer, and Basil L. Joffe (1983). "Modern
Crude-Oil Assay Practices: Phillips Peuoleum Co.," Oil
& Gas }ournal, Vol. 81, No. 12, pp. 124-127, (March
21 ).
McNelis, Frank P. (1983), "Modern Crude-Oil Assay
Praccices: Exxon Organizations)" Oil & Gas }ourna!, Vol.
81, No. 12, pp. 94-97, (March 21).
Mases, Phillip L. 11986), "Engineering Applicarions of
Phase Behavior of Crude Oil and Condensa te Svsrérns,"
Journal of Prtroleum Trchnology, Vol. 38. \:o. B. pp.
715-723, (july).
Nelson, W. L. ( 1958), l'etroleum Rrjinery Enginrering,
4rh ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
Nelson, W L. (1966), "Quesrions on Technology: 1
What Ase CF's of Hydrocarbons'," Oi/ & Gas }ournal,
Vol. 64, No. 38, pp. 121-122, (Seprember 19). 1
Nelson, G. V., G. R. Schierberg. and A. Sequeira
(1983), "Modero Crude-Oil Assay Pracrices: The Texaco
Sysrem," Oi/ & Gas }ourna/, Vol. 81. No. 12. pp.
l 08-120, (March 21).
Newmann, Hans-Joachim, Barbara Paczynska-Lahme.
and Dieter Severin i 1981 }, Composition and Properties of
Petrolrum, Halsred Press, New York.

O'Donnell, R. J. (1983), "Modern Crude-Oil Assay
Practices: Standard Oil Co. of California," Oi! & Gas
Journal, Vol. 81, No. 12, pp. 90-92, (March 21).
Parrott, K. S. (1991 ), "Berrer Crude Oil Sample
Svscems," Hydrocarbon Processiny, Vol. 70, No. 3, pp.
6°3-65, {March).
Pedersen, K. S., A. L. Blilie, and K. K. Meisingset
(1992), "PVT Calculations on Petroleum
Reservoir Fluids Using Measured and Esrirnared
Compositional Data for che Plus Fraction," lnd. Eng.
Chem. Res., Vol.
31. No. 5, pp. 1378-1384.
Penick, Dudley P. (1983), "Factors to Use in Dealing
'Xlich North Sea Gas," ou & Gas }ournal, Vol. 81, No.
25. pp. 114-120, ()une 20).
Reudelhuber, F. O. (1954a), "Separator Sampling of
Gas-Condensare Reservoirs," ou & Gas }ournal, Vol. 53,
No. 7, pp. 138-140, ()une 21).
Reudelhuber, E O. (1954b), "Berrer Separator
Sampling of Crude-Oil Reservoirs," Oi/ & Gas }ourna/,
Vol. 53, No. 27, pp. 181-183, (November 8).
Reudelhuber, F. O. ( 1957), "Sampling Procedures for
O,l Reservoir Fields," )ournal of Petrokum Technology,
Vol. 9, No. 12, pp. 15-18, (December).
Characrenzation of Crude Oils 23
Rossini, Frederick (1960), "Hydrocarbons in
Petroleum," }ournal ofChemical Education, Vol. 37, No.
11, pp. 554-561, (Novernber).
Sarrazin, P., C. J. Cameron, Y Barrhd, and M. E.
Morrison (1993), "Processes Prevenr Detrimental Effects
from As and Hg in Feedsrocks," Oil & Gas )ournal,
Vol.
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Thawer, R., D. C. A. Nicoll, and G. Dick (1990),
"Asphalrene Deposition in Production Facilities," SPE
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(Novernber).
Vercier, Paul and Marce! Mouton (1979), "Standard
Laboratory Crude Distillation Merhod Needed," Oi! &
Gas}ournal, Vol. 77, No. 38, pp. 121-126, (Sept. 17).
Wampler, R. J. and E. L. Kirk (1983), "Modern
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Wu, R. S., and R. M. Fish (1989), "C7+ Characteri-
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Canadian Petroleum Technology, Vol. 28, No. 4, pp.
112-117, (July-August).
1
-
L Chapter 3
t
¡, ....
Phase Behavior
INTRODUCTION
An understanding of hydrocarbon phase equilibria is
fundamenral to rhe design and analysis of che behavior of
oil and gas mixtures in rhe reservoir. production tubing,
and surface equipment. Anention in chis text is focused
on surface piping, separators, and orher equipment.
(Somewhat broader coverage is furnished in rhe present
chapter.)
A fluid phase is a mixture of hydrocarbons (or any
orher material) that is uniform in properties
chroughout its extenr; it may be a liquid ora vapor.
Liquids have def- irrite volume, since their molecules are
held ar a more or less fixed distance from each other by
inrermolecular arrracrive force. lf sufficienr energy is
imparted ro che molecules to break che local attracrive
force, rhey sepa- rare, vaporize, and rravel randomly in che
vapor srate, occupying any volume available. Gas
molecules are sim- ilar to vapor molecules, bue they lie
above che tempera- ture at which a liquid phase may be
formed.
Vapor and liquid phases rnay coexist in processing
equiprnent. lt is importan! to be able to predice che
pres- ence and properties of such phases. Experimental
mea- surements can be done ro establísh che condicions
neces- sary for such predictions, bur rhey are expensive.
Sarisfacrory machematical techniques for predicting che
presence and properties of phases have been developed.
Water or brine usually is produced along with
hydrocarbons from perroleurn reservoirs. Hydrocarbon
a ,d water liquid phases have very limired solubilities
in each other. In rhe presence of liquid water, water
vapor will saturare hydrocarbon vapor. However, che
water vapor concentracion is relatively low. The pres-
ence of water does not rnaterially affect hydrocarbon
phase equilibria; hence, it will not be considered in rhis
chapter.
26 Ph.ase Behavior
This neglect does not suggest that rhe handling of
water in oilfield processing is unimportant. Water·oil
emulsión formation and treating are rhe subjects of
Chaprers 4 and 6. The effecr of che presence of water on
rhe flow of oil in pipes is rnenrioned in Chapter 11.
Phase behavior is discussed under rhree headings:
fluid phase behavior, equilibriurn calculations, and rher-
rnodynamics of vapor-liquid equilibria.
FLUID PHASE BEHAVIOR
Figure 3-1 depicts a representarive phase diagram for a
reservoir fluid. The diagrarn is for a fluid of constant corn-
posirion. The curved phase enuelope divides rhe pressure-
temperature plane into regions. To rhe left and above che
envelope, che pressure is sufficiently high to maintain the
reservoir fluid in che liquid state. lnside the envelope the
pressure has fallen ro levels that permir che formation of
vapor, which exisrs in equilíbrium with che remaining liq-
uid. The equdibrium phases have differenr composirions,
wirh more volatile componencs richer in che vapor and
less volatile components richer in rhe liquid. To rhe
righr and below che envelope, the pressure is so low that
only vapor exrsrs.
A complete descriprion of the phase behavior of a
mixture includes che oonsiderarion of che salid phase.
Hydrocarbon mixture rnelring poinrs are generally so low
thar solids are nor encountered ar normal processing con·
dirions, Thus, solids are omitted from che following dis-
cussron.
Ir is well known thar sorne crude oils exhibir cloud-
point and pour-point behavior. The flow behavior of such
crudes change markedly at these boundaries. These phe-
nomena are due to the crystallization of wax or
asphalrenes and do not represenr a true freezing of che oil.
25
1Dense Fluid
I

A B
0 cp

B
U '
q 0
u Uquid
l
d
!
::>
e
o 0
Vapor-Uquid E·
D
Ga
s
i WHa
WHb
e,
' A---· ------e Vapor-Liquid

Dew·Polntlocu i CT
Bubbl•Point Locus
¡ / V
Temperature a
p
Vapor

-
o
r
Figure �1 Reservoir-Fluid Phase the cricondenbar but to the right of
Diagram the critical point' This fluid is often
referred to simply as a dense pbase.
Figure 3-2 shows che same
The line berween rhe liquid and vapor- phase diagram, but
liquid regions is terrned the bubbiepoinr line. lf ernphasizes che relarions exiscing in a
rhe liquid at point A is heared ar constant reservoir, Point A in
pressure, che fim bubble of vapor forms ar che
bubblepoint line. As che mixture is furcher
warmed, more and more vapor is formed.
The line berween che vapor-Iiquid and vapor
regions is rerrned che drw point line. lf che vapor
ar peine D is cooled ar conscant pressure, the
fim droplet of liquid (or dew) forms ar che dew
peine line, As rhe mixture is fur- rher cooled,
more and more liquid is formed.
An obvious conclusión of chis behavior is
rhat a hydrocarbon nixrure has a boiling range ar
constanr pres- sure rarher chan a boiling poinr.
The peine labeled C is the critica! point of
che mix-
cure. Ac chis temperacure and pressure, the
liquid and vapor phases become ideneical, as
reflected by rhe fact that rhis peine represenes
che coming together of the bubblepoine and
dew peine curves.
The vertical asymptote, CT, is called che
criconden-
therm (critica! condensation remperaiure}. Above
this cem- perature rwo phases cannot be
produced ar any pressure. To che right of che
cricondentherm, che fluid state is often referred
to as a gas.
Horizontal asymptote, CB, is called rhe
cricondenbar
(critica!condensaticn press:•re). Above chis·
pressure two phases cannot be produced at any
ternperarure. Above this pressure end to che left
of che critica! point, rhe fluid is regarded as
being a liquid. What about the fluid rhat lies above

Ternp&rature
Figure �2 Relation of Reservoir Conditions to the
Phase Diagram of a Crude Oil
che figure indicares the pressure and ternperarure of rhe fluid
as ir exisrs in a reservoir. Clearly, che fluid is a liq- uid, and
che reservoir is an oii reservoir,
lf oil is produced from reservoir condirion A, chen the
temperature and pressure of rhe oil will fa!! as che oil rrav- els
up che cubing. The pressure falls because of che loss in
hydrosraric head, plus [ricnon loss in che rubing. The
tempera tu re falls beca use of heac transfer from che oil ro che
successively cooler rock surrounding che cubing. lf
vaporizarion occurs, rhe temperature falls even more
because rhe energy required comes from the fluid itself.
In Figure 3-2 rhe dashed line ending at point WH.
represen es che P-T behavior as the oil flows up rhe string.
Point WH, represents che wellhead condirions. Ir is seen cha,
a small amount of vapor is formed. We refer to
rhe oil as a "low-GOR oil." lf che oil is produced
from reser-
voir condirion B to wellhead condicions ar WHb,
much
more vapor is formed; rhe oil is called a "high-GOR
oil." 1
Reservoir oil at the condition of point B is
termed an underst1turt1ted oil. lf che pressure in
che reservoir falls ro che leve! of point B', rwo 1
phases will form in rhe reser- voir. This condition
is not desirable because the vapor and liquid
phases do noc have che same permeabiliry in che
reservoir rock; che two phases cravel at different
rates rhrough che rock potes. The nec resulc will
be a tendency t<> produce less toca! fluid rhan if
che pressure is kept ar point B. For this reason,
\Vater injection is often prac- ticed almost from
the beginning of crude oil production
for che purpose of pressure
mainrenance.

J
J
Phasc Behavior 27

;
Phase diagrams are measured in the laboratory or
pre- Fy
dictcd from cquilibrium calculations. Very brielly, exper-
imental measuremencs involve decermining che locus

J. of rhe dew and bubblepoints in a variable-volurne cell.

Detcrminacion may be visual, as in a windowed cell, or
based on break points in che pressure-volume data.
F
z i

J. Jacoby and Yarborough (l 967) and orhers describe appa-

ratus and rechniques,
Experimental measurements are extremely rime con-

J suming and expcnsive. Such daca have been used to

dcvdop calculacional methods for predicting phase
behavior. lnvariably compute, rnethods use equarions of F = Feed rata, mole/hr
J state and require very complex calculations. Hand phase-
cquilibrium calculacions can also be used bue are noc
as
11_ = Liquid rata, mole/hr
Fv= Vapor rata, mole/hr

J
accurate as computer calcularions, as mighr be expected.
Hand calcularions are sarisfactocy fo, natural gas,
bur
chcy are difficult or impractical for crude oils. The basic
give che temperatures or pressures ar which a
given mixture will begin to vaporize or
condense.

J
equations discussed in the nexr secrion are used for In general, bubblepoinc calculations are
both hand and cornpurer cornputations. useful to esti- mare reservoir condirions, bue
chey are not particularly useful in surface-
EQUILIBRIUM opcration calcularions except for reboiled
CALCULATIONS srabilizers and fracrionarors. Dew poinr
calcularions are not useful for crude-oil process
There are rwo basic phase-equilibrium scudies.
calcularions: Type (2) calculacions estímate the percentage
1. Phase diagram vaporized and the equilibrium-phase
2. Equilibrium-Flash composirions for mixtures rhat are pardy
vaporized or condensed, as in phase separators.
Type (l) calculacions determine phase envelopes by

J
These calcularions are important in rhe
cal- cula e ion of bubblepoint and dew point loci, which
simulation of sepa- rarur trains used in che stabilization z ¡ = Mole fraction of component i in feed
of crude oil. x ¡ = Mole fraction of component i in liquid
The nornenclarure for phase-equilibriurn
y ¡ = Mole fraction of component i in
calcularions is showr, in Figure 3-3. Phase-equilibrium
calculations u,e a quanriry, K¡, called the vapor-liquid
vapor
equi/ibrium ratio, or more sirnply, the K·value. P = Pressure
T = Temperatura
K,=y/x; (3-1)
Figure 3-3 Phase Equilibrium
The K-valucs are funccions of component idenriry,
Nomenclature
tem- perature, pressure, and composirion. The GPSA
(l 987)
Engineeríng Data Book, secrion 25, is che bese source
of K¡'s for natural gas components. These K¡'s are
satisfac- tory for many crude-oil hand calculations.
Anorher reli- able source is the API Data Book-
Petrolt'um Refin1ng (American Perroleum lnstituce, 1983).
However, hand calcularions are not practica! for crude
oils, although the basic equations to be solved are che
same regardless of the too! used.
For sirnpliciry, rhe subscript i is now omicced from
'c. y, z, and K. Each componenr present is understood

ro have ics OY.'n value far each of these variables, and

rhe surnmation sign refers to rhe sumrnation for all
compo· nents present.

Bubblepoint Calculations
Considera liquid mixture of composirion z ar pressure
P. Mole fraction z is used because che given cornposirion
is regarded as che "feed." Acrually, z plays the pare of
x. because the feed is liquid. The question is at whar
rem- perature will the liquid feed begin to vaporize ar rhe
given
pressure P� Calculations are based on che concept
that
rhe first tiny bubble of vapor formed does not change
che feed composition appreciably and is in equilibrium
wich
28 PhaSC' Behavior
ir. The composicion of che vapor bubble is, by the
previ-
ous definirion,
for each componen<. The sum of rhe mole fractions of
any phase rnusr be identically one.
Thus, the task is to find temperature T so rhat when the
K's are obrained for rhar T and the given P. rhe sum of
Kz's is indeed equal to one, wirhin an acceptable roler-
anee. The procedure is tria! and error; irs use wirh equa-
rions of stare is described. Hand calcularions for a simple
mixture are described in Vo!ume J, Natural Gas and it
will not be repeated here.
If temperature is given instead of pressure, rhe bub-
blepoinr pressure is calculared similarly. A pressure is
assumed for che given T, rhe K's esrimared and Eq. (3-3)
is checked.
Dew Point Calculations
For dew point calculacions, che vapor feed cornposition
is given. We wish to know at whar cemperarure che gas
(or vapor) will begin to condense ar rhe given pressure.
When the first riny drop of liquid is condensed, the
feed vapor cornposirion is essenrially unchanged and che
liq- uid is in equilibrium wirh ic. The liquid mol
fraccion of each componenr is:
X= z/K
As befo re, rhe summation of the x's rnust yield one
I: x = I: z/K = 1.0
Tria! and error is required; a temperature is guessed and
rhe corresponding K's found. The summarion of x's is
cornputed and compared ro one. The temperature is
adjusred as necessary to satisfy the dew point require-
ment, Eq. (3-5).
A dew poinr pressure can be calcula red sirnilarly, if rhe
temperarure is specified instead of che
pressure.
Equilibrium-Flash Vaporization (EFV) Calculations
Flash calcularions combine che total srrearn material bal-
ance, rhe componen< material balance. and rhe eq·,ilib-
rium relarion.
Total stream balance F = FL + F,·
Component balance Fz"'Fr-.:- Fvy
Equilibrium relation V = K,
Eliminare y berween che last rwo equacions and solve for x
Fz
X (3-8)
(3-2) F¡_ +FvK
Ler F be one mole. Then
z
x=---- (3-9)
0-3) FL +FvK
where (3-1 O)
Finally, the surnrnarion equation for x musr apply.
[ X = 1.0 (3-5)
The vapor composition is rhen obrained by use of Eq.
(3-1).
The usual flash calcularion is rhe so-called
ísothermal flash. This usage does not mean rhe feed
is f!ashed isorhermally from irs inicial condirion, but
rhat che tern- perarure and pressure of che flash are
specilied. In rhis case, one can find rhe corresponding
K's. Thc: z's are known. The unknown is FL. We guess
FL, compute Fv by Eq. (3-1 O), rhen calculare the x's for
each component by Eq. (3-9). The surn of rhe x's should
be one wirhin a
specified tolerance; if ir is nor, FL is adjusted and the
cal-
culation repeated.
In flash calcularions, be sure rhe feed is indeed
flashed ar the specilied P and T before making the rrial-
and-error computarion. Check to be sure whether che
mixrure is above its bubblepoint or below its dew poinc
rempera- tute. Use the fol!owing relarions.
(3-4)
L Kz > 1.0 (guarantees vapor is presen{} (3- \ \)
L ,JK > 1.0 (guaranrees liquid is present} (3-12)
(3-5) lfboth sums are grearer rhan one, proceed wirh rhe flash;
otherwise, only a single phase is presenc. lf rhe sum of
relarion (3-11) is less rhan or equal to one, only a liquid
is present. If the sum of relation (3-12) is less than or
equal to one, only a vapor is presenr.
Applicability of the Equilibrium Model
How good are these equilibrium assumpcions? In gen-
eral, the vapor and liquid from an acrual separator vessel
approach equilibrium wirh each other. Enrrainmenc of
liquid droplets mav cause small deviations. As long as
sufficient contact cime is provided and encrainment is
not excessive, separator products are essentially in equi-
librium (Plane, 1966). This model is used rourinely in
(3-61 process calcularions and yields reasonable results.
The liquid leaving a reboiler is slighdy superheated
(3-7)
compared to che Yapor, bur rhe model is scill
(3-1)
applicable
 J
J Phasc Behavior
29

J
as long as rhe flow panern marches rhe model wher G = free energy
(i.,., e U = interna!
rhorough mixing followed by efficient energy
separation of
S = enrropy
the vapor and liquid). The same comrnenrs
apply to

J
reflux condensers in fractionators and similar V= total volume of n mols of Iluid.
process
equip We can understand rhe meaning of interna!
ment. energy. Briefly, ir is rhe energy conrained inside a
substance due ro its temperature and molecular

J
strucrure. Interna! energy is not evidenr ro rhe
observer, whereas externa] energy forms are visible,
THERMODYNAMICS OF
such as posirion in a gravita- rional, eléctrica], or

J
VAPOR-LIQUID magneric field or velocity.
EQUILIBRIA
Entropy is a mathernarically defined quantity in
ther-
A complete discussion of rhe thermodynamics of
rnodynarnics, and ir is difficulr to conceprualize: ir

J
vapor- liquid equilibria is beyond rhe scope of
may be rhoughr of as a measure of rhe randomness of
rhis text. Very good discussions of rhe subject can
a system. If rhe system were perfecdy ordered, its
be found in refer- ences such as Henley and Seader
entropy would be zero. An increase in temperature

J (l 981 ), Chaprer 4. The present objective is to

develop relarions used in che OPSIM program
described in Appendix 4. At the same rime, the
ora decrease in pressure borh increase rhe random
motion of rhe molecules of a
substance and hence its encropy. From a practica!

,J historical relarion of a family of important

equations of srate is developed. Finally, an
understanding of the complexity of the
stand- point, entropy is a useful concept; ir is
marhemarically defined and can be calculated,
regardless of irs meaning.
equilibrium calculanons per- formed on a digital The free energy, G, is a funcrion of pressure,
cornpurer is illustrated. temper- ature, and the number of moles of each
component pres- ent in the mixture constiruring a
Equilib phase. In che notation of mathematics,
rium
The requiremencs for equilibrium berween two
phases
containing more chan one chemical component G = G(P,T,n1,n,,. .. ,nc) (3-17)
were established by Josiah Willard Gibbs ( 1961) where n¡ ::e number of moles of
man y years ago. The temperacure and che component i.
pressure in che two
phases rnust be equal. Much less obvious is thar a An important contribucion ofGibbs ,va5 to sho\v
from
prop- erty called the ch,mical potential must be fundamental considerations rhat Eq. (3-13), (3-14),
equal for each componen e in each of che rwo and
phases. W'e identify che rwo phases as being vapor (3-15) are corree!. Funhermore, he showed that
(subscript L) and liquid (subscripr V).
(3-
18)

where the parcial derivarive symbol indicares that

the
TL = Tv µ¡ = chcmical porenrial of componen! i
PL = C = total number of componenrs present.
Pv
µ,L = µ¡y (i = 1, .. ,C)
where
T = absolurc remperarure
P = absolure pressure
(3-13) (3-141 (3- derivarive is wirh respect to che A inr in the discussion. "'e interject a com- ment
15) indicaced variable, n¡, t to indicate the direcrion in \\'hich \\"e are going.
ali orher independenr variables rhi The general problem in computacional
(P, T. n¡, j � i) held con- s thermodynan1Ícs
scant. po is to �xpress che quanrity we wish to calculare in cerms
of
AJrhough in sorne cases che concentrarion of a measurab!e properries (i.e., pressure, remperarure.
compo- nenr may be very low in one or rhe orher and volume). C'ltimarely, \\"e rnusr express our
phase, each component is disrributed berween rhe rhern1ody· namic relacions in terms of rhese
rwo phases. properties (or variables, as we term them).
The quesrion is whar isµ¡; and more To calculare phase equilibria by Eq. (3-13), (3-
importantly, how 14),
do we calculare it' Gibbs defined a function and (3-15), we need µ,. Gibbs showed
called the rhar
ftee energy, which was a combinarion of che
fundamental
properties of temperature, pressure, volurne,
interna! dµ, = cavtan,) dP (conmm 0-1 Sa)
energy, and cntropy. T)
Lewis in 1901 (Lewis and Randall, 1961) defined a
G=U+PV (3- func-
-TS 16) tion called che fugaciry of a subsrance rh.a.t is
some\\ hat
1
30 Phase Behavicr

easier to use rhan chernical potenrial from a compura-
rional scandpoinr. Also, in Lewis's mind fugaciry was
analogous to prc:ssure and was terrned che: "escaping ten-
dency." One can simply regard fugaciry as a defined
funcrion convenient for equilibrium calculations.
dµ; = RT dln(f,)
wherc f1 = fugaciry of componcnt i in a mixture
R = universal gas ccnstanr
Prausnirz (1969) showed rhat Eq. (3-15) and (3-19)
implied rhar at equilib,ium
le can be shown rhar the following equation relates fugac-
iry to the measurable propenies of P, V, and T (Henley
and Seader, 1981).
In[ f; 1( Px, ) ]� J�{ ( 1/V )-[ ( élPléln; )t( RT) J}dV -In( z)
where X¡ = mole fraction of component i in a mixture
Z = compressibiliry factor
Suppose we can evaluare Eq, (3-21) for both che liquid
and vapor phases of a rwo-phase mixture ar equilibrium.
The ratio of rhe brackered rerrns on the left side of
Eq. (3-21) for rhe rwo phases will be:
[f,L/(Px;J]/[f,vl(Py,)]
where x¡ = mole fracrion in liquid phase
y¡ mole fraction in vapor
= important and ma.kes rhe pressure smaller. In other
phase
Because of Eq. (3-14) and (3-20), che previous
ratio becomes simply y¡lx;, which is the familiar K
value, used in phase-equilibrium calculations as
indicared previously.
[f,Ll(Px;)]l[f;vl(Py,)} = y/x; = K;
We need a relationship berween rhe variables P, V, T. and
composition in order to solve Eq. (3-21) and (3-22).
Such a relarion is called an equation ofstate, often abbre-
viated EOS.
Equatioos of Statc
The oldest and simplest equarion of srate is rhe ideal gas law.
V= RTIP
dreds of rhern. Man y are appropriare for a limited
rangc of condirions or substances. Sorne contain rwo or
three arbirrary constants and one, the Srarling-Han (1972)
modificarion of rhe Benedicr-Webb-Rubin equarion
(l 940), has eleven conscanrs.
(3-19) The rnost useful equations of srare for hydrocarbons
are a series of so-called cubic eouatioru ofstate. Severa!
of
rhese are now discussed. They are discussed in sequence
ro show rheir developrnenr to the present state of the art.
Van dcr Waals Equatioo. Van der Waals in 1873
(Prunon and Maron, 1944) rheorized that the ideal gas
(3-20) law neglecred rhe volurne of the molecules of a fluid
and rhe inrerrnolecular artraction berween rhern. He
pro- posed to irnprove rhe ideal gas law by the
introducrion of
rwo pararnerers a and b.
P = RT/(v - b) - a/v2 (}-24)
where a and b are ccnstants.
(3-21)
As v approaches b, the firsc terrn on rhe righr side of rhe
equation becornes very large. In other words, rhe pressure
musr be very high for v to approach b. And v cannot be
less than b or che pressure would be negarive. Therefore,
b can be regarded as being rhe "size" of the molecules
below which v cannor go.
The second term on the right side of Eq. (3-24) is
interpreted as a measure of the attracüon berween the
molecules. When v becomes small (i.,., rhe molecules
are clase together), the second term becomes more
words, the molecules do not mike the wall of a con-
tainer as hard as they \Vould if rhere were no interaction
berween them.
Nocice that as v become< very large, and P corre-
spondingly low, v is much grearer chan b and che Jarrer
(3-22) becomes negligible. The artraction term becomes very
small. The ideal gas law is approached.
Equarion (3-24) and rhe ocher equations of stare thar
follow are explicir in pressure. The usual case in equilib-
rium calculacions is rhat rhc pressure and remperarure
are specified and che specific volume is rhe unknown
quantiry to be solved. [f Eq. (3-24) is mulriplied by the
least common denominaror, the result is as follows.
v3 - (b + RTIP)v2 + (a/P)v - ab/P = (3-25)
O
(3-23) Equation (3-25) is a mbic equation in rhe unknown v.

L- ,,...
Equarion pressure and relarively high temperature. Specific volume as a variable has rhe drawback char ir
{3-23) is Scientisrs have been trying to develop improved equa- varies from very smaII values to very large values. A more
reasonabl tions of state fo, many years and have formulated hun- rraccable variable is che compressibiliry facror Z,
y
accurate defined in Eq. (3-26).
only at
very low
p:

1-
j_
Phasc Behavior 31

Z = PV/(nRT) = Pv/RT (3-26) could be gready improved by considering rhe nurneraror

where v = molar volumc = V/n of the second rerrn on rhe right to be a function of tern-
perature rarher than a constan, and by changing the
Equation (3-25) can be wrirren in terms of Z as fol!ows:
denominator from v2 to v(v+b).
Z3 - (B + 1 JZ2 + AZ - AB = O (3-27)
P = RT/(v - b) - iJ-0.S/[v(v + b)J (3-31)
where A = ,P/(RD2
B = bP/(RT) These simple changes rendered rhe equation reason-
ably accurare for gases (i.r., fluids above their critica!
In rnost calcularions the value of Z líes in rhe range of O ro 1;
remperarure), Redlich and Kwong also extended rheir equarion
also, Z is dimensionless. These facts make the use of Eq. (3-
to fluid mixture>. Equarion (3-31) is called rhe RK equation.
27) convenient.
The procedure referred to for obraining a form of rhe RK
Note that there will be three values of Z rhat satisfy Eq.
equarion in rerms of Z wirh coefficients rhat are functions
(3-27). lf only onc of these values is real and the others
of reduced temperature and pressure was applied to
are complex conjugates, rhe real value is rhe one used. If
yield
rhree real valúes are obrained, rhe one used
depends on the siruation. If rhe mixture is a liquid, the
smallesc of rhe three is selected. lf the mixture is a vapor, Z3 - z2 + (A - B - B') Z - AB = O (3-32)
che largest is selecred. The intermediare value has no where A = 0.4278 P ¡T/S (3-33)
physical meaning. B = 0.0867 P /T, (3-34)
Parameters a and b are evaluared by applying the Eq. (3-
Redlich and Kwong applied their equation to mix- tures
27) ar the critica! poinr, for which rhe following rela- tions are as well as pure components and calculated fugaci- ties for
assumed to apply.
components of mixtures. (Their paper can be
(ilP/uv) = O (3-28a) consulted for details.)
(i)2p/i)v2J = O (3-28b)
SRK Equation, Soave (1972) extended rhe use of rhe
Applicarion of Eq. {3-28a) and {3-28b) with Eq. (3-24) Redlich-Kwong equarion to liquids and vapors (gas-
provide phase fluids below their critica! ternperarures) by a sim-
ple bue elegant trearrnenr. Soave removed che fixed tern-
a= 27R2T//(64P,) (3-29a)
perature term ofEq. (3-31), a/TO.S, and replaced ir by a
b = RT,f(SP,) (3-29b) term a,a(T).
These expressions furnish rhe following values for A and P = RT/{v - b) - a,a(T)/lv(v+b)J (3-351
B.
Equation (3-35) is called rhe Soave-Redlich-Kwong
A= aP/(RT)2 = 27P,2i(64T,I (3-30a) equarion of state or simply rhe SRI( equation.
B = bP/RT = P /(ST,) (3-30b) Soave made substitutions for a and b developed in rhe
same manner as for the van der Waals and RK equa- t1ons.
where Tr = Tffc {"reduccd" remperarure)
Pr = P/Pc ('"rcduccd" pressure)
A = 0.42747 a{T) P /T,2 (3-36)
Equations (3-30a) and (3-30b) show that the compress- ibiliry
factor of Eq. (3-27) is a funcrion of reduced tern- B = 0.08664 P /T, (3-37)
perature and reduced pressure. This is an exarnple of rhe
These substitutions lead to the following form of equarion.
theorem of cormponding states: rhar is, properries expressed
in dimensionless terms (Z) are the sarne for different sub- z3 - Z2 + {A - B - B2) Z - AB = O (3-38)
stances ar che sarne reductd cemperarure and pressure.
Alrhough the fundamental concepts of the van der Waals Redlich-Kwong Equation. Redlich and
equacion are irnportant, unfortunarely che equa- rion does Kwong
(1949) dernonstrared that the van der Waals
not fic experimental daca very well,
equation
Equation (3-21) is applied to Eq. (3-38) for pure sub- stances to
obtain the following relation.
ln(f/P) = (Z - 1) - ln(Z - B) - (NB)ln(l + B/Z) (3-39)

For pure subsrances ar rheir vapor pressure, f¡L = Íiv· Soave applied
Eq. (3-38) ar rhe vapor pressure for pure hydrocarbons and found
values of ZL and Zy ar rhe
 32 Phase Behavior

given temperature and vapor pressure in rerrns of a(T). Following che lead of Pirzer et al., Soave fitted his

,,... These values of Z are substirured inro Eq. (3-39) to

give
a(T) data as a function of the acentric factor in rhe fol-
lowing form.
rhe vapor and liquid fugacities in rerrns of a(T). The
vapor and liquid fugacities are set equal and a(T) is a(T) = [I + m(I -T,º5)]2 (3--41)
solved for. The a(T) values thus found were plorred,
yielding smoorh curves for each hydrocarbon. where m = 0.480 + 1.574 co - 0.176 co2

1•,... Pirzer and coworkers (1955) have firred Z data for
pure substances in tables and graphs as functions of
reduced pressure, reduced temperarure, and a rhird
dímmsionless parameter called the acentric factor, ro. The
addicion of che chird parameter resulted in a much
better fir rhan obrained wirh reduced pressure and
temperature only (i.t., by che simple theory of
corresponding states). Pirzer and coworkers fltred
fugaciries and orher rhermo-
dynamic functions with P,, T,, and w as well, The acen-
cric factor is defined as follows.
to = -loglO(P,/PJT,. o.z : 1.000
where Pi = saturared vapor pressure ar a reduced
sarurarion temperature of0.7.
The acentric factor is related to rhe slope of che reduced
vapor pressure curve and varíes from uro for simple mol-
ecules (A,, Kr, and Xe) to small positive valúes for non-
spherical (or acentric) molecules. Figure 3-4 is a plot
of log of reduced vapor pressure versus reciprocal
reduced temperarure, which is very nearly a srraighc line
for real
íluids. The value of che loglO (P/Pc) is read for T/Tc
= equation of Usdin and McAuliffe (1976) was selecred,
0.7, or T ¿T, = 1/0.7 = 1.4286. Then W is calculated
from Eq. (3-40).
w • ·(·1.152')- 1.0 • 0.152
With chis improvement over che RK equarion, Soave
obtained an excellem fit of hydrocarbon vapor·pressure
data. He then extended che equation to mixtures and
obtained excellem prediction of hydrocarbon vapor-liquid
equilibrium K values.
Peng-Robinson Equation. Peng and Robinson (1976)
presented a similar variation of che RK equation thar
appears to fo data for C02 and H2S better than rhe SRK.
Their equarion is also cubic and has che following form.
P = RT/(v - b) - aa(T)/[v(v+b) + b(v - b)J (3--42)
(3-40)
UMSRK Equation. Both SRK and Peng-Robinson
equarions are used widely. However, they both work bese
for mixtures when quanriries called interaction
coejficients are used. Values for che inreraction
coefficients are nor presenred in che open lirerature and
are very time con- suming to obrain,
The developers ofOPSIM searched for an equation of
state for which inreracrion coefficients mighc be orniued
with adequare accuracy of prediction of thermodynamic
properties for hydrocarbons and allied subsrances. The
Usdin and McAuliffe had noted that the SRK equa-
tion did not provide very good liquid density predic-
tions. They concluded that rhe main difficulty lay in
use of constanc b in both terms of che right side of che
SRK equation, Eq. (3-35). They attempted to
improve che

.. situcarion by introduction of a d rerm in che attraccion

term instead of che b from the firsc term.

P = RT/(v - b) - aa(T)/[v(v + d)) (3-43)
·• ... L.,., . where a, b, and d are conscants and O: is a funcrion of
temperarurC!'
.r.s <, As usual, che form of Eq. (3-43) is not convenient for
calculations. Usdin and McAuliffe made che following
� f-- 1.CW.7 • 1.429
.,L�����-.�����.•�����:, substitutions .
�
V= ZRT/P
aa(T) AR2T2/p
=
Figure 3-4 Evaluation of Acentric Factor for Propane b = BRT/P
(Starling, 1973) d = DRT/P•

J.. J..
 cion in Z.
V+ (D- B- l)Z2 + (A-D- BD)Z-AB. O (3--44)
Phase Behavior 33
These where A = A, a(T) P /1}
subsri
B=B,P/T,
rurion
s D = D, P/f, However, they derived different expressions for m as a
reduce Usdin and McAuliffe found thar the values of A,, B,. and D, function of component acentric factor.
Eq.
(3-- were relared to a critica! comprcssibilicy pararneter le' m = 0.48049 + 4.516 Ol Z/
43) to through a fifth variable 9, as follows. + [0.67713 (Ol - 0.35) - 0.02](T, - 0.7), for T, s 0.7
a (3-50)
cubic Z/ = (1 + 0 + 02)/(1 + 0)3 (3-45)
m = 0.48049 + 4.516 Ol Z/
equa-
+ [37.7846 Z/3 + 0.78662](T, - 0.7)2, for 0.7,T, s; 1.0
(3-51)

Equation (3-50) should be used only down to T, = 0.3, and

A. • ¡o • e • 02J10 • 0¡2p
B, = 1/(1 + 0)3
D, = (03 - 1)/(1 + 0)3
Given the value of l/, 9 can be obrained from Eq.
(3--45). Then Eq. (3--46 through 3-48) are used to get
A,. Be, and De
Values of the critica! compressibilicy pararneter, le'
were found for hydrogen, nitrogen, C02, H2S, and che
paraffin hydrocarbons methane through tetradecane by
Usdin and McAuliffe such rhar liquid densicy data for
these compounds were fo at 60ºF and 1 atrn or che nor- mal
boiling point, whichever was appropriate. These val- ues were
tabulaced by rhe authors, along wirh critica! properties and
acenrric factor.
In natural gas and crude oil work, values for C6+
hyporherical components or boiling point components are
needed. For chis reason Buchod et al. (1978) derived values
of che critica! compressibilicy pararneters for rwo addicional
long-chain paraffin hydrocarbons, plus 8 isoparaffins, 8
naphthenes, and 8 arornatics. The derived
le' values were curve-fitred by boiling point and UOP
characterizarion factor. The UOP characrerjzanon factor
is related to the boiling point and liquid specific gravicy a,
the value at T, • 0.3 used ifT, < 0.3. For T, > 1.0,
use m • m(T,-1) up to 1.429. Use rhe value ar T, • 1.429
(3-46) for higher T,.
Mixture valucs of A, B, and D are obtained as follows.
(3-47)
A • [:!:x¡A,;''2a,(n lllp,;'12([,¡]2 (3-52)
(3-48)
B = I:x¡Bc¡P1¡ITri (3-53a)
D = I:x1DciPrirrri (3-53b)
Note rhac x¡ refers to che composition in either phase, At a
given temperature and pressure, rhe mixture values of A, B,
and D are cornpured and Eq. (3-44) is solved for che Z
factor. lf there are three roors, che largest is taken for the
vapor phase or che smallest for che liquid phase.
Equacion (3-21) is solved with che UMSRK equarion
to obtain che fugacicy of a componen! of a mixture,
eicher vapor or liquid.
ln(f¡!Px¡) = B¡[l/(Z- B)] - (D¡ID)[N(Z,D)J
• ln[Z/(Z+D)](ND)(2A¡1'2/All2 - D¡ID)
- ln(Z - B) (3-54)
Again, x¡ refers to che cornposition in either phase,
UMSRK K-Valucs. Equation (3-22) is applied to
obrain equilibrium K-values for each cornponent. The
required quanrities are rhe parcial molar fugacities, f L
and rr f rom Eq. (3-54) applied for each phase. The 1

60ºF by the following relation. difficulty is that ,he phase compositions muse be
known before che UMSRK equation can be applied to
Kuop = ((¡b + 459.67)113/S¡J (3-49) cach, bue chesc compositions are obtained from use of che
where l<..iop = UOP characrerization faaor K-values in che flash-vaporization equations, Eq. (3-9)
tb = normal boiling poinr, ºF and (3-1 ). A very laborious crial-and-error calcu-
SL = spccific graviry ofliquid at 60ºF rclarivc to larion is involved.
water at 60"F The technique used in OPSJM is to obtain inicial estimates
of che K's from che equation of Canfield (1971 ),
Usdin and McAuliffe used rhe sarne form as Soave for che
which is based on pure-component T, and P,
Cl(T) factor.
only. The flash equation is solved with these K's to initi·
a(T) = [I + m(l - T,0.)))2 (3-41) ate che procedure.
 34 Phase Behavior

Convergence of rhe procedure is not a trivial problem. based on the exrrapolation of n-paraffin enrhalpies and
Thc convcrgencc technique used in OPSIM is derailed should be used wirh caution. Por natural gas work,
by Buthod et al. (1978). The rechnique is robust but very small amounts of hypothetical componcnts are
occasionally fails or arrives at an unreasonable result, present, and che approximarion is not very irnporranr.
such as ali the K's bcing 1.0. For crude oil the bulk of rhe fluid is in this higher
Once convergence to the equilibrium-phase composi- boil-
rions has been obrained, the values of rhe K's calcula 1ng range.
red by Eq. (3-22) are known, as well as rhe individual
hm¡" = (! 00 MW + 800) + (32.15 MW + l 86.5)(tF/J 00)
phase Z factors. Enrhaipy and entropy deviarions can
+ (3.708 MW- 26.42)(cF/J00)2
also be calcula red.
+ Hl.0859 MW + 0.4)(,F/100)3 0-56)
where tF = tempcraturc, ºF

1 UMSRK Enthalpies. Mixture enrhalpies are required The ideal gas mixture enrhalpy is the molar average

l� for energy-balance calculations. The basic technique

used is shown in Figure 3-5. First, rhe ideal gas enthalpy
enrropy,

• of rhe mixture is calculated, For identifiable components (3-57)

l (Ci-C6) the enthalpy is given by Procedure 7Al.1 of the The final scep is to find the deviation from ideality for
�
API Technical Data Book-Pmoleum Refining {American rhe real fluid phase, as shown in Figure 3-5. The rher-
Perroleum Institure, 1970). modynamic relation for this correction is given by che
following equation (Usdin and McAuliffe, l 978).
h¡" =A¡,¡+ Bh,T R + ch,T R2 + DhiT R' + Eh,T R' + Fh,T
Rs
hd,p= hm º-hm(T.v) = -J:[P-T(artaT),]dv-Pv+RT
(3-55)
(3-58)
where h, • = ideal gas enchalpy. Bcu/lb
T R = absolute temperaturc, 0R Application of Eq. (3-58) co rhe UMSRK equacion yields
and Ahi• Bhi• Chi• Dhi• Ehi• Fhi are component constants. the following relacion.
The molar enchalpy is rhe specific enrhalpy rimes hd,p = RTJ(ND} y ln[(Z + D)IZ) - Z + 1 J (3-59)
mole- cular weighr,
where y= 1 + [I: x¡ m¡ A,,"2 P,,"2/T,¡]iA 112 (3-60)
hm/ = ht MW1
Finally, the real fluid enthalpy is given for eirher a
where hmi • ideal gas enthalpy, Bcu/lbmol vapor or a liquid by
MW¡ = componcnt molecular weight, lb/lbmol

For hyporherical components, rhe rnerhod of (3-61)

Srevens and Thodos ( 1963) is used, Their method was

...
UMSRK Entropies. Mixture entropies are required
for calculating compressors and expanders. The basic
... rechnique used is similar to that of Figure 3-5, bue wich
entropies rather rhan enrhalpies.
""' Firsr, the ideal gas entropy of the mixture is calcu-

1 ...
""'
lated. For idenrifiable componencs rhe entropy is given

f ""'
by Procedure 7Al. l of rhe API Technical Data Book-
........ Petroleum Refining (American Perroleum Insriture,
1970).
"º s¡" = Bh¡ln(T R) + 2 Ch¡T R + J.5 Dh,T R2 + (4/3) Eh,T
R'
R G¡ (3-62)
+ 41.25 FhiT
,-. ..
+

.
10 0

o ,., ,., no where s," = ideal gas encropy. Bcu/lb - R 0

and G1 is a new componenc constanr.

Agure 3-5 Enthalpy-Temperature Diagram for Propane For hypo,hecical componencs, curve-litted coeffi-
(Maxwell, 1950) cients for rhe light hydrocarbons are extrapolated. This
 Phase Behavior 35

proccdure is approximate, but gas-phase conrenr of rhese Ah, = component constant in equarion for ideal
components is low. gas enrhalpy

s¡ = A,; (tF/100) B,; (,F/100)2 + D,; (tf/100)3

+
Asi = component constanr in equarion for ideal
gas enrropy
+ E., log10 (rF + 460) (3-63)
a = constan, in van der Waals, SRK, PR, and
where A,¡, Bsi• Csl' D,¡, and E5¡ are functions of MW1. UMSRK equarions of state
The component molar entropy is found by mulriply- B = constanr in van der Waals, SRK. PR. and
ing rhe specific enrropy by rhe molecular weight. UMSRK equarions of state
B, = constan, in UMSRK equation of state
(3-64) Bhi = component constanr in equation for ideal

The phase ideal-gas entropy is rhe mola] average of the gas enthalpy
componenr enrhalpies, 85¡ = component constanc in equacion for ideal

gas encropy
(3-65) b = constanr in van der Waals, SRK, PR, and
The nexr srep is to find the deviation from idealiry for UMSRK equations of state
,he real fluid phase. The thermodynamic relarion for rhis C = coral number of components present in a
correction is given by rhe following (Usdin and phase or mixcure
McAulilfe, 1978). Ch¡ = component conscant in equacion far ideal
gas eruhalpy
s¿, =sm - - •m ( T, v )= J:-[(R/v )-(iJP/iJT).]dv+ Rln( RT C 5¡ = componenr constanr in equarion far ideal
/v)
P (3-66)
gas enrropy
Appl,carion of Eq, (3-66) to rhe UMSRK equarion D = constant in UMSRK equarion of state
vields rhe following: De= constanr in UMSRK equation of state
Dhi = componenr constant in equation far ideal
s¿,p = Rl(ND)(y- !) ln[(Z + D)/2] -ln[(Z- B)/P)I (3-
67) gas enrhalpy
Dsi =componenr constant in equation far ideal
Finally. the real fluid enrropy is given
gas entropy
by
d = constanr in UMSRK equarion of stare
(3-68) Es¡ = component consranr in equation for ideal
gas enrropy
Summary F = feed rare (mol/rime)
Í¡ = fugaciry of componenr i in a fluid mixture
!t is clear rhar rhe solurions to the EOS-based
FL = liquid me {mol/time}
equilib- rium calculations would never be done by
Fy = vapor rare {mol/rime)
hand. Only the advenr of the large main-frame
Fhi = componenr constanr in equarion for ideal
compucers allowed rheir developrnent. Presendy,
gas enrhalpy
personal compurers give any engineer che compuring
G = total free energy of a fluid
po,ver ro do rhese computa· nons in a fracrion of a
G¡ = component consranr used in ideal-gas
second.
entropy equanon
A caueat should be offered. Every compurer outpur h = specific enthalpy (energy/rnass)
should be viewed wirh an eye to its reasonableness and
h' = ideal-gas specific enrhalpy
wirh a realizarion rhar jusr because 8 digits are printed hd,p = enrhalpy departure, or difference berween
does nor make che outpur correcc. The practicing engi- ideal gas enrhalpy and real fluid enrhalpy
neer is srill responsible to inspect the output to assure K¡ = vapor-liquid equilibrium ratio(= y¡ix,)
rhat rhe resulrs make physical sense. Kuop = UOP characterization factor, defined by
Eq. (3---49)
Nomenclature m = paramecer used in SRK and UMSRK
equarions of state
A = constant in van der Waals, SRK, PR, and
UMSRK equarions of state
A, = constant in UMSRK equation of state
- µ¡ = chemical potencial

-
of componen! i p =
densicy (mass per
volume)
36 Phasc Bchavior 1 =- indicares summacion over all
components
p
MW molecular
= r
weighc e
n = nurnber of moles of a fluid s
e
n¡ = number of moles of componen! i in n
a fluid c
P = absoluce pressure w = acencric factor, defined in Eq.
P, = critical pressure, absolute units (3-40)
P, = reduced pressure = P/P,
P5 = saturated vapor pressure
Subscripts
R = universal gas conscanc (mola! basis) c = denotes critica! propercy
S = total encropy of a fluid i = denotes component i
SL = specific gravicy of liquid at 60ºF
relarive to water at 60'F
s = specific entropy (energy/rnass-
degree)
s" = ideal-gas specific entropy
sdcp = encropy departure, or difference
berween
ideal gas entropy and real fluid
entropy
SG = specific gravicy of gas (MW I
28.9625) T = absoluce cemperature
Te = cricical temperarure, absolute units
T, = reduced temperature =TI T,
t = relanve temperacure
tb = normal boiling point, ºF
Cf = temperacure, ºF
U = total interna! energy of a fluid
V = toca! volume of íluid
VP = vapor pressure
v = specific volume {volume/mol)
X¡ = mol fraccion of component i in
liquid phase
= mol fraction of component i in
eirher
phase in Eq. {3-52) chrough (3-54),
(3-57), (3-60), and (3-65)
y¡ = mol fracrion of componen e i in
vapor phase
Z = compressibilicy factor = P v/R T
z¡ = mol fraction of component i in feed
Z, • = cricical compressibiliry
paramerer

Gruk Lmm
a(T) =temperature funccion in SRK,
PR, and
UMSRK equacions
of scace
y= paramecer used in UMSRK hd,p
and 'd,p terms, defined by Eq. (3-
60)

m = denotes molar propercy
r = denotes reduced propercy
Review Questions
l. Sketch a phase diagram for a crude oil on pressure-
ternperature coordinares. Show che following: bub-
blepoint line, dew poinr line, critica! poinc, cricon-
denbar, cricondencherm, plus regions containing
liquid, vapor, liquid-vapor mixtures, gas, and dense
fluid.
2. Poinc out a difficulcy wich respect to phase behavior
chat can occur during che production life of a crude
oil reservoir.
3. Sketch a line on a P- T phase en velo pe for a crude oil
chac represencs che path of che well íluid as ic flows
from reservoir condirions rhrough che wellbore to a
surface separator.
4. Describe in words che concepcs used in calcu!ating:
a. che bubblepoinr of a mixture;
b. che dew poinc of a mixture.
- Gibbs, J. Willard (1961 }, The Scimtiflc Papm of J.
Willard Gibb,, Vol l, originally published in 1906
--
(posthumously; Gibbs died April 28, 1903), a Dover
Publications, lnc., unabridged and unalcered republica-
cion of che work originally published by Longmans,
Green, and Co.
GPSA (1987), Engineering Data Book, lOrh ed., Gas
Processors Suppliers Associarion, 6526 Easr 60rh Se.,
-
Tulsa, OK 74145.
Henley, E. J., and J. D. Seader (1981), Equiiibrium-
Stage Separation Operations in Chemica/ Engineering,
--
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
[acoby, R. H. and L. Yarborough (1967), "PVT
Measuremencs on Petroleum Reservoir Fluid, and Their
Uses," Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol. 59, pp. 48--{52 (Oct.).
Lewis, G. N., and Merle Randall (1961),
Thermodynamics, 2nd ed., revised by K. S. Pitzer and Leo
Brewer, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York.
Maxwell, J. B. (1950), Data Book on Hydrocarbons,
D.
Van Nostrand Company, NY, p. 1 OO.
S. What is an equacion of scare? Name four
equations of state. Compare rhese equacions
of stare. lnclude sirnpliciry, case of use, and
accuracy.
6. Vapor-liquid equilibrium calculacions by che
equa- rion of state mechod are roucínely done
by hand cal- culacion. True/False?
7. Equacions of state generally provide very
good esti- macions ofliquid densicy.
True/False' Of vapor den- sicy. True/False?
References
American Petroleurn lnscicuce (1970),
Technical Data Book-Petroleum Refining, 2nd ed..
Washington, oc.
American Petroleurn Institure (1983), Technical
Data
Booe=-Paroleum Refining, 4ch ed., Washington, OC.
Benedicr, M., G. B. Webb and L. C. Rubin
(1940), "An Empirical Equacion for
Thermodynamic Properties of Light
Hydrocarbons and Their Mixtures," }. Cbem.
Phys., Vol. 8, pp. 334-345.
Burhod, P., N. Perez, and R. Thompson ( 1978),
"Program, Constancs Developed for SRK Equauon," Oil
Gas }ournal, Vol. 76, No. 48, pp. 60-64 (Nov 27).
Cancrell, Frank (1971), "Estímate K-Values
wirh che
Cornpurer," Hydrocarbon Processing. Vol. 50, No. 4, p.
137 (April).
Pha� Bchavior 37
aration of Reservoir Crude," J. lnst. Pet., Vol. 52, No. 506,
pp. 31-37 (February).
Prausnirz, J. M. (1969), Molecular Thermodynamics of
Fluid-Phase Equilibria, Prencice-Hall, lnc., Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, (p. 19-22).
Prurton, C. F., and S. H. Maron (1944), Fundamental
Principie, of Physical Chemimy, The Macmillan Co., NY,
p. 31.
Redlich, O. and J. N. S. Kwong (1949), "On che
Thermodynamics of Solucions. V. An Equation of State.
Fugacicies of Gaseous Solurions," Chem. Rev., Vol. 44,
Peng, D-Y. and D. B. Robinson (1976), "A
New Two- Consrant Ec¡uarion of Srate," lnd
Eng. Chem. Fund., Vol. 15, pp. 59-64.
Pitzer, K. S., et al. (1955), "The
Volumerric and
Thermodynamic Properries of Fluid, (JI)
Compressibil-
iry Factor, Vapor Pressure and Entropy of
Vaporization,"
J. Amer. Chem. Soc., Vol. 77, pp. 3433-3440.
Plane, A. S., ( 1966), "Comparison berween
Calcularions by Cornputer and Measurement in
che Field of Oil and Gas Quanrities and Qualiries
pp. 223-244.
Produced in Mulri-srage Sep-
Soave, G. (1972), "Equilibrium Constants from a
Modified Redlich-Kwong Equacion of Stare," Chem.
Eng. s«, Vol. 27, pp. 1197-1203.
Scarling, K. E. (1973), Fluid Thermodynamic Properties
far Light Petroleum Systems, Gulf Publishing Company,
Housron, 1973.
Scarling, K. E. and M. S. Han (1972),
"Thermodynamic Data Reflned for LPG. Pare 14.
Mixtures," Hydro. Proc., Vol. 51, No. 5, pp. 129-132
(May); "Pare 15. Industrial Applicarions," loe. cit., No. 6,
pp. 107-115 (june].
Srevens, W F., and G. Thodos (1963), "Esrimacion of
Enchalpies: Mulcicomponent Hydrocarbon Mixtures ar
Their Satura red Vapor and Liquid Srates," A!ChE ]., Vol.
9, No. 2, pp. 293-296 (May).
Usdin, E. and J. C. McAuliffe (1976), "A One Par-
amerer Family of Equarions of Srare," Chem. Eng. Sci.,
Vol. 31, pp. 1077-1084.
�
L Chapter 4
Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsions
INTRODUCTION
The maxim "oil and water do not rnix" expresses che
mutual insolubiliry of many hydrocarbon liquids and
water. Figure 4-1 (GPSA, 1987) shows rhe low solubil-
iry of wa ter in liquid hydrocarbons. Nocice cha e che
pres- ence of carbon-carbon double bond, (e.g.,
alkenes, di- alkenes and aromatics) increases che
solubilicy of water. Wacer is far less soluble in saturated
hydrocarbons (e.g., paraffins ar alkanes), and che
solubiliry of water decreases as che molecular weighc
increases. Yaws et al. (1990) compiled rhe solubiliry of
232 hydrocarbons in water.
The hydrocarbon solubiliries are low bur vary dramati-
cally; narnely, from 0.0022 ppmw far tetradecane to
I, 760 ppmw of benzene in water. Far practica!
purposes, oil and water are essencially irnmiscible;
rherefore, these rwo liquids coexist eirher as rwo distinct,
separared layers or, if agicated, as ernulsions or
dispersions of one phasc in the other.
Emulsions, in general, and wellhead ernulsions, in
particular, are described firsr. The requirements for
emulsión formarion (i.e., two immiscible liquids, agica-
rion, and ernulsifiers) and che facrors affecting emulsion
srabilirv are emphasized. Rising or setding velocities of
drops and the densiries and viscosities of brine, crude oil,
and wlo ernulsions are also presented. Finally, the causes
of oilfield ernulsions are reviewed. Emulsion formacion
in rhe reservoir is beyond the present scope. Hydrares are
discussed in Volurne l.
EMULSIONS
An emulsion is a quasi-stabú suspension of fine drops
of one liquid dispersed in anocher liquid as shown in
Figure
4-2. Note che wide range in drop sizes. The liquid presenr
as small drops is rhe dúpmed ar interna! or ínner phase,
while the surrounding liquid is che conrinuous oc externa!
or outer phase. Emulsions are sornerimes classified accord-
ing to che size of che dispersed drops-che usual rype ar
macroemulsion, where che drops range from 0.2-50 mm
and the micraemuisíon or micelles wirh O.O l-0.2 mm sized
droplers, Far comparison, colloid droplers are usually
defined as having ar leasr one dimension berween
0.001-1 mm (Schramm, 1992, p. 5). The prcsent
emphasis is on rypical oilfield ernulsions ar macroernul-
sions.
There are tbre« requirernents for forming an emulsion:
l. Two rmmúcíble líquids
2. Enough agitation to disperse one liquid inca srnall
drops
3. An emulsifler to srabilize che dispersed drops.
Ernulsions are caused by rurbulence or agirarion in
rhe oíl-water mixture because rhe shearing forces break
che dispersed liquid up inro many small droplets.
lnterfacial or surface tension tends to coalesce the dis-
persed droplers. Many droplers dispersed in a continu-
ous phase have a very large collective inrerfacial area;
however, as rhe parricles coalesce, rhe total interfacial
arca is reduced. (See Problern 4 far a very simple numer-
ical illusrrarion.) Surface tension can be defined as che
work required to increase che interfacial area by one
unit, so chis work represents energy potencially available
to reverse the process and produce a smaller interface
area. The natural tendency, then, is for coalescence to
occur. Low interfacial rension favors slower coalescence
of emulsion droplecs. Two pure, immiscible liquids
can-
noc form a scable cmulsion; in che abscnce of
scabilizing forces, small drops will combine and decrease
che inter- facial area, che rotal surface energy, and thc
Gibbs free energy of rhc system.
39
·-
. 40 Warer-in-Crude Oil Emulsions

'

-
º'
º'
º'
º'
º'
O.l

0.2

8
o'
O.O,
...
8 • oº'
006

.,:.,t
;,
e es

¡ª
Oo<

C.Ol

,.... •
e ca
....�(e,

e
_..
,;.

1 <Y
..
1
0.01
0009
OCOI

º""' o ""'
e eos

º·"°"
OOOl

0002

000•
. "' IOO '"' '"'
Figure 4-1 Solubility of Water in Liquid Hydrocarbons (GPSA, 1987; p. 20-3, Fig. 20-2)

i
-
l.-
Figure 4-2 Photomicrograph of a Water-in-Oil Emulsion
(PETEX. 1990, p. 7)
A chird substance or emulsifying agent or en1ulsifier
must be presenr 10 srabilize rhe ernulsion. One very com-
mon rype of emulsifier is a surface active agent or surfac-
tant. Surfactant molecules are amphipathic (i.e., one pare
of che molecule is hydrophilic or soluble in water and che
other pare is lipophilic or soluble in oil). Surfaccancs sra-
bilize emulsions by migrating to che oil-warer interface
and forming an inuifacínl film around che drops. Ofcen
surfactant molecules align rhemselves ar che interface
wich che polar, hydrophilic end in che aqueous phase and
che nonpolar, hydrophobic scem in che oil phase. This
film stabilizes che emulsion by:
l. Reducing che surface tension forces, chus decreasing
che energy required co shear che dispersed phase inco
small droplecs. This also reduces che surface energy
available ro coalesce che droplers. This decrease in
surface cension can be dramacic. Adding less rhan
l º/o of a surfactant can reduce che surface tension of
oil drops in water from 35-0.35 mN/m (Schramm,
1992. p. 18).
2. Forming a viscous barrier chat inhibirs drop coales-
cence. This rype of film has been compared ro a
"plasric wrap" (PETEX, 1990), and ir is shown in
Figure 4--3.
3. Aligning, if polar, the surfaccant rnolecules on che drop
surface, chus producing an &crrical charge. ln rurn,
this eleccrical charge causes drops co repel each ocher.
42 Water-in-Crudc Oil
Emulsions
Warer-in-Crude Oil Emulsions 41
Figure 4-3 Photomicrograph of Rigid Film Surrounding
Water Droplet in Water-in-Oil Emulsion (PETEX, 1990, p.
17)
A second scabilization mechanism occurs when rhe
emulsifers are very fine sofid particles. To be emulsfying
agenrs, che solid particles must be must smaller than rhe
suspended drops and muse "be werced" by boch the oil
and water phases. Then these fine solid parcicles or col-
loids (usually wirh surfaccancs sorbed co cheir surfaces)
collecc ac rhe drop surface and form a physical barrier.
Common field examples are FeS, sand, and silr.
Two rypes of water and oil emulsions are immediacely
apparent; narnely, oil-in-warer (o/w) and water-in-oil
(w/o). The olw onulsion refers co wacer-immiscible liquid
(usually called oil, regardless ofics actual composicion) dis-
persed in an aqueous phase. Conversely, in a wlo emulsion
rhe aqueous Jiquid is dispersed in che warer-irnrniscible or
oil phase. The crpe of emulsion formed depends primarily
on che emulsifying agents presenr and, ro a Jcsser extenr,
on che relevanr amouncs of aqueous and oil phases.
Bancrofc's (1921) empirical rule predices chac predorni- nancly
oíl-soluble surfaccanrs forrn w/o emulsions and, conversely,
thar water-soluble surfaaancs produce o/w emulsions.
WELLHEAD EMULSIONS
In che oilfield, warer-in-crude-oil (w/o) emulsions are
called regular while oil-in-warer (o/w) emulsions are
terrned reverse or invmt. This simple
classificarion is nor always adequare.
Multiple o, complex emulsions
(o/w/o or w/o/w) can also occur, where
o/w/o refers to an emul- sion consisting
of oil droplers dispersed in aqueous
drops that, in rurn, are dispersed in
che continuous oil phase
(Figure �). Conversely, a w/o/w emulsion has
water
drops dispersed in larger oil drops rhar are, in curn, dis-
persed in che concinuous water phase. The present dis-
cussion addresses warer-in-crude-oil emulsions because
these are usually encounrered in crude handling. Reverse
emulsions are generally found in produced water,
and they will be discussed in Volume 3. 2. Fine/y divitkd so/id, such as sand, clay, formation
In regular oillield emulsions, the dispersed aqueous fines, shale, silt, gilsonite, drilling rnuds, workover
phase is usually called sedimmr and water (S& W;, and lluids, mineral scales, corrosion compounds (e.g.•
rhe cominuous phase is crude oil. S&W is FeS, rusr), waxes or crystalized paraffin, and precip-
predominantly saline water; however, solids such as sand, irated asphalcenes and resins, In che field, workover
mud. scale, cor- rosion producrs, and precipitares of chemicals are nororiously effecrive in caus1ng
dissolved solids are ofcen present. S&W was formerly very stable emulsions.
called BS& W-basic sedirnent and water (PETEX, 3. Addrd chemicals such as corrosion inhibitors, bio-
1990, p. 38) or botrom set- cides, paraffin dispersants, cleaners, surfactanrs,
dings and water (Schramm, 1992. p.
wet- cing agenrs, and srimulation chemicals.
44).
Enhanced oil recovery rechniques such as
Very seldorn is chere any shortage of emulsifjing
fireflooding, and polymer, surfactant, and causcic
agents for warer-in-crude oil emulsions. These numerous
llooding can also creare very serious emulsion
emul- siliers can be classilied as follows (Svergoff
problems.
1989: Bromley et al., 1991):
As shown in Figure 4--5, produced, regular emulsions
l. lndigenous surfact active compounds such as
may be classilied as tight or loose. By deflnirion, a
asphaltenes and resins containing organic acids
tight emulsion is very stable and hard to break,
and bases, naphthenic acids, carboxylic acids, sulfur
primarily because the dispersed droplers are very small.
compounds, phenols, cresols and orher narurally
On the other hand, a loose emulsiono, dispmion is
occurring, high-rnolecular weight surfaccants.
unstable and is easily broken. In orher words, when a
large number of water drops of rather large diarnerer
are present, they will ofren sepárate easily by
gravitational force. Figure
4-6 shows the distriburion of drop sizes for a
thermally produced crude. Water rhar separares out
• readily in live
minutes is called ftu water (PETEX, 1990, p. 21
• ).
Orher authoriries allow different rimes ranging
from
2-20
minutes.
The amounr of remaining, emulsified water (or
S&W) varíes from <I to ,60 vol%. Lighr-crude
(>20
º API) emulsions contain typically 5 to 20 vol%
water, while heavy crudes (<20 ºAPI) ofcen have 10 to 35
vol% S&W (Smirh and Arnold, 1987). In the absence
of spe- cific data, Figure 4-7 provides a very
approximate esri- mace of che amounr of encrained
water remaining in rhe crude afcer free-water
knockout. The amount of free water depends on the
water/oí/ rario (WOR) and varíes widely from well to
well. In this discussion, "water" means produced
water, and ir is, in general, a l,rine con- taining sodium
chloride and ocher salts.
Enhanced recovery methods can produce very tight

.
emulsions. Surfacram floods use highly sulfonated
poly-
meric acids to reduce the interfacial tension berween
the
�

.•
�.: ,.. • s-. �
•• ., �- ,'#-�
crude and brine. Zi:.ro interfacial cension corresponds co
an impossible emulsion (i.,., the wom possible case).
Jitu combuJtion generares numerous products of
In
com-
bustion not originally present in the crude such
•
..
• ,.• as
asphaltenes and other acids, many of which act as
superb emulsiliers. Thermal drives, especially in
Figure 4-4 Photomicrograph of an Oil-in-Water-in- the early scages, produce appreciable sand, which is a
Oil
vcry
Emulsion (Smith and Arnold, 1987. p. 19-3)
pe:

Wa.tcr·Ín-Crude Oil Emulsions 43

R¡¡ure 4-5 Photo Comparison of Tight and Loose Emulsions (Bansbach, 1970)

1.0
!
¡:: o.e
u
!
... 0.6
z
so•
o
ID
¡ ¡
¡0.2
CI

o • , e 10 12 10 20
PARTICLE OIAMETER (MICRONS) AP1 GRAVITY
Rgure 4-6 Distribution of Water-Drop Sizes in a Crude Figure 4-7 Estimation of Entrained Water in Crude Oíl
Oil-Thermally Produced,12ºAPJ (Lucas, 1969) (NATCO. 1981)

common srabilizer, Forrunarely, California sands are in cornplex (o/w/o) ernulsions rhat exhibir a second
large-grained and do nor generace rhe emulsion prob- water-continuous emulsión wirhin che prirnary oil-
lems found in Trinidad where rhe produced sand is conrinuous emulsion.
col- loídal in size. Permean Basin sands are In summary, oilfield emulsion problems will be more
intermediare in character. Stearn injection adds severe as enhanced recovery merhods-i-warerflooding,
energy, agitation, and fresh water to che reservoir and sream drive, and surfacranr, C02, and fire flooding-
produced water; aH these factors promore ernulsions. becorne more prevalent.
Polymer floods often resulr
-
resulrs. Contact angles close to 90º
produce srable ernulsions because rhe
parricles remain ar rhe surface and creare
a steric barrier,
44 Water·in.Crude Oil
Emulsions

EMULSION
STABILITY

Emulsions do possess interfacial energy and, therefore,

are thermodynamically unsrable, The cwo immiscible
liquids may be separated (ú., rhe emulsion may be
broken by three mcchanisms: sedirnenrarion or
creaming, aggrega tion, and coalescence). Gravity or
4

buoyancy forces result- ing from any densiry difference

berween the dispersed and conrinuous phases cause the
drops ro fall or rise. Srdimmration refers ro the falling of
water (S&W) drops in a crude oil, while cr,aming
describes che rising of oil drops in produced water.
Clumping together of two or more drops is called
aggr,garion. The drops maincain rheir individual
identities and rouch only ar discrere points, and there
is essenrially no change in total surface arca. In centrase,
coalescence occurs whcn the original drops lose their
idenrities and fuse into a larger drop chus reducing che
total interfacial area (Schrarnrn, 1992, p. 6).
The inscability or rare ac which che dispersed
drops coalesce and "break" che emulsion depends on
che fol- lowing paramecers: che inrerfacial film,
cxistence of elec- tricaJ or steric barriers, viscosity of
che continuous phase, drop size, phase volurne ratio,
ccmperature, pH, age, brine saliniry, and type of oil.

lnterfacial Films. Dispersed droplers are in

constan, motion; cherefore, chey collide frequently. An
interfacial film strong enough to prevent drop
coalescence is absolutely necessary to maincain
emulsion stability. A mixture of surfacranrs (in
particular a combinacion of oíl-soluble and water-
soluble ones) form a close-packed, mechanically strong
film. The film in w/o emulsions muse be very srrong
because che water drops do not have an elecrrical charge
ro creare repulsion forces. The irreg- ular shape of
water drops in crude oil ernulsions tesrifies to thc
mengch and rigidity of the inrerfacial films (Figure
4---8). In rnarked conrrasc, oil drops in o/w emulsions
are spherical (Rosen, 1978, p. 229).

Electrical and/or Steric Barriers, There is very

lirtle, if any, charge on che dispersed drops in w/o
emulsions and, therefore, no electrical barrier to
coalescence. Figure
4---9 shows how a solid parcicle musr be "werted" by
boch
phases ro rernain ar rhe oil-water interface. lf the
particle is wetted preferentially by oil (i.,., che
contacr angle berween rhe oil-solid-warer boundary is
>90º), a w/o emulsion is produced. Conversely, if che
panicle is wet- ted primarily by water, an o/w emulsion
 OIL

EFFECT Of WETTING ON
INTERFACIAL CONTACT ANGLE FOR
SOLIO PAATICLES A · Partlde more wet
by oll than water
B • Partida eQU&11y 'Ntt by oU and watet
e . Partlcle mofe wet by water than oll

Figure 4-9 Particles Distributed atan Oil-Water

Interface

Colloidal solids can produce sorne of rhe most srable

or inrracrable emulsions. When chis solids-stabilized type
of emulsion accumulares between rhe oil and wacer
phases in a crearer, i, is called a rag !ayer.

Viscosity of the Continuous Phase. A high

Figure 4-8 Photomicrograph of a Water-in-Oil Emulsion
Showing Film Preventing Droplets from Coalescing (PETEX.
1991. p. 17)
exrernal- phasc viscosity lowers rhe diffusion coefficient
and colli- sion frequency of rhe drops, thus increasing
emulsion sta- bility. High drop concentracion also
increases the apparent viscosiry of che continuous
phase and emulsion

L
L
Water-in-Crudc Oil Emulsions 45

scabiliry (Bromley, et al, 1991 ). Ernulsions are, in SETIUNG/RISING VELOCITIES

L general, non-Newtonian fluid, (discussed in Chaprer

13).
Drop Size. Smaller droplets produce more
stable
The steady srate (or terminal) sctdinglrising velociry may
be esrimated using Srokes Law:

1 emulsions because large drops rend ro grow by V= gdl (pd - p¡)/18 µ¡ (4-1)

consum- wherc: V : sready-stare senling/rising velociry

ing smaller ones. A wide distriburion of parcicle sizes g • acccleration due to graviry
�
pro- d = drop diameter
duces a less srable em ulsion chan a uniform drop size Pd = drop densiry
dis- Pr • fluid density
cribucion (Bromley et al, 1991 ). � = absolutc viscosiry of fluid.

Phase Volume Ratio. lncreasing che volume of rhe

l
dis-
persed phase increases che number of drops and/or
drop
� size, che interfacial area, and che excess surface energy.
The
separarion discance is also decreased and chis increases effecr on srabiliry. lncreasing the
drop ternperature increases
collisions. Ali chese factors decrease emulsion srabiliry

Ternperature. Usually, tem perarure has a very

mong
 Any consistenr set of unirs can be used in Equarion V= (I.072"10·•) dl (pd -p¡)iµ¡ (4-2)
4-1. An alternarive version using rradirional oilfield units is:
drop diffusion, decreases externa] phase viscosiry, and where: V "' scnling/rising velociry,
disturbs che interfacial film by changing surface tension fc/min d = drop diamcter, µm
forces and che relative solubilicies of the Pd = drop specific graviry or density, g/cm3
emulsifying agents. Ali these changes decrease emulsion Pr • fluid spccific graviry or dcnsiry, g/,m3
stabiliry. µf = viscosiry of fluid, cp.

pH. Adding inorganic acids or bases changes radi-

Stricdy speaking, Stokes Law is valid only for a
cally che film-forming aspha!tenes and resins rhat
single (no inceraction with other drops), rigid drop
stabi- lize wlo emulsions (Strassner, 1968). Adjusting
moving slowly (ú., Reynolds number, d V Priµ¡, < 1
rhe pH can rninirnize che emulsion scabilizíng
). Scokes Law can be modified (API, 1969) to correct for
characteristics of rhe film, chus increasing interfacial
drop dis- cortion; chis increases che predicced
tension.
setding race by
Age. Age increases emulsion srabiliry because time 20-50%. Ir was reponed chat emulsions scabilized
allows che naturally occurring surfactants to migrare by
asphaltenes more than likely follow Scokes Law initially,
to rhe drop interface. The film or skin surrounding
and later agree with the corrected equation when che
rhe drops becomes thicker, stronger, and harder
emulsifying film has been ruptured by chemical addition
(PETEX,
(Bansbach and Bessler, 1975).
1990). The amount of emulsifying agents may
Alcernacively, the cerminal vclociry may be estimated
be increased by oxidation, photolysis, evaporation of
using a drag co1Jici,nc, CD, defined by:
light ends, or bacteria {Grace, 1992).
F dng = Co � Po V212 � (4-3)
Brine Salinity. The concentrarion of the brine is where F drag .,. drag force on spherical
appar- endy an irnportanr factor in che formarion of drop
stable emul- sions. Fresh water or low sale concentrarions Co drag coefficient
=
favor stable ernulsions: high sale concentracion favor loose Approjecred drop area = .1'C d2/4
=
emulsions. � = 32.174 lbm - fc/secl - lbf
The buoyancy force, fbuoy is:
Type of Oil. Crudes with paraffinic-base oils
usually
do not form stable ernulsions, whereas naphthenic Fbuoy = (pd - P0) V (4-4)
and gl�
where
mixed-base oils do. Waxes, resins, asphaltenes and V = drop volume = 1t d3/6
other
solids can influence emulsion stabiliry. In orher
words, Equacing F d,,g and Fbuoy yields:
rhe rype of crude determines che arnounr and cypes V2 • 4 (pd - p0) g d/3 Po (4-5)
of Co
indigenous emulsifiers.
Figure 4-10 shows how CD varíes with Re.
Density Difference, The net graviry force acring Notice that when Re < 1, CD = 24/Re. Stokes Law
on (Equation
•ny drop is direcdy proporcional to rhe difference in 4-1) is obcained by substituting CD = 24/Re. inco
den- sities of che drop and che surrounding phase. Equacion 4-5.

�9155
--
.
. \
1
o - \!!.
>
, t:
- -- �-- - �-- _e
--- - - -<IIL�- �

E
N
í I
--,
,¿
3: o
o
1
� -";;'-
fel:
o
1
·• i
J e?
N .
,.;, - "' "
_¡ ;
'oe
z
"
-
o
- N
.....
E

....o ]
o,
.¡j

-- -
- e
"
o
"e:' E
E
.. 'O.. 6
/
/ N
o
" �'
O >

/
- No
3:
"'
- ::1.
..... o<l> .
.,
!... � � - o. -'
-.e,_ >
J
. w

--
N
E.,
/ 'O S2.
�: o
i-
yl / "'
�, . ._ cr: s:<l>!! '
I ·11
// úl c.
1 :,:¡
•
1- N (/)
I �/ �

:. !
'/ - o �
I•
..1_ .9

· -- ., z a;
----
.._
�-- ---- -- �--- _f · -- --- .-
- '- ·- U)
.a
E
V . --
..:¡
o
E oz z::,
�
<(
"'
>< 'O
cr: oe:
N úl
V
- 1
8 �

¡
/ 3:
a:
"'- > '
V 1

''
-"t'
N
e'
<l>

,/
-
N
1 "o
T
- 1
/
.9 > ü
"�" z- �
en
- .;? o� 3:
/
¡
<l>
,_ N
z
M o..:
� :-=:
1

o J :i
�.,
;
N -2 o
�
:, (!)
,QJ 'lN3IJI3330J �V'dQ ¡"¡:'º�
-
46

....
L Watcr-in-Crudc Oil Emulsions 47

L Ali rhe above equations neglect drop inreracrions. When Stokes law can also be used to determine the effects of
the produced-fluid properties on emulsión srability, First,

L
a large number of drops interact rhe seuing rate is appreciably
slower and "hindered senling" is observed, the seuling velociry is proporrional to rhe square of the drop
diarnerer: rherefore, an emulsion can be sta- bilized solely
Example 4-1. Estimare the free-senling vdocity of a 100

l
by reducing the drop size. Emulsion droplers are usually
µm brine drop in oil. The oil has a specific
in the 0.5-50 µm r,nge (Bowman, rt al., 1977). (See
gravity of 0.8 and a viscosiry of I O cp, while rhe
Figure 4-6.) Arbitrarily, drop sizes above 10-150 µm may
brine specific graviry is 1.02.

l-
be classified as dispersions rather than emulsions because of
For simpliciry rhe general practice of using
rheir increased separation rates.
Srokes original equation is followed here.
g ·32.174 ft/s2

j_ d • (µm) (m/µm) (ft/m)

= (IOO)(l/106)(1/0.3048) = 3.28 x
Density
Crudc Oil. By definirían crude densiry at 60ºF is

!-
1 o--4 ft related to API gravity by:
Pd • 1.02 (62.4) = 63. 7 lb/fc3

SG = 141.5/(131.5 + ºAPI) (4-6)

Pr = 0.8 (62.4) = 49.9 lbif,3
µ¡ = (cp)(lb/ft-s-cp) Figure 4-11 presenrs rhe variation of crude specific
• (10)(0.000 672) = 0.00672 lb/ft-s graviry wirh remperarure (Bansbach and Bessler, 1975).
Alternarively, Figure 4-12 may be used ro estimare rhe
y.�(32�. l 7��
4)
�63.�68�-
(
.change in crude oil densiry wirh temperarure. Figure
4
(
�3.2�8x�10- �) 4 9.9 4)
� �
(18)(0.00672)
4-11 also shows rhe densiry of fresh and saline water. Note
a 3. 93 X 1 O-' fcis = 1.42 ft/hr rhar above 200ºF, rhe densiry difference berween

-- --
_>·
-- -- --
-- --
0.825

---
�000!-tl,f_. •.· -
. '

-- --
-- -....

-- -
0.850 � ::--

- i.-- ----
.
----
e,!
le'�'!!-'

-
0.875
. to"> -- -- --
-'
� .... .--

>
 0.900 . . •· e--
-- .
-- -- -
....
�
-
. - _si",
'/J�.....
:,.-
-- ......-
-- . -- ---- --
-·
e-

--- -

�
u
------- ... - -- -
----
.925

������- --- ---

�

8.
-
� --
f.- - ---

c1'i
t-�tt.J

;;:::
- � ..... ---- .
-- ------ --- -
.. ........-::::::
·¡;
0 -
IJ)
• :e;,, ·-
�
... . ...
0.950

-- ----:. :-��- -- --
.,...

-- -- ---- .-,,, • ¡,; _.. . -- .-,.s............

--- �----- .. \P

0.975 ::-- - -- ·¡t:I. !).... - .. -' -- ....

·r
1.000 . K:.

--
-PUREWATEA
�� ....._ WATER wrn-t 2000 LBS. SOOIUM CHLOAIOE PEA 1 000 B8L
�'-WAnR
r'""' 4000 l.88. soo:ut.A CHLOf'l� PER 000 881.. l
1.025
50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300 325
Temperalure ºF
Figure 4-11 Change in Specific Gravity with Temperature (NATCO, 1991)
- 48 Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsions

•·m.
1.01
t. 141.5 )

-
1)60"' '131.5 + ºAPI
62 37
•
1.0 •
0.99 . .... . ==" � = DCF . P6o
. � �- .
. . ;.;:1 t.:

0.98

0.97

¡¡:-
u
0.96
--
:- ::

ºAPI

-.
=-
60
�' -- _.,,,. ·-·-
: _·:t,_,,:
15 e
�
::-:�:,e-=_ :··-- -� ..
0.95 -- -::.·--· =··-·, --�-·- �--·-
l
.
- -... .::
i- - ·
·.. · - - - -- ....-· ::--- ·......
:: �
. ..
. .- , -- - "'-·.:: : r- = ' ti
, . -- - - ., , . .. .-
.. so
- ·: � _:J::" :=:J:-:.
u �-:-:..:�· -· , •.
ij 0.93
--
¡ .... ·····--· . ..

-- ··- ........ :::::t:': .. ::'\... ,::� .

-

-�
-

.- .
0.92
� e:
e
0.91

0.90
0.89
o
0.88
70 100 150 200 240
o
Temperatunt, F
Figure 4-12 Effect ofTemperature on Density of Crude Oils (Hankinson et al., 1979)

che water and crudc decreases. As discussed in Chapter 7,

chis limits che tempcrature to which very heavy crudes
should be heated in heacer-rrearers.
Brine. McCain repom che densiry of brine at 60ºF
and 1 atrn as a function of cota! dissolved solids (Figure
4-13). Changes in brine density wich temperature can be
esrirnated by:
where, t.YwT is read from Figure 4-14. The effecr of
pressure is rninor: increasing rhe pressure 2,000 psi
increases rhe densiry approxirnarely 0.2% (McCain,
1990, p. 448).
Patron (1977) provides anorher approach (Figure
4-15).
-
Wa1er-in-Crude Oil Emulsions 49

76

fl"'

-:
.s: 74 �
.. ,
<,
:,

,E
o

- ,,.

- .... 72

o
-e
1o
70 /
;¡o
·
o.. 68 /
.....
�
,,.... -o 66 ./
�;¡
64 V
V
e .J
"ti
•
•
.5 62
J-.
60
o 5 10 15 20 25 30
Total diuolved solids, %
Figure 4-13 Effect of Salinity on Brine Density (McCain. 1990. p. 449). Data from lnternational Critica! Tables, Vol. 11.
p. 79 (1927)
Emulsions. Aside from irs ocher undesirable effecrs, On the basis of I ce of oil-brinc mix-
produced brine and its associated sedirnent (referred to ture, we have
collecrively as S&W or BS&W) reduce the API gravirv 0.99 ce oil and 0.01 ce brine.
of a crude oil, and its value. The densiry of water ar 60ºF is
0.9990 glcc; therefore;
Examplc 4-2. Estimare rhe apparem or overall API
sbrine • O.O] x 1.02 x 0.9990
graviry of a crude oil of 35ºAPI (on a • 0.0102
water-free or "clean-oil" basis) that gojl = Q.99 X Q.8499 X 0.9990
also contains 1 o/o volurne wa ter.
• 0.8405
scrude • &brine + &oil
By definirion: 'API = 141.5/SG- 131.5 (4-8)
(! .OO)(SG,rud,)(.9990) • 0.0102 + 0.8405
where SGuude (1 o/o S&W) • 0.8516
SG = the specific graviry of rhe oil at
GO'F cornpared to water at GüºF. 'API crude (1 o/o S&\X') •
For this exarnple: 141.5/.8516- 131.5 • 34.7
Adding 1 vol'io S&W reduces rhe crude graviry by 0.3
SG = 141.5/('API + 131.5)
ºAPL
= 141.5/(35 + 131.5) e 0.8499
Suppose che brine-sediment conrenr of Crude oil prices can fluctuare widely; neverrheless,
rhe oil has a specific graviry of 1.02. pipeline oil is invariably sold on irs oil content alone,
 -
- 50 Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsions

--
O.OS --- --+-----+------�

- 0.0,1------t---�-�-f------�-----+--------f

�
•

- � 0.03

o.or

200 300
Temperolure, " F.
Figure 4-14 ll.Vwr vs. T (McCain, 1990, p. 447)
- SPF.CI FIC (;RAV!TY VS.
Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsioru SI

TOTAL O!SSOLVED SOLIOS.

- -•

- ...e
o
o
•

-" .. . , :

" o'
...1
o
" o'
"">
...1
o

o "'
140
...1

o
. ..
< (

... 120

-
�

'•
-
E"' 80

1.02 1.04 1.08 1.08 1.10 1.12 1.14 1.16 1.18 1.20 1.22 1.24
Specific Grovity

- Figure 4-15 Specific Gravity of Brine (Pallan, 1977, p. 214)

- 52 W.ater�in-Crude Oil Emulsions
Accordingly, if 1000 bbls of the 34. 7 ºAPI "crude" passes
rhrough che LACT meter, only rhe oil (990 bbl) is
paid for. In addition, the price per bbl varíes with
the observed graviry and this price differential varíes
berween
2 and 15 cents/bbl, Therefore, 1 % S&W not only low-
ers the graviry by 0.3 ºAPI, but ir also reduces rhe price
0.6 to 4.5 cencs/bbl.
-
Viscosity
Crude Oils, Figure 4-16 (McCain, 1990) shows
how che viscosiry of "dead" or gas-free crude varíes wich
ºAPI and Temperature. Solution gas reduces che crude
viscosity (McCain, 1990, p. 331).
Brine. Figure 4-17 (McCain, 1990) provides a quick
estimare of (he viscosiry of water as a function of tern-
peracure. The variacion wich pressure is neglecred, see
McCain (1990, p. 458) forchis minor effect. Ershaghi et
al (1983) present a decailed corrdacion based
mea· surements using synchecic brines.
Emulsione. Thompson eral. (1985) reports rhar vis-
cosiry of a 50% water-in-crude ernulsion was 6 to 20
times thac of the base crude. Esrimating the apparent vis-
cosiry of an emulsion is obviously riskv Smirh
and Arnold (1987) recommend:
µ/µ0 = 1 + 2.5 f + 14.I f2 (4-9)
where: µ, ::: viscosiry of emulsion, cp
µ0 = viscosity of crude oil, cp
f = volume fraction of dísperscd phase.
POTENTIAL EMULSIFICATION TENDENCIES
OF PRODUCTION PRACTICES
The effecrs of current produccion techniques can be
srared very succincdy: at least 90% of today's production
practices can generare and/or aggravace emulsión prob-
lerns. Nor only is ir ali too easy to creare emulsíons bue,
conversely, emulsion prevention involves difficult and/or
expensive steps such as insuring sready-srare operation,
minimizing agitation, heacing, chemical addition, elec-
rrical treatment, and so forrh.
Chemicals used in formarion fracruring, workovers,
well stirnulation. corrosion inhibirion, etc.,
frequendy cause very severe emulsion problems.
Gidley and
Hanson (1974) document that emulsions can be caused
by upsecs, formation fracturing, acidizing, pigging of
lines, and so forch. Table 4-1 shows thar spent mud acid
and forrnarion fines produced by well srimulation caused
very stable and hard-to-break emulsions.
Steam flooding has made dehydracing
Californias low º API high-viscosiry crude oils more
difficulr and expensive, Stearn flooding increases che
WOR, which can lower the salinity of rhe connare
water and swdl clays. The high downhole stearn
velociries can also dis- lodge reservoir fines and
agitare any crude-connate
water mixtures. Ali of the previous effects enhance
emulsion forrnation and srabiliry,
ln-situ cornbustion oc fire flooding also aggravates
emulsión problems. The underground parcial combus-
tion and cracking of rhe crude oil generates a mulritude
of new, high-rnolecular weight compounds-all of which
are potential em ulsifiers.
Surfactarus are specifically selected to lower the inter-
on
facial tension of the oil-water interface which, by defini-
tion, is che main thermodynamic driving force for bub-
ble coalescence. Surfactant, polymer, and COrfloods
can, cherefore, be expected ro produce severe emulsion
problems.
Any agicacion caused by sudden pressure drops and
pumps, (etc.} can stabilize emulsions beyond belief.
Therefore, two- or chree-stage vapor-liquid separatíon
not only minimizes shrinkage loss.es, bue also reduces
emulsion formacion. A moving-caviry pump creates rnin-
imum emulsificacion (Flanigan et al, 1992) while a
pos-
icive displacement type is the second choice. Centrifuga!
pumps should be avoided. Shea (1939) illustrated the
effect of mechanical mixing on emulsions as is shown in
Figure 4-18.
EMULSION PREVENTION
Opinion is divided on whecher emulsions are present
in the formation. bue there is no doubt that they do
form in che well scring or in surface facilities. Two
sreps can alleviare che problem. f1rsl, eliminace
turbulence and shearing \vherever possible. Second.
remove rhe water from the oil as soon as possible in
the surface facilities. Considerarion of comrnon
operaring situarions shows rhat rhese options are not
ah\'ays available; cherefore, in many cases, it becomes
necessary co provide for treating
µ

- 1000
Water-in-Crude OiJ Emulsions 53

ªTºOºO

-
ª50º0º
400 -
300

'\
200

a.100
U 80
� TO
O 60 ' ...
O 50
I'\.
' !'-
� 40

-o '... -,
'
-, " �e
�,...."'
30

-. ,
GI
GI

1
20

' �
-, -. . º�
r-, r-," r-, ['(et .... ' �

·-"'G.!.. .
e,.

-
a
-
CI

o
7
'
' ' -
6 '
....

-, >-

........
r-,
- '
5 r... r-.....
"' ��

o
• '
....
�
r-.' .....
.....
-
......
r-.... r-,
!',..

.
3
1 11
r-,
r-, e-
r-.....
r- f..... '
s F:::: r-,....

;:::
2
r-;
' ,: o,,.
.......

�
1,
r-,..; � r-, r-,.... i,...._
1
-'So-
0.8
0.1
0.6
0.5
�
- 'OJ ,
ro»
0.4
0.3

0.2

0.1
10 20 30 40 50
Stock-tank oll gravlty, º APf
Figure 4-16 Dead Oil Viscosities (McCain, 1990, p. 330)
 54 Water·in·Crude Oil Emulsions

(ST1waT[O

T(lfjll
..
� c••o•,
'., .,.,
....
•o•-
..,. .
120•

-
,10•-111•
111•·•00• ..... ....

- ,.,
' ..
'· l

" u' ••
,.,
¡,¡
¡...
'o
�
¡,.. o.
o
o.,
><
¡
.... • .r
Ul
o
ul
.... •••
>
º'

o.,

o.,

TEMPERA TUIIE, 'F

Figure 4-17 Viscosity o! Water (McCain, 1990, p. 457) (From Chestnut, unpublished, Shell Development Co.)
 Wa1er-in-Crude Oil Emulsions SS

Table 4-1 Srabiliry ofGrand lslc Block 16 Crudc Emulsíons ,he emulsions inevitably formed. The major sources of
emulsion forrnarion are nO\V summarized.
Aqueou.s Phase Aqueous Phase Breakout (%)
In jlowing wells, considerable agitation is usually
1) minutes l hour 24 hours
caused by gas coming out of solurion as pressurc: is
\X.'orkover F1 uid 8 32 100 decreased. This gas also causes turbulence as ir flows
Sea W,uer o 4 72 rhrough perforarion, screens, firtings, chokes, sharp
.\1ud Acid 4 16
Spcm �!ud Aud
96 o o bends in rhe tubing and lead lines, and orher
72 o o restric- uons.
Speru Mud Acid and Fines
o
'lourlc Gidl�y and Hanwm. 1974
The turbulence can be reduced, bur not prevented, by
insrallarion of a larger choke or by holding a higher back
pressure on the downstrearn side of che choke. A
down-
hole choke usually causes less emulsificarion. In fact, it

Figure 4-18 Emuls,fying Tendency of Pumps (Shea, 1939)

 56 Watcr-in-Crudc Oil Emulsions
often decreases rhe srabiliry and arnount of the emulsion
produced because:
1. There is less pressure differential across a downhole
choke.
-
2. Downhole temperatures are usually considerably
higher than surface ternperarures. (Heating breaks
emulsions. See Chaprer 7.)
3. There is laminar (straight line) flow for a long dis-
tance on rhe downstream side of the choke, and cor-
respondingly less turbulence.
In sorne cases the inconvenience of a downhole choke
is offset by rhe economics of less emulsion treating ii.e.,
-
reduced addition of demulsifier chemicals and/or less
fue! for heating).
In gas-liji w,lls, emulsificarion is caused mainly ar rwo
places:
l. At che point where the gas is inrroduced into the
flow string.
2. At the wellhead.
When inrerrnirrenr gas-lift is used, rhe emulsion usu-
ally is created ar che wel! head or in rhe surface equip-
rnent. When continuous gas-lift is used, much of the
-
emulsion is formed downhole ar gas injection points. In
determining the method of gas-lift that wil! be most effi-
cient, che operator should consider emulsion problems
thar will be encountered, how chey can best be rreaced,
and at whac cost.
In pumping wells, che greatesr source of emulsificarion
is in che pump and tubing. The following are
sorne causes of turbulence in pumping wells:
1. l..eaking standing valves, traveling valves, plungers,
cups and other pump parts.
2. Gas produccion in pumping wells rhar causes con-
siderable turbulence in the narrow passages of the
pum p.
3. Pounding of che pump thar causes che rods to whip
and creare additional turbulence.
Sources of curbulence can be minimized by using a
good pump that has close tolerances, oversize standing
and traveling valves, and proper speed and length of
stroke, On gas-producing pumping wells, a gas anchor
usually wil! reduce che turbulence.
Principal sources of turbulence in manifold, and garh-
ering lines are pumps, valves, and fittings in which rhe
flow diceccion changes abruptly. le seerns likely chac che
turbulence produced in srraighr sections will often be
sufficient to result in emulsion formation, especially in
che case of gas-liquid flow.
Other sources of emulsification in production equip-
rnent are leaking dump valves on separarors, free-water
knockouts, and settling tanks. However, chese
usually
can be relatively easily corrected,
Review Questions
1. Define: emulsion, dispersion, micelle, colloid, ernulsi-
fier, surface tension, regular emulsion, inverse emul-
sion, complex emulsion, rag layer, and drag coefficient.
2. List rhe requiremenrs for forming a srable emulsion.
3. How are warer-in-crude-oil ernulsions stabilized?
4. List the types of emulsions commonly found in the
oilfield.
5. Discuss che factors that determine che cype of
emul-
sion that is formed.
6. List the emulsifiers rhat stabilize regular oilfield
emulsions.
7. Shorr-chain fatty acids can be considered to consist of
rwo pam: a polar, hydrophobic end, -COOH , anda
hydrocarbon, hydrophobic chain, CH3-(CH2)0 -.
Sketch how rhis type of surfactanc can stabilize
o/w
and w/o emulsions. Show che orientarion of rhe sur-
factant molecule at che water-oil interface for borh
rypes of emulsion.
Compare your sketches wich Schramm (1992, pp.
21,38).
8. Define free water, entrained \\'ater, and emulsified
water.
9. List three mechanisms by which emulsions may be
broken.
1 O. List and discuss che factors that determine the sra-
bility of regular emulsions. Which of chese faccors
are dominant?
11. Sketch a beaker filled with either a w/o or a
o/w emulsion. Show graphically how the emulsion
changes if sedimenracion, creaming, aggregation, or
coalescence occurs.
Compare your skecches with Schramm ( 1992, p. 42).
12. Suggest a method of estimJting the velocity at which
a water drop ,vould senle in a crude
oil.
List the assumptions. Is che estímate high or low?
13. List severa! causes of emulsions in che field.
14. A produced crude has to be pumped.
Recommend a suicable type of pump and state the
reasons.
 -
-
Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsions 57

15. Scokes Law cannot be used to predict settling 3. Viscosiry of Wacer-in-Crude-Oil Emulsions.
velociries Thompson et al. (1985) compared the viscosiries
accurately; ic does, however, provide excellenr
of a dry ii.e., "clean" or 0% BS&W) crude and a
qualica- rive guidance on che dfects of the
50 vol% water-in-crude emulsion (same crude, of
pertinenr variables. Discuss these cwo statements, course).
16. Derive Equacion 4-2 scarcing from Equarion
4-1.

Dispersed
Problems Shcar Rare Phase Volume Viscosiry
- 1. Crude 'API vs. % S&W (sec-J) (%) (cp or mPa-s)
A crude oil, which contains 1.0 vol% S&W,
has a ))'C 2s·c so-e
28ºAPI. 100 o 12 7.8 5.1
If che crude is dehydrated to 0.15 vol% S&W, 100 50 275 151 29
esri- 700 o 12 7.8 5.1
700 50 148 75 13
mate rhe new 'API.
Assume thac che brine (S&W) has a SG = 1.03.
2. Serriing Rares for Brine Drops in Crude Oil
Bansbach and Bessler (1975) report che a. Compare the Thompson et al data with rhe
following data for crude oil viscosiry.
Srnirh and Arnold equation:

Crudc Graviry Viscosiry (cp)

µ/µ. = 1 + 2.5 f + 14.1 (4-9)
f2
ºAPI glcml Tempcraturc IOOºF 140ºF
IBOºF b. What conclusions can be
drawn?
c. Is Equacion 13-14 any bener'
60 0.7389 0.84 0.64 0.52 4. Total Interface Area vs. Drop Size
50 0.7796 1.82 1.22 0.92
Consider 100 mL of a water-in-crude-cil emulsion
40 0.8251 3.15 1.22 1.34
30 0.8752 8.79 4.73 2.98 that concains 5 volurne % S&W.
25 0.9340 20.77 9.04 5.24 a. If che "average" drop size is d (µm) show thar
20 0.9340 81.88 27.09 12.05 chenumber of S&W drops, Nd, in the 100 mL (or
I" 15 0.9659 509.9 127.3 46.17
l 00 crn-') sample is:
"" Nd = 5/V = 5/[(Jt/6) (4-1 O)
' (d/l0,000)3]
They also reponed che following senling rates
for b. Show thar the interface area, Ad in cm-. of a sin·
I"""' brine drops in crude oil as calculated from Stokes gle drop is:
Law.
Ad = Jt(d/10,000)2
I"""' Scnling Vdociry (in./hr)
(4-11)
Crude Graviry
c. Show that che total oil-S&W interface area, AT,
Size
I"""' Temperacun.. IOOºF 180ºF IOOºF 180ºF IOOºF
180ºF Ar = 60.000/d
(4-12)
60 ºAPI 24 39 384 620 9.600
15,500 d. Estimare rhe minimum work rhcorerically
50 9.3 18 150 296 3.700 required to divide the 5 mL of water inco lOmm
7,400
40 4.3 JO 69 161 1.700 4,000
drops.
.lO 1.1 J7
20
3.2
0.06 0.4
51
1.0 6.8
435
25
1.300
169
'1
15 0.005 0.06 0.08
State your assurnprions.
0.9 2.1 23
Nomenclature

a. Check Bansbach and Bessler's calcularions. Ad = area of one drop

b. What reservations are warranted in Ap = projecred area of particle, fcl
applying
= rr d2/4 (if sphere)
Srokes Law?
AT = total interface area of ali Nd drops
c. Check the above crude-oil viscosiry daca.
 58 Water-in-Crude Oil Emulsions
BS&W = ba.sic sedimenta and water
Co = drag coefficienr (Equation 4-3),
dimensionless
d = drop diarnerer, ft2
f = volume fraccion of dispersed phase in
emulsión, dirnensionless
Fbuoy = buoyancy force on drop, (Equation 4--4), lbf
F drag = drag force on drop, (Equacion 4-3), lbf
g = accelerarion due ro graviry, ft/sec
& = conversión faccor = 32.174 lbm-frlsec2.Jbf
Nd = coral number of drops
Re = Reynolds Number = d V p/µ , dirnensionless
SG = specific graviry, dimensionless
S&W = sedirnenr and water, sarne as BS&W
V = velociry, fr/sec
V = drop volume = rt d3/6, ft3
t. VwT = volume temperarure factor (Equation 4-7),
dimensionless
µ = viscosiry, cp or lbm/ft-sec
p = densiry, lbm/fr3 or g/cm3
Subscripts
d = drop
e= emulsion
f = fluid
o= oil
w = water
References
API (1969),
V.,/um, Manual
on Liquid Wasm,on1 seDisposal of
ed., American Wastes:
Perroleum
Refinery
Insrirure, Division ofRefining, Washington, DC. pp. 5-14.
Bancroft, W. D. (1921), Applied Colloid Cbemistry,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, NY.
Bansbach, Paul L. (1970), "The How and Why of
Emulsions," Oil & Gas [ournal, Vol. 68, No. 36, pp.
87-93 (Seprember 7).
Bansbach, P. L. and D. U. Bessler (1975), "Cold
Treating of Oilfidd Emulsions," 22nd Annual
Southwesrern Petroleum Shorc Ccurse, Texas Tech
Universiry, Lubbock, TI(.
Bowman, R. W., W. D. Burton and J. A. Pryor ( 1977),
"Starisrically Designed Oil Dehydrarion Tests," S.P.E.
Paper No. 6529, AIME, Dallas, TIC
Bromley, M. J., S. H. Gaffey, and G. E. Jackson
(1991), "Oilfield Emulsion Control, Techniques and
Chemical Used to Separare Oil and Water," Proceedings
Corrosion 91 Conference, Vol. 3, lnstirure Corrosion
UK. Manchester, England.
Ershaghi, lraj, Doddy Abdassah, Mohammad R.
Bonakdar, and Saif Ahmad (1983), "Esrimarion of
Geothermal Brine Viscosiry," fournal of Pttrol,um
Tecbnology, Vol. 35, No. 3, pp. 621---028 (March).
Flanigan, D. A., J. E. Scolhand, E. Shimoda, and F.
Skilbeck (1992), "Use of Low-Shear Pumps and
Hydrocyclones for lmproved Performance in the
Cleanup of Low-Pressure Water," SPE Production
Enginttring, Vol. 7, No. 3, pp. 295-300, (August).
Gidley, J. L. and H. R. Hanson (1974), "Central-
Terminal Upset from Well Treatment is Prevenred," Oil
& Gas]., Vol. 72, No. 6, pp. 53-56 (Feb. 11).
GPSA (1987), Enginuring Data Book, 1 Orh ed. Gas
Processors Suppliers Association, Tulsa, Oklahoma.
Grace, Richard (1992), "Commercial Emulsion 1
Breaking," Chapter 9 in Emulsions: Fundamentals and
Applications in the Petroleum lndustry, Advances in
Chernistry Series 231, American Chemical Sociery,
Washington, OC.
Hankinson, Risdon W., Richard G. Siegers, Theresa 1
Krolikowski Buck and Frank P. Gielzecki (1979).
"Revision of Perroleum Measurement Tables adopred,"
Oil & Gas fournal, Vol. 77, No. 52, pp. 66-70,
(Decernber 24).
Lucas, Roy N. (1969), "Performance of Heavy Oil
Dehydrators," Journal of Paroleum Trchnology. Vol. 21,
No.McCain,
10, pp. Jr.,
1286-1292, (October).
W. D. (1990), Th, Propenies ofPetrol,um
Fluids, 2nd ed., Penn Well Books, Penn Well Publishing
Co., Tulsa, OK.
NATCO (1991), Trchnical Development Program,
Nacional Tank Company, Tulsa, OK.
Patton, Charles C. (1977), Oilfield Water Systems, 2nd
ed., Campbdl Perroleum Series, Norman, Oklahoma.
PETEX (1990), Treating Oil Field Emulsions, 4rh
ed., Perroleum Exrension Service, U. of Texas ar
Austin, TX.
Rosen, Milron J. (1978), Su,factants and lnte,facial
Phenomma, J. Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
Schramm, Laurier L. (1992), "Perroleum Emulsions,"
Chapter I in Emulsions: Fundamentals and Applications
 -
-- in th, Petroleum lndustry, Advances in Chemistry Series
231, American Chemical Sociery, Washington, DC.
Walcr-in-Crudc Oil Emulsion.s

Svetgoff, James A. (1989), "Demulsification Key To

S9

Producrion Eíliciency," Petrolrum Éngineer !nternationa/,

Shea, G. B. (1939), "Pracrices and Merhods of Vol. 61, No. 8, pp. 28, 30, 32, 34-35 (August).

-
Preventing and Treating Crude-Oil Emulsions," U.S.
Bureau ofMines., Bullerin 417, Washington, DC.
Smith, H. Vernon and Kenneth E. Arnold (1987),
"Crude Oil Emulsions," Chaprer 19, Paroleum
Enginuring Handbook, H. B. Bradley (ed.), S.P.E.,
Richardson, TX.
Srrassner, J. E. (1968), "Effect of pH on lnterfacial
Films and Stabiliry of Crude Oil-Water Ernulsions,"
Thornpson, D. G., A. S. Taylor and D. E. Graham
(1985), "Emulsification and Demulsification Related to
Crude Oíl Producrion." Colloids and Suifaw, Vol. 15,
pp. 175-189.
Yaws, Carl L., Haur-Chung Yang, Jack R. Hopper and
Keirh R. Hansen (1990), "Hydrocarbons: Water
Solubility Data," Ch,mical Enginuring, Vol 97, No. 4,
pp. 177 (April).

-l
Journal of Petroleum Technology, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp.

-...
303-312 (March).
sequencing of modules is derermined during rhe design
phase of field developmenr, Design bases are discussed
firsr, followed by a review
of rypical processing operarions. The scope of processing

.l
and sorne precaurions for reducing emulsion problems
are described next. The final secrion deals wirh environ-
mental considerations.

J.. Chapter 5 DFSIGN BASFS

i Field Processing of Crude Oil

Importan! design paramerers include che feed or well-
stream composirion, pressure, temperature, and flow

,l me. These properries can and do change with rime in a

manner ofren difficulr to predice, bue rhey are neverthe-

l
less very irnportant. The equipment selected should be
sufficiently flexible and/or adequarely sized to operare

i INTRODUCTION

The complex narure of wellmeams is responsible fo,

che complex processing of che produced fluids (gas, oil,
water, and solids). The hydrocarbon portien muse be
separated inro produces rhat can be srored and/or
transponed. The nonhvdrocarbon contaminan es must be
removed as much
as fea�ible to rneer storage, transport, reinjection, and
dis-
posal specifications. Ultimare disposal of rhe various
waste strearns depends on factors such as che locacion
of rhe f,eld and rhe applicable environrnenral
regularions. The overriding cricerion for produce
selection. construc- rion, and operation decisions is
economics.
Figure 5-l is a comprehensive picture of the individual
unir operations carried out in field processing. As
srated in Chapter 1, ali rhe various modules shown will
not ali be present in every syscem. Furthermore, rhe
modules used in a given applicacion may not be
arranged in che exact sequence shown, alrhough rhe
sequence is, in gen- eral, correct. The selection and
 the well in che face of these changes in feed flow rate
and cornposition over che life of the field.
A, stated in Chapter 2, wellsrreams muse be
sampled and analyzed with great care if che analyses are
to serve as a reliable design basis. Even rhen rhe
wellmeam cornposi- tion used in design must be viewed
realistically. The likeli- hood rhar rhe actual feed to the
processing equipment will be identical to che design-basis
feed is remote. Producrion is usually from a
combinarion of wells rhar may each have differing
cornpositions. Composicion may also vary from
zone to zone in a given formarion. The producing parrern
(i.e., number of wells and flow rate from each) will
also probably be different from thar originally envisioned.
In addirion, wellstream composicions will change
as reservoir pressure declines. Pressure decline wirh
produc- rion in reservoirs is a much studied
phenomenon, which is difficu!t to predice because of
the nonuniformiry and unknown geometry of che
reservoir.
- 62 Fidd Processing of Crude Oil
•.
Add Gu
Ou
- �--+,Treating
Dehydration
PhUe Oil Dehydra11on/
eparation
Walo<
'---SklrMilng
F11ratlon
Anorher irnportanr factor in rhe field processing of
crude oil is che type of reservoir drive. The three common
rypes of drive are summarized in Table 5-1. Table 5-1
also summarizes how che gas-oil ratio (COR), water-oil
ratio (WORJ, and reservoir pressure vary wirh rime as rhe
formation is produced. ln addition, rhe oil rare will
gen- erally fall. Reservoir engineers must forecast chese
irnpor- tanr production characterisrics. Muskar (1949)
poinrs out rhat under lirnired production rates, gas-drive
fields are usually parcial warer-drive.
Artificial /ifi may be used when rhe natural driYe pres-
sure declines or is absent, such as by pumping rhe oil
with a deep-well pump or by gas injection into rhe wel!-
bore to provide "gas lifr." Jn the case of very
viscous, dense crude oils, steam may be injected to
provide a rea- sonable flow rate of produced oil.
Je is ofren advanrageous to supplemenr che original
reservoir drive mechanism by che injecrion of water or
61
Raro
Tramport
Comprtuion¡
.._,..ne¡
Rtlnjectlon /
Rarw
Slo<aga¡
Plptllne
Stablllutlon Slorago/
Desaltlng Pipeline
Dl,posal/
Relnjectlon
-
�--•_nd-1,-.i
�-

-
Bac!erloClde Scale lnhlbltot

FlftraUon Deaeratlon Holding

T&ri<

Colroslon lnhlbltot

Seawater

Figure 5-1 General Field·Processing Scheme

gas inro rhe reservoir. In che pase, such practice
was resorced to afrer pressure decline, and che
procedure was known as secondary recovery. More
recenrly, che injection proccss may bcgin vcry early
in the life of rhe field, almost from the beginning
of production, in the so- called pressure
maintenance. Volume 3 will discuss in deprh borh
the processes and equipmenr required for injection
water treatrnenr; Figure 5-1 shows a typical treatrnent
Water-drive fields will exhibir a conunuous, and,
in
many cases, a dramaric increase in che water-oil ratio.
Solurion-gas drive fields or gas-cap drive fields
will exhibir prcssure decline and accompanying
producrion decline with time. Gas injection or
reinjection may be desirable to optimize fluid recovery.
Enhanced oi/ recovery (EOR) may be pracriced
ro increase che percenrage of rhe in-place oil thar is

-
sequence involving rreating vessels and pumps. recov- ered, Many methods have been considered,
but the

- Table 5-1 Rescrvoir

Field Proccssing of Crude Oil
63

Orives
Ga,-Oil
Orive Ratio Water-Oil Reservoir Percent
Mechanism on
Ratio Pressurc Recove
red

Dissolvcd-Gas lncreases Zero Decreces

ro rnaximum, rapidly & sce:a.dily
rhen decreases
Ga,-Cap Consrant to Zero Decreases slowly
breakthrough,
then increases
with rime
Water Approximarcl Breaks through, Conscant 35-75
y constant then increascs

Sourcc: Cl:ark, 1960

main methods in use today are rhe injection of gas oilfield facilities including the selecrion of
(car- bon dioxide or nitrogen), chemicals (polymers, vessel and pipe sizes and of comprcssor
rnicellar- polymer solurions), or steam (thermal horsepower, or even the need for
flood). As dis- cussed in Chapter 4, EOR practices compression. Design of equipment based
can cause severe emulsion problems. solely on inirial production condicions can
Pressure and llow rate changes will affect rhe design lead to inadequate sizing and/or omission
of of viral equipment. Generalizations are very
difficult; each project must be analyzed to
consider irs peculiar characterisrics, including both Table 5-2 Typical Surge
the early and late production patterns expecred. Factors
Processing equipment rnusr also be sized to Service Factor
handle short-rerm flow variarions. In che absence of
Facility handling primary produccion from ics
specific data (rhe surge factors suggested in Table 5-2 own
[API RP 14E, plarform
1991]) can be 20%
used. Faciliry handling primary production from
another
Ali of the foregoing factors are important in rhe plarform or remoce well in less than 150 ft.
field handling of che crude oil. Anriciparion of each or 30º/o
any of thern is imporcant in planning rhe production Faciliry handling primary production from
another
facilities. pl:uform or remate well in more rhan 150 ft.
Analysis of existing facilities is also required; in 40o/o
Facilrry handling gas lifted production from ics
fact, this task is undertaken far more ofren than the
own
original design. The same comments previously made plarform
wirh respect to inicial design also apply equally well to 40º/o
Faciliry handling gas lifced production from
analysis. anorher
platform or remate well
SOº!á
PROCESSING Source: API RP 14E, 1991. Repnnted councsy of rhe Amerio.n
OPERATIONS Pctrolcum
Insnru
re
As shown in Figure 5-1, che individual phases (gas,
liquid hydrocarbon, liquid water, and solids) should
illusrrare how lab and field tests performed before
be sepa- rared from each other as early as practical.
con- struction can idenrify and minirnize furure
Phase separa- tion is discussed in detail in
production and processing problems such as scaling,
Chapter 6. Individual streams can chen be treated
foaming, ernul- sion formation, wax deposirion, and
with less technical difficulry and more economically.
hydrace formation. Processing of the separated
Harcley and Bin Jadid (1989)
strearns is now reviewed briefly because many of the
individual unir operarions are discussed in detail in
subsequenr chapters.

Gas
Processing

As shown in Figure 5-1, gas processing begins with

trear- ing, if necessary, to remove che acid gases-
hydrogen sul- fide and carbon dioxide. Both gases
are very corrosive
when liquid water is present and hydrogen sulfide is
mosr toxic. Environrnental regularions almosc always
prohibir the release of significant arnounts of hydrogen
sulfide to che surroundings. Conversion to elemental
sulfur is becorning increasingly necessary.
Gas sweetening usually uses aqueous solurions of
var-
ious chemicals. Therefore, sweetening will precede dehy-
dration, Dehydrarion is often necessary ro prevent
che
64 Fidd Processing of Crude Oil

forrnation of gas hydrates, which may plug

-
high·pressure processing equipment or pipeline, at high
pressure and at rernperatures considerably higher than
32ºF (OºC).
Gas thar contains considerable amounts of liquefiable
hydrocarbons (erhane or propane and heavier) can pro·
duce condensare upon compressing or cooling. The con-
densate may cause difficulty in pipelining or subsequent
processing. Field processing to remove these natural-gas
liquids (NGL), somerimes referred to simply as conden-
sare, may be economical or may be required to meet a
hydrocarbon dew-poinr specification. In remore loca·
tions such processing is generally avoided if possible.
Recovered condensare rnay, in rurn, have 10 be
stabilized
by removing dissolved gaseous components to obtain a
transportable product.
Final disposal of rhe gas meam depends on rhe sir-
uation. Early in rhe life of a rernore field, before the
availability of a pipeline, the gas may simply be flared.
Ir is becomíng more common to conserve che gas by
compression and reinjecrion into rhe formation wirh a
view to its eventual recovery and sales. Conservation is
often demanded by law; perrnits to fiare are usually
temporary and granted only during rhe inirial start·up
of producrion. Envíronmental restraints may also pre-
ven! flaring especially if the gas contains any hydrogen
sulfide.
The common sicuarion is ro flow che natural gas into
a pipeline for sales. Gas pipelines have operating pressure
levels of rhe order of 700-1000 psia to allow
economical transpon in pipes of reasonably small
diamecer. Cornpression of the gas to pipeline inler
pressure may be required.
Volume l , Chaprer 5 discusses field processing of nar-
ural gas in considerable detail.

Oil Processing
Afrer free water remova], produced oil ofren contains
excessive residual nnulsified water. Trearing, also called
tkhydration, is required to reduce che water conrenr to a
value acceptable for rransporranon or sales. Dehydration
should be accomplished using the rnost economic com-
binarion of four facrors or rechniques, namely, residence
time, chemical addition, hear, and elecrrosratic fields.
Chapter 7 discusses dehydration in derail. Dilurion water
rnusr occasionally be added to reduce rhe salt content
of rhe residual emulsion (i.,., rhe sales crude oil) to a
suit- ably low leve!. Such desalting is described in
Chaprer 8.
In rhe Unired States, desalting is usually performed in che refinery;
overseas, desahing is sornetirnes perforrned in the fidd.
Hydrogen sulfide in crude oil is iirnired to reduce han- dling and
rransportation difficulries because of its extreme toxicity and
corrosiveness, Gas scripping or heat- ing is usual!y used for hydrogen
sulfide removal or sweer- ening as is discussed in Chapter 9.
Crude oi! stabi!ization refers to lowering che vapor
pressure to a value that will allow safe handling and transport. Vapor
pressure control is obtained by stage separarion, reboiled disrillarion, or
a combination of che two. During seabilizarion sorne of rhe more
volarile hydrocarbons are removed as vapor and rhis gas phase
entrains hydrogen ,ulfide and other volatile sulfur corn- pounds from
1he sour crude oil. Additional sweetening may nor be required.
Stabiliz.ation is discussed fully in Chapter 9.

Water Proccssing
Produced water (usually saline) is a waste material, but pro.cessing is
often necessary ro render che water suirable for disposal to the
surroundings. Often additional water, frequenrly sea water, is also
processed for ,varerflooding. These cwo separate water processing
schemes are both shown in Figure 5-1.
Oil removal is the first treacment for produced warers. Oil·in·water
emulsions are difficu!t to clean up due to the smali size of rhe
particles, as weli as the presence of emulsifying agents. Suspended
solids may also be present in che water. Types of equipmenc used for
removing oil and solids include:

• Oil skimmer tanks

• Place coalescers
• Air flocarion canks
• Hydrocyclones
• Filtration units
Before rein¡ecrion, rhe produced warer is usualiy fil· rered,
deaerared if necessary, and rreated wich biocides. The major goal, of
course, is to prevent reservoir plugging.
Seawater is by far rhe most commonly used injection
water far pressure maintenance because of ics obvious abundance.
Unfortunately. its poor water quali1y demands exrensive rrearmenc. As
shown in Figure 5-1, seawater IS fim treated wirh shock biocides to kili
ali organisms and then filtered. Dissolved oxygen is

removed eirher by chemical scavengers, by gas or vacuum
stripping, or by catalyric reaction wirh hydrogen. This
reduces rhe corrosivity of che water dramatically and
inhibics growch of aerobio slime-forming bacteria in che
wdlbore. Then che water is sterilized eicher by ulrravioler
radiacion or additional biocide injection to kili bacteria
and other micro-organisms. Micro-organisms can cause
corrosion, plugging oflines and reservoir forrnation rock,
and chey can also produce H2S in che formation
(Oscroff, 1979). Scale inhibirors are also added before
injection into the formation.
Volume 3 will discuss field processing of boch pro-
duced and injecrion waters. In a massive waterflood (over
400,000 bwpd), rreatrnent of injecrion and produced
waters represents a major cose rhar often exceeds that of
rrearing rhe crude oil.
Sand Treatmcnt
Sand and ocher salid material may garher in any of rhe
previously mentioned equiprnenr in locarions where che
velociry and turbulence in che liquid strearn is low,
such as in che bottom of ranks or on coalescer places.
Removal of che sand by sorne cype of jetcing nozzle or
similar arrangement may be necessary. Sand remova] is
some- times carried out by centrifugal cone desanders
(Arnold,
1983). The sand irself may have adhering oil or emulsion
rhar requires washing before discharge to che surround-
ings. Removing sand from separators is discussed in
Chapter 6.
Auxiliary Equipment
In addicion to che previous operarions, shown in
Figure
5-1. addirional equiprnenr is required for important
ancillary funcrions. These are now reviewed briefly.
Test separarors with appropriate gas and liquid flowme-
ters are often provided for periodic measurement of the
production rare from individual wells or groups of wells.
Such testing is ofcen a legal requirement. Appropriare
flowlines, valves, and manifold, must be provided so chat
rhe desired wellstreams can be isolated and passed
through the test produccion separator. This equipment
can become quite elaborare if man y wells are involved.
In rhe Unired States, total oil produccion is usually
measured in kase automaric custody rransftr (LACT) units
--
that measure oil producuon volume as well as S&W con-
tent. Turbine mecers are sornetimes used overseas. Crude
Field Proccssing of Crudc Oil 65
oil measuremenc is discussed in detail in Chapter 11. Gas
production rate is generally measured in orifice-rnerer
installations as is described in Volume l.
Automatic safery systems are a necessary and integral part
of any oilfield facilicy. Adequace prorection muse be pro-
vided against ali unsafe condicions including overpressure,
liquid overflow, overheating in fired heaters, unwanred
sources of ignition, and so forch. Rench et al. (1993)
pre- sent an offshore case history thac illuscrates safery
consid- erations. Safecy systems and other instrurnentation
are dis- cussed furrher in Chapter 15. Vent and fiare
facilities are required for rhe safe removal and disposal of
gas evolved in borh normal and emergency operation.
Pressure relief and flaring are discussed in Chapter 16.
Recovery of natural gas liquids from waste vapor is
often pracciced by use of so-called vapor recovery units
(VRU), consisting of compression and cooling equip-
ment as is discussed in Chapter 14. Emission limitations
are making vapor recovery rnandarory in many cases.
Other addirional operations include such irems as
electrical power generation, insrrument air supply, as well
as fire, drinking, and sanicary wacer supplies, and sewage
disposal.
PROCESSING SCOPE
In a given faciliry, the scope of processing depends on
che nature of the well íluids, the location and size of che
field, availabilicy of gas and electricicy, che comparacive
sales prices for gas and crude oil.
Nature of the Wellstream
Key variables include the nacure of che reservoir drive,
che water-oil rario (WOR), che gas-oil rario (GOR) or
altemacively the gas-liquid ratio (GLR). and che nature
of che crude oil ('API, pour poinc, etc.). As previously
detailed, the rype of drive determines ho,v che racios of
gas, oil, and water are expecced to vary during the life of
che lield. lf large increases in water production
are expecred, rhen suirable steps should be taken. 1 his
cradi- cionally involves selecring a size safery factor.
Size Factors. In the Middle East a factor as high as
2 has been used because of the large flows (400,000
to
750,000 bopd are not uncommon) and the ready avail-
-
abilicy of land. Offshore (e.g., the Norrh Sea) where ic
66 Fidd Proccssing of Crude Oil
 will be essentially impossible to install additional
pro- cessing vessels ar sorne furure time because of rhe
severe space and weighr restrictions, size factors usually
vary berween I.5 and 1.75. In Indonesia, where natural
water dnves occur, a size factor of 1.5 is common.

-
In rhe United Srares where flows are compararively
very small and small units readily available, rhere has
been a great tendency ro design for presenr needs. require fue! at 200-400 psig. High-pressure, high-'API

-
Changes can be crudes require vastly different processing rhan low-'API
made later to fit furure crudes produced by srearn drive. Of course, high pour-
rrends. point crude oils cannot be allowed ro "set up." This
Current thinking advocates smaJI size facrors ro mini- is discussed iurcher in Chapter 13.
rnize up-front consrruction coses because predicred
well producrion capacicies are often oprimisric, At worst, Low-GOR Oil, Processing may be as simple as that
pro- duction is deferred, not lost. shown in Figure 5-2 (Kryska et al., 1976). Dissolved
nat- ural gas is releascd in one or more separators in series,
Artificial Lift. Wellhead pressures will be low and fol- lowed by emulsion treating and storage. The
crude oil stabilization is nota majar cancero. The gas-oil oil is metered as ir is pumped to che carrier, wherher it's
ratio determines if rhere is sufficient, almosr free, gas ranker, barge, or pipeline. Wacer is cleaned up for
for fue! at the desired pressures. Modern gas rurbines local dis-
can charge. Gas may be venced or tlared if no
compression
facilities or pipeline is available or ecor.omical; subjecr,
of
course, to environmental
regularions.

Dry, Sweet Gas. Processing may also be ver�·

simple,
as shown in Figure 5-3 (Kryska et al., 1976).
Condensare

Wallhead

�l�.-4-C><l--•�,--����G- Ga.s

a.s__, Oil·Surge

-
V8$HI

1
Wa!er

Wat.er

Gas
Vent
¡

Water
Oil to
Treatar Pipeline

Waler
DioPosal
F;gure 5-2 Simple Oil-Processing Scheme (Kryska et al., 1976)
 Ficld Processing of Crudc Oil 67

l.ow.PrN1Ur1
WellhMd �

-.
Compt- Coollr

Coolor

r
¡

,...
l
- ..... surge
Fllor
Coo!NCO< l
t-�-+ Tranoport
._

Glycol
Reconcentrator Contacto,
j,._.... Figure 5-3 Mínimum Gas Processing (Kryska et al., 1976)

NGL are separared out firsc, followed by compression
(if necessary), glycol dehydration, metering, and deliv-
ery ro rhe pipeline. Hydrocarbon condensare may be
injecred inro the gas pipeline or transponed
separacely.
High-GOR Crude Oíl. Processing is more cornplex,
because the large amounts of both oil and gas require
rhat each be recovered for sales. A typical flow sheet is
shown in Figure 5--4 (Maddox et al., 1979). Stage sepa-
ration of oil and gas with gas recompression is
pracriced, Borh streams may require furcher processing
before sales, such as removal of hydrogen sulfide and
water. The oil may require ernulsion rreacing and/or
desalring, Note that any condensate formed in rhe
coolers following che compressors is recycled back into
the appropriate separa- tor, This scheme produces only
two produce streams- crude oil and natural gas-bue
che recycle increases corn- pression horsepower
Location of the Field
Geographical locarion and producrion flow rates of che
crude oil, gas, and brine determine rhe design and oper-
ation of rhe oil-treating facilities. In che United Stares,
geographical locarion can vary from reasonably accessi-
biliry (CA, LA, OK, TX) to offshore (Gulf of Mexico,
Cook lnler) ro compararively remoce (North
Slope, Rocky Mounrains).
If there are only a few, isolared wells, each may have
irs own wellhead processing facilities. On the other hand,
if there are man y wells, it will generally be advanrageous
ro produce rhrough a gathering system to a central pro-
cessing facility. For a moderate-to-high-GOR oil, where
considerable gas is evolved, the central planr is ofren
referred to as a GOSP (gasoil separation plant), alrhough
other irnporranr operations are carried out.
Herring and Tirsworrh (1975) considered che pros
and cons of various processing alternatives for a high-
GOR crude oil in a remoce location. Figures 5-5, 5-6,
and 5-7 show three possible schemes that are used in

-
considerably as is discussed later in
Chapters 9 and 17.
- 68 Field Processing of Crude Oil
Well
-- Stream
- .. - . . :
-
Figure 5-4 Separation with Vapor Recompression (Maddox et al., 1976)
indumy today. Figure 5-5 depicts mínimum field pro-
cessing wich high-vapor-pressure crude oil pipelining. A
larger pipeline is required fo, che oil chan for che pipelin-
ing of che low-vapor-pressure crude of Figures 5-6 and
5-7. These Íatter figures show pipelining of atrnospheric
crude oil. Condensare is recovered from che gas and is
cither pipelined separarely (Figure 5--0) or rwo-phased
wich che gas (Figure 5-7).
Platform proctssing is an extreme case of remoce pro-
cessing. le is safe to say thar as lictle is done as possible on
platform because of rhe high cosr and low allowable
weighr of placform facilicies. In che early days of offshore
producrion, very lirrle processing was done on plarforrn.
Development of rhe Nonh Sea area has displayed
increasingly complex offshore processing.
Gas to
Dehydration
P r c
· -- - - - --- - - -
x :easlng
..
.• --------. -- -- - - - Alternete
Stabllized
Crude
An importanr factor in platform processing is rhe
cendency for change of operarion wich che develop-
rnent of che field and cransportation systems. Ekofisk
field is a classic example of these changes. The inicial
operation (Bleakley, 1971) was to a local oil scorage
facility wich ofíloading co cankcrs; gas was flared unril
1972 when ir was reinjected (Kennedy, 1972). In 1974
a 34-in., 220-mile oil pipeline was provided co Teeside,
England (Kennedy, 1974). In 1976, a 36-in., 275-mile
gasline to Emden, Germany, cornplered che develop-
menc of che uansportacion facilities (Shaub, 1976).
The central processing facilicy serves nor only Ekofisk
field bue many nearby fields. Afcer over 10 years of
producrion, ir was discovered in 1984 rhar rhe central
placform had subsidcd abouc 8.5 feec (Wiborg and
 ! J1J
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- 72

Jewhurst,
Field Processing of Crude Oíl

1986). This misfortune required deck Fuel and Electricity-Ava.ilability and

eleva- rion in 1987 and construcrion of a Value

-
protective barrier around the complex in 1989
Associated gas is the rule rather chan che exception.
(Sulak, 1991 ). Flooding with seawater was
and optimum use of such gas depends on che
srarted in 1984 (Curzon, 1984), expanded in
volume, sales price, and proximicy of the nearest gas
1988, extended in 1989, and optirnized in
pipeline. With rhe possible exceprion of che heavier
1990 (Sulak, 1991 ). Ekofisk has produced 894
California crudes, pro- duced gas is more chan
million barreis of oil and 2.8 trillion scf of gas (net
sufficient to meet fue! require- ments in che field.
afrer injec-
However, sour gases can pose severe corrosion and
rion) in irs firsr 20
years. pollution problems.

-
Penick ( 1983) has summarized the situation Any semblance of unitizing requires electrical
succincdy: po\.ver
for lighting, LACT units, electrostatic treaters, and
... A sysrcms approach should be used to esrablish so
rhe

-
qualicy liquid
of gas and co be produced on che plat-
forch; and these larger vol u me facilities probably
form, che placform separarion-processing system
account for 90% of the U.S. production. However,
design, che gas and liquid cransportation system
there are indi- vidual wells, usually located in remoce
design condi- rions, and che processing facilities ar
areas, where elec-
the terminal of each
rriciry is srill not available.
transportatio system
n .
cost
Onshore facilities deserve equally close and
artention. mai

-
nte
nan
Production Volume ce.
7. lmproved operacional flexibilicy
The
from capacity of oil-rrearing hardware can range and surveillance capabilicy.
well (e.g., a small 4-fr vertical treater) to a 330,000
While obviously superior from rhe
bopd (in one vessel) central faciliry. To repeat, large
engineering view- poinr in rhe
flow rates make complex processing economically
United Stares, consolidarion of an
attracrive; small flows can only justify che simplest
entire field can require lengrhy
trearing.
negoriations to obrain approval and
Central facilities are invariably better as is
cooperation of ali parries,
docu- mented by Amoco (Egan, et al., 1979)
and Exxon (Blanscet and Lewellen, 1981). These
two studies enu- merare the many advantages of
consolidating and automating field facilities:

l. lncrease oi) production due to earlier derection

of wells being down.
2. Increased water injection at lower unir
treatment coses.
3. Decreased labor coses due to a 40º/o decrease
in manpower.
4. Decreased well expense.
5. Energy conservation due to 1ncreas1ng
vapor recovery.
6. More efficienc operanon including savings in
fue!
Comparative Value of Light
and Heavy Hydrocarbons
The relacive value of light and heavy hydrocarbons can vary
dramatically depending on che market for che gas produced. The
worldwide rrend is to reinjecc associared gas for reservoir pressure
maintenance or to use ir for NGL or LNG plant feeds. However, ir is
ofren more proficable to reinject che associated gas heavy ends into
che crude oil. Recaining rhese hydrocarbons in the final stock tank
oil C'spiking") requires a fairly sophiscicated process scheme such as
rnultisrage srabilizarion, and recompression, drying, and chilling of
che gas srrearns as is discussed in Chapter 9. Mulrisrage separarion
reduces crude-oil volumetric shrinkage, graviry loss, and emul- sion
problems.

Emulsion Prevention
Opinion is divided on wherher emulsions are present in the
formation, bur chere is no doubt rhar rhey do form in the well string
or in surface facilities. T\vo obvious sceps can alleviare the problem.
First, eliminare rurbulence and shearing wherever possible. Second,
remove che water and gas from rhe oil as soon as possible in che surface
facilities. Unforrunately, rhese oprions are nor ahvays a\'ailable; rherefore,
in many cases, ic becomes necessary to treat che emulsions inevicablv
formed. The major sources of emul- sion formarion are no\v
sun1marized.

Flowing Wells. Considerable agitation is usuallv caused by gas

coming out of solucion as pressure is decreased. This gas also causes
turbulence as ir flows chrough perforacions,
- Ficld Procc:ssing of Crude Oil
screens. finings. chokes, sharp bends in rhe rubing and lead
lines, and orher restrictions.
The rurbulence can be reduced, but nor prevented, by
rhe installarion of a larger choke or by holding a higher
back pressure on rhe downstrearn side of the choke.
Taking one large pressure drop across a single choke gen-
-
erares che very intense agiracion rhat so often produces
scable emulsions. Two or rhree smaller pressure drops are
-
far superior from rhe emulsion viewpoint.
A downhole choke usually causes less emulsification.
In fact, ir ofi.en decreases rhe stabiliry and amounr of
rhe emulsion produced because:
l. There is less pressure differential across a downhole
-
choke.
2. Downhole rernperarures are usually considerably
higher chan surface cemperarures. Heating breaks
-
emulsions as is described in derail in Chaprer 7.
3. There is srraight line flow for a long disrance
downstream of the choke. and correspondingly
-
less rurbulence.
In sorne cases che inconvenience of a downhole
choke is offset by che economics of less emulsion
trearing (i.e., reduced usage of demulsifying chemically
and/or less fue! for hearing).
Gas-lift WeUs. Emulsification is caused mainly at rwo
places; namely, ar che poinr where che gas is introduced
into the ílow string and ar rhe wellhead.
When intermircent gas-lifr is used, che emulsion usu-
ally is creared ar rhe wellhead or in rhe surface equip-
ment, When conrinuous gas-lifr is used, much of che
emulsion is formed downhole ar gas injecrion poinrs. In
derermining the merhod of gas-lifi. rhar will be mosr
efficienr, che operator should consider emulsion prob-
lems rhar will be encounrered and how rhey can best be
crea red.
Pumping Wells. The greatesr source of emulsifica-
rion is in rhe pump and rubing. The following are sorne
causes of rurbulence in pumping wells:
1. Leaking standing valves, rraveling valves, plungers,
cups and orher pump pares.
2. Gas producrion in pumping wells rhar causes con-
siderable turbulence in the narrow passages of rhe
pum p.
3. Pounding of the pump rhat causes rhe rods to whip
and creare addirional turbulence.
73
Sources of turbulence can be minimized by using a
good pump that has close rolerances, oversize standing
and traveling valves, and proper speed and length of
srroke. On gas-producing pumping wells, a gas anchor
usually will reduce the turbulence.
Flow Lines. Principal sources of curbulence in rnani-
folds and garhering lines are pumps, valves, and
fitrings in which rhe flow direction changes abrupdy. lt
seerns likely rhat the rurbulence produced in straighr
secrions will ofren be sufficient to result in emulsion
formacion, especially in the case of gas-liquid flow.
Other Sources. Other places where emulsions occur in
production equipment are leaking dump valves on separa-
tors, free-water knockouts, and secding ranks, However,
these usually can be correcred relarively easily.
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
A viral considerarion in rhe field processing of crude
oil in the United Srates is rhe cornplex nature of envi-
ronmental regulations currencly in effect. The siruation
is made difficulr because federal and stare regularions
are srill evolving (Moriris, 1991 ). Similar rules have
been or will be esrablished in orher narions around rhe
world.
The following comments are intended to summarize
irnportanr aspects of environrnental regularions and not to
serve as guidelines for compliance. The ropic will be
reviewed under the headings of regulations, environmenral-
conrrol rechnology, and compliance.
Regulations
The reaurhorization of RCRA (Resource Conservation
and Recovery Acr of 1976) loomed as a potenrially diffi-
cult problem. Generally, oilfield wasres were lisred as
exempt in the 1976 law, placed under Subrirle D for
nonhazardous substances, and remain so. Such a listing
may seem arbirrary, but rhere seenls to be sorne jusrifica-
tion from rhe srandpoinr of overall risk. In rhe Unired
Stares, rhe perroleum industry is responsible for only
1.82% ofroxic releases (Kalavapudi eral., 1991). Not
ali
wasres from drilling sites are exempred (Rappold, 1991 ).
Such items as unused fracturing fluids and acids, paint-
ing wastes, service-company wasles, used oils, and used
 74 Fidd Promsing of Crude Oil
solvenrs are noc exempc. Hudgins ( 1992) reviews che uses
of production rrcaring, gas processing, stirnularion and
workover chemicals in U.S. offshore operacions. Acuce
aquacic toxiciry and solubilicy daca are included.
By far che largesc exploracion and produccion waste
stream is produced water (Moricis, 1991 ). A large porcion
-
of rhis water is reinjecred, either far disposal,
pressure maincenance, or for enhanced recovery.
The Safe Drinking Water Acr (SDWA) of 1974 and
che Underground lnjeccion Control (UIC) escablished
rules for injecrion wells.
1. Only approved wasres may be injecred.
2. Drinking water sources muse not be endangered.
3. Permitting of new wells is required before con-
strucno n.
4. Ali wells muse be resred periodically for
mechanical
1ncegnty.
New draft proposals by EPA for wells chac injecr pro-
duced brines and fluid, for enhanced oil recovery are
cough; chey require three layers of prorecrion
(Anonymous, 1993):
l. Ali new wells required to have surface casing deep
enough <o procecc water sources of 3,000 rng/L total
dissolved solids or less.
- (Rakoczynski and Long, 1993).
2. A casing string cemented through che injecrion
interval,
3. Tubing set on a packer.
Mechanical incegriry testing of exisung wells would be
done according to che nurnber of layers of
proreccion:
One-test every year
every3 5years
Two--resr every
Three-cest years (che current regulacion)
Scudy of ali wells wichin one-quarrer mile of any injec-
rion well is required <o identify those thar mighc provide
a vertical parh <o an underground source of drinking
water. lf so, remedia! acrion would be required.
Orher mean, of produced water disposal include
evaporation or percolarion in pirs, or release to surface
warers. Release to surface waters is conrrolled by
the
Nacional Polluranr Discharge Eliminarion Sysrem
. ,... (NPDES) under the Clean Wacer Act. Such release is
generally noc permined. Unlined pies for rhe discharge
of oil and gas wasre produces are being closed in rhe
Unired Srares, Sourhwesr (Anonymous, 1992).
Operarors are required ro submir closure plans for alter-
narive systems for handling waste íluids and cleanup of
rhe existing insrallations. Testing of nearby water wells
is required,
Gas emissions are resrricted by many regularions,
norably che 1990 Clean Air Act Arnendmerus (CAAA).
These regulare emissions from inrernal-combusnon
prime movers that produce volarile organic substances,
nirrcgen oxides, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and
particulares. BTEX (benzene, toluene, erhyl benzene,
xylenes) ernissions for TEG dehydrarion units is of grear
current concern and a classic example of how operaring
pracrices are being changed ro reduce emissions.
Anorher regulated class is that of fugicive emissions.
These ernissions are hydrocarbon vapors rhar leak from
compressor seals, valves, pumps, flanges, pressure·relief
valves, meters, s<orage tanks, and so forrh (True, 1991;
Coiyer and Meyer, 1991). Benzene content of these
vapors is of particular concern.
Measuremenr or estimarían of fugitive emissions is
required. Myers and Ferry (1993) discuss thc applicable
laws for storage ranks. Wagoner (1990) describes open
and closed floating-roof tanks and che calculation
of losses. Small above ground and buried ranks (up
ro
10,000 gal) are subjecr co specific regulations
Average emission facrors are available for estimating
1
emissions from process componen es (Schaich, 1991), bur
Ross (1993) recommends bagging and moniroring for
more accurate estimares. Use of average emission facrors
may grossly overestimace such losses.
A recenc concern in petroleum processing is rhe pres·
ence of naruralJy occurring radioacrive materials, or
NOR.H (Gray, 1990, 1993). As explained in Chapter 2,
che source far NOR)..1 is che radioacrive decay of ura-
nium 238, which is disrribured rhroughout che earrh's ¡,
crusr. Cranium 238 decays ro produce radium 226 and t
radon 222. NORM was firsr derecred in Canada in
1904 and in Russia in rhe 1930, (Rutherford and
Ríchardson, 1993). Recen< awareness started wirh Ra-
226 in producrion scale in a Nonh Sea field in rhe
1980, and in Mississippi in 1986. Because radiarion
does nor affect the human senses, ics presence \\'as
detected either indirecdy or by accidenr, as detailed by
Gray (1993).
In oil and produced water processing, che culprit is
radiunt \Vhich coprecipitales with barium and strontium
sulfam. Oddo and Tomson (1994) srate char
500,000-
1 ,000.000 wnlyr of NORM scale are produced. Oddo
and Tomson also discuss predicrion of s,aling and mea
ns

of inhibition. The concentrarion of produced NORM in
rhis scale is usually low, but Ít collects in equipment over
rime. As long as NORM is contained in processing
equipment, there is lirtle danger of a hea!th hazard to
-
employees and rhe public. When equipment is descaled
or machined. contaminarion oí equipmenr, personnel,
-
and surroundings can occur. State agencies are now
defining regulations for rhe monitoring and disposal of
pipes and equipment containing NORM scale.
-
Decommissioned equipment may have to be disposed of
as radioacrive wasre, which is a complicared process.
Until now, such equipmenc has noc even been surveyed
for radioactivicy.
In gas processing the main problem is caused by
gaseous radon rhar tends to collecr (along wirh irs
radioactive daughter products), especially in cryogenic
plants, and cause various difficu!ties. (See Gray ( 1990,
-
1993) for derails.) Gray (1993) states rhar NORM does
not generally consrirute a serious healrh hazard if han-
dled properly.
-
The Gulf of Mexico (GOM) Olfshore Continental
(OCS) Regional Office of rhe Mineral,
1 ardous waste.
Shelf
Management Service (MMS) published a Letrer to
Lessees and Operators (LTL) on Novernber 20, 1990,
and anorher clarilication LTL on December 11, 1991.
These rwo LTLs are Íntended to provide operators wirh
inrerim guidelines for che reporring, disposal, and
trans- portation of produced NORM. The EPA
Region Vl final Western OCS general National
Polluranr Discharge Elimination System (NPDES)
Permit (l 1-19-92) requires operators to test waters
for Ra-226, Ra-228, gross alpha radiarion, and gross
beta radiation on rhe fol-
lowing schedule.
o to 500 bwpd yearly
500 to 4.600 bwpd quarterly
more rhan monthly
4,600 bwpd
The Department of Transportation (DOT) regulaces
rhe transportation of radioacrive marerials having more
than 2,000 pCi/g radioactivicy. Most OCS produced
material, exhibit less than 2,000 pCi/g and so are
not regulated by CF Parts 171-180. (API Bul!etin E2 [
1992) discusses NORM in detail.)
A final area to be discussed is offshorc platforms. The
EPA has proposed rules to sharply reduce U.$. offshore
platform discharges into the ocean (Anonymous, 1991).
lcems included are oil and grease. toxics, drilling fluids
and cuttings, produced water, well-trearment fluids,
pro-
Fidd Promsing of Crude Oil 75
duced sand, deck drainage, and dornesric and sanitary
wastes. The rules would apply to existing and new plat-
forms.
Environlhental Control Technology
As nored by Wojtanowicz (1993), petroleum proces-
sors have in che pase relied primarily on waste-
managemenr technology (WMT). The difficulry wirh
WMT is rhat ir addresses a problem rhar is already
presenr and may involve extensive and expensive pro-
cessing in irs rernediation. Such difficulr problems as
subsurface migracion of oil and toxicanrs may be
involved.
Wojtanowicr urges che development of environrnental
control technology (ECT) and gives exarnples. In the
chemical process industry, the technique is referred to as
u/aste minimization. In government regulacory language
ECT is referred to as source reduction. The idea is to
use rhe ingenuiry of the oíl producer to battle che waste
man- agemenr problem before ir occurs by producing
less haz-
Wojtanowicz broadens the merhodology of ECT by
describing irs general techniques:
• Source reduction (wasce minimízation)
• So urce separation (removal of pollutanr)
• Recycling (confine rhe strearn within the process)
• Confinement (leak prevemion)
• Reuse (after recycling and source separation)
His innovarive approach to environmental regulations
and compliance is commendable.
Compliancc
Fognani (l 992) places the problem of compliance in
proper conrext.
Governmenca! [enforcement) efforts, parcicularly at rhe
federal leve!, increasingly focus on opportuniries ro
impose criminal liabiliry for actions chac until
relatively
rccencly would have bcen subject only to civil enforce�
mene and penahies.
... R.ight or v.•rong, criminal enforcement is viewed as a
more effective deterrent to environmencal violations
rhan is che tradirional and somewhat controversia! and
inconsisrent imposítion of civil penalcies.
. .. In this ne'"'' climate, oil and �as operators and
their
personnel musr rake special care ro sarisfy
environmen- ral requiremenrs.
- 1
- 76 Field Processing of Crude Oil

¡
1

Fognani reviews rhe general legal regulations and -a dry, sweet natural gas
sug-
gests compliance srraregies, especially for -a high-pressure, high-GOR

-
independenr producers. As he srates, "Companies crude oil.
should spend their time, resources, and efforts in 18. Selecta panicular production facility (t.g., Ekofisk).
operaring wirhin che envi- ronrnental law, nor in Trace irs historical development. Norice the

-
defending rhernselves against crim- inal or civil time frarnes for discovery, exploration, inirial
prosecurions." consrruc- tion, and later developments.
19. Lisr the major oilfield environmental regulations.
ldentify che largesc production wasre
Review
stream.
Questions
20. Define fugitive ernissions.
How are they
l. ldenrify the individua) unir operarions or
conrrolled?
process
21. Define NORM.
modules used in rhe field processing of crude
oil. Lisr the major sources of NORM in both
2. Discuss the correct sequence for arranging crude oil handling and gas processing.
these 22. ldentify two approaches to environmencal control
modules. techn

-
3. Srate the reasons for stabilizing, sweerening, olog
y.
dehy- draring and desahing crude oil.
Which approach do you
4. How do wellstream flow rate, composirion,
recornrnend?
temper- ature and pressure vary over che life 23. Can U.S. oilfield operat0rs expose themselves !O crim-
of rhe field? Whac paramecers cause rhese inal liabiliry far violacing environmental
changes? regularions?
5. List che important paramerers or factors in
designing
an oilfield crude-oil processing facility. Problcms
6. Whar can happen if a field facility is designed
l. Modify rhe process scheme shown in Figure
solely on che inirial wellsrrearn flow and
5-2 to
cornposition?
satisfy recent and more stringent
7. How does analysis of an exisring facility regularions.
differ from inicial design or sizing of a new 2. How would more rigorous fuel-gas
facility? specificarions
8. Suggest a suitable operating pressure for affect rhe process scheme shown in
a gas pipeline. Figure 5-Y
Support your recommendarion. 3. Suggest a suitable processing scherne for the follow-
9. Lisr four techniques for dehydrating ing
crude oil. wellstrea
1 O. Suggest a treacment scheme far a produced m:
water
stream.
Suggest suitable disposal for ,he produced
L he advantages
water if ir is fresh and if (more likely) saline. i and
11. What water is used most commonly for s disadvantages
pressure r of your
mainte selecrion.
nance? r Suggest a
 suitable treatment scheme for your Compon Flow
ent (lbmol/hr)
selected water.
12. ldemify the major types of auxiliary !' 7
1 4
equiprnenr required in rhe oilfield. 2 .
13. Suggest rwo methods of measuring crude oil. C 4
0 5
14. Why are test separators instalted offshore in 3
spite of 2
C .
che severe space and weighr I 1
lirnitations? C 9.78
2 0.5
15. Lisr rhe facrors rhat must be considered in 1.06
fixing the C
3 0.6
processing scope for a panicular faciliry,

-
i 70
6.
C
4
4
9
n
5
C
.
4 6
i 23
C 7.
5 3
n 12
C 9.
5 J
C 23
6 0.
+ 2
H2 5.33
0 8.2
47
Wellstream 9.
pressure 3
Wellstream
temperature 1,000
psig
IOOºF
16. Discuss rhe need for size safery factors. 4. Assume rhar the wellstream contains produced
List rypical values for three different water.
locations. Revise Figures 5-4, 5-5, 5� and 5-7
17. Suggest suitable processing flow appropriarely,
diagrams for: 5. Suggest a suitable processing scheme for rhe
-a low pressure, low-GOR crude oil follow- ing wellsrrearn:
 Field Proce.ssing of Crude Oil 77

Componen1 Flow (lbmol/day) RCRA = Resource Conservarion and Recovery Act

RP = Recommended Practice
H20 116.2
N2
scf = standard cubic feet
618.7
C02 598.3 SDWA = Safe r Drinking
Act Wate
CI 6,522.7 S&W = sediment and water
C2 2,795.3 TEG = triethylene glycol (liquid ant for nat-

--
C3 2.597.0 desicc
iC4 467.3
ural gas)
nC4 1,475.8 VRU = vapor recovery unit
iC5 698.7 UJC = Underground lnjecrion Control
nC5 818.7
nC6 232.0
WMT = waste-management technology
H2S 262.6 WOR = water-oil ratio

NBP 140 364.5

NBP 324 1,222.4
NBP 374 914.9 Anonymous (1991), "EPA Aims to Cut Offshore
NBP 450 1,362.8 P!atform Discharges," Oil & Gas }ourna!, Vol. 89, No.
NBP 550 1,110.4 1 O, p. 48 (March 18).
NBP 645 1,019.8
Anonymous (1992), "EPA Tighrens Enforcemenr on
NBP 750 599.4
NBP 892 971.0 "Use & Gas }ournal,
Oi/ofUnlined Pirs, Vol. 90, No. 42,
NBP 1096 754.9 p. 36 (October 19).
Wdlsueam pressure 60 psig Anonymous (1993), "EPA Drafts Tougher Injection Well
Wdlstr�m remper.i1ure 75.6'F Rules," oe & Gasjournal, Vol. 91, No. 24, p. 11 (june
14).
API RP 14E (1991), "Recommended Practice fo, Design
Nomenclature and lnstallation of Offshore Production Platform Piping
Sysrerns", 5th ed., American Petroleum Insrirure, 1220 L.
API = American Petroleum Institute Srreer, N.W, Washington, DC 20005 (October 1 ).
bopd = barreis of oil per day API BUL E2 (1992), "Bulletin on Management of
BTEX = benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, Naturally Occurring Radioacrive Material, (NORM) in Oil
xylenes bwpd = barreis of water per day
& Gas Production," 1 st ed., American Petroleum lnstirute,
CAAA = Clean Air Act Amendments 1220 L. Streer, N.W, Washington, DC 20005 (April 1).
DOT = Departrnenr ofTransportation Arnold, Kenneth E. (1983), "Design Concepts for
ECT = Environrnental Control Technology Offshore Produced-Water Treating and Disposal
EOR = enhanced oi] recovery Systerns," }ournal ofPetroleum Technology, Vol. 35, No. 2,
EPA = Environmenta! Protection Agency pp. 276-283 (February).
GLR = gas-liquid ratio Blanscet, D. l. and M. W. Lewellen (1981),
GOM = GulfofMexico "Consolidation and Automation of rhe Conroe Field
GOR = gas-oil ratio Facilities following Unirization," }ournal Petrolenrn
GOSP = gas-oil separation plant Technology, Vol. 33, No. 5, pp. 771-778 (May).
LACT = lease auromatic custody transfer Bleakley, W B. (1971), "Ekofisk goes on production,"
LNG = liquefied natural gas Oil& Gasjournal, Vol. 69, No. 22, pp. 54-58 (May 31).
LTL = Lerrer to Lessees and Operarors Clark, Norman J. (1960), Elemems of Petroleum
MMS = Mineral, Management Service Reservoirs, SPE of AIME, Dallas,
NGL = natural gas liquids (condensare) Texas.

-
NORM = naturally occurring radioacrive rnaterials
NPDES = National Pollution Discharge Elimination
Systern
Colyer, R. S., and J. Meyer (1991), "Understand rhe
Regu!ations Governing Equipment Leaks." Chcmical
Enginecring Progress, Vol. 87, No. 8, pp. 22-30 (August).
Curzon, J. E. ( 1984), "Construction starts on Ekofisk
waterflood," oa & Gas }ournal, Vol. 82, No. 47, pp.

-
OCS = Ourer Continental Shelf 81-84 (Novernber 19).
-
Planning," Gil & Gas Journal, Vol. 74, No. 30, pp.
129-130, 135 (July 26).
Maddox, R. N., J. H. Erbar, and A. Shariat, (1979),
"Disrillarion Crude Srabilizarion Boom Recovery," Gil
78 Ficld Promsing of Crude Oil
& Gas foumal, Vol. 77, No. 17, pp. 71-76 (April 23).
Moriris, G. (1991), "Producers Modify Activiries as
Egan, J. D., A. L. Cole, H. A. McCabe and F. Threar of Ncw Rules Loorns," Gil & Gas Journal, Vol.
G. Oakes (1979). "Oilfield Aurornanon-e-Ten 89, No. 50, p. 52-55 (Decernber 16).
Years' Experience." 26th Annual Sourhwesrern Muskar, Monis (1949), Physical Principies of Gil
Perroleurn Shorr Course, pp. 295-303, Texas Produ. tíon, Internacional. Human Resources Dcv. Corp,
Tech Universiry, Boston, 1981.
Lubbock, ne.
Fognani, J. D. (] 992), "Environrnental
Laws Cornplex, But Compliance is Crucial,"
Gil & Gas journal, Vol. 90, No. 41, p. 67-72
(Ocrober 19).
Gray, Perer (1990), "Radioactive Materials Could
Pose
Problems for the Gas Indusrry," Gil & Gas
journal, Vol.
88, No. 26, pp. 45--48 ()une 25).
Gray, P. R. (1993), "NORM Conraminarion in the
Petroleum lndustry," journal of Petroleum
TechnoÚJgy, Vol. 45, No. l, pp. 12-16 (January).
Hartley, R. and M. Bin Jadid (1989), "Use
of Laboratory and Field Tescing To ldenrify
Porential Production Problems in the Troll Field,"
SPE Producrion Enginuring, Vol. 4, No. l, pp. 34--
40 (February).
Herring, J. D., and B. J. Titsworrh, (1975),
"lmproving Yield from Crude Oil wirh Irnproved
Production Merhods," 9rh Arab Petroleum

,... Conference, Dubai (March 10-16).

Hudgins Jr., C. M. (1992), "Chemical
Trearments and Usages in Offshore Oil and
Gas Producrion Sysrems," Journa{ of Paroleum
Tecbnology, Vol. 44, No.
5, pp. 604-611 (May).
Kalavapudi, M., J. J. Dunn, [r., and S. M.
Marcia (1991), "Reducing Wastes, Lowering Costs:
A Sysrernaric Approach to Pollurion Prevenrion
Lowers Operaring Costs, Offers Other Benefits,"
Hou Enginuring, Vol. 55, No. 2, pp. 15-21
(Spring/Summer).
Kennedy, J. L. (1972), "Ekolisk Plans lnclude
Gas
Injecrion ar 9,200 psi," Gil & Gas journal, Vol. 70,
No.
9, pp. 69-73 (February 28).
Kennedy, J. L. (1974), "Ekofisk-ro-Emden gas
line inrernarional affair," Gil & Gas Journal, Vol.
72, No. 22, pp. 110-114 ()une 3).
Kryska, T: B., K. B. Lindsay, and J. W. Hasz,
(1976),
"Offs.iore Process Sysrem Design Requires
Exact
 fy Dduge of U.S. Sroragc Tank True, W. R. (1991), "Pipeliners and Gas
Regularions," Gil & Gas journal, Vol. Processors Target Even Cleaner Operations," Gil
91, No. 23, pp. 46-49 ()une 7). & Gm Journal, Vol. 89, No. 50, p. 46-48, 50-51
Oddo, J. E., and M. B. Tomson (December 16).
(1994), "Algorichms Wagoner, R. B. (1990), "Evaporacion Loss
Can Predice, lnhibirors Can Control NORM from Scorage Tanks," Proc. 65,h lnternarional
Scale," Gil School of Hydrocarbon Measuremenr, pp. 115-
M
& Gas Journal, Vol. 92, No. 1, pp. 33- 120 (May 22-24). Wiborg, R. and J.
y
37 (January 3). Osrroff, A. G., (] Jewhursr ( 1986). "Ekofisk Subsidence Decailed
e
r 979), lntroduaion to Gilfield Water
and Solucions Assessed," Gil & Gas
s TechnoÚJgy, 2nd ed., Narional Associacion of journal, Vol. 84, No. 7, pp. 47-52 (February 17).
, Corrosion
Wojtanowicz, A. K. (1993). "Oilfield
Engineers, Housron.
Environmental Control Technology: A Synopsis,"
P Penick, D. P. (] 983), "Faccors ro Use
Journal of Petroleum TechnoÚJgy, Vol. 45, No. 2,
in Dealing wirh
. pp. 166--173 (February).
Norrh Sea Gas," Gil & Gas journal, Vol. 81, No.
25, pp.
E
114-120 ()une 20).
.
,
Rakoczynski, R. W., and B. A. Long
(1993), "Evaluare the Economics of
1
a Secondary Conrainment Oprions for
n Tanks," Chemical Enginuring Progress,
d Vol. 89, No. 9, pp. 74-78 (September).
Rappold. K. (1991), "Drilling
R Wastcs Require Extra Attention," Gil &
. Gasjournal, Vol. 89, No. 50, p. 56--59
(Decembcr 16).
L Rench, S. D., K. A Folse, C. M.
. Johnson and J. H.C.
Chan (1993), "Cenrralized Producrion Facilities,"
F Journal
e ofPetrokum Technokgy, Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 464--469
r (May).
r Ross, P. A. (1993), "Survey
y Equipment for Leakage," Cbemical
Engineering, Vol. 100, No. 2, pp. 14-17
( (February).
1 Rurhcrford, G. J. and G. E.
9 Richardson (1993), "Disposal of
9 Naturally Occurring Radioactive
3 Material From Operarions on Federal
) Leases in rhe Gulf of Mexico,"
SPE 25940, Presenred San Antonio, ne (March 7-1
l
,
O).
" Schaich, J. R. (1991 ), "Estimare
T
a
b
Fugirive
Equipment,"
Emissions from Process
Chemical Engineering
Progrm, Vol. 87, No. 8, pp. 31-35
¡
l (August).
e Shaub, Don P. (1976). "Line from
s Ekofisk to Ernden nearly complered,"
Gil & Gas journal, Vol. 74, No. 2, pp.
S 78-86 (January 12).
i Sulak, R. M. (1991), "Ekofisk
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l Vol. 43, No. 10, pp. 1265-1271
i (Ocrober).
Chapter 6
Phase Separation of Gas, Oil, and Water

INTRODUCTION zontal separators are also presented. Mainrenance, oper-

ating problems, and troubleshoocing conclude che chap-
As previously indicaced in Volume I and in Chapters I ter. Centrifuga! separators are used primarily for
and 5, phase separarion of rhe production srream is usu- liquid/liquid or liquid/solid separarions: cherefore. rhey
ally performed as soon as is convenienrly possible are ourside che present s.cope. Crude dehydration appli-
beca use: cations are summarized in Chapter 7, and produced
1. Ir is technically easier and less cosdy ro process water use in Volume 3.
che gas, crude oil, and produced water phases
separately,
2. The produced water is often corrosive. Therefore, TERMINOLOGY
removing rhe water ofren allows less cosdy materials
of consrrucrion to be used downstream and reduces Separating vessels are referred to by many names such
as:
corrosion damage.
3. Less energy is required to move che separated single Separator: oil and gas separaror,
phases: so phase separation permirs che back pres- vertical, horizontal, spherical,
sure to be lowered and chis, in rurn, increases stage separaror (e.g., first,
well producrion. second,
etc. j
The currenr emphasis is on rwo-phase (gas/liquid) and
rwo-phase or three-phase separator,
three-phase (gas/crude/free-warer) separation. Addirional
produccion, metering or test
crude oil processing is discussed in Chapters 7, 8, and 9.
sepa- rator
Produced water cleanup is deferred to Volume 3.
low-rernperarure or expansión sep-
First, che plenriful and somewhat confusing terminol-
aracor
ogy used to describe separacors is reviewed, Then vertical Trap or Knockout: knockour vessei or drum or trap.
and horizontal separators and, far more briefly, double- free-water knockout (FWKO). liq-
barreled horizontal, sphencal, filrer coalescer. and uid knockout
subsea separators are described with special arrention Flash chamber: flash vesse] or trap,
given to che features common to all separators. Nexr, expansion vessel or separator
the advan- tages, disadvanrages, and applicarions of Scrubber: gas scrubber; dry or wet rype
vertical and hor- izontal separators are compared. Then Filter: gas filrer: dry or wet (coalescer)
phase separation theories including retention time, 1Ype.
droplet setrling, and Gravis (1960) poincs our cha, the previous rerminol-
hydraulics (residence rime distributions) are summa- ogy is applied regardless of shape and, ofren, is not
rized. Design mechods for boch horizontal and vertical clear. However, rhe Following defininons are generally
separarors are reviewed next. Fmphasis is on overall accepted.
con- siderations, daca required, s1.:ing equarions,
separator geomerry, mist excractors, and concerns such Separator. This name is usually applied to field
as foaming. Recent use of computacional fluid dynamics ves- sels used to separare gas. oil, and water coming
is also surn- marized. Detailed design examples for direcrly
vertical and hori-
79
- 80 Pha.sc Scpar.nion of Gas, Oil, and Water

from an oil or gas well, or a group of wells {i.,., a "pro- Filler, Dust Scrubber, or Coalescer. These separa-
duction" separator), A separator is primarily used to sep- tors are designed to rernove small quantities of mists,
arare a combined liquid-gas stream into phases that are

-
relatively free of each other, Two-phase separators achieve
only vapor-liquid separation. while rhree-phase separa-
tors also remove free water from rhe crude oil.
Scrubber, This rerrn is applied to a vesse] normally
(bur not necessarily) more efficient than convencional
separators in removing small liquid drops from a gas
phase. Scrubbers are ofren used ahead of compressors,
oil fogs, rust, scales, and dust from gases. Typical
applica- rions are upstream of cornpressors,
dehydrarion unirs, amine units, custody transfer and
rown-border stations. Solids are trapped by che liher
fibers while liquid droplets are coalesced into largc
drops that are then sep- arated by gravity. These filrer
separators are used for final "polishing" and are often
preceded, or protectcd, by a convencional scrubber or
separaror.

-
glycol and amine unics, and rhey are ofien applied Ali of che previous separators use graviry as che sepa-
downstream of field separators to rernove entrained rating force. Externa! force fields (electrosratic and cen-
and/or condensed liquids. A scrubber is a separator

-
specilically designed for srrearns with unusually high
GLR mios, so ir is nor inrended to handle large slugs
of
�- (,)
Knockout. Kncckours are also separators and fall
into rwo categories; namely, free-water and roral-liquid
knockouts. The free-water knockout (FWKO) is used
to separare che three phases from a combined gas,
trifuga)) can and have been used. However, elecrrosraric
fields are used primarily to break warer-in-crude ernul-
sions; therefore, they are discussed in Chapter 7.
Centrifuga! force (i.e., a hydrocyclone) is most useful for
separaring primary oil-in-,varer dispersions, so chis tapie
is reserved for Volume 3. Hydrocyclone use for dehy-
drating crude oil is reviewed in Chaprer 7. Skid-
mounted rotating thermal separators have also been used
to recover natural gas liquids from associated gas

-
(Marcha], Malek, and Vilcard, 1984).
hydrocarbon liquid, and water wellstream. Ir is
The terminology for crude dehydration vessels (e.g.,
cheaper to compress the gas and pump rhe crude
wash tanks, gun barreis, rreaters, etc.) is reservOO for
phases sepa- rately and then feed them into one two-
Chapter 7.
phase pipeline than to pressurize gas and crude together.
Free water is removed separarely for rreatrnenr and
disposal. The total-liquid knockout is often used to
PHYSICAL DESCRIPTION
rernove liquids from a high-pressure gas stream
(3,000 psig and above). This vesse] usually is used
Wellhead separators are ofren classified by their geometri-
with a cold separa- rion unit.
cal configuration (vertical, horizontal, horizontal double-
barrel, or spherical) and by their function (rwo-phase),
Flash Cbambcr. This is a vesse] used as a subsequent (vapor-liquid), or three-phase (gas-oil-water) separation.
stage of separarion to process the liquid hydrocarbons These four shapes are illumaced in Figures 6-1, 6-2, 6-3,
flashed from a primary separator. This name is applied to and 6-4, respeccively.
che vessel used as a second-stage separator on a cold sep-
The features common ro ali separarors are reviewed
aration unir. The vessel is usually of low-pressure design
lirst and then vertical, horizontal, double-barrel horizon-
(nor more rhan 125 psig working pressure). tal. spherical, filrer and subsea separators are described
briefly. Finally, rw-o importanc inrernals (mise extractors
Expansion Vcssel. The vessel into which gas rs and leve! controls) are discussed.
expanded for a cold separation applicarion, Ir also is
referred to as a cold separator or a low-temperature separa-
tor. The vessel differs considerably from the normal sep- Common Components
arator beca use ir is designed primarily to handle and rnelr

-
Ali separators normally have rhe following components
gas hydrares rhat are formed by expansion cooling. In
or features (Gravis, 1960; API, 1989).
cold separation applicarions where a hydrate prevenrative
A Primary Separation Section for collecting and remov-
is used, rhe design may be very close to rhar of a normal
ing the bulk of the liquid in the inlet stream. Sorne
separator. The usual working pressure of chis vessel is in
form of inlet baffiing is usually used to exploit the
the range of 1000-1500 psig.
momentum of the inlet stream eirher by creating
centrifuga! force (as
 Phase Scparation of Gas, Oil, and Water 81

, - , .... OUT\.(T>

1
IIIST
C.t'ntACTOlt
SCCTIOlt
�--

Figure 6-3 Horizontal, Two-Phase Double-Barrel

Configuration (API Spec 12/ 1989, p.11). Reprin1ed courtesy
of the American Petroleum lnstitute.

�--
�..._

Figure 6-1
._
Vertical, Two-Phase Separation Configuration
--
SCl',/IIIATIO#
SCCTJON

(API Spec 12J, 1989, p.10). Reprinted courtesy of the

American Petroleum lnstitute.

- Figure 6-4 Spherical, Two-Phase Separator Configuration

(API Spec 12J, 1989, p. t 1 ). Reprinted courtesy of the
American Petroleum lnstitute.
!!§>----

·---- liquid drops can settle out by gravity. Interna! baffiing is

ofren used to dissipate foams, further reduce curbulence,
and accelerate drop removal.

Mist Extraction or Coalescence Section, The mise

Figure 6-2 Horizontal, Two-Phase Separator Configuration
(API Spec 12J, 1989, p.10). Reprinted courtesy of the
American Petroleum lnstitute.
in vertical separators) or an abrupt change of direcrion
(as in horizontal separators) rhus separating most of rhe
incoming liquid. In horizontal units, the inler baffle
reduces rhe incoming fluid velocities so rhat quiescent
senling, ar graviry, can complete the phase separarion.
Many different and proprietary shapes have been tried
far the inlet baffling device, but structural channel
iron is usually a very good choice.
Secondary or Gravity Sertling Section, Here rhe
gas velociry and turbulence is reduced so thar enrrained
extractor, which can consist of a series of vanes, a woven
wire mesh pad, or a cenrrifugal device, removes small
droplers from the gas stream, Liquid carry-over often
meets a 0.1 gallan per MMscf spec.
Liquid Accumulator Scction. This section colleccs
rhe liquids removed from the gas and provides sufficient
capaciry ro handle surges in liquid flow. Adequate reten-
rion time is necessary to allow far removal of any gas
breaking out of solution and, in three-phase separators,
far separation of free water and oil.
Process Controls, The separator pressure is generally
controlled by a backpressure regulator in rhe exir gas line
or, to save pressure loss across rhe valve, by compressor
sucrion control. Separator temperature is usually not

59155
 82 Phase Separation of Gas, Oil, and Water
concrolled exccpc for hearer-rreaters and special low-
ternperature units. Two-phase separators have one liquid-
level controller for the liquid-accumularion section rhar
activares a dump valve to maintain rhe desired Jiquid
level. Three-phase units have rwo liquid-level conrrollers
that are ofren combined wich incernal baffles and weirs to
regulace rhe oil-gas and oil-warer levels, which is dis-
cussed lacer and shown in Figure 6-18. A therrnowell,
pressure gage, and gage glass are usually provided.
Safety Devices. The ASME Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Code requires rhat ali separators be prorecred by
pressure relief devices such as relief valves and/or rup-
ture disks. These can be placed on rhe vessel or on exir
p1ping.
As previously srared, Figures 6-1. 6-2, 6-3, and 6-
4 pipeline scale enters a large chamber upstream of che fil-
show rwo-phase separator configurations for vertical,
horizontal, horizontal double-barrel, and spherical sepa-
rators, respectively, These four figures also verify rhat ali
separarors possess rhe six common fearures described.
Vertical Separators
As shown in Figures 6-1 and 6-5, an inler baffle or
diverrer directs che inlet stream against che
separacor walls. Giving che inler Auids rhis
centrifuga! rnotion achieves che primary separarion by
reducing rhe mornen- rum and spreading the inler liquid
into a thin film overa large part of che interna! shell
area. The resulring large surface area helps the vapor-
liquid separacion and rhe separared liquid falls by
graviry into rhe liquid collection secrion while che gas
rises, Large liquid drops can fall out
of che rising gas� however, che smaller drops are
removed
by che misr extractor. Vertical separacors without mise
extractors will remove only liquid drops larger than 100
mm. This poor leve! of separarían may be sacisfacrory far
slug catchers and surge vessels. Baffles or orher internals
are ofcen used to minirnize agitacion in che liquid collec-
.
non secnon.
.
Horizontal Separators
The kineric energy of rhe inlet meam is dissipated by
one of severa! rypes of deílecrion bafíles as shown in
Figures 6-2, 6-3, and 6-6 (B). The predominancly gas
phase Aows around rhe deflecrion baffle and enrers che
secondary sercling srage while rhe separared liquid, wirh
,_ any enrrained gas, falls downward. In the secondary set-
,,,....
rling stage, the remaining liquid parricles are removed
frorn the gas by lowering rhe gas velociry and, more ofren
than not, use of mist extracrion devices.
Baffies and/or other internals are used to reduce tur-
bulence in rhe liquid collecting seccion, rhus facilicaring
rhe rise and escape of enrrained gas bubbles. Flow dis-
rriburors such as weirs, piares, or vorrex baffies are ofcen
used to minimize gas re-entrainment into che liquids as
rhey are wirhdrawn.
In a double-barrel horizonral separaror, rhe seccndary
seuling and liquid collecring sections are housed sepa-
rarely as shown in Figure 6-7.
Filter Coalescing Separacor
Feed gas containing liquid mist, oil fog. dust, rust, or
rer elements (Figure 6-8). This ensures thar rhe gas sur-
rounds che coalescing elemenrs, rhus using ali rhe pro-
vided surface area. As che feed gas ílows rhrough rhe
filrer, solids rema in ourside rhe filrer. Liquid fog and mist
droplers are retained by rhe filrer fibers unril rhey coa-
lesce inro large drops, which are rhen forced rhrough rhe
filrer element by rhe feed gas. These large drops
separare readily from rhe feed gas eirher by graviry or
by a misr
extractor. Such fi!rer coalescers can remove IOO�'ó of ali
particles larger than 2 µm and 99% of rhose O. 5 mm in
size. Design is proprietary, and Ít is based on the vendor's
filrer element. As previously indicared, filter coalescers
are used to "polish" natural gas srreams and are nor dis·
cussed funher.
Floating Offshore
As exploracion and producrion heads inca deeper
\Vaters, floating production facz/iries (FPF) become
increasingly more economical rhan fixed or guyed·
rower and rension·leg plarforms. FPF respond to \\·ave
motion, and production separators are one of che
process unirs rhat are most sensicive to motion (Figure
6-9). Pitch is rhe mosr harmful as ir causes borh spirit
leve! and resonanc \\·ayes. Heave causes resonanr \vaves
and causes control problems.
Separarors should be positioned carefully on FPF;
install che separa cor as close ro che center of graviry of
che FPF to minimize the effect ofheave motton and align
rhe separaror axis along rhe axis of leasr pitch (Bassiri,
1992). Well-designed. interna! bafíles or wa\·e
breakers can
 Phasc Separanon of Gas, Oil, and Water 83

- WIRE MESH
MIST EXTRACTOR

'

GAS OUT

CENTRIFUGAL
MIST EXTRACTOR

OIL OUT

60' CONE BOTTOM

�:::::::::tt)-<1:::J-.... DRAIN

VERTICAL SEPARATOR
WITH CONE BOTTOM

Figure 6-5 Two-Phase Vertical Separator (NATCO, 1993)

- 84 Phase Separauon of Gas, Oil, and W.arer

A B e E o H

- A-Oll ANO GAS

INLET B-IMPACT
C-DE-FOAMING
ELEMENT

0-WAVE BREAKER AND

E-MIST EXTRACTOR G-DRAIN

ANGLE
SELECTOR PLATE F-GAS OUTLET H-OIL OUTLET
- Figure 6-6 Single-Shell Horizontal Separator (API, 1976, p. 34)

1
A-INLET

8-LIOUID DRAIN
C-MIST EXTRACTOR
(LARGE PARTICLES)
0-MIST EXTRACTOR
E-GAS OUTLET ,
(SMALL PARTICLES) F-OIL DRAIN
 - Phasc Scparacion of Gas, Oil, and Water 85

-
sel with patenred internals has been insralled (Anon,
1992). As shown in Figure 6---10, oil and water are sepa-
rated by static coalesccnce in a pile of inverred conical
plates. When che oil/water mixture enters the pile, water
A. "Shlelded" llquld coalesces on rhe exterior of rhe piares and flows
through vertical drains to the water phase below.

-
eccumulatlng type � Llquld out
with vane mist A new rype of separator consists of three horizontal
extractor.
vessels sracked vertically and connecred by rhree risers as
shown in Figure 6---11. When used for rhree-phase sepa-
ration, che gas/oil interface is mainrained wirhin che
upper rhree risers, and che oil/wacer interface is
con- trolled wirhin the lower risers. The upper vessel is
sized to separate the bulk liquid from rhe gas stream
8. Wlre mesh mlst and to rneet liquid entrainment specifications for rhe
extractor type.
� � Llquld OU1 produced gas. The middle vessel separares water drops
°'"'"/ from rhe crude to meet rhe desired S&W conrenr in rhe
crude oil.
Finally, produced water falls inro and flows through the
Horizontal Coalescing Gas bottom vessel, which allows crude drops to rise and sep-
Separators arare from che water.

-
Mist Extractors

efficient ar removing liquid mises from gas strearns. In

Well-designed and operated misr extractors can be very
rhe final analysis, liquid removal is accomplished by grav-
iry; rhat is, by the large densiry dilTerence berween the
"heavy" (40-60 lb/fr3) liquid and rhe "light" (< 4
-
.. . ,. .
L l q uld lb/fr3) gas .
VaneType extractors are shown in Figures 6--6 (irern
E), 6---7 (irern D), 6---12, 6---13, and 6---14. Figures 6---7
(irern D) and 6---12 show Dixon piares rhat were an indus-
try standard. Dixon piares are essenrially flat piares ori-
Uv•I
controller ented parallel to the gas flow and inclined at 45 degrees to
the horizontal. They markedly reduce the leve! of turbu-
-
Llquld lence in che gas flow because che gas muse now flow
outtet
berween the piares chat are spaced about 1 in. apare.
Dixon plares also reduce rhe vertical distance a liquid
drop must fall due to graviry ro be collecred,
Vertical Coalescing Gas Separator Biadetype mise extractors, today's standard, accelerate
the separation using impingement, change "in gas flow
Figure 6-8 Coalescing Gas Separators (Barker, direction and velociry, and coalescence. Figures 6---13 and
1982)
6---14 show rwo rypes of very efficient blade mist extractors;
namely, chevron blade and serpentine vane. Figure 6---13
also shows how drop impingemenr, change in direcrion of
dampen undesirable wave morion thar would otherwise
gas flow and change in gas velociry are used to enhance
cause liquid-level control problems, reduce separation,
drop removal. In NATCO's serpentine vane (Figure 6---14),
and disrupt float or displacer sensors. lmproper design
liquid drainage occurs outside and at right angles to rhe gas
can make rhe problem worse.
flow, chus minirnizing liquid re-entrainment.
Recently, alternarives to che convencional horizontal
rhree-phase separator have been proposed, A vertical ves-
- 86 Phase Separanon of Gas, Oil, and Water

:::s :· -
•

-
SUR
\.¡JYAW
cy �

•• •• ••
TYPES OF PLATFORM MOTION GE

t
LINEAR MOTION ANGUUR MOTION
SWAY HEAVE ROLL

'1' ltOU.
SINGLE POINT
ANCHORED
TANKEAS
•
•• ••
SEMI·
SUBMEASIBLE
TENSION LEQ
PLATFORM
GUYEDTOWER

• •
PLATFORM
AATICUU.TED
TOWER

Figure 6-9 Principie Platform Motions (NATCO, 1993)

-
�;
--
c.,

._
� - ......
m_"'..,.,."---

1
- Water

F;gure 6-10 Vertical Three-Phase Separator (Anon,

1991) Figure 6-11 Endacott Separator (Anon, 1992)
 Figure 6-12 Horizontal Separator with Dixon Plates
(NATCO, 1993)

-
 -
Phasc Separ:ation of Gas, Oil. and Water 87

The plates or vanes, which are usually spaced 0.5-3

in. apart, can be made of carbon or stainless steel, PVC,
or polypropylene. Excellent removal (> 90%) of drops
larger than 1 O mm is often claimed for vane extractors
and entrainment losses of 0.1 gal/MMscf are often guar-
anteed. Vane extractors enjoy two big advantages.
They are inexpensive, and they do not plug or foul as
readily with paraffin, wax, solids, etc. Nevertheless,
cleaning pro- visions should be made (e.g., suitably
located rnanholes for steam lances). Typically, pressure

-
drops vary from 2 or
3 to 6 or 8 in. water.

-
Wire-Mesh or Fibrous mist exrractors (Figure 6-15)
are used only for clean inler strearns where plugging by
solids is unlikely. Wire-mesh mise exrracrors are made
by knitring wire rypically 0.002-0.020 in. diarneter.
Wire-mesh rnisr eliminacors are available in carbon or
stainless steel, monel, nickel, aluminum, or plastic. A
common rype is made from O.O 11 in. wire and has a
void fraction of 97. 7%, a bulk densiry of 12 lb/ft3, and
A lmpingement Arel! B Change of Dircction
C Change of Velocity D Drop Coalescence a surface arca of 11 O ft2/ft3. In rhe past wire-rnesh
E Liquid Pocker designs consisted of a random disrribution of wire;
Separation Mechanisms however, a scrucrured order of wire-mesh arrangement
Figure 6-13 Chevron Vane Mis! Extractors (top,
Holmes and Chen, 1984) (bottom, Smith, 1987, p. 12-11)

.. Gas

--
'Flow
'. •

- j Liquids

- Gas/
veiocuv
Oecreases
NOTE· There are no "hooks"
or traps mat cause reemram-
menl of ,iquid in gas

Gas
L1Qu,c11n1e1 Too View Outlet
Figure 6-15 Demister® Wire Mesh Mist Eliminator

.,... Figure 6-14 Serpentine Mis! Extractor (NATCO, 1993) (York, 1993)

J-
- 88 Phasc Scparation of Gas, Oil, and

-
Water

of liquid carry-over and gas slippage. Vortrx

is now available (York, 1993). A 4- ro 6-inch
pad is often used ac pressure drops of 0.1- Jormarion is ofren nor derected, cven though ir
causes excessive prcs- surc drop and, of coursc:,
1.0 in. water. Droplecs as small as 5 µm and
poor separarion. Vorrex for- mation can be
liquid encrainmencs
lower than 0.1 gal/MMscf can be achieved. Wire- prevented by inscalling vorrex breakers and by
mesh pads capture liquid drops by rhree maincaining adequate liquid levcls upstream of
mechanisms: inercial irnpacrion, direcr che outlet. Figure 6-17 shows one rype of gas
interception, and Brownian capture (Figure 6-16). vortex breaker and rwo rypes of liquid vorcex
Dirry liquids such as crude oil plug wire-mesh breakers.
Recommended mínimum liquid levels are
pads very readily. Therefore, wire-mesh
cxtractors are nor generally
rnisr
used for oilfield
(NATCO, t
1991):
separacors excepc when che ves- sel is too small for \
vane packs. l. A liquid leve! of ar least rwo ourlet nozzle
diameters for gas/liquid interfaces.
2. A liquid leve! of ar least rhree times rhe outler nozzle
Vortcx
Breakers diamecer for liquid/liquid interfaces.

-
Poor outlet design can result in rhe forrnarion
of vor- rexes at che ourlers. This, in rurn, causes Vortex Breaktr to be
large amounts
Cent.red on Noule

inertial

.•. impaction

.. t
• •

Gaa Vortex Breaker

.
•• /.
direct
• interception
.......- :----......

• ..
•
. �

� .,...
.
Brownian
. capture
 º� ---
Liquid Vortex Breaker

«
:----......

::=:�� Uquld Vortex

=
Breeker
Figure &-17 Outlet Vortex Breaker Designs (NATCO,
1991)

Figure &-16 Three Basic Mechanisms for

-
Mist
Capture (YORK. 1993)

Phase Scpararion of Gas, Oil. and Water 89

- Leve!
Controls

Liquid levels muse be controlled within specified

limits to assure adequate liquid retention time and for
l. Relative retention volurnes can be varied easily.
2. No traps to accumulate sand, mud, etc.
3. Easy to clean separator.
However, rhe following disadvantages are present:
horizon- tal unirs adequate cross-secrional arca for gas
1. Failure of water leve! controller or valve results in
flow. Figure
che entire liquid stream being discharged through
6-18 shows chree alternacive designs for leve!
che water outler.
control
2. lnterfacial leve! control is difficult because che leve!
(Broussard and Gravis, 1960; NATCO,
1991). controller must sense smaJI (oil-water) differences in
Figure 6-1 Sa shows a simple and densiry. Emulsion formation would rnake chis
inexpensive approach; namely, using float and impossible.
3. A small drop in che oil leve! will resulr in gas

-
displacernent sensors wich no baflles or weirs. This
technique has che follow- ing advantages: enter- ing che oil outlet. A horizontal ree outler
helps. Foam wil! distort liquid leve! indications.

--
Figure 6-!Sb shows a second approach in which che

-
L f'k"l--
- �
+
TH
OuUet
(OptionaQ

rOuil

-
Figure 6-18a Open Separator
/

'

-
 upper oil leve! is fixed by a simple and relatively l. Use ofbaflles makes removal of sand and mud, (etc.)
inex- difficulc.
pensive weir place. The chief advantages are:

-
2. A considerable portion of the vesse] volume can
1. lnterfacial (oil-water level) control is easier to be "wasted" because oil-warer separation stops
operare. when che oil flows over che weir.
2. Relarive retencion rimes can be varied easily. 3. The interface leve! controller muse sense che differ-
3. The "cleanest" oil is caken off the ence in densities of che oil and water. Again, emul-

top. The main disadvantages are:

'---f"Ki-. Out

-
011 sions can make chis irnpossible,

Figure 6-I Sc shows a chird approach where che

oil and interfacial levels are both fixed by oil and water
weirs respectively. (See problem 6 for guidance on
Figure 6-1 Bb Weir Plate
fixing che heighrs of che weirs.) The advancages of chis
oil bucker
and weir are:

l. Only float level control is used: control!ers sense

the large densicy difference berween liquid and
gas.
2. lflevel control or valves fail, only that liquid and gas
are discharged.
L---1':Kl--
Water However, rhe disadvantages are:
Out

Figure 6-18c Bucket and Weir Plate l. More interna! baflles are required.
2. Difficulc to rernove sand and mud {etc.).
3. More vessel space is "wasted."
Figure 6-18 Level Control Methods (Broussard and 4. More dif!icu!t to vary the relative liquid rerenrion
Gravis, 1960; NATCO, 1991) vol- umes (i.e., adjusring the bucker and weir is
,,.... diflicu!t).

.l
90 Pha.sc Separation of Gas, Oil.
and Water

Advantages: -cheaper than vertical

Pressun:
-requirc smaller diarneter for a same
Control
gas capac1ry
Separator prcssure is conrrolled by a pressure -lcnd rhernselves to skid
control valve locared in rhe exir gas line. Pressure
mounting and shipping
control is vcry irnportant if the separaior is
-no counrerflow (gas flow does not
going to be operated ar steady conditions,
opposc drainage of mist
extractor)
-large liquid surface arca far
COMPARJSON OF
faam dispersion generally
SEPARATORS
reduces turbu- lence
-largcr surge volurne capaciry
Thc relative merits and common applicarions
of vertical, Disadvantages: --only pari of shell available
horizontal, and spherical scparators are now far pas- sage of gas
summarized. --occupy more space unless "stack"

Venical
Sepuators
Uses: -when sand, paraffin, or wax are duced
pro- -piar space is limited
--case of level -liquid-level control is more
rnounted
control is desired critica!
-small flowrates -more difficul1 10 clean produced
-vcry low or very sand, mud, wax, paraffin, etc.
high (i.,., scrubber)
GOR strearns
Deuble-Barrel Horizontal Sepuators
Advantages: -more versarile than
horizontal Uses: -rarely uscd because more expensive
-liquid-level control is not rhan single-1ube (or single-barrel)
so critica! -horizontal separarors possess
-have good bortorn-drain the following advanrages over
and clean- out facili1ies double- barre] rypes:
-can handle more sand, -lower inicial cost
rnud, paraf- fin, wax --casier to insulare in co1d wearher
wirhout plugging operauons
-less tendency for re- -liquid remains warrner,
enrrainrnenr
mini- mizing freezing and
-has full diamcter far gas
paraffin depositien
flow al !Op and oil flow at
bortom Advantage -larger capaciry under surging
s: -bcttcr separarions of solurion gas in
--occupies smaller plor arca
Disadvantages: -more expensive than rhe quiescent lower chamber
horizontal -be11er separation of gases and liquid
-require larger diarnerer far of similar densities
a given gas capaciry, -more scab!e liquid-level control
rherefore, most compet- irive
for very low GOR or very
high GOR or scrubbcr
applications
-more difficclr lO skid rnounr
and ship
-more difficulr to reach
and service
rop-rnounred instruments
and safcty
d
e
v
i
c
e
s
Spherical Scpuators
Horizontal Separators
Thc manufacture of spherical separarors has been essen- f
Uses: -large volumes of gas andlor liquids cially disconrinued. Spherical separalOrs have lirnired sep-
-high-co-medium GOR strearns aration space and liquid surge capaciry. liquid-level con-
-faaming crudcs
-three-phase separations 1
trol is very critica]; this ourweighs an)' advanrage of
compactness.
--
91
PUASE SEPARATION THEORY
Gas-liquid and liquid-liquid separarion are discussed
individually. By definition, che funcrion of rhree-phase
separators involves rernoval of ar least the free water from
che crude oil. Crude dehydration is covered in Chapter
7, where the techniques (adding dernulsifiers, electrosra-
tic fields, etr.) and che vessels (wash tanks, gun barreis,
heater treaters, etr.) are discussed. The present emphasis
is on gas-liquid and gas-oil-water separation.
Sizing or specifying separators is now presented using
che following copies: retention-tirne rnerhod, drop-setrling
method, comparison of rerenrion-rime and drop-settling
methods, and hydraulics or residence time distributions,
Rerentioa-Time Method
Gas-liquid and liquid-liquid (oil-water) separat10n are
considered individually.
Gas-Liquid Sepatation. Sufficient residence time
must be allowed for liquid to fall out of the gas phase and
for gas bubbles to escape from che liquid
phase. Specifying rhe liquid-phase rerenrion time and rhe
height of the gas-liquid interface provides che following
sizing equation for horizontal cylindrical separators.
(n/4) D2 M L,¡¡= qL r, (6-1)
where: D = inside diameter of separator (ft)
Leff = scparator length availablc for separarion (fe)
M = fraction of vertical arca filled with liquid
q¡_ = toral liquid flow (ft3/min)
te = liquid rerenrion rime (min)
For vertical, rwo-phase separators:
(n/4) D2 HL = qL r, (6-2)
where: HL = heighr of liquid in separaror
(ft)
lf problems such as foaming, wax deposition, slug
flows, and so fonh are not encounrered, then the follow-
ing API Specificarion l 2J (1989) recommendations far
liquid retention rime may be used when field or pilot
data are not available.
Oil Gravity Liquid Retention Time
(ºAPI) (min)
Above 35
20-30
10-20
Phasc Scparation of Gas, Oil, and Water
Gas-OH-Water Separation. When a mixture
of crude oil and produced water is allowed to stand
wirhout agitation, separation into horizontal !ayees of
oil, ernul- sion, and free water occurs as illusrrated in
Figure 6--19. After a shorr time (3-20 min.), rhe height
of rhe water- emulsion interface grows so slowly rhat
che remaining water is considered entrained, hard to
breakout or emulsi-
fied. The separated water is called free
water.
In the retention-time approach, che separator is
sized to provide che residence, or retention, or detention
rime required to break out rhis free water. Obviously, che
key quesrion is how to determine che required
rerenrion time. Severa! rnerhods are used. These rnerhods
are batch experiments, flow pilot studies or field tests,
vendors pro- prierary information or cacalogs, or rhe
literature.
Batch srudies are easier to perform chan steady flow
tests. Arnold and Koszela (1990) state thar batch studies
tend to overestirnate che time required because field sep-
arators ofren use a water wash and sorne mixing to accel-
erate coalescence of the water drops,
Sizing rhree-phase or gas-oil-water separators starts by
specifying che rwo recencion times required
for:
1. Adequate rernoval of water (or S&W) from oil.
2. Adequare removal of oil from water (or brine).
Then:
(rc/4) D2 M L,¡¡ = qw ,,., + q0 r,. (6-3)
where: qw, q0 = feed flows of waccr and oil phases
(ft3/min)
trw, tro = retention times for water and oil phases
(min)
API Specificarion l 2J (1982) allows equal reten-
rion times for both the oil and water phases, The API
Oil
%Water in sample
Emulsion ---- - - -- (_ - - - --
Water
Time
 1 to 2

-
Figure 6-19 Separalion of Crude Oil and Produced
2 {O 4
Water (alter Arnold and Stewart, 1986)
 - 92 Phase Scpamion of Gas, Oil, and Water

recommendations for liquid-phase retenrion times m

rhree-phase separators follow.
t

-
Oil Gravity Tempera tu re Typical Retention Time
(ºAPI) (ºF) (min)

-
Above 35 3 to 5
Bdow 35 100. 5 to 10
80-100 JO to 20
6{)...jjO 20 to 30

Droplet-Settling Method

Vertical and horizontal separators are reviewed individu-

-
ally because the bulk llow and drop-setding velocities are
inherendy dilferent.

Vertical Separators. In the top section of vertical

----
(rwo-phase separarors) the downward llow of any liquid Figure 6-20 Countercurrent Drop-Gas Flow in a
Vertical Separator
drops is inherendy countercurrent to the rising vapor
llow (Figure 6-20). In horizontal separarors, the llows
are crosscurrent: liquid drops fall downward as gas llows
horizonrally (Figure 6-21). The maximum allowable gas i 1
--
velociry is based on the free-setding velociry of a small,
o o o
' o
spherical, liquid droplet through rhe vapor. The terminal ºº.,cr-Yo
velociry of this drop of arbitrarily chosen size is corn- Vc,l 00
0
o o o-.
pured by equating rhe downward gravity-senling force 0 0 0 0 0
e Ollo o o o oO O ,--.��--.,-.¡
and rhe resisting
gravity drag
force force as dd3(pL
= (rr/6) follows:- Pg) gl& (6-4) • • • • WATER • • • • •
where dd = drop diameter (fr)
PL = liquid density (lbm/fr3) Note: Clrcle1 lhow J)9th of pe,tidts

Pg = gas densiry (lbm/fr3)

g = acceleration due to graviry (32.2 fr/s2)
Figure 6-21 Cross-curren! Drop-Bulk Flow in a
Horizontal Separator
& = conversion factor (32.174 lbm-fr/s2-lbf)

drag force= Co (A¡,) Pg Vi/2 & (6-5) where Re = Reynolds number

where C0 = drag cocfficienr (dimensionless) µg = viscosiry of vapor (lb/fr - s}.
A¡,= projected drop arca (fr2)
Stokes Law is obtained by subsrituring equation 6-7 into
= (,r/4) di (arca of circle, not 6-6:

-
sphere) Vd = drop velociry (fr/s).

Equarion 6-5 defines the drag coefficient. Equating the (6-8)

graviry and drag forces yields: If Re > l, rhen Co should be obrained from Figure
Vd • Jr-/-)_d P_L Pg-g_/_C_o_P_ (6- 4-10 or equation 6-9 (Fair et al., 1968) may be used.
6) '
C0 = 24/Re + 3/Re05 + 0.34 (6-9)
lf the drop is assurned to be very small so rhat the drag
The previous developrnenr neglecrs many real phe-
forces are essentially ali viscous, (also called creep jlow)
nornena such as inreracrions berween drops (i.,., hindered
rhen:
setrling), variations in drop size, bulk-phase rurbulence,
C0 = 24/Re = 24 µ/dd Vd Pg (6-7) shape disrorrion of drops. and so forrh. Accordingly,
any
-
- Pha.sc Separancn oí Ga.s, Oil, and Water

93
resulcs provide qualicarive guidance rather chan Maximum gas velociries calculated using rhe K58 fac-
quanrita- tors are for separators normally having a wire-rnesh mist
civcly accurace numbers. extractor and should al!ow all liquid droplets larger
The dropler-senling design method considers the rhan
escape of a drop from the continuous phase (t.g., the 10 microns to settle out of rhe gas. lf no misr extractor is
escape of an oil drop from the gas phase). In a vertical presenr, mulriply Kss by 0.5.
separator, rhe drop-settling vdocity is downward and The factor, Kss, should be adjusred at high pressures

-
countercurrent to che upward gas flow as previously and for foamy liquids. GPSA (1987, p. 7-7)
shown in Figure 6-20. To be collected, rhe drop must fall recom-
faster than rhe superficial upward bulk gas velociry, Vg- rnends:
Solving equation 6-6 for Vd and setting Vd = V g yields: l. Ar high pressures:
vg -�(4dPg/3C0) � <PL - Pgl/pg (6-10) K58(P psig) = K58(100 psig) -0.000! (P- 100) (6-
14)
Soudcrs and Brown (1934) used equation 6-10 to
2. For amines or glycols, multiply Kss by 0.6-0.8.
derive the form of rheir classic equarion for rhe
3. For compressor suction scrubbers and expander
maxi- mum allowable gas velociry but
inlets, mulriply Kss by 0.7-0.8.
collected the
"unknowns" into one coefficient, KsB· Smith (1987), Lilly (1992), and Powers (1993) rec-
ommend alternative KsB values, which are discussed
(6-11) la ter.
Drop-sertling/rising equarions may also be applied to
whcrc V max = maximum superficial gas vclociry (ft/s)
Kss = Souders-Brown cocf!icient (ft/s). rhe liquid phase as illustrared in Figure 6-21 for hori-
zontal separators. Two-phase and three-phase separarors
Horizontal Separators. In a horizontal separator, the
rnust be treared differendy. The rise of gas bubbles
drop's downward vdociry is perpendicular to the hori-
rhrough rhe en tire liquid !ayer is relevan! for a rwo-phase
zontal gas ílow (Figure 6-21). The time, 'd• for the rnosr
or gas-liquid separator. For three-phase or gas-oil-water
remete liquid drop to faU rhrough rhe enrire gas phase is
separators, consider borh the fall of water drops chrough
set equal to rhe theorerical residence time for rhe gas
the oil !ayer and rhe rise of oil drops rhrough the free-
to flow rhrough the separator.
water layer, Ali these individual cases are addressed in
'd = D {1-ho)Nd = ',g = L,rrNg (6-12) design example 6-1.
whcrc ho = HL/D (6-13'
Equation 6-12 shows rhat the maximum gas velociry Comparison of Retention-Time
is no longer equal to but is proportional to rhe and Drop-Senling Methods
drop velociry, Therefore rhe Souders-Brown type of
equarion may still be used. Conrrary to severa! published claims, the two approaches
In practice, rhis Souders-Brown design coefficienr are essentially equivalenr. lf the separator shape and size
depends primarily on rhe type of rnist extractor present. are fixed, then che recencion time can be calculaced if
Separaror geomerry, ftow rares, and fluid properties are che drop size is specified and vice versa. Choice of
method
also irnportanr: rherefore, KsB is dererrnined rnost reliably
should depend on ease of application and accuracy of
by thorough pilot-resring in the field on rhe wellstream.
predictions. Field or pilo, studies yield the retention time
In rhe abscnce of fidd or pilor data, rhe following API
direcdy; equivalen! drop diameters have to be cakulaced.
Specification l 2J (1989) recommendarions are available.
One key cricerion is which paramerer, recenrion time
or drop diameter will vary che leasc when separator size
Typc Hcight, H or Rccommended
Separaror Lcngth, L (ft) K58 (ft/s) and geometry are varied. This is a very difficulr quesrion
because separator performance also depends on rhe flo\v
Vertical s 0.12--0.24 patterns or hydraulics.
IO 0.18--0.35
Horizontal IO 0.40--0.50
Othcr Lcngths (0.40--0.50)(LI I O)º 56
Spherical Al! 0.20--0.35 Hydraulics
The previous equations have assumed plug flow (i.e., ali
the gas srays in che vessel exactly rhe same rime).
94 Phasc Separation of Gas, Oil. and Wafcr

Similarly, ali che liquid has ics single residence rime. In But Kss = 0.5 (UI0)0.56, rherefore
other words, there is no variation in gas or liquid veloc-
0«H oc 02 L,¡f.56 (6-18)
ityin che scparator, no short-circuiring or bypass, and no
deadspace. Obviously, chese are very naive assumprions, This merhod applies to separators equipped wirh
In pracrice, rhere are discribucions in che residence times Dixon places rhat often exrend for rnosr of che searn-to-
that muse be considered. Vertical and horizontal separa- seam length.
rors exhibir differenc behaviors, so rhey are discussed Srnith (1987) uses an equacion similar to equacion
individually. 6-17 and defines V max by:

(6-19)
Vertical Scparators-Gas Capacity. The effecr of
deviacions from plug flow is rradicionally and unani- where Fe.o "' an cmpirical configuration and opcrating fac-
mously handled by appropriace sdeccion of che Souders- tor rhar, again, accounrs for nonideal flow.

Brown coefficienc, Ksa· This is bese done by field cese. As Smich presencs a graph for F ce for borh horizontal and
previously reported, API Spec 12 J recommends a 50% vertical separacors. Fco is conscanc (independenr of Leff
larger Ksa for a I O-fe separacor chan fo, a 5-fe vessel. and D) for vertical separacors; chis agrees wich che
Above I O fe, no in crease in Ksa is allowed. These previ- ous API Spec 12} values. For horizontal
recorn- separacors,
mendacions are a CÚ facto recognicion of gas-phase veloc- Smith's graph indicares:
icy profiles which, apparendy, are well established at a
F,0 =a+ b (L,¡pD) (6-20)
10-ft heighr. Also, note chac che calculaced maximum
gas
vdocicy or "speed limic" is a superficial vdocicy-actual The increase in Fco as Lcff"D increases is cantamount
gas volumerric flow (volume/cime) divided by rotal to sraring rhar shorc circuicing decreases as L,¡¡ID
(ves· sel assumed empcy) horizontal arca for flow. Actual rncreases.
gas velocicy depends on whac inrernals, if any, are Lilly (1992) recommends Kss vary as (L,¡¡ID)º 56.
present. The juscificacion is chat K58 does noc increase as Lc1t56

Vertical Scparators-Liquid Capacity. The down- 1regardless of che diamecer.

ward superficial liquid velociry, VL, is set equal ro che gas Powers (] 993) develops a curbulence and short·
bubble rise velociry, Vd• which, in turn, is esrirnated circuiring factor based on che API (1969) model. Powers
osing Stokes Law. adjuscs the constants to make che sep·arator capaciry
VL • q0y/(n/4)D2 =Vd= d/ (p 0 -pg) g/18 µ0 (6-15)
macch che API prediction of D2 L,¡f.56 when L,¡¡ID is
5. Powers' modd predicts:
Solving for che liquid capaciry, q0y,
QgH o:D L,¡¡ /[I - ho + 0.07858 (L,¡¡ ID)] (6-21)
yields:
q0y = (n/4) D2 d/ (p¿ - Pg) g/18 µ 0
F0 (6-16) Drop Setding. Arnold and Scewarc ( 1986) use equa-
whcrc q0y = oil (liquid) capaciry of vertical separaror (fr.3/s) rion 6-12 to derive:
F n = safccy factor to ccrrect for non-ideal
(6-22)

¡
flow.
Powcrs (1993) rccommcnds chac Fn = 2. The Re » 1 for an oil drop of abouc 200 µm falling in
nacucal gas; rherefore, Newton', law holds (i.,., C0
Horizontal Separators-Gas Capacity. The gas
capaciry, qgH• is che produce of che allowable gas may
be considered consrant [approximately = 0.44, Figure
velocicy and che arca for gas flow. However, there are
4-10]). Equacion 6-23 resulcs from se((ing Co = 0.44,
severa] dif- ferent recommendations for correcting for
solving equarion 6-6 for Vd• and subsricucing for Vd in
nonideal flow. Souders-Brown and drop-serrling rnerhods
equacion 6-22.
are ceviewed in chac order.
API Spec 12 J (1989) recommends che tradicional
merhod: Equacion 6-23 makes no allowance for nonideal flow.
(6-23)
1
2 .
QgH • (lt/4)(1-M)D Kss �(PL - Pg)/pg (6-17)
Horizontal Separators--Liquid Capacity. Camp
( 1946) srudied che impeding effecc of curbulence on
t
where Q,,H = gas capaciry of horizontal scparator (fi:3/s)
mcasurcd at scparator P & T. drop se((ling in wascewacer and showed rhac the key
variable is
-
ratio of rhe horizontal fluid velociry to the drop Phase Separation of Gas, Oil, and Water 95
terminal velociry (i.,., VHNd)- The standard API
(1969) method
0f sizing API separators to remove free oil from course, the besr method is actual and reliable field data.
refinery When chis data are unavailable, one musr resort to expe-

-
wasrewater considers rhe terminal rise velociry of a 150 rience and properly operared pilot systems. Usually, sep-
µm oil drop in a rectangular separator. Again, the time for ararors are relatively inexpensive; accordingly, there has
the borrorn to che sur- been sorne rcluctance, especially in che past, to invest
in
detailed, sophisricated procedures. Adequate oversizing
che 150 µm oil drop to rise from
face is set equal to che time for che wastewarer to separation is a very common field unir
flow operation. Of
rhrough the tank. This modd yields:
Ldí = (VHN¿) F HL (6-24)
where HL = total depeh of liquid in scparator
(ft)
F :a: rurbulcnce and short-circuiring factor
VH = horizontal bulk liquid velociry (ft/s)
API (J 969) estimares F as ehe product of a constan!
short-circuiting factor of 1.2 and Camp's rurbulence
fac- rors. API ( 1969) correlates F versus VHNd graphically
and also lirnits VH to 3 ftimin or 15(VHNd) whichever is
less, Powers ( 1990) approximares the API graphical
corre-
larion
by:
F = 1.224 + 0.022 (V HN¿) = 1.224 + 0.022 (l.¡¡{D
ho)
(6-25)

Computacional Fluid Dynamic.s

Computacional fluid dynamics (CFD) can provide a rwo-
or rhree-dirnensional modding of che fluid flow inside a
separator. CFD solves rhe nonlinear Navier-Srokes equa·
tions using finite elements or finice u-difference rnathe-
matical analysis. This approach replaces the differential
equarions with simplified algebraic equations, and che
resolution of che grids or networks can be made suffi-
ciently fine to yield accurate flow profiles. An accurare
and converged solucion requires a modern computer
workstation to perform the required exrremely
large number of calcularions.
CFD represenrs che volume available for flow using
many cells. Open space is represenred by live or open
cells, wall cells simulare solid boundary surfaces; and
porous cells simulare vanes, fibrous filrers, packing.
CFD will be used extensively in rhe near future. At
present che models for rhe porous cells are often propri-
etary. Fewel and Kean ( 1992) provide a nice inrroducrion
to CFD.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Sizing separators is not an exact science, even chough

has been the tradicional approach.
Overall considerations and required data are reviewed firsr,
Then sizing equations for horizontal and vertical separators are
recommended. Separator shell length, internals, cost and weighr,
optimum LID, and standard sizes are presenred next, Finally, sorne
potencial problems such as foaming are discussed.

Overall Considerations
The design objective is borh obvious and challenging; namely, to
specify che separator(s) rhat will achieve rhe desired, optimum
separation of liquid and vapor and yield the rnosr profirable
cornposirions for ali phases- gas, crude oil, and produced
water. This goal should be achieved not only for rhe inicial
specificarions, but also for rhe conditions likely to exisr
rhroughout rhe life of rhe field (Reid, 1986).
This last concept (condirions exisring throughout field life)
cannot be overemphasized. lmmediately, the designer must answer
che following quesrions (Reid, 1986):
l. How reliable are the customers data and specifica-
tions?
2. How much spare capaciry should be provided? Of course,
excess capacity means extra size, weight, space, and cost.
3. What is che mínimum separarion thar will not upsct che
downstream equipment? In ocher words:
-How much liquid can be accepted in the gas?
-How much water can be accepted in the oil?
-How mu.-� oil can be accepced in che water?
4. Safety and control requirements. lnstrumentation must be
easily accessible and properly located to get correct data.
A common specificarion far che effiuent gas from a well-
designed and properly operated separator is 0.1 gal- Ion of liquid
per MMscf (Powers, 1993).
The choice of separator lies between vertical or hori- zontal
because spherical and double-barreled horizontal are essentially
obsolete. The main factors are space or weight constraints and
the abiliry ro handle solids or effect a three-phase separation.
- % Phasc Scpamion of Gas, Oil, and Water

Vertical vessels are often preferred for small flows and

-
low GLRs because rhe separation efficiency does not
depend on liquid leve]. They are also besr ar handling
equation 6-10). Note that one musr select eirher a Kss
or a liquid drop size, dd. Equarion 6---10 clearly shows
that borh merhods are equivalenr.

--
solids.
Horizontal separarors are used when rhey offer a clear
size advantage (i.,., fo, large flows, high GLRs,
foamy crude oils, and rhree-phase separations).
Liquid Capacity. Design involves selecring either a
liquid-phase retenrion rime or a gas-bubble diameter.
First, if a rerention time is selected equation 6---2 may be
used. Second, if a gas bubble size is selected, equarion

-
Rcquircd Data 6---16 yields the liquid capaciry. Arnold and Srewarr ( 1986)
and Powers (1990, 1993) indicare thar Re < 1 for rhe gas
Regardless of geomerry (vertical, horizontal, spherical)
bubble rise; rherefore, Stokes Law (equarion 6---8) is valid.
or function (two- or rhree-phase), ali separator designs
Esrimating the rise velociry, Vg, from equarions 6---10 and
must require the following information (Broussard and
6---9 involves iterarion but does not require Stokes
Gravis, Law.
1960): 0

Note: q v (bpd) = 15,387 (DCF) q y (fr3/s) (6--28)

-
0
Gas: flow rate, specific graviry, acid-gas
where: DCF = crude oil densiry correction factor
contenr
Oil: flow rate, slug flow, specific graviry,
viscosiry, foaming tendencies, pour Horizontal Separators
and cloud point Gas Capacity. Again, two approaches are available.
Water: flow rate, slug flow, specific graviry, In the fim Kse factor merhod, rhe maximum gas veloc-
corrosion and scaling tendencies iry (Equation 6---11) is muhiplied by rhe arca for gas flow
lmpuriries: quanriries and description of fogs, paraf- to obtain:
fins, waxes, sand, pipeline scales, <te. 2
Vessel design: pressure rating, corrosion allowances, QgH = (n/4)(1-M)D K se� (p¿ - Pg)/pg P T,/P,T Z
connection sizes, special rnaterials, (6--29)
coatings, etc.
Funcrion: rwo- or rhree-phase; rerenrion times
where 0gH = gas capaciry ofhorizonral separator (scf/s)

required far oil-wacer breakour or, The second drop-setding approach involves three
ahernarively, cut-off drop diameter for steps:
complete rernoval. 1. The rime required for the mosr rernote liquid
Accessories: codes ro be followed, safery devices, drop to fall rhrough rhe entire gas phase (from top
level controllers, mise extracrors, of ves-
inscrumencarion. sel to gas-liquid interface) is set equal to rhe rheoret- ¡
ical gas residence rime (Figure 6---20 and equarion
API Spec l 2J (1989) presents a derailed form for 6-11).
.
spec- ifying complerely separaror design informarion. 2. By analogy wirh vertical separators and API Spec 12J
!
Kss values, Powers (1993) writes rhe drop-setrling ¡
Vertical Separaron velociry as:
Gas Capacity. The serding velociry, V00, of an oil Y0¿ = Kse �--.----l-p- = 0.35�
0
- Pg)/pg
(p
drop as cakulated from equation 6---11 is ser equal ro (6--30)
the
3. Powers (1993) accounts for nonideal flow by
superficial rise velociry, Vg• of rhe gas. In oilfield units
divid- ing rhis plug-flow estimare or ideal capaciry
(Powers, 1993):
by:
2
Qgv• (it/4)D K58�(p0- Pg)/pg PT,IP,TZ (6-26)
a+ b (YHN¿) = 3.9197 t 0.3080 [L,ff"D(l - h0)]
where: �V= gas capaciry of vertical scpararor (scf/s}, scf (6--31)
are meas u red at standard Ps & T,
Combining equations 6-11, 6-30, and 6---31 yields:
Note: �V (scf/d) = 86,400 �V (6--27)
(0.07013)(1-M)D�(p0- Pgl/pgPT,
(scf/s)
K58 is derermined bes, by field or pilo, test. Kss Q H- (6--32)
g - [1-h0+0.07013(L,ff/D)]P,TZ
may
also be obtained eirher direcdy from API Spec 12) rec- where �H = gas capaciry of horizoncal separator (scf/s)
ommendations or from drop-setding equarions (e.g.,
 - Phasc Separacion of Gas, Oil, and Water 97

Finally, Powers (1993) modilies equacion 6-32 by Shell Length, Figure 6-22 shows che GPSA (1987)
inserting a Kss rype-Iactor usually equal to 0.5. recommendations for mise extractors and feed and exir-
gas piping for vertical separacors.

.-
(0.14026)(1-M)D K SB � (p0 - Pg)/pg P T, In horizontal separators, L,ff, is rhe disrance available
Q gH • l
[ 1 - ho + 0.07013 (L,ff/D) P, T Z (6-33) for che drops to rise or falL Depending on separator
geometry, L,ff can have differenc values for the gas and

-
Powers (1993) recommends chac Kse vary from liquid phases. The seam-co-seam lengch, L, may be esti-
0.4-0.50 for vessels wich wire-rnesh misr exrractors. maced as follows (Arnold and Scewart, 1986):
Usually, a higher Kss is observed in larger diameter ves- Liquid capaciry
6-22 and 6-23.controlling = (4/3)
Therefore, Lrhe (4/3)L,11
multiplier accounts
(6-36)

-
seis. Foaming crudes may require lower K58 values and
Gas capaciry controlling L = Lcff + D (6-37)
higher L,¡¡ID.
The drop-serrling velociry may also be estirnated using Equation 6-36 is recommended for use wich equations
che drop size and drag coeflicienc kg., Arnold and
Scewarc, 1986). for non ideal Aow and also provides space for inrernals,
Figure 6-23 shows standard limits on liquid level. Of
(,c/4 )P T, (1-M)D L,ff � (4dg/C 0H(p - Pg)/pg)
0 course, adequate space muse be allowed for mise extrae-
QgH• (P,TZ) (6-34)
rors and weirs and buckets.
Liquid Capacicy. Borh che retention-rime and drop-
secding rnerhods may and have been used. lnternals. Mise extraccors are considered here; orher

-
inrernals are considered in Chaprer 7. Mise extractors are
Drop Settling. In a rwo-phase separa cor, che invariably designed using a Kss factor. The Kss factor
required liquid residence rime should equal che · time varíes with the disengaging heighr (York, 1954) and gas
for che remoce gas bubble lo rise from che vessel and liquid flow rates and densicies (Watkins, 1967).
bottom to che gas-liquid interface. Powers (1990) uses Tradieionally, wire-mesh mise extractors have been
Scokes Law for che rise velociry anda shorc-circuicing designed by setting Kss = 0.35. lmproved designs perrnir
factor F = 1.224 + 20-40% higher KSB values {York, 1993). Far vane sep-
0.022 (L,¡¡ID ho) to obcain : arators, York (1993) recommends:
(:t/4)M D L,11dg, (p¿ - Pg)g
q.H ho 18µ.[ 1.224 + 0.022 (L,11 ID ho)] (6-35) Operating Kse (fc/s)
Re-enrrainment
where q0H = oil (liquid} capacity ofhorizontal separator (ft3/s) Flow Direccion Minimum Maximum Value (fc/s)
q0H (BPD) = 15,387 (DCF) q0H (ft3/s) (6-36) Vertical 0.12 0.40 0.54
Horizontal 0.12 0.60 0.80
In a three-phase separator, che rise of oil drops rhrough
che free-water layer. and che fall of water drops from che oil layer
must be considered separarely, This is discussed in more detail in In che absence of vendor recommendations use Kss =
design example 6-1 and in Chapter 7. 0.35.

Retention Time. Equation 6-3 may be used direcdy, Connections. The feed pipe may be sized using che
standard empírica! erosion velocicy lirnir (API RP 14E,
Separator Geometry 1991):
The previous equacions provide the inside diameter, D,
(6-38)
and che effecrive length, L,rr, of the separa cor.
Separator design also includes specifying shell or
where: V, = fluid erosiona! vdociry (ft/s)
seam-ro-searn
e = constant
length, internals, and connections. Cost
= 125 for noncontinuous scrvice
considerations are used to fix che optimurn size and L/0 = 100 for concinuous service
ratio subjecr to prevenring liquid re-entrainrnent. In Pmix = gas/liquid densiry at operating P & T (lb/ft3).
practice, che closest
Alcernatively, pressure drop can be used for sizing inlet
or next largest standard size would probably be used.
pipe especially if slugging is possible. Single-phase exic
These topics are now considered,
 - 98 Phase Separaucn of Gas, Oil, and Water

-- lnlet
Di verter
Example Vertical Separator

Wire Mesh

-
Misl Extractor
Gas Outlet I
s..
Fig. 7·10
P.=c---éS,<;1-----t o·
lnlel

-
o. or
Dlverler 24" min•
----------1---;
lnletD1 2 º·
'- - ' LSH (S/0) Level Switch High (Shutdown)
< :» LSH (SfO)
1Z"{min}
LG!LC Level Gage/Level Controller
<:»
,:..,..

-
! 12"(mln.)
Note 1 dimensions may be mlluenced by mstrvment connecuon
!
º· LGILC requirements
12"{mln.) "Note 2: for smeu diameler sepa-atoes {:!E48� 10.) w,th hlgh UG 1nle1

-
flow ratios th1s d1mensl()(I should be mcreased by as muchas 50%.
Llquld Outlet
Note 3· may use syphon lype d,am 10·
A. reduce vorlex pos51bd1!y
B. reduce axternat p1ping lhal requues heahng (lreeze protection)

Example Mlnlmum Clearance - Mesh Type Mlst Elimlnators

VAPORO\IT •

SUPPORT
RING SIOE VAPOR OUTLET

SUPPORT
RING

MINIMUM MIST EXTRACTOR CLEARANCE, C.: WHERE:

M,. = MIST EXTRACTO!! OUTSIDE DIAMETER
C .. = 0.707 X or M.,..-N.,. N.. = NOZZLE OUTSIDE DIAMETER
2

Figure 6-22 Guidelines tor Vertical Separator Dimensions (GPSA, 1987, pp. 7-5. 7-9)
1

'
- Phase Scpara<ion of Gas, Oil, and Water

99
IN respect to Lcff· However now ilCu/ilLcff is always nega-

-
tive. Similarly, ilCu/ilD is always posirive. These two
partial derivatives indicare thar incrcasing Lcff /D lowers
rhe vessel cost.
MESH Oí course, the safest approach is to compute the total
cost and/or weighr for severa! adequatdy sized separators
wirh various UD ranos, This approach applies for any type.
Llquid Re-entrainment. Viles (199 3) states that
the onset of liquid re-entrainrnenr in horizontal
PAO
separators occurs at che boundary of srratified wavy
MAX LIQUIO LEVEL and annular mist rwo-phase flow. Viles recommcnds

I ,-..-�==='-"
ION. UOUID LEV
criteria for rnax- imum gas-velocity limít to prevent re-
entrainrnent based on the liquid-phase Reynolds and the

-
LIOUIO interfacial viscosiry numbers. Unforrunarely, che larter
number requires che surface tension berween liquid and
¡.--------- L ----....¡ gas. Vendors recorn- mend a maximum Kss above which
Figure tr-.23 Dimension Guidelines for Horizontal Separators (From
Equipment Design Handbook for Refineries and Chemical Plants, re-entrainment can
VOlurne 2, by Frank L Evans, Jr. Copyright 1980 by Gutt occur. (See Figure 6--24 for an illustrarion.) Thus, re-
Publishing Company, Used wilh permission. Ali rights
entrainrnenr limits che maximum UD ratio.
reserved.)
TX. Standard sizes are listed in API Spec 12) (1989) as
Houston follows:

--
nozzle, and pipes may be sized using allowable pressure
drops or rule of rhumb velociries.

Cost. Powers (1993) expresses vessel fabricarion

cost
as:
cT • f c, p, [n L 02 + 2 c, ch 03)
whcre CT • total vcssel cost ($)
f = vessel lhickncss/vesscl diamecer
Ce = cose factor per unit mass to manufacture a
vesscl shcll ($/lb)
p, : densiry of sreel (lb/ft3)
Ca = surface arca of vessel hcad/(vessel
diamcter)2
• 1.09 for 2: 1 elliptical heads
Ch = cost pcr unir mass to manufacture a vessel
head comparc:d to thar of vessel shell, usu-
(6--39)
Diameters (in.) OD: 12.75 (horizontal only), 16, 20, 24
OD or ID: 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, etc.
Lengths (seam-to-seam, fi:): 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 17.5, e t c .
equal to zero, and obtains the optimum LID
ratio when gas capaciry controls as:
(UO)ºP' , 2.846 [(l - ho) e, Ch]º 5 + 1
(6--40)
When liquid capaciry controls, Powers ( 1990)
derives

-
(UOJ0p,, 5.95 ( bo C, Ch)D.5
ally 1.5 !O 3.0. (6--41)
Note that vessel weighr may be estimared by deleting If the short-circuiring or rurbulence factor is
c, and ch from equation 6--39; chis neglects rhe small ornirted, a new Cu can be obrained and again
difference berween rhe shell and head thickness. differentiated wirh

Optimum UD. For horizontal separarors, Powers

then divides CT by �H (equation 6--33) to obtain Cu;
namely, che cose per unir capaciry. Powers equates L and
L,ff, sets the partial derivative of Cu wirh respect ro L
 In practice che selecred length is fixed by che dimen- sions of
rhe available steel place. A calculated length of
17.5 fr rnighr be "bumped up" to 20 fi: because the pur-
chaser pays for rhe drop off.

Potential Problems

Specialized design procedures are warranted for foaming crudes,

COz-rich meams, solids removal or sand pro- duction, waxes,
paraffins, hydrates, and floating offshore and subsea separators.
Potencial surges in flow muse also be addressed.

Foaming. Fottm is ofi:en a big problem in crude oil degassing and

depressuring separarors; in facr, foam can eas- ily occupy one-half
of the separator volume. Foam is formed as the oil pressure is
reduced in rhe reservoir, well- bore, tubing ming or flowline. In
short, foam forms essen- tially instantaneously afi:er a pressure drop.
Many crude oils have the potencial of creating foam carry-over, even
though ir is popular to blame a single factor such as asphaltenes,
paraffins, emulsions, high crude viscosicies, or poorly
designed interna!,. Laurance (1981) claims that the most common
foaming agents are fine (colloidal size) dust parti- cles (t.g., silt, tale,
or gilsonite) dispersed in the liquid phase.
-- 100 Phase Separation of Gas, Oil, and Water

-
-
1000

-
100

-
�
::E •
!2..g 10 For Demonstration

- •
1

Re enbalnment
Mist Extractors

Purposes Only for

- !
lJ
.1

.01
�ntralnment
Like Wire-Mesh
and Plates

- K-F o
.4 '

-
act r
Agure &-24 Liquid Carryover versus K Factor for Mist Extractors (NATCO, 1991)

- Foam decay is also exceedingly cornplex and involves

-
at leasr three separare steps or mechanisms:
l. Bubbles grow by coalescence and gas diffusion
through bubble walls unril rhe smallest bubbles
bursc due to high interna! pressure.
2. Oil or liquid rhen drains rhrough the foam.
2. Use inler baffles to confine rhe inlet turbulence.
3. Test che effecriveness of ancifoam chemicals or heat,
Liquid retenrion times of 5-8 minutes are typically
used for foaming crudes (Laurance, 1981 ).
COi-Rich Streams. Roye (1982) srudied rhe

-
3. Finally, bubbles rupture at rhe foam-gas interface. design of field separators for COz-ílood applications
and con- cluded:
Two accepted lab tests-the frirred bubbler and che

-
pressure bomb-provide rules of thumb or indexes for
crude oil foaminess. Rooker (1983) has clearly demon-
strated that while significant differences exist between
these two lab tests and field resulrs, rhe pressure-bomb
resulrs correlate more closely with actual separator data.
In summary, foam is a majar problem in separators
used to depressure crude oíl. Rooker (1983) recornrnends
an in-deprh pilot simulacion of the reservoir, pipeline, and
separator system. The resulting pilor data should be corre-
lated to field data to become meaningful. While control-
ling foam remains an arr, Rooker (1983) recornmends:
1. The standard vendor-supplied, separator-sizing
charrs should nor be used for COz-ílood designs.
2. Horizontal separators are recommended for C02-
flood applicarions.
3. The srandard K58 facrors typically used for
convén- tional sweet-gas applications should be
derared
approximatdy 15-20% for COrflood separation.
4. The liquid retenrion time should be at least 5 minures.
Solids-Removal or Sand Production. Vertical sepa-

-
rators are usually used when solids are presenr.
l. Thar rhe inlet strearn velociry be reduced with mín- Accurnulared solids/sand must be removed regularly
imum shearing. eirher manually or auromarically, A cone bottom (Figure
6--5) with sides-sloping ar 60º ro che vertical permics
.-
-- regular rernoval of sand (NATCO, 1993; Arnold and
Stewart, 1986). Sand is also very abrasive and ofren
5. Check
Phase Scpararion of Gas, Oil, and Water

the separator smng

serrling/ rising mcthods.
using the
101

drop

cuts
valve trim. 6. Estimare separator geometry, weight, and cose.

-
7. Optirnize the dcsign by varying rhe height/diameter
Paraffins, Waxcs, Hydrates, Heating is the most or lengch/ diameter ratios.
practica! method of prevenring paraffins from forming
inside separators. Chemical addirion can also be effec-
tive. Adequate provisions (handholes, manways, noz- Wellstrcarn Data
zles) should be made for removing accumulated Input Data:
waxes by sream cleaning or backwashing. Hydrates Separator Pressure = 415.6 psig
are nor- mally removed by lowering the pressure, Temperature = 155 ºF
merhanol injection, or warming above che hydrate- Gas Flowrate = 34.1 MMscfd 60 F, 14.65 psia
formation rernperature. S.G. = 0.808
Oil Flowratc = 60,540 bpd (60ºF)
Flow Variations, Separators should be sized to han- ºAPI = 49.1
dle the maximum flow rate expected during rhe pre- Water WOR= 1
dicted life of rhe separator. The water-oil ratio can be S.G. = 1.034
expected to increase, especially if waterflooding is being Atmospheric Pressure = 14.4 psia
used. Likewise, che separator should handle che largest
daily flow rarher than the average rate. In the absence of
Fluid Flowrates & Properties
better inforrnarion, typical surge factors can be found in
API RP 14E (1991). Gas Z = 0.925
Separators must also be capable of handling sudden slugs of � = (scf/day)(PjP)(Trf,)(Z)(day/sec)
liquid. Definirions of surge volume are ambigu- (34,100,000)(14.65)(155 + 459.7)(0.925)
ous. Surge uolume may be defined as rhe capaciry or vol- (24)(3,600)(415.6 + 14.4)(60 + 459.7)
ume in che separator between the highest and normal liq-
uid levels, Similarly, surge time is defined as the time = 14.71 fr3/s
raken for the liquid leve! to rise from normal to rnaxi- Pg = P MIZ R T
mum while maintaining normal feed flow and no outlet
(415.5 + 14.4)(28.96)(0.808)
flow. Alternauvely, rhe volume between rhe highest and
(0.925)(10.731)(155 + 459.7)

lowesr levels may be used.

Holdup time is defined as rhe time ir takes to lower rhe = 1.65 lb/fr3
liquid leve! from normal to empty while maintaining a µ = O.O 12 cP (Figure 6-25)
normal outlet flow with no feed entering. Oil ocf = 0.967 (Figure 4-12)
q0 = (BPD)(l/DCF)(fr3/bbl)(day/min)
= (60,540)( 1 /0.967)(5.615)( 1/1440)
DESIGN EXAMPLES = 244.1 fr3/min
S.G = (141.5)/(131.5 + º API)
The current design approach involves rhe following = (141.5)/(131.5 + 49.1) = 0.783 (60ºF)
steps:
Po= (S.G.)(62.4)(DCF)

-
l. Obtain the required data. = (0.783)(62.4)(0.967) = 47.28 lb/fr3
2. Estímate the inlet flow rates and densities of ali µ0 = 0.75 cP (Figure 4-16)
phases. Water qw = (BPD)(ft3/bbl)(day/min)
3. Estima te "ballpark" values of rhe separator = (60,540)(5.615)(1/1440)
diame- ter and height (vertical) or effecrive = 236.1 fr3/ min
length (hori- zontal). Pw = (S.G.)(62.40)
4. Size the separator using the Souders-Brown Kss fac- = (1.034)(62.4) = 64.52 lb/fr3
tor and liquid rerention rirnels) methods. µw = 0.45 cP (Figure4-17)
. ..- � � ����

. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ -------- -- -
- 102 Phase S.pamion of Ces, Oil, and Water
0.10
0.09
O.OI

0.07
0.06

FIG. 23·311
o.os Hydrocarbon OH Vl1co.lty

0.04

0.03
"º l
Pr•nure, p1io

0.07

1500

;
i
,....
>00

i•
� o.o,
i
.>r 0.009
o.ooe
0.007
0.006

,.... o.eos

0.004
----...,..

:,--,
0.003

1.0
0.9
'P gr O 8
0.7
0.6
0.H O 55
400 -)00 100 ·100 o 100 zeo )00 •oo seo 600 700 100 900 ,ooo

Figure &--25 Viscosity of Gaseous Hydrocarbons (GPSA, 1987, pp. 23-44, Fig. 23-46)

1
 -
--
Phase Separarion of Gas, Oil. and Water 103

Example 6--J. Horizontal Separator

 Size a three-phase, horizontal separa- tor for
Kss = 0.80 NATCO Serpenrine Vanes recornmendarion
rhe given wellsrream. State ali design crireria Design

-
and assumptions. Kss = 0.80 (che designe, muse select a value).
First, very approximate values of rhe
diameter and effective lengch are esti- mated. Vm,. • K5B )(P0 - Pg )/pg
Then, rhe separator is sized first using che
= (0.80)[(47.28 - 1.65)/1.65]º5
Souders-Brown Kss fac- tor for che gas phase
= 4.21 ft/s
and an assurned API Spec 12} retention time Mínimum
for the liquid phases. Next, separator dimen-
Ay = (Q/Vm,) = (14.71)/(4.21) = 3.50 fe
sions are examined using drop-serding
equarions. Finally, separaror weighc and cose
Liquid Phase Capacity-Rctcntion lime
are esrirnated,
Ali cafculations are performed on a Retention Time = 3 min (API Spec 12})

-
spreadsheet and only che final, con- vl = (qw l,w + qo <,o)= (244.1)(3) + (236.1)(3)
verged values are presented. = 1,440.6 ft3
Al= Vl/L,¡¡- = (1,440.6)/(30.0) = 48.018 fe2
Amin =Al+ Ay= 48.018 + 3.496 = 51.514 fe2
Approximatc Separator Dimensions
Dmin = [Am¡/(n/4)J0.5 = (51. 514/0.7854)º 5
Assume: L,¡¡ID = 4 = 8.099 fe
Separator is half full of liquid Selected D (8.5 fe) is next standard size larger than Dmin·
Liquid rerenrion time is 3 min.
A,0, = (n/4)(10)2 = (0.7854)(8.5)2 = 56.745 fe2
Al/A,0, = M = (48.018)/(56.745) = 0.846
Then: vl = (0.5)(n/4)D2*4D = (qw 't,w + q0 'trn) Hl/D = bo = 0.789 (Table 6-1)
= (244.1)(3) + (236.1 )(3) = 1,440.6 ft3
Solving: D = 9.7 fe Alternarively, M may be calculared from ho by (Powers,
1990):
L,¡¡- = 38.8 fe
M = 0.5 + (4/n)(h0 - 0.5)(h0 - h02¡os
+ (! In) sin-! (2h0 - 1)
Select Separator Dimcnsions
The spreadsheer calculates bo by first solving rhe follow-
Effeccive Lengch, L,¡¡- = 30.0 fe ing equation for 0 using irerarion (firsc tria! sets sin 8 = 8)
Inside Diameter, D = 8.5 fe
L,¡¡ID = 3.529 M = 0.5 + 8/n • (sin 20)/2it
Note 3 < L,¡¡ID < 5 so proceed. where sin 8 = (Hl - D/2)/(D/2)
Figure 6-26 shows the leve! of ali interfaces and aids
Gas Capacity-Souders-Brown K factor developmenr of rhe above two equarions.

Use equacion 6--14 ro correct Kss for high pressure. API l Then: ho = Hl/D = 0.5 + (sin 0)/2
2J Hl = (0.789)(8.5) = 6.706 fe
D - Hl = 8.5 - 6.706 = 1.794 fe
Kss = [0.50 - 0.000l(P- 100)] [(L,¡p'l0)056J
= [0.50 - 0.0001(415.6 + 14.4- 100)](30.0/J0)056 Evans (1980) recommends that: HUD < 0.8 (Figure
= 0.864 ft/s 6-23)
Lilly Gerunda (1981) recommends rhat: D - HL > 1.5 fe
Kss = [0.50- O.OOOl(P- 100)] (L,¡¡ID)/5)º56 Borh criteria are mer; therefore, proceed with sizing.

-
= [0.50-0.0001(415.6 + 14.4- 100)1(3.53/5)º56
Vw = (qw tcw) = (236.1 )(3) = 708.2 fe3
= 0.384 fe/s
Sm.rh Aw = VwfL,¡¡- = (708.2/30.0) = 23.61 fec
Aw/A,0, = (23.61)/(56.745) = 0.416
Kss = 0.50 non-ideal value ofF,0 (Fig. 12-32) H01w/D = 0.434 (Table 6-1)
 -
-
-
Zc
104
Table 6-1
Phasc Separation of Gas, Oil, and Water

o
Partial Volumes of Horizontal Cylinders

Coefficienu for Partial Volurnes of Horizontal Cylinders, f (Zc)

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

-
.00 .000000 .000053 .000151 .000279 .000429 .000600 .000788 .000992 .001212 .001445
. 01 .001692 .001952 .002223 .002507 .002800 .003104 .003419 .003743 .004077 .004421
.02 .004773 .005134 .005503 .005881 .006267 .006660 .007061 .007470 .007886 .008310
. 03 .008742 .009179 .009625 .010076 .010534 .010999 .011470 .011947 .012432 .012920
.04 .013417 .013919 .014427 .014940 .015459 .015985 .016515 .017052 .017593 .018141

'1
.05 .018692 .019250 .019813 .020382 .020955 .021533 .022115 .022703 .023296 .023894
.06 .024496 .025103 .025715 .026331 .026952 .027578 .028208 .028842 .029481 .030124
.07 .030772 .031424 .032081 .032740 .033405 .034073 .034747 .035423 .036104 .036789
. 08 .037478 .038171 .038867 .039569 .040273 .040981 .041694 .042410 .043129 .043852
.09 .044579 .045310 .046043 .046782 .047523 .048268 .049017 .049768 .050524 .051283
.10 .052044 .052810 .053579 .054351 .055126 .055905 .056688 .057474 .058262 .059054
.11 .059850 .060648 .061449 .062253 .063062 .063872 .064687 .065503 .066323 .067147
.12 .067972 .068802 .069633 .070469 .071307 .072147 .072991 .073836 .074686 .075539
.13 .076393 .077251 .078112 .078975 .079841 .080709 .081581 .082456 .083332 .084212
.14 .085094 .085979 .086866 .087756 .088650 .089545 .090443 .091343 .092246 .093153
.1 5 .094061 .094971 .095884 .096799 .097717 .098638 .099560 .100486 .101414 .102343
.16 .103275 .104211 .105147 .106087 .107029 .107973 .108920 .109869 .110820 .111773
.1 7 .112728 .113686 .114646 .115607 .116572 .117538 .118506 .119477 .120450 .121425
.18 .122403 .123382 .124364 .125347 .126333 .127321 .128310 .129302 .130296 .131292
.1 9 .132290 .133291 .134292 .135296 .136302 .137310 .138320 .139332 .140345 .141361
t'
.20
.21 .142378 .143398 .144419 .145443 .146468 .147494 .148524 .149554 .150587 .151622 �
.152659 .153697 .154737 .155779 .156822 .157867 .158915 .159963 .161013 .162066
.2 2
.163120 .164176 .165233 .166292 .167353 .168416 .169480 .170546 .171613 .172682
.23
.173753 .174825 .175900 .176976 .178053 .179131 .180212 .181294 .182378 .183463
.24
.184550 .185639 .186729 .187820 .188912 .190007 .191102 .192200 .193299 .194400
.25
.2 6 .195501 .196604 .197709 .198814 .199922 .201031 .202141 .203253 .204368 .205483
,
.,, .206600 .2077 J 8 .208837 .209957 .211079 .212202 .213326 .214453 .215580 .216708
,
.28 .217839
.229209
.218970
.230352
.220102
.231498
.221235
.232644
.222371
.233791
.223507
.234941
224645
.236091
.225783
.237242
.226924
.238395
.228065
.239548
.29
.240703 .241859 .243016 .244173 .245333 .246494 .247655 .248819 .249983 .251148
.30
.31 .252315 .253483 .254652 .255822 .256992 .258165 .259338 .260512 .261687 .262863
.32 .264039 .265218 .266397 .267578 .268760 .269942 .271126 .272310 .273495 .274682
.33 .275869 .277058 .278247 .279437 .280627 .281820 .283013 .284207 .285401 .286598
.34 .287795 .288992 .290191 .291390 .292591 .293793 .294995 .296198 .297403 .298605
.299814 .301021 .302228 .303438 .304646 .305857 .307068 .308280 .309492 .310705
.35
.36 .311918 .313134 .314350 .315566 .316783 .318001 .319219 .3204.19 .321660 .322881
.37 .324104 .325326 .326550 .327774 .328999 .330225 .331451 .332678 .333905 .335134
.38 .336363 .337593 .338823 .340054 .341286 .342519 .343751 .344985 .346220 .347455
39 .348690 .349926 .351164 .352402 .353640 .354879 .356119 .357359 .358599 .359840
.361082 .362325 .363568 .364811 .366056 .367300 .368545 .369790 .371036 .372282
.40
.41 .373530 .374778 .376026 .377275 .378524 .379774 .381024 .382274 .383526 .384778
.42 .386030 .387283 .388537 .389790 .391044 .392298 .393553 .394808 .396063 .397320
.4 3 .398577 .39º834 .401092 .402350 .403608 .404866 .406125 .407384 .408645 .409904
.44 .411165 .41 c426 .413687 .414949 .416211 .417473 .418'36 .419998 .421261 A22525
.423788 .425052 .426316 427582 .428846 .430112 .4313'8 .432645 .433911 .435178
.4 5
.46 .436445 .437712 .438979 .440246 .441514 .442782 .444050 .445318 .446587 .447857
.4 7 .449125 .450394 .451663 .452932 .454201 .455472 .456741 .458012 .459283 .460554
.48 .461825 .463096 .464367 .465638 .466910 .468182 .469453 .470725 .471997 .473269
.49 .474541 .475814 .477086 .478358 .479631 .480903 .482176 .483449 .484722 .485995
.487269 .488542 .489814 .491087 .492360 .493633 .494906 .496179 .497452 .498726
Source: GPSA, 1987: Vol l. p. 6-21, Fig. 6-22

...' ..
1
 Phase Scpu:uion of Gas, Oil, and Water !OS

Table 6-1 Parti.al Yolumcs of Horizontal Cylinders (Continurd)

Cocfficicnts for Partial Volumcs of Horizontal Cylindcrs, f (Zc)
le o 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

.so .500000 .501274 .502548 .503821 .505094 .506367 .507640 .508913 .510186 .511458
.51 .512731 .514005 .515278 .516551 .517824 .519097 .520369 .521642 .522914 .524186
.52 .525459 .526731 .528003 .529275 .530547 .531818 .533090 .534362 .535633 .536904
.53 .538175 .539446 .540717 .541988 .543259 .544528 .545799 .547068 .548337 .549606
.54 .550875 .552143 .553413 .554682 .555950 .557218 .558486 .559754 .561021 .562288
.55 .563555 .564822 .566089 .567355 .568622 .569888 .571154 .572418 .573684 .574948
.56 .576212 .5n475 .578739 .580002 .581264 .582527 .583789 .585051 .586313 .587574
.57 .588835 .590096 .591355 .592616 .593875 .595134 .596392 .597650 .598908 .600166
.58 .601423 .602680 .603937 .605192 .606447 .607702 .608956 .610210 .611463 .6127!7

-
.59 .613970 .615222 .616474 .617726 .618976 .620226 .621476 .622725 .623974 .625222
.60 .626470 .62n18 .628964 .630210 .631455 .632700 .633944 .635189 .636432 .637675
.61 .638918 .640160 .641401 .642641 .643881 .645121 .646360 .647598 .648836 .650074
.62 .651310 .652545 .653780 .655015 .656249 .657481 .658714 .659946 .661177 .662407
.63 .663637 .664866 .666095 .667322 .668549 .669775 .671001 .672226 .673450 .674674
.64 .675896 .6n119 .678340 .679561 .680781 .681999 .683217 .684434 .685650 .686866
.65 .688082 .689295 .690508 .691720 .692932 .694143 .695354 .696562 .697n2 .698979
.66 .700186 .701392 .702597 .703802 .705005 .706207 .707409 .708610 .709809 .711008
.67 .712205 .713402 .714599 .715793 .716987 .718180 .719373 720563 .721753 .722942
.68 .724131 .725318 .726505 .727690 .728874 .730058 .731240 .732422 .733603 .734782
.69 .735961 .737137 .738313 .739488 .740662 .741835 .743008 .744178 .745348 .746517
.70 .747685 .748852 .750017 .751181 .752345 .753506 .754667 .755827 .756984 .758141
.71 .759297 .760452 .761605 .762758 .763909 .765059 .766209 .767356 .768502 .769648
.72 .770791 .771935 .773076 .774217 .775355 .776493 .777629 .778765 .779898 .781030
.73 .782161 .783292 .784420 .785547 .786674 .787798 .788921 .790043 .791163 .792282
.74 .793400 .794517 .795632 .796747 .797859 .798969 .800078 .801186 .802291 .803396
.75 .804499 .805600 .806701 .807800 .808898 .809993 .811088 .812180 .813271 .814361
.76 .815450 .816537 .817622 .818706 .819788 .820869 .821947 .823024 .824100 .825175
.77 .826247 .827318 .828387 .829454 .830520 .831584 .832647 .833708 .834767 .835824
.78 .836880 .837934 .838987 .840037 .841085 .842133 .843178 .844221 .845263 .846303
.79 .847341 .848378 .849413 .850446 .851476 .852506 .853532 .854557 .855581 .856602
.80 .857622 .858639 .859655 .860668 .861680 .862690 .863698 .864704 .865708 .866709
.81 .867710 .868708 .869704 .870698 .871690 .872679 .873667 .874653 .875636 .876618
. 82 .8n597 .878575 .879550 .880523 .881494 .882462 .883428 .884393 .885354 .886314
.83 .887272 .888227 .889180 .890131 .891080 .892027 .892971 .093913 .894853 .895789
.84 .896725 .897657 .898586 .899514 .900440 .901362 .902283 .903201 .904116 .905029
.85 .905939 .906847 .907754 .908657 .909557 .910455 .911350 .912244 .913134 .914021
.86 .914906 .915788 .916668 .917544 .918419 .919291 .920159 .921025 .921888 .922749
.87 .923607 .924461 .925314 .926164 .927009 .927853 .928693 .929531 .930367 .931198
.88 .932028 .932853 .933677 .934497 .935313 .936128 .936938 .937747 .938551 .939352
.89 .940150 .940946 .941738 .942526 .943312 .944095 .944874 .945649 .946421 .947190
.90 .947956 .948717 .949476 .950232 .950983 .951732 .952477 .953218 .953957 .954690
.91 .955421 .956148 .956871 .957590 .958306 .959019 .959727 .960431 .961133 .961829
.92 .962522 .963211 .963896 .964577 .965253 .965927 .966595 .967260 .967919 .968576
93 .969228 .969876 .970519 .971158 .971792 .972422 .973048 .973669 .974285 .974897
94 .975504 .976106 .976704 .977297 .977885 .978467 .979045 .979618 .980187 .980750
.95 .981308 .981859 .982407 .98V48 .983485 .984015 .984541 .985060 .985573 .986081
.96 .986583 .987080 .987568 .988053 .988530 .989001 .989466 .989924 .990375 .990821
.97 .991258 .991690 .992114 .992530 .992939 .993340 .993733 .994119 .994497 .994866
.98 .995227 .995579 .995923 .996257 .996581 .996896 .997200 .997493 .997777 .998048
. 99 .998308 .998555 .998788 .999008 .999212 .999400 .999571 .999721 .999849 .999947
l.00 1.000000
Source.. GPSA, 1987: Vol 1. p. 6-22. Fig. 6-22
 -
-
-
106 Phase Scparation of Gas, Oil, and Water

- T Liquid Capacity-Water Drop in Oíl Phase

T HL- H01w = 6.706- 3.688 = 3.02 ft
••
D

:
T tro = 3 min

--
l Vwd = (HL - H0¡w)ft,0 = (3.02)/(3.0)(60)
= 0.0168

Figure 6-26 Gas-Oil-Water Interface Levels

ti ftls

-
in a
Horizontal 1
Separator .
6
Ho/w = {0.434)(8.5) = 5
3.688 fr )
actual Av= A,0, -AL= 56.745 - 48.018 = ]
8.727 ft2
actual Vg = q¿Av = 14.712/8.727 = 1.686 ft/s
Actual V g < V max so separaror size is
controllcd by liquid capaciry and not by gas
flow rare,
Sizing is now checked by estimating che

-
smallest liquid drops and gas bubbles rhar can be
collected with
100% efficiency. Rernember, che drop senling
equa- tions involve many assurnptions, so
calculaced drop sizes should be viewed as a
measure of separator performance.

- Gas Capacity-Oil Drop In Gu

Phase
Gas rerenrion
30.0/1.686
=
17.80
time= L,fl"(actual Vgl =

sec
D - Ht = 8.500 - 6.706 = 1.79 ft
Vod = (D -
HL)!t,g
= (1.79)/(17.80) = 0.101 ft/s
The smallest oil drop rhar will setrle as fast as rhe
gas flows upward is now esrimated, Because
drop size, Rcynolds number, and drag coefficient
are not known a priori, iteration is required.
Ass
um
e
C0 =
11.94
dod = 304,800 (Vod2 3 Co Pgl/(4 g (p¿ -
Pgll
= 304,800 (0.101)2(3)(11.94)(1.65)/
[4*32.2(47.28
Assume Vod = (H0¡w)/trw = (3.69)/(3)(60) = 0.0205 ft/s
Assume
Co = 29.48
Co = 12.53
d,.d = 304,800 (Vwi 3 Co pJ/(4 g (Pw - p )]
= 304,800(0.0168)2(3)(29.48)(47.28)
i
d0d = 304,800 (V 0 3 CD Pw)/(4 g (Pw - P )] 0
0
= 304,800(.0205)2(3)(12.5){64.52)/[4*32.2 (64.52
/[4*32.2(64.52- 47.28)]
- 47.28)]
= 161 µm
= 139.8 µm
Re = (d,.d)(Vwd){p.)/(µo)
Re = (d0d)(Vod)(Pwl/(�)
= ( l 61/304,800)(0.0168)( 47.28)/(0. 75*0.000672) = ( 139.8/304,800)(.0193)(64.5)/(0.45*0.000672)
= 0.83 = 2.00
Check Check
Co = 24/Re + 0.3/Re0-5 + 0.34 Co = 24/Re + 0.3/Re0-5 + 0.34
= 24/0.83 + 0.3/(0.83)º·5 + 0.34 = 29.48 = 24/2.00 + 0.3/(2.00)º-5 + 0.34 = 12.52
Note: These liquid drop sizes are reasonable.
Liquid Phase Capacity: Oíl Drop in Water Phase
H01w= 3.69 ft Weir and Bucket Heights
=31.2µm
OilWeir: Refer to Figure 6-l 8c.
Note
Obviously, heighr of oil weir is

•
I ft = 304,800 µm
equal to height of oil-gas interface,
Re = (d0d)(VodHPgl/(µg) Water Ht, or 6.71 ft.
= (31.2/304,800)(0. I 01 )( l .65)/(0.0l Refer to Figure 6-18c. Pressure
2*0.000672)
at water-gas interface musr be
= 2.11 Weir: same as rhat ac crude-gas interface.
Check

Therefore:
Co = 24/Re + 0.3/ReO.S + 0.34 Hww Pw = (h0N - HoiwlPo + Ho/w Pw
= 24/2. I 1 + 0.3/(2.11)º.S + 0.34 = (6-42) Hww(62.4) = (6.706 - 3 688)(47.28) +
11.93 (3.688)(62.4)
Note: l. Stokes Law holds for Re < 1, so Co Hww = 5.975 ft.
method is Bucket: The bucket is placed so rhar rhe fiow area
b below che bucket allows the wacer to flow at less chan
et
3 ft!s after
te
r. sorne allowance for build-up of sand or sedirnenr.
2. Small oil drop size confirms that gas
capaciry is
not determining separator
size.

¡
�������������������������������
��->
- Phasc Scpar:uion of Gas, Oil, and Water

107

Separator Dimensions H/D = .¡_o

-
Shdl lcngth is esrirnated using equations 6--36 and 6--37: Note: 3 < H/D < 4 is rnost common range

L = (4/3}L,¡¡ • (4/3)(30) = 40.0 ft (Equation 6-36)

Gas Capacity-Souders-Brown Kss factor
L = L,tr + D = 30 + 8.5 = 38.5 ft (Equation 6-37)
K58 = 0.35 - 0.0001 (P - 100)
Select L = 40.0 ft (ncxt largcst standard size)

-
=0.35-0.0001 (415.6+ 14.4-100)=0.317fr/s

Rclatiw Cost V mu= Kss �( Po - Pgl/pg

= (0.317)((47.28 - l.65)]/1.65)º-5 = 1.67 ft/s
Scparator cost is esrirnated using equation 6--39:
Dmin = (�yNmu (1t/4))0-5
A relative cost may be defined as: (it L D2 + 2 C, Ch 03) = [(14.71)/(1.67)(0.7854)]º·5 = 3.35 fr
Relarive cose = (3.142*40*8.52 + 2* 1.15*2.25*8.53)

-
= 12, 258 Note l. Dmin (3.35 fr) < selected D (7.5 fr).
Separator weight is esrimared using ASME code. 2. Gas capacity is not conrrolling.

-
Optimization of Design Gas Capacity-Drop Settling

The previous procedure is repeared for other sizes: Estimare the smallest oil drop thar will serrle at rhe actual
gas upward velocity,
Sep Diarnerer (ft) 7.5 8.0 8.5 9.0
Sep Length (ft) Actual
52.5 45.0 40.0 37.5
Relative Cosr/ 1000
Vg = �V /(it/4)02
11.5 11.7 12.3 13.3
= 14.712/(.7854)(7.5)2 = 0.333 fr/s
Wcight (1000 lb} 116.4 98.7 92.6 102.8
Assume
The 8.5 "40 ft. separator is the lightesr, while the onc C0 = 2.164
with rhe highest UD ratio is the cheapesr. d0d = 304,800(V 0i 3 Co Pgl/[4 g (p¿ - Pgll
=304,800(0.333)2(3)(2.164)( 1.65)
Examplc 6-2. Vemcal Separator
/[(4)(32.2) (47.28 - 1.65)]
Size a suitabie, rwo-phase, vertical scpa-
= 61.62 µm
rator for rhe givcn wellstream. State ali
Re = (dod)(VodHPgli(µgl
design crireria and assumptions.
= (6l.62/304,800)(.333)(1.65)/(0.012 *0.000672)
Again, che vertical separator is sized
= 13.77
fim using Souders-Brown factors and
Check
API Spec 12) liquid-retenrion times.
C0 = 24/Re + 0.3/Re0-5 + 0.34
Then the dimensions are exarnined
= 24/13.77 + 0.3/(13.77)º5 + 0.34 = 2.164
using drcp-serrling equarions. Only rhe
final converged solution is presented.
Liquid Phase Capacity-Rctcntion Time
Approx.imate Scparator Dimcnsions Assume Retenrion Time = l min

Assume: H/0 = 4 VL = ( qw)( t,wl + ( q.H ,,.)

= (244.1)(1) + (236.1)(1) = 480.2 ft3
Separator is one-half ful! of liquid
HL = VL/(it/4) 02
liquid retention rime is l min
(0.5)(it/4)'02*40 = VL = {qw)(lrw) + {q0)(1,.) = (480.2)/(0.7854)(7.5)2 = 10.87 ft
= (244.1)(1) + (236.1)(1) = 480.2 ft3
0=6.7ft Liquid Capacity-Gas Bubble Rising
H = 26.9 ft Insrde Diarneter, O = 7.5 ft

Selecr Separator Dimensions

Height, H = 30.0 ft
Estímate che smallesc vapor drop that Actual
rise sertling at rhe VL = (V O+ Vwli(it/4)02

-
actual liquid-phase sertling velociry, = [(244. l + 236.1)/60]/(, 7854)(7.5)2 = 0.181 ftls
108 Phase Separarion of Gas, Oil. and Water

Assume
Selecr H seam to seam
Co = 1.553
= 30.0 ft next larger
dg = 304,800 (Vgd2 3 Co0p )/[4 g (p¿ - Pg)l standard size

-
= 304,800(0.181)2(3)( 1.553)(47.28)
/[(4)(32.2)(47.28 - 1.65)] Relative Cost
= 375 µm
Using the previous relarive cosr: (rr L 02 + 2 Ca Ch 03)
Re= (dgHVgdHPo)/(µo)
Relative cost = (3.142'30*7.52 + 2'1. l 5'2.25'7.53)
= (375/304,800)(0.181)(47.28)/
(0.75*0.000672) = 7,485

= 20.92
Optimization of Design
Check
Co = 24/Re + 0.3/R0 The previous proced

t
e -5 + 0.34
= 24/20.92 + 3/(20.92)º
0. 5 + 0.34 = 1.553
the following results:

ure is repeared for orher sizes with

Sep Diameter 6.5 7.0 7.5 B.O 8.
Feed, Exir-Pipe & Mist Extractor
Diameters
(fr) Sep Height
(fr) Relative
32.5 30.0
5.7 6.4
30.0 30.0
7.5 8.7
5
33.
0
1
Cosil l 000 56.7 63.9 74.9 86.8
Average feed Pm;x Weighr (1000 !O.O
lb) 99.
9
= (qg Pg + qo Po + qw Pw)/(qg + qo + H feed pipe = 2 (D feed pipe) = 2.3 ft
qw) H rnist extractor - H feed pipe
(14.712'60'1.65+244.l "47.28+236.l =

'64.52) (14.712 '60+ 244.1 +

7
236.1) .
= 20.71 lb/ft3 5

Erosion Ve f
= (100)/�(Pf«d) = 100/(20.71)
05
=
r

-
21.9 fr/s cm above mist extractor
= 0.5 + {M0d -
D, feed pipe
�------- N0d)/2
-- = 0.5 + (7.5 - 0.75)/2 = 3.9 ft
= ..J[(Qg+ q0+ qw)/(V,1]/(;r/4)= 1.15
fr H seam to seam
= 10.9 + 1.0 + 2.3 + 7.5 + 3.9
Assume V exir gas is 50 ft/s
= 25.6 fr
Nod exit-gas pipe
�------
= �[(14 712)/(50))/(rr/4) = 0.612 fr
Misr Extractor: Assume Kss = 0.35
V rrusrex = KsB �(Po - Pg )/pg

= (0.35)[(47.28- 1.65)/1.65)]º'
= 1.84 ft/s
Mod = (�yN mistex
(rr/4))0 5
= [(14.71)/(1.84)(0.7854)]05 = 3.19 ft

Separator Height
H liq leve! =
10.9 fr
H feed - H liq leve! = 1.0 ft
The separator with the highesr H/D ratio is optimum.

MAINTENANCE ANO TROUBLESHOOTING

Maintenance recommendacions and

troubleshooting advice are now presented,

Maintenancc
Maintenance should include rhe following:
• Daily
-<:heck liquid-levels
--check pressures and temperacures
-replace broken gage glasses and pressure gages
• Periodically
-lubricare valves
-<:lean gage columns
-<:heck dump valves
-<:heck leve! conrrollers
-c-check backpressure controls
• Yearly
=-check pressure-relief valves. MMS requires
rnonrhly checks
offshore.

Trouhleshooting
Possible causes for che more common problems are Iisted
(NATCO, 1984; PETEX, 1974).
• Low liquid leve!
-fluid dump vajve opening too wide or trirn cut out
-drain valve open or leaking
-no fluid enrering
• High liquid leve!
-fluid control dump valve closed or plugged
-block valve around dump valve closed
 Phase Separacion ofG.as, Oil. and Water 109

-inlet valve to next vesse] closed 2. Whar force fields can be used to separate liquids and
-separator overloaded gases?
• Low pressurc in separator 3. Lisr rhe fearures common ro oilfield separators.

-
-backpressure control valve is not working 4. List rhe rwo major rypes of misr extractors. What are
-leaking safery-relief valve rheir major advantagcs and disadvantages?
-inlec valve closed S. Compare level control in open separarors wirh sepa-

-
• High prcssure in separacor rarors equipped wirh weirs and weirs and buckecs.
-backprcssurc control valve is not working 6. Compare rhe relative advancages and disadvantages
-valves downstream of scparator closed

-
of horizontal and vertical separacors.
• Ali che oil going out gas line 7. Lisr rwo mechods of suing separators.
--dump valve not open 8. Lisr che major considerations in designing separators.
-block valve closed on piping to rank 9. How are standard sizes decermined?
-separaror or piping plugged 1 O. Lisr severa! problems commonly encouncered while
• Misr going out gas line opcraring oilfield separarors. How are rhese prob-
-vessd roo small Ierns solved?
-plugged mist extractor 11. Rccommend a suitable rypc of separator for rhe
-improper liquid leve! (roo high or roo low) fol- lowing applicarions:
-foaming problem a high producrion of foamy crude
• Free gas going out oil valve a wellstream with considerable sand production
-too low leve! in separator a floacing offshore production ship.
--dump valve nor seacing 12. A horizontal and a vertical scparator are boch oper-
-no vortex breaker or breaker plugged or damaged ated half full of liquid. Compare the areas of the
• Gas going out water valve on 3-phase gas/crude interfaces for rhe rwo separarors.
-samc as free ga.s going out oil valve 13. A vertical separator has a LID rario of 4. lf che liq-
• Too much gas going ro rank wirh rhe oil uid level rises by 0.1 L, how much does rhe gas/
-retention time too low liquid interface area change?
-foaming oil 14. A horizontal separaror of lengrh L and diamerer D
-too much prcssure drop from separaror ro tanks is operated half ful! of liquid. How much change
=-ccndensate to tanks roo cold in che liquid level is permissible if thc a rea of gas-
• Condensare and water not separating in 3-phase scpa- liquid interface musr nor be reduced by more chao
rator 10%?
-paraffin problern causing warer nor ro be free 15. Consider a horizontal vapor-liquid separator. What
-adjustable weir out of adjusrmcnt liquid leve! should be maintaincd ro maximize ,he
-not enough retention time liguid capacicy� Compare your ans,ver ,virh Po,vers
-leak in adjustablc weir (1990).
• Diaphragm operated dump valve not opening 16. A cylindrical vessel is 5 fe in diamcter and 20 fe long.
-pilot failure: Estimare the liquid surge capaciries if the vessel is
-supply gas failure used as: (1) a horizontal separator, and (2) a vertical
-orífice sropped up separator.
-out of adjustment 17. Discuss the problems expericnced with offshore sep-
-broken valve stern ararors. How can these problems be solved?
-plugged tubing 18. What crireria are used ro oprimíze separator design
-ruptured diaphragm sii.ing�
-stoppcd up venr in upper case
-leak in line from pilor to valve Problems

l. Derive thc relation berween M and ho.

Review Questions
lndicate how M can be obrained given ho and vice
1. Define separator, scrubber, knockouc, flash cham- versa.

-
ber, expansion vessel, and filcer coalescer. 2. Consider che horizontal separator described in
Example 6-1.
- 110 Phase Scpamion of Gas, Oil, and Water
Select a separator wirh a different UD ratio and

- compare your separacor wich che one sized in

Example 6-1.
Ca = factor for derermining surface area of a ves-

sel head from vessel diameter squared

(= 1.09), dimensionless

-
Compute rhe Reynolds Number for the gas flow Ce = cosr factor per unir mass to manufacture a
in
vessel shell ($/lbm)
rhis horizontal separator.
Repeat assuming rhat the gas flows berween Co = drag coefficient (dimensionless)

-
Dixon piares that are I in. apare. Ch = ratio of cost per unir rnass ro manufacture a

he liquid leve! in both separators is D/2.

3. Consider two horizontal vessel head compared wirh thar of vessel

separators:

A rectangular separator of length L and widrh D. shell (usually 1.5 to 3.0) (dimensionless)

-
A cylindrical separator of length L and diarneter
D. T
Compare their liquid capaciries using equal overflow
(APJ, 1969) and gas-bubble rising criteria.
Cm = mínimum mist-exrracror clearance (fe}
CT = total vessd cost ($)
Cu = vessel cosr per unir gas capaciry ($/scf/D)

-
dd = liquid drop diarnerer (ft or µm)
Overflow = total liquid flow rate/horizontal dg = gas-bubble design diarneter (ft or µm)
gas- d0d = diameter of oil drop (ft or µm)
liquid arca
Compare your answers with Powers (1990) dp = particle diamerer (ft or µm)
4. Recomrnend a horizontal separator for rhe Peters (1974).
applica- rion described in Example 6-2.
Which separator-horizontal or vertical-is
preferable? Why? Nomenclatutt
5. A wellmeam consists
of: a,b = dimensionless consrants, see
Natural Gas: 2.90 MMscfd, S.G. = 0.7 equations
Crude Oíl: 350 BPD, ºAPI = 36, µ0 = 10 6
cP Separator Conditions: 70ºF and 35 psig. -
Recommend a suicable vertical separator. 2
0
Use dg = 320 µm and Kss = 0.2 ,
Recommend a suitable horizontal separaror.
Use dg = 320 urn and Kss = 0.4 6
Compare the surge capacities of the two separators. -
Compare your answers wich Powers (1990). 3
6. Consider a horizontal rhree-phase separator 1

-
AL = cross-sectional arca for liquid
as shown in Figure 6-!Sc.
flow (ft2)
Derive an expression for che difference in height
of � = projected arca of sphere (ft2)
rhe0 crude oil and water weirs. A, , = total cross-seaional area (ft2)
Srate ali assumptions and compare your answer Av = cross-sectional arca for gas
with flow (fr2)
- Aw = cross-sectional arca for water flow (ft2)
bbl = barre!
bpd = barreis per day
e = constanr in equarion &-
38
L,ff = porrion of vessel shell length available for
-
separation (ft)
LLL = low liquid level shutdown (ft)
M = horizontal cylinder parcial volume coeffi-
cienr (liquid filled fracrion of rhe vessel)
(dimensionless)
MMS = Mineral, Management Service
M0d = outside diarnerer of mise-extractor (ft)
MMscfd = million standard cubic feet per day
MW = molecular weight (lb/lb mol)
N0d = outside diamerer of outlet nozzle (ft)
00 = outside diarneter
P = separaror operating pressure (psia or psig)
P, = standard pressure for measuring scf (psia)
PVC = polyvinylchloride
d,.d = diamerer of water drop (fr or µm)
D = inside diameter of separator (fi)
DCF = crude-oil densiry correction factor for rem-
perature
f = vessel shell rhickness as a fraction of
separa- cor diarneter far specific work.ing
prcssure (dimensionless)
F = turbulence/shorc-circuiting factor (dimen-
sionless)
Feo= factor to correct for nonideal ílow (See eq.
Cr-19.)
Fg = (1-M)/(I - h0 + 0.07858 (L,¡¡ID))
(dimen- sionless)
F n = oil-capaciry design facror for vertical
vessels (a mínimum value of 2.0 is
recornmended) (dimensionless)
F 0 = M [h 0 + 0.018 (L,¡¡ID))
(dimensionless) FPF = floating producrion
facilities
FWKO = free water knockout vessel
g = acceleration due to graviry (ft/sl)
& = conversion factor (32. 174 lbm-ft/s2-
lbf) GLR = gas-liquid ratio (scf/bbl)
GOR = gas-oíl ratio (scf/bbl)
ho = deprh from liquid level to bottom of
vessel divided by vessel inside diarneter
(dimen- sionless)
HL = heighr ofliquid leve! in separator (ft)
H 0N = height of oíl-vapor interface in separator
(fr) Ho1w = heighr of water-oíl interface in scparator
(ft) Hn = high liquid levd shurdown (fr)
H"w = height of water weir (Ít)
ID = inside diameter (ft)
Kss = Souders-Brown coefficient
(ft/s) L = length of separator shdl
(fr)
Phase Separacion of Gas, Oil, and Wat('r lJ1
Gruk
9 = angle defined by:
sin 9 = (HL - D/2)/(0/2) (see Figure 6--26)
µg = viscosiry of gas, lb/fr-s or cP
µ0 = viscosiry of oil, lb/ft-s or cP
µw = viscosiry of water, lb/ft-s ar cP
1t = 3.1416
Pg = gas density at separation condirions (lbm/ft3)
PL = liquid densiry ar separation condirions
(lbm/fr3)
Po = oil density ar separator conditions (lb/ft3)
p, = sreel densiry (lbm/ft3)
Pw = water (brine) densiry (lb/ft3)
O¡; = gas flow rare at separaror
condirions (scf/s, MMscfd)
- O¡;v = gas capaciry of vertical separaror (ft3/s)
0¡;H =
-u
gas capaciry of horizontal separator (ft3/s)
= total liquid flow (ft3/min)
q0 = fecd rare of oil to separator (ft3/min or bpd)
Subscripts

d= drop
eff = eflecrive
q0H = oil capaciry of horizontal separator (bpd) g = gas
q0y = oil capacity of a vertical separaror (ft3/s) H= horizontal
qw = feed me of water to separator (ft3/min or bpd) L= liquid
Re = Reynolds number (dirnensionless) max = maximum value
S&W = sediments and water min = minimum value
S.G. = specific graviry relarive to air far gases and o= oil
relarive to water for liquids (dimensionless) opt = opcimum value
td = time far liquid dropler to fall through entire o/v = oil-vapor interface
gas phase (sec) o/w = oil-water interface
tr = rerenrion rime (min or sec) cot = total value
t,g = theoretical gas residence time (sec) V= vapor
tro = theorerical oil residence time (min) w = water or brine
tn,,: = rheorerical water residence time (min)
T = opeming temperature of separator ('Far 'R)
T, standard ternperature for mcasuring scf (ºF References
or 'R)
Anon (1991), "Vertical Separator Shows Promise for
v = volume of liquid in separator (ft3)
Offshore Use," Ouan /ndusrry, Vol. 26, No. 1 O. pp.
V = velociry (ft/s)
25-26, (Dec 91-Jan 92).
Vd = vdocity of drop (ft/s)
Anon ( 1992), "New Separaror Curs Morion Effects on
V,= erosiona! vdocity (ft/s)
Floating Facilities," Orean lndu,rry, Vol. 27, No. 4, pp.
Vg = superficial gas velociry (ft/s)
51-55, Uune).
V d = velociry of gas bubble (ft/s)
JH = superficial horizontal velociry (ft/min)
API (1969), Manual on DipoSIZI ofRefinery Wastes;
Viilume on liqu,d Wá,u,, Chapt<r 5-"0il-Warer Scparator
V rnax = maximum allowable gas velociry (ft/s)
Process Design," American Pecroleum 1nsrirute, 1220 L Street,
V L = superficial liquid velociry (ft/s)
Norrhwesr, Washington DC 20005.
Vod = free-rising velociry of oil drop (ft/s) API (1976), Primer ofOil & Ga, Production, 3rd ed .. 7th
V wd = free-senling velociry of water drop (ft/s) Printing, American Petroleum lnstirure, Production
WOR = water-oil ratio (dirnensionless) Department, Dallas, TX.
Z = compressibility factor (PV/RT) (dimensionless) API (1984), Drsign and lnstallation of Ojfshore
Production Platform Piping System,, American Petroleum
lnsritute, Recommmded Practiu /4E, 4th ed., 1220 L
Street, Northwest, Washington OC 20005 (April 1 5).
 112 Phase Separarion of Gas, Oil, and Water
API ( 1989), API Specification far Oil and Gas
Separaton, Spec 12J, 7th ed., American Petroleum
lnstirute, 1220 L Street, Northwest, Washington DC
20005 (Ocrober 1).
Atnold, Ken and Maurice Stewart, J r. (1986), Surfaa
Production Operarions, Vol. 1, Gulf Publishing Co.,
Houston, TX.
-
Arnold, Kenneth E. and Paul J. Koszela (1990),
"Droplet-Settling vs. Rerenrion-Time Theories for Sizing
Oil/Water Separator," SPE Production Engineering, Vol.
5, No. i. pp. 59--{54, (February).
Barker, W. E (1982), "Evaluating Separaror Performance
for Hydrocarbon Streams," Oil and Gas Journal, Vol. 80,
No. 52, pp. 186--190, 192 (December 27).
Bassiri, K. (1992), "Optimum Separation Design for
Subsca and Floating Production Systems," Proceedings
7th Offshore Conference Serving Deepwarer & Marginal
Oilfidds, Vol. 2, Santiago, Spain, (February 26--28).
-
Broussard, W. F. and Charles K. Gravis (1960),
"Three-Phase Separators," World ou.Vol. 150, No. 5 pp.
127-132
f Senling (April),
Tanks," Trans. American Society of Civil
-
Carnp, T. R. (1946), "Sedimentation and the Design
o Gas Separator Performance," SPE Production & Facilities,
-
Engineers, Vol. 111, p. 895.
Evans, Frank L. Jr., (1980), Equipmmt Design
Handbook far Rejineriu and Chemical Plants, 2nd ed.,
Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, TX.
Fair, M. E, J. C. Geyer, and D. A. Okun (1968), Wizter
andWastewater Enginemng, John Wiley and Sons, !ne., N.Y.
Fewel, Kenneth J. and James A. Dean (1992),
"Compurer Modeling Aids Separator Rerrofit," Oil &
Gmjournal, Vol. 90, No. 27, pp. 76--80, (luly 6).
Gerunda, Arrhur (1981), "How to Size Liquid-Vapor
Separarors," Chemical Engineering, Vol. 88, No. 9, pp.
81-84 (May 4).
GPSA (1987), Enginemng Data &ok, Vol!, Section 7,
!Oth ed., Gas Processors Suppliers Associarion, Tulsa, OK.
Gravis, Charles K. (1960), "The Oil and Gas Separator,"
World Oíl, Vol. 150, No. t, pp. 84-92
Uanuary).
Hertz, Darryl W. (1987), "New Degasser/Desurger
Design Solves Gas Separation Problems," SPE Production
Enginee,ing, Vol. 2, No. l, pp. 51-56 (February).
Holmes, T. L. and G. K. Chen (1984), "Design and
Selection of Spray/Mist Elimination Equipment,"
Chemical Engineering, Vol. 91, No. 21, pp. 82-
89 (October 15).
-
Laurance, L. T. (1981), "Foaming Crudes Require
Special Separation Techniques," World Oil, Vol. 193, No. 6,
pp. 103-105 (Nov.).
Lilly, Larry L (1992), "Separation Equipment," Chapter
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Carnpbell Petroleum Series, Norman, OK
1
Marcha!, P., S. Malek and jean-Charles Viltard (1984),
"Skid-mounted Rotating Thermal Separator Efficiently
Recovers NGL from Associated Gas," Oil & Gas foumal,
Vol. 82, No. 49, pp. 120-122 (Dec. 3).
NATCO (1984), Personal Communication, National
Tank Co., Tulsa, OK.
NATCO (1991), Technical Development Program,
Narional Tank Co., Tulsa, OK.
NATCO (1993), Personal Cornrnunication, Narional
Tank Co, Tulsa, OK.
Perers, Beldon A (1974), "How to Adjust Water-Weirs
in 3-Phase Field Separators," World Oil, Vol. 178, No. 2, p.
125, (February).
PETEX (1974), Principies & Operarion of Production
Separarors," Part lI Production Technology Series No.
1165, Perroleum Exrension Service, University of Texas
ar Austin, TX, (Ocrober).
Powers, Maston L. (1990), "Analysis of Gravity
Separation in Free Knockours," SPE Production
Enginming, Vol. 5. No. l, pp. 52-58 (February).
Powers, Maston L. (1993), "New Perspective on Oil and
Vol. 8. No. 2, pp. 77-83 (May).
Reid, David (1986), "Srate of the Art-Separator
Design," Proceedings: lnsrirurion ofChemical Engineers
Symposium, pp. 11-16, Middleborough, England (May
15).
Rooker, Michael (1983), "Crude Oil Separaror Foam
Problems," 30th Annual Sourhwestern Perroleum Short
Course, pp. 400-406, Texas Tech. Univ., Lubbock, TX
(April 27-28).
Roye, Jr., J. E. (1982), "Sizing Separators for C02 Flood
Operations," S.P.E. 11164, presenred at New Orleans, LA
(Sept. 26--29).
Smith, H. Vernon (1987), "Oil and Gas Separarors,"
Chapter 12 in Perroleum Engineering Handbook, H.
B. Bradley (ed), S.P.E, Richardson, TX.
Souders,Jr., Mott and G. G. Brown (1934), "Design and
Fractionating Columns. l. Entrainrnenr and Capaciry,"
Ind: Eng. Chem., Vol. 26, No. l, p. 98 (january),
Viles, J. C. (l 993), "Predicring Liquid Re-Enrrainrnenr
in Horizontal Separarors," jo,mui/ ofPetroleum Iecbnology,
Vol. 45, No. 5, pp. 405-409 (May).
Watkins, R. N. (l 967), "Sizing Separators and
Accumularors," Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 46, No. 11,
pp. 253-256 (Nov.).
York, Orto H. (l 954), "Performance of wire-rnesh
dernisters," Chem. Eng. Progress, Vol. 50, No. 8, pp.
421-424 (August).
York (1993), "Mise Eliminarors," Bulktin 55, Otro York
Co., Parsippany, NJ.
-
Chapter 7
-
- Dehydration of Crude Oil
INTRODUCTION
The worldwide crude oil producuon of about 60 mi Ilion
bpd is accompanied by at leasr as much water. In old
fields, water-oi] ratios grearer rhan 1 O are noc uncorn-
mon. Therefore, ir is not a surprise that emulsion form/1
tion is the rule rather than the exceprion. The sal, con-
tenr of rhe produced brine may range from practically
zero to almost sarurated. In particular, dilute brines form
emulsions wirh crude oil rhat can be very difficulr to
break (i.e., resolve into separare oil and water phases).
Emulsions were a big problem in rhe early days of
petroleum production because field facilities for breaking
emulsions were often ineffective and che cose of rrans-
porting or disposing of emulsions was prohibirive (Davis,
1967). In 1909, Corrrell applied an elecrrostaric precipi-
tation process to a California crude oil emulsión with suc-
cess; and, ar abour che same time, Barnickel began work-
ing wirh che addition of chemicals to resolve ernulsions,
obraining patents beginning in 1914 (Shea, 1939). These
rwo developmenrs, plus conrinuing experience and
research, have provided rhe producer wirh rhe necessary
tools to break almost any emulsion in rhe field and
to deliver a salable produce ro the pipeline or other
carrier.
The major reasons for dehydrating and desalting
crude
oíl are:
l. Crude oil purchasers specify maximum permissible
contents of sedirnenrs and water, S&W, formerly
called basic sedirnenr and water, BS&W. Typically,
lirnits vary from O. l-3 wr. %: O. l % in cold clima tes,
0.5% in the Gulf coasr and Texas, and 3% fo,
low- gr�vity California crudes.
2. Crude oil is bought and sold on a ºAPI graviry basis
and high-graviry oils command higher prices. Water
lowers rhe º API graviry and reduces rhe selling
price
of oil.
3. Shipping emulsified oíl wastes cosdy transporration
capacities occupied by valueless water (i.,., S&W).
4. The viscosiry of crude oil increases as the water con-
tent is increased. (Adding 1% more water (or S&W)
typically produces a 2% viscosiry increase in a
30ºAPI crude and a 4% viscosiry rise in a 15ºAPI
crude [Lucas, 1976] .)
5. Mineral salrs present in oilfield waters corrode produc-
rion equipment, tank cars, pipelines and srorage tanks.
6. Refining oí warer-bearing crude can cause severe cor-
rosion and plugging problems. Disrillation of crude
containing water-borne inorganic sales contributes to
corrosion and fouling of refining equipmenr, Under
sorne circumstances chlorides can hydrolyze ro HCI,
which is exrrernely corrosive, Typical crude-oil pro-
cessing schemes are discussed in Chapter 5. Separation
of rhe produced íluids into natural gas, crude oil, and
free-water strearns is invariably the firsr step prior to
subsequent treatrnent of che separare streams ro meet
rheir respective specificarions. While this chaprer dis-
cusses oil dehydrarion only, rhe importance of the ini-
tial gas-oil-water separarion should be remembered.
To repeat, rising gas bubbles severely impede the set-
ding of water drops. Man y reports have documenred
in detail the benefits of degassing prior to emulsion
treating (McGhee, 1965; Gidley and Hansen, 1974;
West, 1976: and Arnold and Koszela, 1990).
Any method of removing water, salt, sand, sediments,
and other impuricies
1"rom crude oil is called oil trearing.
Oil-tteating methods have one common goal; namely, lO
provide a suirable environment for graviry ro �parare rhe
brine from the crude. The following are common treat-
ing merhods:
l. Se!!ling or providing low velocity (reduced rurbu-
lencc and incrcased residence time to allov, free
water to separare)
113
114
Dehydrarion
of Crude Oil
- 2. Degassing or separating rhe gas from rhe liquid
S&W content: Oil, as produced
from rhe well
equiprnenr,
and production
may conrain
as ir considerable amounrs of brine, as
is released in che production equiprnenr well as solid marerials. The water-

-
3. Chemical rrearing or adding emulsion breakers solids conrent is referred to as
or sedimmt and water (S& W'.) or basic

-
demulsifiers sedimrnt and water (BS& W). The
4. Washing or providing a conrinuous-phase S&W content of an oil is
water wash derermined in che field by rhe
5. Heacing to reduce oil viscosiry and accelerare ASTM D 96 test involving
separa-
centrifugacion of a warm, diluted
non
sarnple
6. E.lcctrical rreating (i.,., applying AC and/or
OC
electric fields)
7. Mechanical rrearing or providing increased
surface
arca to promore drop Coalescence

In addirion, field trearing can accomplish misr

elimi- nacion and rernoval of sand, sludge, and orher
solids. Of course, successful rreating implies thar
che crude oil rneets pipeline or refining
specificarions-usually 0.1-
1.0% S&W. In addirion, che treated brine or
produced
water muse be essenrially oil-free to sacisfy
environrnen- tal discharge regularions (ofcen 15-40
ppm) or ro pre- vent reinjecrion problems such as
scale formacion and/or reservoir plugging. Note rhat
che oil-in-warer enviren- mental regulacion is far more
severe chan che water-in-oil rransport/sales
specificarion.
The presc:nt discussion starts with a bnef outline
of
ernulsion-rreating rerminology. Next, che common
merhods for dehvdraring crude oil (i.e., chernicals,
reten- tion rime, heat, and elecrrosraric fields) are
dcscribed. Two unusual merhods are also summarized.
The design discussion follows and includes overall
considerarions, required clara, recommended
rnerhods, and derailed design exarnples. Finally,
operarion, maintenance, and troubleshooting are
reviewed.

TERMINOLO
GY

Before discussing rreating, sorne common terms

are defined in alphaberical order. Terminology
relaring ro crude oil, water-in-crude ernulsions and
fired heaters can be found in Chaprers 2, 4 and 12,
respecrively, and in che Glossary (Appendix 1 ).
of rhe oil in a special cone-borrorn rube, The S&W con- tent is
nored visually and reponed as volurne percent, The main advantage
of the test is irs ease of performance.
A more accurate deterrnination of water is by distillation
(ASTM D 4006) and of sedimenr is by solvent exrraction (ASTM D
473). However, rhe larrer rwo tests are seldom performed.
Collector pipe: Perforared or slotred pipe used to
remove treared oil as uniformly as possible ar rhe rop of coalescing
secrion.
Demulsifier: Demulsifiers or demulsifying chemicals are a mixture
of chemicals used ro break rhe emulsion by desrroying or weakening
the stabilizing film around rhe dispersed droplers.
Electrodes or grid: Piares or rods used ro esrablish
rhe elecrric field in elecrrostatic rreaters.
Electrostatic treater. Treater using electric fields in
che oil coalescing area.
Emulsifier: In addirion ro oil and water, a third sub- srance, called
an emulsifier or emulsifying agenr, musr be present for a stable
emulsion ro be produced. These emulsifiers usually exist as a film on
rhe surface of rhe dispersed droplers.
Emulsion: An c:mulsion is a combinacion of two immiscible
liquids. One liquid is broken up inro droplers and is known as che
discontinuous, disper1ed, or interna! phase. The liquid rhar surrounds
the drops is the contin- uous, or externa! phase.
Heating baffle, hood or shroud: A baffie rhar sur- rounds the
firerubes and is designed ro minimize hearing of free water.
Interface: The conract surface berween rhe bound-
aries of rhe rwo immiscible liqu,ds (e.g., rhe surface area berween
warer droplets and rhe surrounding oil or the surface berween
separared crude and water in a vessel).
Interface drain: A perforared pipe or orher device used to
remove any sludge accumulated ar the oil-\varer interface in an oil
trc:ater.
Oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion: An emulsion consisr-
ing of oil drops dispersed in a concinuous water phase. This so-
called rrorrse e,nulsion ofcen occurs in \\·aste-
\Vaters and produced brines. The water concenc is gener·
ally greater rhan 85 volume percenr.
Pipeline oil: Refers ro a crude which is acceprable for pipeline
shipmenr. Acceprabiliry is usually measured in terms of º API
graviry, sulfur content, pour poinr. S&W conrent, Reid Vapor
Pressure (RVP), viscosiry, and orher concam1nancs.

Produced water: Produced water is classified as
-
entrained or free. Entrained water (srable emulsion) does
not setrle out within 5 minutes when che produced flu-
free water settles
ids are held quiescendy in a vessel, while
out within S minutes.
Sand pans: lnverced troughs or angle baff!es used to
-
aid sand and sediment removal,
Sprcaders: Perforated pipes or channels used to inject
emulsions as uniformly as possible rhroughout the trearer
cross secuon.
Stable emulsions: Require a definiré trearing process
to produce an acceptable amount of coalescence and sub-
sequent separation of phases. Three conditions are neces-
sary for forming a stable emulsion: (1) the liquids
rnusr be immiscible; (2) sufficient agiration to disperse
one liq- uid as droplets in che orher: and (3) an
emulsifying agent, or emulsifier, muse be presenr.
Surge factor: Equipmenr is usually sized using the
maximum f!ow rate expecred during che predicted life of
che facilicy. le is general practice to add a surge factor
(20-50%) to che anricipated normal f!ow rate. Water cut
increases with time.
Water cut: Volume percent of water in
crude- oil/water mixture.
Water-in-oil (w/o) emulsion: Crude-oil emulsions
nearly always consist of warer drops dispersed in a con-
tinuous oil phase. This cype is also called a regular or nor-
mal emulsion.
Water siphon or water leg or grasshopper: Piping
system far removing water from rrearer at a controlled rate.
Wctting, Refers to che adhesion or scicking of a liq-
uid to a solid surface. lf che solid surface (grain of
reser- voir rock, fines, ere.) is covered preferentially by
oil, the surface is called oíl wetted. Conversely, if water is
prefer- entially arrracred, che surface is urater u;etted.
TRFATING METHODS
Crude dehydration involves optimizing che synergistic
use of four cechniques; namely, demulsifying chenzicals,
rarntion time, heat and electririty. ro produce clean oil
and clean water, Providing recention time and heacing
are usually less coscly chan injecting chemicals and crear-
-
ing electrostatic fields. These very irnportanr economics
are discussed later. Chemical addicion is discussed firsr
because demulsifying chemicals are used in nearly every
case. Next the most common cypes of vessels (wash tank
Dehydration of Crude Oil 115
or gun barre! and FWKO) used to provide retention time
are described. Then hearer-treaters and electrosratic
treaters are reviewed, Next, mechanical treating is cov-
ered by discussing the advancages of using baff!es, piares,
coalescing media, and ocher incernals. Each review
includes a description of che hardware involved, a corn-
parison of relacive advantages and disadvantages, and
a summary of common applicacions. FinaJly. two
uncorn-
mon approaches (cenrrifuging and evaporation) are sum-
rnarized.
Chemical Treating
Srrange bue true, demulsifying chemicals are similar ro
ernulsifiers (i.e., rhey are surface-active).
Oemulsifiers have four main actions:
1. Srrong attraction to che oil-water interface.
They muse displace and/or neucralize che
emulsifying agents already on the dropler interface.
2. Flocculacion. They muse neucralize any repulsive
electrical charges berween che dispersed drops and so
allow rhe drops to touch.
3. Coalescence. They muse perrnir small droplets to
combine inro drops large enough to settle; this
requires that che film surrounding and stabilizing che
droplets be ruptured.
4. Solids wetting. They muse prevenc fines at che
droplet interface from physically blocking coales-
cence. Clays, drilling muds, and iron sulfide fines
can be water wet so that chey lea ve che film
interface and migrate into che water droplet.
Asphalcenes and waxes can be dissolved or oil wet
to disperse thern into the conrinuous crude phase.
Theories of how demulsifiers act are incomplete. They
fai] to explain che extreme specificiry of che various
cypes of chemicals on any particular crude-water
mixture. However, rwo generalizacions are valid. First,
effective demulsifiers have high molecular weights chac
are com- parable to those of che natural surfactants. And
secondly,
if used as emulsifying agents chey cend lo cause emulsions
opposite in rype (i.e., o/w) to che produced w/o emulsion
(Salager, 1990).
One tradirional cheory about why demulsifiers work
is chat the demulsifier "neucralizes" che emulsifying
agenr; in other words, breaking a w/o emulsion requires
a chemical cha e would normally produce a reverse or o/w
emulsion. Another explanacion is chac che demulsifying
 116 Dehydration of Crude Oil

chemical rnakes rhe film surrounding the water drop Polyalkylene • poor dehydrator, do not drop water
very rigid. When rhe oil drop expands on being heated, quickly
rhe film is ruprured. Alrernarively, if rhe chemical Glycols • require blending far mase applicacions

-
makes the film contraer, rhen heat is noc required ca Sulfonates: • can resolve virtually any emulsión,
burst the film. • good werring and water drop abilines,
Table 7-1 presents a brief hisrory of chemicals used to • overdosing does not cause o/w emul-
break w/o emulsions since Barnickel's pioneering efforts sion, but can cause FeS particles to
in 1913. A single chemical cannoc provide ali four of the drop out.
required actions, so cornmercial demulsifiers are propri- Polyesteramines • exrremely surface active, dehydrace at
etary mixtures of rhese compounds (i.,., surfaccants low dosages, produce sharp o/w inter-
and addicives). face

'
The majar rypes of demulsifier chernicals can be char- Oxyalkylaced • good wetting agencs, uscd in blends,
acterized as follows (Srnirh and Arnoid, 1987; phenols • reduce interface pad build-up,
NATCO,
1993: Svctgoff, 1990): • fair to poor demulsifiers
Oxyalkylaced • excellent emulsion breakers,
Esrc:rs: • good dehydrators, drop water out
polyamines • reta.rd water drop
slowly,
Alkanolamines • speed water drop, fair total perfor-
• subject to overdosing,
mance
• glycol esters reduce o/w interface pad
Di-epoxides: • excellenr dehydraror, le is accepted pracuce ro blrnd che selected mixture
• linle effcct on water drop (30-60%) of proprietary, salid chemicals wirh a
Urechanes: • good dehydraror, do not effect water suitable
drop ,olvent such as heavy aromacic naphcha (HAN) ar iso-
Resins: • speed water drop, will water-wet solids, propyl alcohol (IPA) ca obcain a liquid thar pours at rhe
• fair ro good dehydrators, lowest expected temperature. Dernulsifiers for w/o ernul-
• oxyalkylated-acid-catalyzed resins give sions are bought and uscd as pre-mixed liquids. They are
good qualiry, clean separaced water, always very insoluble in water and highly soluble in oil so
• base-caralyzed resins give drier oil rhat rhey can diffuse rapidly chrough che concinuous
crude phase and reach che droplec inrerf-ces.
Conversely, reverse breakers (demulsifiers for reverse oc
olw emulsions) are highly water soluble. Common
choices are 2,000-5,000 molecular weighc polyamines
Table 7-1 History of Demulsifying Chemicals and polya.mine quatc:rnary ammonium compounds
Period Dosage (ppm) Type of Chemicals ("quats") blended wich aluminum, ar iron, ar zinc chlo-
rides. Dosages range from 5-25 ppm (Hudgins, 1992).
1920, 1.000 Soaps, salrs of napbthenic acids,
aromatic and .alkvlaromatic The demulsifier chemicals muse be added continu·
sulfonates, "Turkish red oil," ously at che rate decermined by che bottle cesrs and/or
sulfated castor oil field trials. Batch addition should noc be attempced.
1930, 1,000 Peuoleu� sulfcnares, "mahogany
soaps, oxidized castor oil. and The injection race should be monitored carefully and the
sulfosuccinic acid esters feed cank should be equipped with a gage glass, chus
Since 1935 roo.soo Ethoxylaccs of farry acids, farry allowing the operacor ca check che chemical-feed pump
.alcohols, and alkylphenols and tank ac least every day. Addicion rates can vary
Since 1950 100 Ethylene oxide/propvlene oxide (EOIPO) copolyrners.
p· alkylphenol formaldehyde resins + EO/PO and between 2-200 ppm, bue they are usuall\' between 10-
modifications 60 ppm (Smith and Arnold, 1987). Usually, heavy
crudes require larger dosages than light oils. Typically,
Since 196S 30-SO Amine oxylates
Since 1976 10-30 form'aldehyde
Oxylared, cyclic p·alkylphenol
resins. and only 0.4-4 ppm dis- tribuce into the produced
complex modifications water (Hudgins, 1992). Addlng too much demulsífier
Since 1986 5-20 Polyesteramines and blends
wastes money, increases
Source: St.1iu, Bohm, and Kupfcr, 1991 ,he oil canten e of che separaced brine, often produces sta-
ble reverse (o/w) emulsions, and can make che original
w/o emulsion more srable.

Demulsilicr chemicals should be injecred as early as
possiblc kg., ar rhe wcllhead or downhole). This allows
more time for che chernicals to work, can also prevent
possible downsrream emulsion formarion, and allows
differenr chernicals to be used for problem wells,
lnjecring demulsifiers ahead of a pump ensures adequare
-
mixing and minimizes emulsion formation by che pump.
Mild mixing, such as in pipe flow ar design velocities,
can accelerate chemical dispersion and flocculation of
water drops. However, intense agiration (t.g., centrifual
pumps) promotes emulsion formarion.
Selection and preparation of demulsifiers must match
che treacing vessel. Wash tanks have long rerention
rimes (8-24 hr) so slow-acting formularions are
appropriare. On che other hand, hearer-trearers and
electrostatic units require quick-acring (15-60 min)
chemicals. lf the demulsifiers are added ar the wellhead
or even downhole, rhey muse not be sensirive ro che
agitacion or turbulenr flow prior to encering che vessel.
Rernember rhar chemi- cal demands change whenever
rhe wellstrearn changes. Lower flows, higher water cuts,
paraffin problems in cold wearher, increased solids caused
by workovers or pipeline pigging can change rhe
required demulsifier action.
Because che emulsifying agents in rhe crude are roo
numerous and complex ro perrnir complete identifica-
rion, finding a suirable demulsifier is an arr as well as a
science. Accordingly, the selection is invariably based on
direcr resring, commonly known as rhe bottle test. The
botdc test is described in detail by API MPMS 10.4
( 1988), PETEX (1990), Bowman, et al., (1977) and in
manufacturers' rraining rnanuals. Bowman's summary is
presented in Table 7-2.
Of course, any borde test is only as good as rhe
sam- ple raken. Using a srainless sree] bomb perrnits
sampling ar produced fluid pressure thus minimizing loss
of lighr ends and gas. A good sarnple should:
1. Be representative of srream being treared,
2. Be a cornposire of the producrion from the individ-
ual wells rhar are being fed ro the treater.
3. Contain a representative quantities of any chernicals
such as demulsifiers, corrosion inhibirors, paraffins,
and so forch.
4. Be fresh to prevent emulsion scabilizarion andlor aging.
The borde test employs four major factors:
a. Agimion
b. Chernical addirion
c. Hear
-
d. Serding rime.
-
- 118
Dchydmion of Crude Oil 117
Table 7-2 Statistically Designed Bonle Test Procedure
1. Obtain sample in a S-gal can wirh screw·type cap and
drain valve far free-water removal.
2. Drain off any free water that was prcsent.
3. Shake ehe S·g,l cm 1horoughly ,nd then using ASTM D 96
procedure, determine che �rccnt S&W of the emulsion
without and with knockout drops.
4. Number the appropnaee quanriry oí 8-oz prescription bordes
required for the set of conditions in rhe test.
5. Add 100 mL oí emulsion 10 each boule.
Add normal emulsion breaker.
Add reverse emulsion bre2ker, if rcquired.
He2r 10 trearing ccmpenture.
6. Place the bottles in a shaker in the ho,iz.oncaJ posi1ion. Set
shaker 2t 150 cydcs/min 2nd shake Íor 3 min.
7. rlace the loosely capped boules in their 2ppropriate
tempcrarure b2rhs and n2rt rhe timers.
8. At the cl2psed rimes a.s indic21ed by che initiaJ design criteria,
remove the rcquired number ofbotdes from their respective
barhs. Re2d a.nd record rhe water bre2kout present in e2ch
bortle.
9. Using a syringc fitted with a stop ora cannula of
prederermined lcngth, sample 1 O mL of oil from rhe 80 mL
mark of e2ch borde.
10. lmmediately run rhe S&W content of rhc sample withour
knockout drops 2nd then wirh drops.
1 l. lf a ppm oil an2lysis of thc water is desired, use a separa.te
syringe and cannula. and obuin 1he water samplc 0.5 in. off
the bonom oí the bonle.
12. Qualit2tivdy determine che oil content oí water using
prepared na.nda.rds.
Source Bowman, Burron and Pryor, 1977. modified
NOTES:
I Step� 3 through 7 should be complcted u soon � possible after rhe umplc
Js obt:1ined
2 If more than 1 hour IS required to complete 1he�e neps, 1he S-gal sample
should he he2rcd back to 1rs original remperamrc and put on a sh2ker for 3
min.
The implica(ions of chese faccors are OO\I,' explored.
An obvious but frcquencly overlookcd fact is rhar thc
borde resr results will nor correlate wirh field dara if rhe
emulsion agitation intmsity in rhe bocele is vascly differ-
enr from rhat in che ficld. While i, is impossiblc ro
quan- cify the "amount of agitarion in the field," ic is
very easy ro underestimate ir. Unless rhe borde agirarion
incensity and duration are varicd widdy (and 200
shakes/min for S min. is noc uncommon), une cannot
be sure thar agi- carion differences are not causing the
lack of correlation between borde and field resulrs.
Sometimes ic is tempting to dilure rhe demulsifying
chemical with a suitablc solvenr (xylenc; 75% xylene
-
25% JPA) ro form 2 and/or 10% solurions, rhus
permirring easier and more accurate addition of the
demulsifier. However, such dilution solvents can and
do
 Dehydration of Crude Oil

-
cause erroneous data (r.g., Graham and
Srockwell,
•su ,,-.r 1'0 .. :.tu,
1980). Pre-rnixed liquid demulsifier, identical to ale ,., :;
.:
.:..� -oaa,,,..- i, •tuc.
oct','
thar being considered for field use, should be 1"

-
added using a microlirer syringe.
lt is often preferable to run the botrle tests
a few degrees lower than the field tempcrature.
The oil in a field heater-treater is usually 5-1
OºF cooler than rhe water phase rhar is being
heated by rhe fire tubes. Evaporation of light
ends also cools rhe oil.
The borde setding cime corresponds to the
quiescenr time che crude experiences in che
rreater. Therefore, che
bortles should not be shaken during rhis time.

-
Oil dehydracion tests can be stacistically carried in rhe produced strearn, but nor emulsified in
designed so rhar the effects of che important the oil. Free water senles easily in less than 10-20
variables (r.g., chemical addition, trearing min.
temperarure, setding rime, etc.) can be evaluated
(Bowman, et al, 1977). Staciscical design of che

-
bortle test allows che inreracrions berween che
vari- ables to be viewed.
Chemical treating offers rhe following
advantages:
1. Emulsion formacion may be completely
prevented by introducing demulsifiers ac an
early stage in the trcatment.
2. Emulsion can be broken at significandy lower
rern- peratures, chus saving fue! and
reducing crude oil volurne and graviry losses.
The disadvancages of chemical creating are:

-
l. A major disadvancage is chac overdosing (i.e.,
addi- tion of too much dernulsifiers) can
produce new emulsions rhar are often more

--
difficulc to break than che original ones.
2. Ir is seldom economic to break emulsions by
chern- icals alone. Usually additionai energy
(heac or elec- cricicy) is needed to reduce che
dosage and hence cose of the chernicals,

Gravitational
Treating
Gravitational treating is usually achieved in

-
relarively large holding vessels called tanks, serrlers,
wash tanks, or gun barreis, and in free-wacer
knockouts (FWKOs). These vessels provide che
required quiescent residence ume.
Free-Water Knockouts (FWKO) are usually

-
inrended to remove only large percencages of
free water (Figure
7-1). As scated in Chapee, S. free water is water
that is
 Figure 7-1 Typicai Free-Water
Knockout (FWKO)
(Smith and
Arnold,
1987)
The FWKO is ofi:en used in con¡uncuon
wirh other methods as a preliminary
step or first-stage brine removal. Crude
oil leaving rhe FWKO may still contain
from 1 to as much as 30 or 40 percent
emulsified water. These devices mayor may
not use bafíles for directional flow rhrough
the unir and sometimes use coalescing
plates such as Performax. Often chey are
only pressur- ized serding tanks with a
water leve) control and dis- charge control
valve. Water is removed by graviry sepa-
ration. FWKOs are of simple
construcrion and operarion. Removing
free water befare Flowing rhe crude-brine
mixture (emulsion) into a fired hearer saves
considerable fue!. It rakes 350 Bru to heat 1
bbl of water
1 ºF but only 1 SO Bru to raise 1 bbl of
chemicals to prevent scaling. A 0.06- in. scale
build-up on firetubes can increase fue! losses
11-13% (Stewart,
1979).
FWKOs are not a panacea¡ chey rernove only
free water. Emulsion breaking chemicals can, of
course, be added upstream of the FWKO. FWKOs
are protected bv sacrificial anodes and are also ofcen
lined wirh expoxy coatings or glass flake, and so
forth.
Wash tanks, gun barreis, tanks or settlers are large hold-
ing vessels usually operated with produced water
fill.:ig the bottom one-third and crude oil the
top rwo-th1rds. The emulsion feed, with
demulsifiers added and some- times heated, is
incroduced below rhe oil-\vater interface using a
"spreader." This "washing" action provides mild
agitation and causes contact becween che entrained
\\'ater drops and che retained water volume, rhus
coaJescing and removing water droplets from the
oil stream. Further

-
crude 1 ºF.
Heating unnecessary water is not only a

--
useless waste of heat, but also rhe heated
water can deposir scale or require expensive

-
Dehydmion of Crude 119
Oil

warer-drop senling or emulsion breaking occurs in

rhe
upper rwo-thirds of the tank as rhe crude rises very
slowly. lmproper feeding or poor disrribution of the

-
emulsión inro che wash secrion can cause short-
circuiring, turbu- lence, and rolling. Heating elemenrs
should be placed in the water secrion because severe
convection or rolling can occur if rhey are in rhe oil.
Wash tanks consisr offive principal parts (Figure 7-
2):

-
- 1. lnlet line
2. Conductor pipe, sornerimes called the boot,
flume,

-
or stack
3. Body of che tank
4. Water outlet line, also known as che warer-leg,
out- ............... ·- ---.¡ + 1
side siphon, or "grasshopper."
5. Oil oudet line.
both rhe gas and liquid feeds are
Hertz (1987) emphasizes rhe extreme importance
of degassing che emulsion before ir enrers che tank. introduced above che packed bed. The gas
Hertz's degasser unit consisrs of a bed packed with 1.5 exics immediately from the top, while rhe
liquid flows by graviry down rhrough the
in. Pall rings (Figure 7-3). As shown in Figure 7--4,
bed. As the crude wets che packing, a large
 (40 ft2/ft3) gas-liquid surface area is generated chus
providing effecrive degassing of even solu- tion gas. In
turn, chis reduces gas release in che down- srream
production-battery stock tanks. A vortex sysrem is used
to introduce rhe degassed liquid into che wash rank
uniformly ro minimize short-circuiring.
Figure 7-3 Degasser/Desurger (Hertz, 1987)
Many wash tanks have orher parts such as gas
equalizers, gauge glasses, bleeder lines, and heater
connections, how- ever, rhese parts are generally considered
accessories and are not involved in rhe primary functions

-
of a wash rank.
...• .... The following advanrages have been claimed foc wash
\.-- "- ( tanks (West, 1976):
1. No fuel use. Wash ranks use coalescence and
reten- tion time instead of hear.
2. No moving parts.
3. J\!o fice hazard.
4. Less gas driven off, cherefore, rrurumum volume
shrinkage and API graviry loss.
However, wash tanks have che following
disadvan-
cages:
lill'i'llllU..1
l. Wash tanks are not designed to handle large gas vol-
1-� umes.

-·-
2. The very lacge and heavy tank requires a lacge
- ,...... -» inven- tory of oil to be kept in rhe tank. This
weight pte- vents offshore use. This oil invenrory

OIIW...-..._/·
l also "ries up"
capital that pa�·s no interese.
3. Corrosion proceccion may be costly because first
l� cose, inspeccion, and maintenance of che large

- -
area of interna! surface coacings and cathodic

"-¡�- .. � prorect1on is time consuming and expensive.

l-- 4. If the emulsion is heated prior to entecing rhe tank,

heac losses can be very

- -- - -
� . .. . s.,.. _. w�,
large .
5. Nonideal flow patterns (shorr-circuiting and dead
space) are difficult to eliminare and damage
per- formance.

W..,o.tllt -�

-
Figure 7-2 Wash Tank or Gun Barrel (Hertz, 1987)

120 Dchydration of
Crudc Oil

- L::;¡l�=:J
..--
f .."--
--
_..,--._
' "

�.......
•
 *r----r--��

i
-
- f ....

Rgure 7--4 Degasser lnstallation (Hertz, 1987)

Heat 4. Water drop coalescence and senling,

Treatin Mechanical
g ccalescence can be used in rhis section.
Hearer-rreaters are classed as direcr and indirect, The oil leve! in vertical heater-rrearers is
based on che merhod ofhear application. Direct rnaintained by using a water leg or siphon rube
heaters include che following four general types: to drain che water. Accordingly, chis siphon tube
must be kepr vercical because a l-jn. change in
1. Tubular heaters.
slot heighc can cause che oil
2. Fluid jacket heaters.
leve! to
3. lncernal firebox heacers. change 6 in.
4. Volume or "jug" ·type heacers. The clean, dehydrared hoc oil can be used ro
Alchough these heaters have different designs, hear che incoming emulsion feed using a shell-
hear rransfer is accomplished by direcr contact and-tube (shown) or plare-and-frarne hear
of che fluid with the firebox. Despire problerns exchanger. The more corrosive and higher fouling
of sedimencs, hot spots, and corrosion, these emulsion is fed to the cube side for easier
treaters are capable ofhandling larger volumes of cleaning.
fluid wich less fue! than indirecr heaters. Direcr !f che total we!lstream is rhe feed stream, che
hearers will operace efficiencly where there is lirrle section of
or no pressure, and rhe Auids do not pose a sevcre che creater below rhe firetube(s) should be sized
corro- sion problem. Typical vertical and to allow up to S min. retention time. Vertical
horizontal heater- hearer-rreaters are noc suirable for rernoving large
trearers are shown in Figures 7-5 and 7-6 amounts of free water, and chis limicarion
respectively. becornes more acure in older fields wirh
A well-designed, vercical heater-rrearer increasing water production. Placing a FWKO
accomplishes che following funcrions (Figure 7- upstream is in ideal solution.
5): Mechanical coalescence mayor may nor be used
in rhe oil-senling section. Proprierary piares, such
1. Degassing of emulsion feed as ir enters che
as Performax (NATCO, 1991 ), are superior to wood
trearer,
excelsior (or "hay") wirh berter separation and much
2. Rernoval of sand, sedimenr, and free wacer

-
as the emulsión exirs che downcomer and less plugging. Channeling in che hay secrion can
before ir is heared. result in water drops being carried out with che
treared oil. Scaling can occur at the water
3. Wacer washing and heating of che emulsion
as it

-
flows over
firerubes.
-
- mea---------- �
s.,t.JlTY MlJf' YALVI-----�
G.A&OUTLIT-----�
Dehydr.nion of Crude Oil

IOO!l
121

. " " '" " . . .. . . .

.. .,. U T I U , C T Ofl
....
�KIUAll WC.--=t�����ri=r--;l,
IXJl'IOO.,Nli MUO
.....,._, H-
!.E"AIIATIOH
SECTION

CNL OVl'\.IT---lft-
"°"' GAGU---4!-a

�. . L.· . ."���.. .: �������

:'��.:----it-i--lJ

: : : jtj
,,... ""
IH E A T l " l tCH A N GUIJ
on
SETTLIHG
. . , """ !!!.!... .
.
.. . .. . ,
SECTIOH

I .
_ . i, r, • •n • ••,.•u� . .

-, ••ºo'•�·""
u. ._ ._ ,
Figure 7-ó Horizontial Heater-Treater (API Spec 12L, 1987).
Reprinted courtesy of the American Petroleum lnstitute.

HlATING AHD Salid parricles, such as sand, scale, corrosion products,

WATEl'I WASH
SECTIOM
WATfll
WElL fLUIO I"
" ""
VA
'
LV E
Figure 7-ó Typical Vertical Heater-Treater (© Hawell Training
ce.. 1979)
siphan outler and at rhe bortom of the hay
section, Corrosion is mase likcly in the downcorner and
compan- rnenr dividers. This is solved by using thicker pipe
or plates.
The same basic funccions are provided in horizontal
units, as shown in Figure 7--6. The feed enters, is panially
degassed, chen directed around che firetubes by che heat-
ing baf!le or shroud, and exirs below che firecubes. Free
water and sand drop out befare che remaining
emulsion is heared as ir flows upward and over rhe
firerubes, and is degasscd completcly. Then the emulsion
flows over a weir, into rhe surge section, and finally
fed uniformly inro rhe coalescing section by spreader
bars, lntroducing rhe emulsified oil below the oil-water
interface provides washing that prometes coalescence.
The emulsion breaks and clcan oil is removed from rhe
top of the settling sec- tion. Coalescing packs are
sornetimes used to aid oil- water separation in che
senling section,
etc., will sertle out and accumulace ac che boccom of
ves· seis if larger chan a few microns. If noc removed sand
can cause che following process problems (NATCO,
1991):
l. Sand can accumulate and occupy valuable volume in
che vessel and eventually block fluid flowparhs,
Treating vessels have been found to be nearly foil of
sand.
2. Sand can deposir on level heating surfaces, block
heat cransfer and cause hot spots and evenrually
burnouc.
3. Sand deposition can inrerfere wich leve! concrols,
anodes, valves, meters, and pumps. Such deposics
can fostcr and enhance bacteria! growth and speed
corrosron.
Sand can be removed from any vessel if properly
designed. Salid particles will slide off slanred surfaces
if rhe surface slope is steeper rhan che angle of
repose. Water jets with pressures ar least 30 psi higher
rhan che operaring pressure can rernove light deposits.
Sand drains and inverred anglc baffies are used wirh rhe
water jets to rernove sand deposics as shown in Figure
7-7. Scrategically located manholes are also
recomrnended.
Safecy relief valve(s) should be installed in
every treater (OCS Order No. 5, 1981; API ! 4C,
1986; API RP 14E, 1991; ASME Pressure Vessel Code,
1993).
lndirecc heaters also have different designs, bue rhree
pares are basic to ali of them: (1) body, (2) enclosed
fire- box, and (3) flow cube bundle.
The indirecr heater first hears water or a heating
medium in che body. In turn, chis water heats the
·- 122 Dehydration of Crude Oil
-
Cone Bottom Puked Top Surfacea
onv...i.
Strm , rn " s,,., &«
St!M ,rn• honre Z!nrcriH
Figure 7-7 Sand Removal Devices (NATCO, 1991)
flow-tube bundle, which transfers heat to rhe emulsion
passing through rhe tube bundle. Prevenring direct con·
raer of che emulsion wirh rhe firebox reduces corrosion
and scale deposirion, The dangers of fire and explosion
are also reduced,
Indirecr hearing can also be provided by passing a
heating medium rhrough tubes in rhe trearer, The
rnediurn is circulared by pumps rhrough a fired heater,
which can be placed sorne distance away for safery.
lndirect heating is ofren used wirh waste hcat recovery
(r.g., exhaust from gas turbines).
Heating provides che following advanrages:
l. Reducing the viscosiry of the continuous oíl phase,
chus intensifying drop collisions and increasing set-
tling rares. This reduction is drarnatic. A I OºF rise
can lower the viscosity by a factor of two.
2. Increasing che Brownian rnotion and natural con-
vection currents wirhin che emulsion chus simulta-
neously increasing and inrensifying drop collisions.
3. lncreasing rhe density difference berween the brine
and crude, ar least up to l 75ºF. This increase is very
significant wirh heavy (IOºAPI) California crudes
(Figure 4-11).
4. Generating rherrnal currents which, wirh the
reduced oíl viscosiry. promete more uniform dism-
burion of demulsifying chemicals and more frequent
drop collisions.
5. Melting and/or dissolving paraffin solids cha, may
be stabilizing rhe emulsion. This is done by
keeping rhe oíl above its cloud point.
6. Weakening rhe stabilizing frlm surrounding the
water drops.
However, hearing suffcrs from rhese disadvanrages:
1. Heating drives sorne of che more volarile hydrocarbons
out of rhe crude oíl inro rhe gas phase. This "loss" of
light hydrocarbons resu!ts in appreciable volurne
shrinkage and API graviry reduction in the heared
crude. Typical volurne and graviry losses are presemed
in Figures 7-8. Figure 7-9 attempts to corrdate ºAPI
loss and volurne shrinkage; obviously rhis correlation is
. very approximate and ,hould not be used for design.
2. Heacing becomes increasingly costly as fuel cosrs nse.
3. Fired heaters are a hazard even wirh che standard
safery devices.
4. Fired heacers require fud-gas regulators and temper·
ature controls in addirion to dump valves, backpres-
sure valves, and emergency relief valves common to
ali vessels,
5. Coke deposits on fire rubes can pose occasional
problerns, The cardinal rule of heat treating is do not
overheatthus minimizing volume shrink.age and
ºAPl graviry loss of rhe crude. Treating remperarures
vary from 90-250ºF depending on the crude gra"ity
and the type of emulsion. Usually, no heating is
required for Saudi Arabian and North Dakota
crudes (36-38' API) while Louisiana and Permean
Basin crudes (32-33ºAPI) are generally dewatered at
100--l lOºF. Heavy California crudes (12ºAPI) are
often heated to 240ºF when electrostatic and chem ·
ical treatments are also uscd.
The cost of thermal treacing depends, of course.
directly on the price of fuel. Wallace (1979) emphasizes
rhc cost of heating by considering rhe dehydration of
 Dehydration of Crude Oil 123

tu 31.0" Alr Mid·Continent Crudt

(2) )41 Al'I W11t Ttx• Composete
131 32.0"»1 Soudttm Okl1hom1
C•I 31.� API Wyomin9 11) 31.0'" API Mid-ContintntCt\14-
151 21.1' Al'I �d. Tex11 121 34.r AII Wen Ttxu Com90titt
UU 2•.,• API Tllco, Tt•• (21 32.0" .VI So.l#ltm Okllhomt
,., 31.r ..,, Wyomin9
(7J 33.3"" API Soud\tm Louisian,,
111 l7.2' Al'I �botrt, W1st Texa1 151 2U' Al'I s.,,,t"'o, Tu•
151 24.4' Al'I Tll<a, r,..
(7) 33S »1 SouW,tm LOl.llli.,,
181 37.2' So"VboM"f, Wffl Ttx•

'·º 10

PfR CENT LOSS BY VOLUME

vs. Al'I GRAVITY LOS$
vs. TEM,ERATURE
TEM,ERATURE
10
·.,
i
1

��

-f
1.0
1

c3

. 70 . 110 130
TtfnPIUNN •,
1$0
"º 1,0 . 'º . "º 170 1,0

Figure 7-8 Volume & ºAPI Loss vs. Temperature

1000 bbl of 31 ° API crude containing 150 bbl of water
as emulsion. Assuming that 150 Bru are required to hear
1 bbl of crude 1 ºF and that heating 1 bbl of water a
like amount requires 350 Bru, Wallace calculated that 1 bbl
of crude is required to heat rhe 1, 150 bbl of emulsified
crude
30ºF if the fired heater is 80% efficient, Using these fig-
ures the annual cose of treating 1,000 BPD of crude is
730 bbl of crude if che treating temperature is l
50ºF.
The net fue! cose can be dramatically reduced if the heat
m the treated crude is recovered. A plare-and-frarne or
shell-and-rube heat exchanger is ofren "added" to Figure
7-6 (as shown in Figure 7-5); the incoming cold, dirry
emulsion (tube side) is heated by the hot, dewatered, effiu-
ent crude oil (shell side). Wasee heat recovery from electri-
cal generators is also very practical.
Elcctrostatic Trcating
Gravity alone results in very slow setding velocities as has
been previously demonsrraced using Scokes Law. For exam-
ple, a water drop, 20 µm in diarnerer, settles ar 0.07
ftfhr in a 33ºAPI crude at l lOºF; µ = 6.5 cP (Burris,
1977).
The water molecule is polar (Figure 7-1 Oa};
therefore, an electric field enhances the coalescence
of water droplecs dispersed in crude oil by rwo
rnecharusms chat act simulraneously.
1. Water droplers ma�· acquire a net charge by direct con-
tact with a charged electrode or by convective charge
transfer from an electrode by the organic phase.
2. Electrical gradienrs polarize che water droplets by
aligning the originally randomly oriented (Figure
 124 Dehydr:uion of Crude Oil

GRAVITY LOSS 'API

vs.
PER_CENT LOSS BY VOLUME Hydrogen

1
1
1
1
+'
------ +
'i 1
! 1
l 1
1
,-. .-·!
lj Hydrogen

l
Figure 7-10 Effects el Electrostatic Fields en Water
Drops (NATCO, 1991)

This charged water drop experiences an electrostaric

o 1.0 2.0 ,., force given by:
c.,...,,ry Lou ,n '..,,.,
(7-2)
,-. Figure 7-9 Volume Shrinkage vs, ºAPI Loss where: Fe= elecrrostatic force on rhe drop. newtons (N).

If thc droplet is small, che drag force can be

7-!0b) polar water rnolecules with the externa!
field
and by redistributing che mobile charged particles
inside che droplets (Figure 7-!0c). To explain what
happens when an elecrrostaric field is applied to a
water-in crude emulsion, che behavior of conducrive
water droplers dispersed in an insularing crude oil
phase is now described. An insulated water droplet
in contact with a charging elecrrode acquires che fol-
lowing charge (Cho, 1964)
(7-1)
where: Q = saturarion charge on drop, coulombs (C)
r = drop radius, merers (m)
E0¡¡ = relacivc dielectric constanr of crude, no units
t0 = dieleccric constant of a vacuum
= 8.85 • J0-12 farad/meter (F/m)
E= elecrric field berween elearodes, volr/merer
(V/m)
= PD/áx
described using Stokes Law (see Equation 4--2 and set Co
= 24/Re)
Ffog = 61t µ V¿ r/g, (7-3)
where: Vd = drop velociry, mis
µ = crude viscosiry, Pa-s (lmPa-s = 1 cP)
&e = 1 kg-m/s2-N
Equate F, (Equarion 7-2) and Fdng (Equation 7-3) to get:
Vd ' 1.1 I] <001 <o r E2ifl &e (7-4)
where: ll = fracrion of sacuration charge remaining on drop
The following conclusions may be drawn:
1. Drop velocity increases wich increasing drop size and
elecrric field strengch (Equation 7--4).
2. The drag forces or hydrodynamic srresses increase as
che square of both drop size and elecrric field
(Equation 7-2).
3. These hydrodynamic stresses iimir che size of dropler
thar can exist in che field.
4. The maximum allowable drop size decreases as che

-
PO = potenriaJ difference bcrwecn elecrrodes, volts (V)
Ax = spacing berween electrodes, m
electric field increases.
 Dehydmion of Crude Oil 125

An insulaced water droplet can tolerare only a limired rions. The force of atrraction berween rwo opposirely
porenrial gradient ar irs surfuce before repulsive elecrric charged drops is given by Coulomb's Law:
forces disperse the drop. The srabiliry crirerion for a charged
F, = Q1 Qi/4" , 0,1,0 ,2 (7-7)
water drop in crude oil is (Doyle et al., 1964):
where: Q¡ = charge on firsr drop, e
grad Vd< (4 001,j,0il ,0 r)0.5 (7-5) Qi = charge on second drop, C
where: 00tw = oil-water surface tension, N/m x = distance between cenrers of rhe rwo drops, m

Equation 7-5 shows rhar large drops are unsrable in

high pocenrial gradienrs. In rurn, the pocenrial gradienc
ar che surface of a water dropler in an electric field is
determined by che electric field strength and rhe droplet
radius,
The magnicude of che induced dipole in a polarized
water drop is (Hendricks, 1973):
M = E ,i ,0 (i:., - 1 )/(•w - 2) (7-6)
where: M = magnitude of dipole, coulomb-meter (C-
m)
Ew = rclarive diclecrric constanr of water, no units
Equarion 7-6 shows how rhe polarizarion increases as
rhe cube of drop size and direcrly wirh field srrengrh.
Finally, che elecrric forces between charged and
polar- ized water drops are given by the following rwo
equa-
For two equal-sized polarized drops aligned along che
direcrion of rhe field, rhe force of arrracrion is (Moran,
1983):
Fe= 3 rt E0 ¡( E0 E2 d6/x4 (7-8)
where: d = drop diamerer. m
These electrostaric atrractive forces can be much larger
rhan che ever presenc gravicy force. The ratio of electro-
static to gravicy forces is approximately 1,000 for 4-µm
diameter water drops in 20ºAPI crude exposed to a cyp-
ical eleccrical gradienr of 5 kV/in. (Lucas, 1976).
A typical horizontal electrostatic hearer-erearer is shown
in Figure 7-11. The hearing section is idencical to the
cyp- ical horizontal hearer-trearer shown in Figure 7--6. The
only (and major difference) is che high-voltage elecrrode
grids

D
HEATING SECTION COALESCING SECTION
Emulelonlnlot R1¡l1t 'fa• Outl1t
' ' on o...u.1

ti ti
L-- - -v�k
l.od. or1c1- - -
------
r - - - Hlgh
mp lt
00
C- - - -
onn oct lon t
11 11
1
Flrotube
:: �---�---.!�
1r1nt1rfoca�
Contr M1nway I
----)---------t���--
' W1t11t

Driln OM Outlet Tru'

t.cf
W1t1r
OuU1t

Hlgh Volt.ge
Eltetrodt Grld
Hood Botlle

Figure 7-11 Electrostatic Heater-Treater (NATCO, 1991)

126 Dehydration of Crude Oil

located above the oil-water interface in che senling/coalesc-

ing secrion, Of course, violenr elearical short·circuiring
(shorts) occur if the water leve! rises up to che electrodes.
Figure 7- l 2a shows an exploded view of the major
elecrrical components in a rypical AC electrostatic
trearer, The power source or transforrner converts line
voltage (single-phase AC. 220 to 440 volts, 50 or 60 Hz)
ro rhe required high-voltage output. This high voltage
is fed through an insulared, pressure-sealed, enrrance
bush- ing in rhe vessel shell ro the lower electrode, also
called rhe charg,d electrode. The grounded elecrrode is
sus- pended above the charged electrode. Usually rhe rwo Figure 7-12a AC Electrodes
horizontal electrodes or grids are positioned parallel to
each orher and 4 - 6 in. apart.
Figure 7-l 2b shows rhe sine wave volrage
characteris-
tic of AC elecrrostatic coalescing devices, and Figure A.C. Elec1rodN
7-l 2c depicrs schernatically how the charge distriburion
and drop shape change wirh rime. An AC coalescer can-
not provide a sustained high-voltage gradienr lield-
wirh 60 Hz the field is zero every 0.008 seconds. The
1
arrracrive force varies with time and, according to
:1
1

Coulornb's equation (Equation 7-7), is quite weak at the

larer stages of dehydrarion when only a relatively few, l
1

widely dispersed small drops remain. Droplets smaller '• l

l

chan 5 µ require sustained high-volrage gradienrs to T1 '' '

'
'"'-! 1 1

induce reasonable rnigrarion velociries (Equarion 7--4). � l1

Direct current (DC) coalescers provide high-volcage, Aj
susrained lields. Figure 7-l 3a shows che elecrrodes for
Figure 7-12b AC Voltage
a Dual Polarity Trearer (DPT) in which alternare
eiecrrodes are given a pulse DC charge with opposire
polariries. One elecrrode gets the posirive half of che AC
sine wave and the next electrode gets che remaining
negar1ve half. Figure 7-13c also shows that rwo high- + +
voltage diodes or recrifiers are used ro convert che AC to Í @O�O@O
DC. If rhe crude oil were a perfect insularor, rhe
electrodes would remain charged ar rhe peak volrage
(dashed line, Figure 7-I 3b, top). Because sorne water
� o C) o o o
drops in che crude contact che

charge and, rherefore, sorne voltage on the elecrrodes

elecrrodes and are contacr charged (Equarion 7-1), sorne

To Hi
A.C. _ ,
h Volts I
T1

bleeds off (dashed line, Figure 7-l 3b, bortorn). The

higher che content in che emulsion, che faster che
water
charge and voltage is bled off. The electrodes also pro·
duce a weak AC componen< berwecn rhernselves and rhe
water interface. This electric lield "works" on any ernul-
Figure 7-12c Action of AC Voltage on Water Drops
sion pad locared ar che crude-water interface.
Afrer its water wash, the emulsion fl.ows upward inro Figure 7-12 Alternating Current Electrodes, Fields and
ehe AC lield (Figure 7-13c). This low-gradient field Effect on Water Drops (NATCO. 1991)
does
 Dchydrarion of Crude Oil 127

Figure 7-138

-T\-- ,
RMS
- Voltag•
�--- Emulalon In

•l - v v�- Figure 7-13c

Eleclrode(:) (!) Electrodo

+

-
b)

Figure 7-13b

not shcar large water drops, so ic promotes their coales-

cence to even larger drops. Drops of chis size fall
rapidly to che oil-water interface. The rcmaining
emulsion wirh less rhan 2-3% S&W now flows
berween che DC elec-
trodes, which are usually spaced 6-8 in. apart. The posi-
rive and negarive electrodes produce drops wirh posirive
and negative charges respectively by contact charging
(Equarion 7-1). In turn, rhese opposirely charged water
drops migrare in opposite horizontal velocities (Equation
7--4 and Figure 7-13d). Drops berween che elecrrodes can
becorne polarized as described by Equation 7--f,. Charged
and polarized drops then experience che elecrrosraric
forces of attracrion described by Equarions 7-7 and 7-
8 respecrively, These rapid, horizontal, and opposing
migra- rions and che electrostaric forces lead to frcquenr
and vio- lenr collisions, and rapid coalescence (Figure 7-
13d).
Such convencional high-voltage electrosraric coalesc-
ing sysrerns have che following limitations. A high field
lirnirs che maximum droplet size rhar can be achieved
due to hydrodynamic and electric stresses (Equations
7-3 and 7-5). However, small drops require a much
longer rime to settle (seo Stokes Law, Equation 4-1 ). Bue
a high field is required to give small drops rhe horizontal
velociry to prornote coalescence (Equarion 7--4).
D.C. Foeld
Figure 7-13d
Figure 7-13 Dual Polarity Electrodes, Voltages, and
Effect on Waler Drops (NATCO, 1991)
A recent and promising innovation is cornposite elec-
trodes. One embodirnent is shown in Figure 7-14; each
elecrrcde is composed of rhree pares: first a nonconduc-
tive, fiberglass secrion (1 and la); second a conducrive,
graphire section (2 and 2a); and rhird a second noncon-
ducrive part (3 and 3a). The DC volrage esrablishes high
charges on che conducrive surfaces and, in tur n, a high
electric field berween these sections of rhe electrodes. The
charge on rhe nonconducrive electrode surfaces degrades
in densiry with increasing distance from che conducting
sections. The precis · characteriscics of che charge gradi-
ent on che nonconaucting surface depends on:
1. The charge relaxation time constan e of the noncon-
ductive material. High charge relaxation time con-
srants slow che charge rransfer along che surface.
- 128 Dchydmion of Crudc Oil
-
-
Figure 7-14 Composite Electrodes (Sublette and
Prestridge, 1988)
2. The conducriviry of the conrinuous phase.
3. Grounding of top edge forces charge to drop to zero,
As che emulsion flows berween the elecrrodes, ir is first
subjected to an increasingly mong OC decrric field.
Thís "prerrearrnenr" coalesces and rernoves che larger
drops, thus prevenring drop shearing in che nexr high
intensiry section. The second zone provides rhe homoge-
neous, high elecrric field required to coalesce small
droplets. Finally, che third sección provides a progres-
sively weaker field rhar promotes further coalescence of
rhe drops leaving rhe second zone. When large enough
the water drops fall out of the crude oil phase. The ini-
cial nonconduccing electrode seer ion can han die em ul-
sions containing up to 25% water. Fiberglass-graphire
elecrrodes can be used up to 290ºF.
Anocher recent improvernent is che Load Rnponsiue
Controller (LRC). This aurornaric volrage conrroller pro-
vides maximum power to rhe electrodes. When che LRC
detecrs arcing berween rhe electrodes (eirher by low volt-
age or excessive curren e) ir curs power ro che transformer.
After rhe conducrive paths have dissipated in a fracrion
of a second, power is re-esrablished bur ar 1-10%
lower
level, lf arcing continúes, che process is repeared
unril
arcing stops. lf no ares occur, power is gradually
increased unril che currenr limit or maximum power is
reached. LRC rnaxirnizes rhe elecrric field applied.
Solid panicles are not susceptible ro growth analogous
to coalescence of water droplets in an elecrnc field.
However, practica! experience shows rhat solids are
removed during decrrostatic dehydration. Solids are
removed by rhe following mechanisms:
•
l. Preferential adsorption of parriculare solids on che
drop oil-water interface.
2. Water werring of rhe solids and removal wirh rhe
water phase,
Two general types of electrical dehydrarors comrner-
cially available are:
1. The low-capaciry rype used for low-graviry oils or
tight ernulsions.
2. The high-capaciry rype used for high-graviry oils
and relarively loose ernulsions.
An elecrrical dehydraror can be frequenrly used
insread of both a hearer-trearer and coalescer or precipi-
rator, Elecrrical dehydrators are generally used where one
or more of che foJlowing siruations exisr:
l. When fue! gas is not readily available ro hear rhe
emulsion, or ir is expensive.
2. When loss of oil graviry is economically importanr.
3. \'G'hen large volumes of crude rnusr be treated at a
central locacion chrough a minimum number of
treating vessels.
Elecrrosratic coalescers often prove economical and
efficienr far salrwarer removal from crude oil because
rhey are so effective ar removing small water droplecs.
Desalring is discussed in detail in Chapter 9.
The advantages of elecrrostatic treating are:
1. The ernulsion can be broken at a significanrly lower
temperature than wirh heac alone. This reducrion,
which ofren approaches 20-40ºF, saves fue! and low-
ers crude shrinkage and graviry loss.
2. The increased treating ,are allows a smaller vessel.
This is ideal for offshore and housed arctic opera-
nons.
3. More complete \Vater removal is anained. This and
rhe lower treacing temperacurc resulr in decreased
corrosion and less scaling.
The major disadvantage is the use of electrodes involves
addicionaJ capical expense, concrols, and mainrenance.
Use of electrostatic grids inherenrly involves
additional equipment and increased maintenance. These
increased costs must be outweighed by improved
dehydration.
Two rules of thumb are:
l . A given size electrostatic trcater wiJI process about
rwice as much crude oil as rhe same size mechanical
treater.
---
- Dehydr.uion ofCrudc Oil 129

2. The use of electriciry will perrnir dehydrarion ar a heavy-asphaltene crudes (t.g., Canada, California, and
lower ternperature. Wyoming) are especially troublesome. These sludges are
Wich heavy low-gravity crudes, this temperarure reduction becoming more common wirh the increasing use of
can be as large as 30ºF (t.g. 120ºF instead of l 50ºF for a enhanced recovery rnethods. Needless to say, this sludge layer
33ºAPI crude). Such a temperature lowering cannot be allowed to accumulate in che rreater because ir
could reduce volume shrinkage by 1 o/o (Figure 7-15) and graviry will produce electrical shorts in the electrical grid if allowed
loss by O.s"API (Figure 7-16). The previous example is to float upward. Elecrrical shorts also occur if gas breaks out
typical; in sorne cases che benefits are less. In orher siruarions, from che oil as it rises berween che elecrrodes. Alternarively, if
the emulsions are almost unbreakable without elecrriciry. che sludge !ayer setdes, ir will contaminare the brine and
The oil-water interface is an ideal coUection area for render ir unfit for reinjection or environmentally unsuicable
sludges such as iron sulfide, paraffin, silr, asphalrenes, corrosion for discharge.
inhibitor chemicals, and so forth. Paraffinic There are three procedures for prevencing the inter- face
crudes (t.g., Seminolc, TI<, 120ºF cloud poinr) and accumularion of these sludges. Firsr, a circular, slot- ted
collection ring (somerimes called a toadstoo/) can be used to
withdraw or dump che sludge incermittendy at suirable
3.0 Typlcal 33" API Gravlty OU regular intervals such as once a shift, or day, or week.
Alternacively, a small slip strearn, (1-2% of che total flow)
can be continuously wichdrawn. This side- stream
containing che sludge is rhen treated separarely, Bottom
drains can be operated in a similar rnanner to rcrnove
bottom sertlings.
Second, che treating rernperature can be raised, Third,
different or addicional demulsifiers may be added. Electrostatic
fields disturb che interface sludge and so
reduce che build-up rate.
Mechanical Treating
70 90 110 130 150 Well-designed separarors should include (see Chapter 6):
Temperature "F
l. Inler baffies-to aid in separating gas and liquid near
Figure 7-15 Volume Loss vs. Temperatura che inlet and to dissipate che feed velocity.
2. Parallel places-to reduce curbulence in che main body.
1.5 Typlcal 33" API Gravity 011 3. A mise eliminator-to remove liquid droplets from
vapor.
4. Vortex breaker-to prevent gas aspiration in liquid
V-
oudets.
0
1.0
5. Adequate liquid capacity-to hanclle liquid surges.
a:
"'.s• 6. Proper backpressure and liquid-level control, .
Oil-treating vessels exploit many of rhese same inter- nals,
•
....ao.s Proprierary internal elements-such as baffies, wave

f
e,
breakers, etc.-are ofien provided in vessels sold for field

50 70 90 110 130 150 separation of oil, brine, and gas. These elements affect
Tempenture "F sizing in a manner not generally known to che buyer.
Vendors, often wirh jusrificarion, claim thar rhese inter- nals
Figure 7-16 ºAPI Loss vs. Temperatura improve separarion efficiency dramarically.
inflowing crude wich radioactive iodine (Ze I and
Bowman, 1977, 1978). These studies included di persed- gas
130 Dehydrancn of Crude Oil and pressured ílocacion cells, 2,000- and 15 00-bbl wash
tanks, and a horizontal FWKO. Figures 7 17 and

-
The success of proprietary internals merely c nfirms
the extreme importance of fluid flow pa11erns rh any
treating device in general. The distriburion (or va iation)
of residence time has been measured by tagg g the
7-18 sumrnarize che results for the 15,000-bbl ash tank and
rhe FWKO, respecnvely The principal co clusion is that,
with few exceptions, rhe hydraulic beha ror of ves- seis used
in rhe lield is poor. Many vessels a subject to hydraulic
short-circuiting so that most of t e vessel vol- ume is not
used effecnvely, / !
Break-through times as shorr as 20% 'of the average
residence time are not uncommon. Orher vessels are sub-
jected to high mixing forces so that much of che mater-
ial is transponed through the cank by mixing forces in
too short a time for adequate treatment. Shear forces char
could increase emulsion formation are present in sorne
vessels. Wash canks and skim tanks have che pooresc flow
characreristics, despite considerable effort in most cases
to inscall baffies and spreaders. Plugging of che flume by
paraffin cakes, corroded spreaders, and sand deposits
have also been docurnented (Hausler, 1978).
Mechanical coa!escers are somewhat more sophisri-
cared chan eicher of che preceding; che most familiar is
... -- ...
( r ..J
' ....:.t.:. . .
I _ ...
�
''
...
F1LL
·15,000-bbl wast>lank sp,eader detai.
Figure 7-17 RTD for Wash Tank (Zemel a�d Bowman, 1978)
i
r
che excelsior-packed coalescer. These unics may also
employ direccional ílow control, a large water-holding
volume, packed excelsior just above che water area,
and finally an oil-seccling volume above rhe excelsior
packed seccion. The wood (gum-free poplar is bese)
excelsior or "hay" is preferentially water wer and is
cightly packed ro crea te an obstrucrion to che flow of
the small water droplets and promoce random colli-
sion of these droplets for coalescence, as well as pro-
vide surface for coalescence. When rhe droplets
become large enough, chey will fall out of che Aow
strearn by graviry, The oil-serrling area above the excel-
sior depends on graviry separarion only for rbe remain-
ing water particles,
The chief advancage of mechanical coalescence is rhat
no fuel is required and no crude volume or gravity [osses
occur. However, dirry crudes do plug rhe coalescing
medium and cause operacing problems that are especially
severe with dirry or waxy crudes. These well-publicized
plugging problems limic che use of excelsior. Precipitarors
are essenrially hearer-treaters withour the heater and wirh a
hay or excelsior-coalescing medium. A precipitaror usu-
ally is found where wacer-entrained oil is encountered
with warer-wer solids. The operanon of a precipirator is
similar to thar of a baffled-and-Aumed rype of FWKO
with the addicion of an excelsior secrion and sornetimes
a graded sand filter secrion.
,
1
1
º"
1
1 VAl(A ·---
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
\
o • •ELLAPSED �11'1( 1nt....iT(SI
Tracer response curve t>, 15.()()0..bbl wash t.lnk.
- Dchydmion of Crude Oil 131

•u. wr"''

••

••
. 1
t,
1 \
-W&T[II

\ ---· OIL -. ..
.
v. L.,,•...
,.,

1 \
\
•c•OV&eLI ..n1.tej
'
1 1
-. 1
1
1
1
•••
1
1
'1
1
; t. e 1
1 ,., _..,,,.
1 --•· OIL
1 •••

..
1
••
1 1
1 1
1
, ..
1
1
1 \

, '' •••
' ..... ..... _
. .. _, ,
I

••••• o.,
... . .• •• ••
•,
-Aesidence time distribution curves for free-water
••
specifies corrosion allowances for natural
knockCMA with baffles in. brines with
Figure 7-18 RTD for FWKO (Zemel and Bowman, more than 0.025 ppm 02 or more than
1978) 1,200 ppm C02. Any HzS should be
considered corrosive and NACE MR-01-75
should be followed. NACE RP-01-81
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS recommends procedures for interna}
coatings, while
API Spec 12L (1987) liscs rhe mínimum requirernenrs for
design, materials of consrruction, fabricarion and testing
of vertical and horizontal hearer-trearers. The present
emphasis is on design or sizing: cherefore, marerials, fab-
rication, and testing are summarized first very briefly.
Then two old (but scill pertinent) case histories are also
reviewed very briefly to ernphasize che keys to effective oil
rrearing, Nexr, seven locarion or sire-specific considera-
rions are discussed. Finally, che data required for sizing are
enumerared.

Materials, Construction, and Testing

ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Secrion VIII,
Division l specifies ali materials of constructíon. If rhe
wellstrearn contains liquid water wirh 02 or C02 or
H2S, ir can be corrosive. ASME Secrion VIII, Division 1
 -Residence time dislribution curves tor tree·wa1er
knocko(A wlh baffles 01..C.

NACE Standard, RP-05-75 and RP-01-78 provide guidelines for

cathodic prorecrion. Oilfield corrosion is deferred to Volume 3.
ASME Section VIII, Division I covers the shop con- structíon,
testíng, and stamping of emulsion treaters including firetube(s),
heat exchangers, and water syphons larger than 6 in. Smaller
water siphons are cov- ered by ANSI B3 l .3.

Case Histories
Case l. Gidley and Hanson (1974) presentan old but very valid
case history. A sophisricared and expensive oil- treating system,
consisred of a wash tank, four electrosta- tic heater-treaters, a holding
tank and a heater-treater for off-spec oil. Severe upsets were
experienced whenever wells were srirnulated or lines were pigged.
When these problems were srudied, borde tests showed thar reservoir
fines and pipeline scale were rhe main culprits. The solu- tion
involved:
l. Finding a demulsifier that would water-wet these
fines.
2. Using a new corrosion inhibitor that did not con- tribute to
emulsion formacion.
 132 Dehydrarion of Crude Oil
3. Adding a degassing boot upmeam of the wash tank.
4. Rearranging rhe inler and exir pipes in rhe wash tank
ro reduce short-circuicing.
5. Withdrawing any wlo interface pad buildup in rhe
wash tank and hear treating ir separarely,
These changes were so effecrive rhar rhe four electro-
sratic hearer-treaters and the final holding tank could be
removed. from service. Fue! coses were reduced dramati-
cally. Severa) lessons are very clear:
l. Do not creare emulsion problems by poor choice of
chemicals.
2. Minimize nonideal hydraulics.
3. The rnosr sophisricated rrearrnenr is not necessarily
bes t.
Case 2. McGhee (1965) describes a 150,000 barre!
wash tank used to demulsify 150,000 bpd of 14ºAP[
crude. The operarion was improved dramatically by:
l. Finding a new and superior dernulsifier and inject·
ing it far upstream of rhe central treating facility.
2. lnstalling simple but elfective baffle, in rhe
wash
rank.
3. Degassing the emulsion before II enters rhe wash
tank.
4. lnjecting heared water direcdy lntO rhe emulsion
just before ir enters the wash rank.
Again, severa! lessons are very evident:
l. Operarion is always improved by finding a bener
chemical and injecting ir earlier.
2. Dcgassing ernulsions aids water dropout.
3. Poor hydraulics invariably ruins vesse] performance.
4. Heat is very useful in rreating heavy crudes.
Production Surge Factor
As previously indicated in Chaprer 5, oil-rreating vessels
should be sized on the maximum flow rate expected dur-
',...
ing che projected liferime of rhe facility. le is also advis-
able to add a surge factor to rhe anricipated normal flow
rate. Typical surge factors recommended by che
API
( 1991) are presented in Chaprer 5. Obviously, increasing
che ílow rate lowers residence rimes in oil-brine-gas sep-
aracors and chcrefore reduces performance. Decreases in
flow rate also lower separator performance, even
though this is not so easy to explain. One explanation is
that flow decreases whilc incrcasing che average
residence time alters the flow paneros with rhe
separator and so may
promote bypass and "dead zones." Separarors wirh coa-
lescing packs behave dilferenrly. The flow rhrough the
pack controls separation.
Surge arrestors (large vessels placed ahead of the oil-
rrearing equipmenr) are especially common on the Norrh
Slope while slug catchers are used for peak shaving in the
con ti nema! Unired Sta tes. Slugging in oilfield piping
can be conrrolled by careful choking (Schrnidr, et al,
1980).
Chapter 5 addresses rhe following topics: effect of
environmental condirions, produccion volume, and
availabi!ity of elecrriciry, The influence of rhe compara-
tive value of lighr and heavy hydrocarbons is discussed in
Chaprers 5, 9, and 14.
Pipeline-Oil Specifications
S&W in crude oíl fed to a refinery causes
equipment fouling and corrosion. Furthermore, shipping
S&W (or water) is expensive, Purchasers therefore
invariably spec· ify a maximum S&W concenr in oil
befare they accepr it
in pipelines and orher carriers. The S&W specificarion
muse be reasonable and attainable by a conscienrious
operator using readily-available processing techniques.
Typical acceptable S&W contents are:
0.1 o/o Cold climare area
0.2% An achievable worldwide "standard"
0.2-1.0o/o Gu!f Coast and West Texas
3.0% California low-gravuy crudes.
Oíl quality is determined on a roucine basis in che field
by che use of ANOD devim (Automatic Net Oi/ Detmor,).
These devices are usually electrical conducriviry mccers
and muse be calibrated for the particular oíl and brine
being produced. Four conditions (Hanzevack. et al.,
1980) are required for accurate S&W measurements:
l. The brine phase must be evenly dispersed in che
cross section of the pipe so thar the S&W probe
"sees" a represencarive sa.mple;
2. The brine drops must be small compared to che
probe caviry;
3. The sampling frequency must be ofren enough to
ensure represenrarive sampling;
4. Enough samples muse be taken to minimize random
error in individual samples.
S&W contenr is nor rhe only specification
for pipeline oil. As stated in Chapter 2, ºAPI, sulfur
conrent, pour poinr, Reid vapor pressure, viscosiry,
and heavy metals are also specified.
- Dchydntion of Crudc Oil 133

Required Data Gravicies are ac rrearing remperacure, since temperature effects

Table 7-3 prcscnts rhe equiprnent questionnaire from a major
manufacturcr's catalog. Ir is not an accidcnt thar che firsr two
iterns include rhe producrion ílow rates of crude, brine, and
gas. Obviously, these flowrates deter- mine the type and size of
ali trearing equipment. As rnen- tioned in Chapters 5 and 6, the
wellstream ílows and composition will change during field life.
As the field ages, less gas and more water are produced. The
designer and operator "give up" gas space as rhe WOR increases.
The "surge factor" should be a reasonable estímate of
che percentage ílow above normal thar might occur for a fairly
long time period such as a rreater upset. The GOR is chac which
would occur in che trearer at irs normal operaung pressurc.
Oil and water specific gravities are obviously irnpor-
tant in graviry seniing. Use Figures 4-13, 4-14 and 4-15
to estimare brine densiry in che absence of bener data.
Table 7-3 lnformation Rcquircd for Treating and Dcsa.lting
l. Toral fluid fo be processed:
a. Oil, bpd
b. Water, bpd
2. Gis-Oil Rario (Average)
3. Specific gravity of oil
4. Spccific graviry of water
5. Amicipared mu. and min. percencage of water produced
6. Trearing unir max. a.nd min. operaring pressure
7. Allow::ablc AP across desalcing equipment
8. Oil viscosiry ar four (4) temperaturcs in treating tempcrarure
range (e.g., 70-ISO'F)
9. Saliniry of produced water in ppm of sodium chloride equivalen,
(water analysis, if available)
10. a. Analysis of gas ava.ilahle fer fuel
h. Caloric value of gas (net heating value)
c. Crude oil analysis far ail burner, if differenr from
produced crude
11. Mir,imum inler temperature af oil ar sration
12. Saliniry a.nd amaunt af water available far dilution (water analysis,
if available)
13. Type of elecrriciry available--Hz; volrage, pha.se, wattage
14. Requiremenu for ourlet ail:
a. %S&W
b. Sale conccnc in lb pe1 1,000 bbl oil (PTB)
c. RVP
Crude oil characterinics. induding pour point, cloud poinr,
IS.
wax coruent, sand/salids content
16. Ambient rernpetarure: summer-mu.., min.
wintcr-max., min.
17. Typc of ernulsion-breaking chernical being used ar prefcrred.
RequiremenfS for curler water
r- 18.
19. General fidd dcscription and physical pla.nt layout with
possible plant sires
Source: NATCO 0?93)
can be impottant.
Water content is obviously important. Unforrunarely, ir is
difficult to predice water conrenr. With a warer-drive field, water
production can increase quickly and unex- pecredly,
Operaring pressure is irnporranr for ali aspects of design.
The higher rhe operaring pressure, the better light material,
are rerained in che pipeline oil and the higher its graviry. Oil
viscosiry is needed for estimating settling velociries or simply
as an empirical guide to trearer selection. ASTM D 341
describes a mcthod for estimating the change in viscosity with
temperature if che viscosicy is known ar two tempcracures. This
correlacion is valid above rhe cloud point.
Water salinity must be known. A ful] chemical analy-
sis is helpful. Type and heating value of fue] available is
imporcanc in burner dcsign. Minimum crudc-oil inlcr
cemperature is needed for csrimacing heacer capaciry. An
unneccssarily low temperature should not be specified.
Dilution water is only important for desalting. Most U.S.
crude producrion is not desalted in the field. The type of
electriciry available is important in dectrostatic treater design
for obvious reasons. Pipeline-oíl S&W requiremenc is
necessary for proper creacing equipmenc design and selection.
Crude-oil pour point, cloud point,
\Vax concenr, and sand/solids conrcnr influence tempcra-
ture rcquiremcnts and mechanical design details. The crude
oil must never be allowed to cool below its pour point. This is
especially critica] in long pipeline,, so it is discussed funher in
Chapter 13. Ambient temperature is importanc wich respecc to
heac loss, fuel rcquircmcncs, and pour poim. The emulsion-
breaking chemicals to be used may not be known. The types of
chcmicals should
be determined by field bottle tests.
Water rreatment is deferred to Volume 3. Neverthe- less,
the qualiry of che treated water can be justas impor- tant as the
oil specs. Water qualiry can be sacrificed only if subsequenc
crearmenc can handle ic. Produced water
can be discharged overboard only if the oil content
meets discharge regulations thar range rypically from
15-40 ppm.
Every designer and operator must face up to the ques- tion:
"Where does the S&W go?" A simple material bal- ance indicates
that the S&W entering the tteatment facil- iry with the crude can
be disposed ofin thrce ways; namely
as dirty water, dirty oil, or stored in the vessel asan inter-
face sludge. Dirty oil does not meet pipeline specifications
 134 Dehydrarion of Crude Oil

and dirty water creares disposal and/or reinjection prob- drop/crude-oil interface greacly affeccs emulsion stabilicy:
lerns, Nevertheless, storing rhe S&W in rhe vessel is a mis- Care muse be caken to rnake sure thac the sample used in
guided atternpr to buy a linle time. Of course, a build- piloc srudies truly represencs che field emulsion. In praccice,
up of sludge at the brine-oil interface reduces the barcel samples of field emulsion are usually shipped to che
separator capacity and must be gotten rid of sooner or
lab. In rurn, chis "aged" sample is often blended vigorously
later.
to cemix any dropped-our water. This procedure guarantees
thar che emulsion being tested in rhe lab is more scable chan
Centrifuga! Scparation the one encountered in che field. Noc surprisingly, such a
conservative approach is quite popular.
Centrifuges capable of simultaneously separating oil,
Tables 7-4 and 7-5 presenc cypical crude and water
water, and solids have been developed recendy (Alfa-
retention rimes and trearing ternperatures for wash ranks,
Laval, 1992). Clairned performance is 0.5 wt % water in
heater-rreaters, electrostatic treaters, and FWKOs. Figure
che crude and 25 ppmw oil in rhe treared produced
7-19 provides quick estimares of typical treating
water. A protocype of these cemrifuges has been tested
cemper- acuces and races (bopdffc2) for horizontal
since 1990 in Norway. Currendy, offshore operacors
apparendy are unwilling to risk possible produccion loses creacers. The "fr2" is the maximum horizontal area of rhe
coalescing or seccling seccion (see Example 7-1). The
during downcime for rhis rocacing equipment.
words "rypical" and "estimare" cannot be overernphasized;
Tables 7-4 and
Dcsign Methods 7-5 and Figure 7-19 are incended for informacion puc-
Design or sizing of ernulsion-rrearing equipment poses only and should not be used for any actual
design.
involves specifying the optimurn combinacion of che fol-
lowing parameters:
Tables 7-6 and 7-7 presenc cypical capacicies for stan-
dard sizes of vertical and horizontal hearer-rrearers.
1. Demulsifier chemicals: type, dosage, injeccion loca- Sizing a heater-trearer involves satisfying four crireria: gas
tion, and mechod. flow, oil flow, water flow, and required heac (or firetube)
2. Treating temperature. dury. An electrostatic unir must also provide adequate
3. Required recencion time for crude oil and produced electrode area.
water.
4. Use of electrostacic fields.
Table 7-4 Typical Liquid Recenrion Times
Design involves che appropriace selection of che previ- Typical Liquid-Phase
ous four parameters and specifying the rype of treating Type ofTreater Retention Time
vessel: FWKO, wash tank, heater-trearer, elecrrostaric Gun Barreis or Wash Tanks 8-24 hr
hearer-rrearer, or desalter. Optimum design requires Vertical Hearer-Treaters 0.5-4 hr
achieving che gas, crude, and produced water specifica- Horizontal Heater-Trearers 0.5-4 hr
Electrosranc Treaters 15-120 min
cions ar minimum cose while observing ali environrnen- Free-Water Knockours 25-30 min at 60ºF
cal, safery, and healch regulacions. Wellscreams are always 20-25 min ar 70ºF
changing and so prudent design includes an appropriace 15-20 min at BOºF
excess of chemicals, rime, temperature, and eleccriciry. 10--15 min at 90ºF
5-10 minar 100-1-ºF
This rninimizes expensive downrirne.
As discussed in Chapcer 4, sorne oilfield practices can Source. Srvalls. 1983
conrribure ro ernulsion problems. [r is much berree to
avoid creating emulsions than ro break rhem. Upsrream
accivities should be examined in Table 7-5 Typical Trearing Temperatures (ºF)
decail.
Of course, che bese mechod of establishing che treating Gun Banels He1Her- EJectrosu.ric
condicions is by direct field cese. Laboratory piloc or bocele Emulsion Type ºAPl Wash Tanks Treatcrs Heater-Treaters
teses are che nexc bese approach. Experience wich nearby
Loo se >35 80-100 100-120 85-105
andlor similar produccion is also used. When precipicaced Moderare 25-35 100-120 120-180 105-140
solids such as waxes are prescnt, che rhermal hiscory of che Tight 15-25 120 plus 140-200 120-160
Very Viscous 10-15 180-250 160-230
crude oil determines che morphology and size distribution
of these solids. The presence of such solids ac che water- Sourcc. Sival!s, 1983
 - ----------------------------------- · --
- --
Dehydration of Crude Oil 135

-
lli o 300 ¡::: : _;__ r- ' '
o ...... • -• . -

-t> TREATING TEMPERATURE ( Op)

....... f--------- . �

lz1 >--'-·
lo;..; .. • 1 - --
ir::
:::> 200

�
lz1
� 150
li1
E-4

iH 100
�

= 80

-1-�
8

40
....,
N
.¡.)
14-1
......
'Ó
Pi
o
, .Q
.. . ....

�
"'
i
H
8
<
t 10 . ¡

-
15 20 25 30 35 40 45
!"""
CRUDE OIL GRAVITY (º API)
Figure 7-19 Estimates of Crude T,eating Temperatures and Rates
136
- Dehydration of Crudc Oil

Table 7-6 Vertical Hearer-Trearer Capacicies

Treater Size
Oil Capaciry Water Capaciry Maximum Heat

-
Diam. Hdght (60 min) (30 min) Dury
(ft) (ft) (bpd) (bpd) (MB,uih,)

3 10 142 192 100

12 168 226 100
15 206 278 100
10 257 346 250
12 302 413 250
20 466 499 250
27.5 727 821 250
6 12 730 984 500
20 1,061 1.320 500
27.5 1.646 2,045 500
8 20 1,879 2,304 1,000
27.5 2.914 3.496 1.000
10 20 2.938 3,960 1.250
27.5 4.550 5.960 1.250
Sources: API (1987) & NATCO (11)1)3)
NOTES,
l. Shell leogrh {hcight) .t 6 in.
2. Minimum dcsign p�ssurC' • 50 psig
3. Oil capacities based on 60-min rctcntion time. Rerenticn times can vary from 30 min (>40"API) to 100 min (15"API)
4. Warc-r capaciries based on 30-min rerenrion time. W2rer rctcntion times can vary from 15 to 30+ min.
5. Maximum oil viscosity at uating ternperature should be 150 SSU or 25-30 cP.
6. Maximum GOR • 1.000 scf/bbl

DESIGN EXAMPLES Hear Dury = [(bopd}(Cpo;1) + (bwpd)(Cp=m)j(ó TI( 1 + 0.02)

= [(! 000)(150) + (498)(350))(165 - 90)( 1.02)
Feed Stream
= 24,800,000 Brn/day = 1.03 MMBrulhr
Flow rares: 1000 bpd crude oi], 30ºAPI
1000 bpd water No res:
500 GOR l. Shell length (heighr) ± 6 in.
Field Temperarure 90 ºF 2. Mínimum design pressure = 50 psig
3. Oil capaciries based on 60 min. retenrion time.
Example 7-1. Heater-Trearer
R«enrion rimes can vary from 30 min (>40ºAPI) ro
Assurne:
100 min (15ºAPI).
l. Trearing remperarure = I65ºF (Figure 7-19) 4. Water capacícies based on 30 min. rerention time.
2. Entrained water = 14% (Figure 4-7) Water rerention rimes can vary from 15-30+ min.
3. Treater drops out 60% of free water below firerube 5. Maximum oil viscosiry ar treacing temperacure
4. Hear losses are 2% of hear dury (well insulared) should be 150 SSV or 25 ro 30 el'
bwpd entrained/(bopd + bwpd entrained) = 0.14 6. Maximum GOR = 1 ,000 scf/bbl
bwpd entrained = 0.14 (! 000)/(1.00 - 0.14) = 163
bwpd heated = 163 + (0.40)(1,000 - 163) = 498

Treater hears 163 bopd and 498 bwpd from Vertical Heater-Trearer
90-165ºF Selecr heater 8 ft in diarnerer by 20 ft high (Table '-6)
. r-

--
 -
- Dehydration of Crude Oil

-
137

Table 7-7 Trearer Heater-Treater Capaciries

Horizontal Fir tubcs
Oil Water Hcat
D L (60 min) (30 min) Gas Diam Duty
(ft) (Ít) (bpd) (bpd) (MMscfd) No. (in.) (MMBtuihr)

3 10 160 200 0.2-0.3 12 0.15

12 190 250 0.2-0.3 12 0.20
15 230 300 0.2-0.3 12 0.30
4 IO 290 380 0.3-0.5 12 0.25

-
12 340 450 0.3-0.5 12 0.30
15 400 550 0.3-0.5 12 0.40
6 12 800 1,000 0.5-1 18 0.50

-
15 950 1,250 0.5-1 18 0.625
20 1,200 1.600 0.5-1 18 0.80
8 15 1,600 2,200 1.5-2 1 24 0.90
2 18 1.4
20 2,100 2.800 1.5-2 1 24 1.20
2 18 1.90
25 2.600 3,500 1.5-2 1 24 i.sc
2 18 2.00
30 3,100 4,100 1.5-2 1 24 1.75
2 18 2.66

-
IO 20 3,500 4,600 2-3 2 18 1.75
2 24 2.25
3 18 2.70
30 5,227 6,859 2-3 2 18 2.66
2 24 3.50
3 18 3.80
40 6,800 8,800 2-3 2 18 3.50
2 24 4.50
3 18 5.25
50 8.400 10,900 2-3 2 24 6.00
3 18 6.75
60 I0,000 12,900 2-3 2 24 7.00
3 18 8.00
12 30 7,800 10,400 3-5 3 24 5.00
40 I0,000 13,500 3-5 3 24 7.00
50 12,500 16,800 3-5 3 24 9.00
60 14,800 20,000 3-5 3 24 10.00
Sources: API (1987) &: NATCO 0993}
NOTES,
l. Shdl length Ibeighn t. 6 in.
2. Minimum design pressurc "' SO psig
3. Oil capacines bascd on 60-min retentjon time. Rctcntion times can va,y from 30 min (>40•API) 10 100 rmn (15.API)
4. W.1tcr capacirics based on 30.min rcrenrion rime. 'X'atcr rerentjon times can vary from 15-30+ min.
S. Muimum oil viscosiry ar tn:aring rcmpcraturc should be l SO SSU or 25-30 cP.

Horizontal Heatcr-Treatcr Horizontal Treater 8 ft x 15 ft at diarnerer of rrearing

secrion has serrling area = (D)(L)/2 = (8)(15)/2 = 60 ft2
Select heater 8 ft in diamecer by 15 ft long (Table 7-
7) Condusions:
Check capacicy: Treacing Race = 36 bopd/ft2 (Figure l. treater has ample coalescing area.
7-19) 2. heat ducy is concrolling.
Required coalescing arca = 1,000/36 = 27.8 ft2 3. invesrigace ways to reduce hear ducy.

�=�����---------------,
 Oehydrnion of Crude Oil

,-..Example 7-2. Elecrrosratic Treater

Producrion ar Unit Price Revenuc
l. Treating rernperature = 130ºF (Figure 7-19)
(SIMscf Chang,
Heat Oury • [(bopd)(Cpo¡¡) + (bwpd) (CP"''")) (ton (1 Componenr 120"f IOO"F Chang, or Siga!) (Slhr)
,-.. + 0.02)
, [(1000)(150) + (498)(350))(130 -90)(1.02) Methane (Mscfh) 163 162 1 1.65 -1.65
Ethane (gal/hr) 1,835 1,802 33 0.20 -<i.44
• 12,900.000 Bru/day = 540 MBru/hr Propane (gallhr) 1,653 1,527 126 0.29 -36.54
',-.S� Ie ecu. on e·nren.a: Burane (gal!hr) 1,086 930 156 0.36 -56.16
es, (gallhr) 1.251 968 283 D.39 -110.37
!. 1,000 bopd
2. 1,000 bwpd
3. 500 Mscf/d Toral NGL Revenue Loss = $ 211.16/hr = $ 5,067.84/day
,-.. 4. 500 MBru/hr NGL Lease
Toral Loss =Revenue Change Per Day
- $5,067.84
Selecr elecrrostatic heater-trearer 8 ft in diamerer by 15 ft
Crude Oil Gain (317 BOPD) ($18.75/bbl)
long (Table 7-7)
r- Check capaciry: Treating Rate = 73 bopd/ft2 (Figure
Fue! Cosr Saving
= + $5,943.75
(l 25Mscfd)
7-19) ($1.65/M,cfd)
Required coalescing atea = 1,000/73 = 13. 7 ft2 = + $206.25
r- Horizontal Trearer 6 ft x 15 ft at diarnerer of treat- 'API lmprovemenr
ing section has serrling area = (D){L)/2 = (6)( 15)/2 = (20,931 BPD)($. l 5/bbl - e API) (. 7ºAPI
,-.. 45 ft2 change)
Conclusions: = + $2,197.75
Total Daily Lease Revenue Enhancemenr
,-.. 1. trearer has ample coalescing area.
= + $3,279.91
2. hear dury is conrrolling.
Note rhat chis example depends very heavily on al! sales
3. investigare ways to reduce heat dury.
agreements. While nearly every case will be different, rhe
lesson is clear: lowering rhe trearing cemperarure
mercases revenues.
r-E.xample 7-3. Trearing "Iemperarure Economics
Heiman et al. (1983) rneasured and
OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
simulared operarion of a lease ro
deter- mine rhe effecr of lowering che
Operaring advice, preventive mainrenance, and trou-
,,... crude oíl treating ternperarure. Their
resulrs are:
bleshooring hines are discussed separareiy

YE.AR Winter 1982 Winter 1983 Change Operation

r- freating Temp CF) 120 100 -20 Adequare and complete safery rules and procedures rnust
Crude Oil be devdoped and implernenred. Safery procedures
,-.. Acrual bopd
Símulated bopd
20,632
20,614
20,847
20,931
+215
,317
and/or emergency insrrucrions should be posred in
appropriate locarions. Elecrrosraric creaters require spe-
Actual "API 33.4 33.9 ,o.s cial attencion to their hazards. The po\ver switch muse
Simulated 0API 33.2 33.9 ,
r-:oas 0.7 have a lock. Inadvertently rurning rhe power on when a
unir is down could electrocute workers.
Actual MMscfd 10.04 8.80 -1.24
Sirnulared l\.1Mscfd 8.74 8.32 --0.42 Upsrrearn upsets such as acidizing wells, pigging flow-
lines, and so forrh, often produce unusually severe emul-
sion problems. A suitable warning procedure is recorn-
The economics of lowering che rreacing remperacure rnended. To preven! upsers after acidizing, rhe well
l"ue now deterrnined using July 1994 United Srates prices should firsr ílow to a separare acid-rreaung cank unril the
as follows: ílow conrains oil and the pH rises.

,,...
- Dehydntion of Crude Oil
139

-
be
The O
API grav1cy of che stock rank oil can • Check
Yearly

-
improved by: -Clean hay sections and replace if dirry
1. Treacing at the lowest possible as Performax or Dixon piares.
rernperature.
-lnspecc internals

-
2. ali thief hatches and backpressure valves
Keeping in such
-Clean if
dirry
good working condicion. -Check fue! gas scrubber float mechanism to see
if
3. Holding as much backpressure as possible on
ranks. it will shut off fue! supply.
4. Sdling oil as frequently as - firetubes, and clean if requi red.
possibly Remove inspecr,
-Lubrica« packing on shaft linkage of
Corrosion should be reduced by suirable diaphram
inrernal and excernal coarings. Remember thac any control valves
coating is only as good as irs application. Ali -Check calibrarion of pressure,
coatings should be inspected thoroughly. lnscall rernpersture, and leve! indicators
Galvalum sacrificial anodes in che water section to -lf offshore, check safery rclief
protect against holidays in rhe coating. valves; repair if needed (Onshore
safery relief valves are checked less
frequendy.)
Preventive Maintcnancc

NATCO recornmends the following prevenrive

rnainre-
nance.

• Check Daily
-Chemical pump and chemical addition
rate- turn valve one-eighrh of a
revolution and then reset to prevenr
paraffin or orher salid parricles buildup.
-Flush gauge glasses and check iflevel readings
are
correcr
-Drain gas-side of diaphragm controllers
-Check treater cemperature and pressure
readings
• Check Werkly
-Open botrom drains and allow sedirnenr to
drain
-Check gauge cocks
-Clean glass level gauges, if neccssary
-Drain bottom of fuel-gas safery scrubber
• Chrck Monrhly
-Check burner, pilo, lighrers, and flame
arrestors
-Clean if "sooted"
-See if burner is centered in firerube so that
flame is
nor blasring against firerube wall
-Clean fud-supply mainer if dirry or ruscy
 Heavy crudes may require inspection evcry 6 -Excessivc flow rates to trearer,
rnonrhs. -Too low of a treater temperacure-pilot or
-Replace galvalum sacrificial anodes. Magnesium burner out?
anodes do no! Iasr as long. -lncorrcct chemical addinon=-cbeck feed
-Check, test, and calibrare ali valves, gauges, and pump, feed tank empcy. broken chemical line,
liquid-level controllers bad check val ve.
-lnsufficient retenrion cime.
Troublcshooting -Plugged hay section.
-Power off in eleccroscacic unir.
Changes in fidd operarion frequently cause upsets. • Emulsion bui!dup in treater
W'hen treating upsecs occur, check ro see if chere are: -Check items lisced above in uv.•ater going co
• Changes in feed flow or cornposirion srock ranks."
• Any changes in upscream accivicies-well workovers, -Check for pump slippage, gas lifting, choking
and
differcnt downhole additives, pipeline pigging, cank botrom
ocher upsets upstream.
being circulared, paraffin scraper been used?
-Check for sludge accumulacion a, oil-wam
Typical treater malfunccions and cheir mosc common inter- face.
causes are lisced below (NATCO, 1993):

-
-Power off to eleccroscacic unic.
• Paraffin bui!dup in treater
• Water going to stock tanks
-Too low of a treacing temperature

- Dehydmion of
140 Crude Oil

• Sea/e buiid-up

--
-Clean more frequently. dehydrated?
-Add a sequestering agent. 13. Whac resulcs should a properly operated
-lnstall a FWKO upstream of treater. heater-
• Loss of water leuel treater achieve?
-Low-gas pressure, backpressure valve set What functions are used to achieve rhese resulrs?
too low or 14. Lisr che advancages and disadvancages
l of heater-
e treaters.
a
k
i
n
g
.
-Hole in water siphon 1 Which is ro be most economic-a vertical or
inner pipe. 5 likely
.
-Siphon spill-over slcr set too low.

-
horizontal hearer-treater? Why?
-Emulsion build-up in treater. 16. List rhe problems atcribuced to sand
-Fresh water has been introduced. production, How can rhese problems

-
-Plugged trearer, be avoided?
-Scuck oil valve. 17. Why should mínimum heat be used in
-Plugged oil discharge line.

-
a hearer- treater?
-Excessive flow races ro rreater. ldentify one criteria for determining rhe minimum
-Water valve leaking. treanng remperature.

-
Whac is che chief cost of heat treating'
Review Qucstions What happens if a crude oil is allowed to cool below
its cloud point; its pour point?
l.
oil Lisr the reasons for dehydrating crude
in the 18. Describe a horizontal electrostatic
hearer-treater.
What functions doe it co dehydrate crude oil?
use
s
 field. Compare current crude-oil Whac safery' precautions should be caken when oper-
sales/transport specifications wieh typical aring electrostatic treaters.
produced-water discharge regulations. 19. Compare AC and DC electroscaric fields as chey
2. List rhe common methods used far relate to crude oil treating.
treating crude
20. What improvements are obtained by
o using compos- ite electrodes and load-
i
responsive conrrollers?
l
. 21. Lisr che advantages and disadvantages of electrosra-
3. Define BS&W, grid, interface drain, sand tic treating of crude oil.
22. Discuss the safety fearures required for
pans, spreaders, surge factor, heater-rreater,
elecrrostatic rrearers.
elecrrostatic treater.
4. Lisr the four chief accions of dernulsifiers. 23. Can elecrroscaric rreacing be used for breaking
reverse emulsions? Why or why nor?
5. List che types of chemicals used most often
as demulsifiers.
24. Why are che firerubes in an electrostatic
Why are organic chlorides, bromides, treater often generously oversized?
iodides and 25. What are interface pads?
florides, and arsenic and lead compounds How do chey irnpede emulsion
not used? breaking? How can emulsion-pad
6. Define breaker and reverse breaker. problems be solved?
Are rhey soluble or insoluble in 26. What is excelsior or hay'
hydrocarbons or in Do you recornmend its use? Why or why nor?
w 27. Whac incernals would you include in a treater?
a
t 28. Define residence rime disrriburion. break chrough,
e short-circuiting, and deadspace!
r How can che residence rime distriburion be
?
improved?
7. How should a demulsifier be added to a 29. List che facrors that should be considered in design-
wellstrearn?
ing a crude-oil treati ng syscem.
8. Define and describe "bortle cese."
30. 'X'hat data are required to design a crude oil treater?
Whac precautions should be caken to
31. Whar influences can upstream pracnces exert on
obcain useful results?
crude dehydracion.
9. What are rhe advantages and disadvancages
of chern-
ical
trea
tin
g?
I O. Define gravicacional treacing.
----------
Lisr che various rypes of vessels used
gravitational
r
in
-·-
r
e
a
n
n
g
.
1 1. Describe a wash cank.
List the advancages and disadvancages of
wash ranks.
12. Whac precautions should be raken while
using a
w
as
h
ta
n
k?
- Dehydrarion of Crude Oil 141

32. Lisr sorne rypical treating temperatures and vessel d. A lacation where no fice hazard is desired.
rerennon nrnes. e. A wdlmeam wirh a fairly high GOR.
33. Lisr four sizing criteria for heater-treaters. 4. Lucas (1976) states that electrosratic forces (equa-
34. How can rhe maximum hear-dury capacity of a tion 7-1) are 1,000 times monger than gravity ar
heater-treater be increased wichout increasing che buoyancy forces for 4µm water drops in a 20' API
shell size? crude exposed toan electrical gradient of 5 kVlin.
35. The heating capacity of a hearer-trearer is over- Verify ar refute this claim. State ali assumptions.
loaded. What changes can be made to reduce the 5. Consider Example 7-3. Assume rhat rhe dosage of
required heat duty' demulsifier chemicals rises from 20 ppmw in surn-
36. Which type of treating vessel produces the lowesr mer to 30 ppmv in winter. Re-examine rhe econorn-
BS&W' ics if the demulsifier chemicals cosr $3 5 per gallan.

-
37. Which type of treating vessel has che fewest safery Should rhe crude be treared ar l 20ºF'
hazards?
38. How can foaming and paraflin problems in treaters
Nomenclature
be solved?
bopd = barreis of oil per day
bwpd = barreis of water per day
Problems
Cp = specific hear, Btulbbl-ºF

l. A wellscream consists of: d = drop diarneter, m

O = inside diarnerer of rrearer, ft

crude oil 2,000 bpd 25ºAPI
E = electric field berween elecrrodes, VI m
WOR 1 S.G. brine = 1.02
Fd,ag = viscous drag force on drop, N (7-3)
GOR 1,000 scflbbl stock tank oil
Fe = elecrrostaric force on drop, N (7-2)
Ternperarure 1 OOºF
grad V= gradient of elecrric potenrial, Vlm (7-5)
a. Recommend a suirable vertical hearer-treater. lk = conversion factor
b. Recommend a suirable horizontal heater-rreater. = 1 kg - mi s2 - N
c. Recommcnd a suirable elecrrosratic hearer-rrearer. L = length of rreater, fr.
d. Which type of rrearer is likely to be rnosr econornic? M = magnitude of dipole, C-m (7-6)
State ali assumptions. PO = potennal difference berween adjacent elec-
2. Consider the wellstream described in problem l. trodes, V
a. Estimare rhe increase in stock tank oil (bpd) and Q = electrostatic charge on drop, C (7-1)
in graviry (ºAPI) achievable by using the electro- r = drop radius, m
sratic heater-treater, Vd= drop velociry, mis (7-4)
b. lf a FWKO is installed upstream of che x = distance berween cenrers of rwo drops, m
trearer, estimare rhe reducrion in required heat
dury. Is chis change economic? Gruk
Would installing this FWKO reduce the rrearing /l T = cemperature difference, ºF
temperature? 6.x = spacing berween venical OC electrodes
c. Investigare the potential improvernents of using the E0 = dielectric constant of a vacuum
hor treared oil to preheat the incoming wellstream. = 8.85 • 10-12 Flm
3. Consider rhe following four types of crude t0¡1 = relative dielectric consranr of oil, no units
dehydra- tion units: wash ranks, vertical heater- Ew = relacive dieleccric constan e of water, no units
trearers, hori- zontal hearer-trearers, and ll = fraction of saruration charge remaining on
elecrrostaric hearer- treaters. drop
Which type would you recommend for: µ = crude viscosity, Pa-s
a. A foamy crude oil. 0 0/w = surface tension of oil-water interface, N/m
b. A Iow-volume wellmeam with considerable sand
Sub,criprs
produccion.
c. A crude with very saline BS&W. d = denotes drop property
142 Dchydmion of Crude Oil
References
Alpha-Laval Oíl Fidd Ltd ( 1992), "LEO The Ultimare
in Produced Water Treatrnent," GB-Brentford, Middx,
England, U.K.
API RP 14C (1986), Recommended Practiu far Analy,is.
Derign. lmtallation and Terting ofBasic Suifac, Safoty Sysums
on Offihore Production Platforms, 4th ed., American
Petroleum lnstitute, 1220 L Street, Washington, OC
(Novernber 1 ).
API RP 14E (1991), D,sign and Installation of Offihore
Production Platform Piping Systems, 5th ed., American
Perroleurn lnstitute, 1220 L Street, Washington, OC
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Instirute, 1220 L Srreet, Northwest, Washington OC
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Oil/Water Separator," SPE Production Engineering, Vol.
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(Auy,ust}.
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1
_l
 -
-
NACE MR-01-75, "Material Requirement-Sulfide
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 Chapter 8
Desalting of Crude Oil
- INfRODUCTION
As discussed in Chapters 2 and 4, mineral sales may be
present in crude oil in severa! forms; namely, dispersed/
emulsified drops of connate/injection water, salid crys-
rals of water-soluble sales, water-insoluble parricles of
corrosion products or scale, and metal-organic com-
pounds such as porphyrins or naphrhenares.
After dehydration, or emulsion breaking, crude oil
srill
coneains sorne sediment and water (S&W) or, as previ-
ously called, bottoms sediment and water (BS&W). Typ-
ical oilfield emulsion treating (i.,., addition of
demulsify- ing chemicals; heating, if necessary; and
perhaps elecrrostaric coalescing) can reduce rhe brine or
S&W con- tent of rhe crude to 0.1-1.0 volume %
S&W This
0.1-1.0% consists of nurnerous, very small (<10 µm)
drops dispersed throughour the crude. The saliniry of oil-
field brines varíes from almost fresh water to saturation (30
wt % or 300,000 ppmw); however, ic usually ranges from
20,000-150,000 ppmw (or 2 to 15 wt %) (Burris, 1974).
For cornparison, seawarer conrains 30,000-43,000 ppmw
(3-4.3 wt %) dissolved solids (or salt). In rare circurn-
stances when the S&W consiscs of sarurared brine, salid
sale crysrals may also be dispersed in che crude. Salr conrenr
of crude oil is usually measured in pounds of chlorides,
expressed as equivalent sodium chloride, pcr chousand bar-
reis of clean (water-free) crude or lb salr/ 1000 bbl or
JYfB.
When crude oil is processed in the refinery, salt can
cause numerous operaring problems. Sale cakes out inside
equiprnent, causes poor ílow and plugging, reduces heat
transfer rates in exchangers, and causes high heater tube-
wall ternperatures, plugged fractionacor rrays, and
burned-our firetubes. Brine is also very corrosive and rep-
resents a source of merallic compounds thac can poison
expensive catalysts, especially in resid cracking and
hydrocreacing. Therefore, refiners usually desale rhe enrer-
ing crude ro less than 1 JYfB. This corrosiviry of produced
brines has resulted in oilfield specificarions rhat rhe
crude oil salt conrear be lowered to 10-20 lb/1000 bbl for
transportacion in rankers and.Jor pipelines.
Desalting in che field reduces corrosion downsrream
while rhe crude is transponed either in pipeline, or
rankers. In addition che desalter water can, afrcr suirable
rreatrnent, be reinjecred back into the reservoir, This
solves any cnvironmental problems.
In rhe absence of solid salt crysrals, the salr contenr
of
rhe crude (JYfB) is direcrly relared to rhe volume % S&W
and rhe brine concenrrarion (pprnw NaCI) as follows:
lb salt =(bbl crude)( bbl brine) ( lb brinc ) ( lb salt ) (S-l)
bbl crudc bbl brinc lb brinc
Using che convencional basis of 1000 bbl of dean (no
S&W) crude:
PTB-(1000) (% S&W) 350 SGbrin, )(ppmw} (8-2)
(100-% S&W) (106)
Equation (8-2) may be used ro calculare the sait
con- rent of a crude for any level of
dehydrarion/desalring expressed as remnanc S&W
volume % and salinity.
Table 8-1 shows che vol% S&W required ro meet a 10
PTB specification for any given remnant brine saliniry.
These calcularions show rhat a I O PTB specificarion
can be met if the remnanr S&W is lowered to 0.1 vol %
when che remnant brine contains 28, 100 ppmw sale
However, in many cases a residual brine contenc of O. 1
vol o/o is not achieved. Furrhermore, many oilfield brines
con ca in more than 28, I 00 ppmw salr. The obvious
con- dusion is rhat ''desalcing" is ofren required. Unril
the early l 970s, rhe prolific Middle East fields produced
dry, salt-free crudc; however, chis situarion has
changed. Aging field life and injeccion of seawater for
pressure maintenance are blamed for che increasing water
cut and the growing need for "desalring in the field."
145
- 146

Table �1
Salinirv
Desalring oí Crude Oil

Salt Content vs. S&W Volume and

Stage
Desalter
Sa.lt Contcnt Dehydratioo Requrred Bnne
Dilution As shown in Figure 8-1 rhe convenrional
Specificarion l<vd (ppmw equipment required for srage desalring includes:
NaCI in
(PTB) (vol% S&W) remnant
l. A free-water knockour (FWKO) or heater-
S&W')
trearer for che inicial brine removal or emulsion
10 0.1 treating (not shown).
28.100
10 0.2 2. A tee for injecring che dilurion water.
14,100 3. A mixing device ro commingle rhe dilurion water
10 0.3 wirh the S&W drops entrained in rhe
9.500 brine, and
4. A second treater (nearlj- always an
elecrrostatic heater treater) to separare che
In rhe Unired Srates and Europe desalting is crude and che dilurion water.
usually perforrned in the refinery where sal! levels If commingling rhe crude and dilurion water
of less rhan I PTB are often required. This level produces a stable emulsion, rhen ali rhe techniques
of desalring usually requires adding demulsifiers of emulsion breaking may be required; thar is.
(1-10 ppmw), wetring agents for solids demulsifier injecrion, heating, phase separarion of
removal if necessary, hearing to 200- any vapor or pressure stabi- lization, and
300'F and electrostaric coalescence. Desalring in elecrrostaric coalescence.
the refinery is convenient and conserves energy In single-stage desalring, che required dilucion
because heat is readily available and will be added water injeccion rate is usually 5-?o/o of che crude
anyway to rhe crude prior ro rhe atrnospheric flowrate. lronically, field desalring is often
fractionator. required in regions where fresh water is the
Crude desalting is very similar to dehydrarion scarcest. Two-stage desalting (Figure 8-2) usually
because rhe goal of both unu operarions is reduces rhe dilurion water required to 1-2% of the
reducing the S&W content. Crude dehydrarion is crude flowrate.
discussed in Chapter 7; rherefore, the present In two-stage desalting che water leaving che
discussion of desalring does not repeat previously second desalrer, while cerrainly more concentrated
covered copies. Accordingly, che con- vencional chan che dilu- rion water, is usually less saline
stage and che more recent countercurrent con- tact chan the brine drops enrrained in che crude
desalting processes are described firsr and rhen encering che first stage. Therefore,
che major design considerations are reviewed. rhe dilurion water required can be reduced
Design proce- dures and example calculacions furrher by
are presenred nexr. Finally, operaling problems
are sumrnarized.

PROCE.SS Desalting Desul

DE.SCRIPTION Transformer
ted
0
Desaker 1
The individual unir operations commonly 1
practiced when treating crude oil in che oilfield
are reviewed in Chapter 5. Desalring, which
Demulsifier I LC Ort/watcr
Interface
follows the inirial dehydra-
tion or emulsion breaking, Efflu
consists of: enr
2. Mixing water wirh the crude
l. Adding dilurion (or less saline) water to the rhis dilurion to dilute
crude.
 Dilution Water ---0":i----. Water
co11·�
rhc S&W droplers in rhe crude, and
Figure 8-1 Single-Stage Desalting (alter Bartley,
3. Dehydrarion (ernulsion trearing) to
1982)
separare the crude oil and dilured brine
(S&W) phases.
hrst Stage S1.1.gethe salr Seconc
and so reduce conrenr
(PTB) fo, comparable lev-
ü,I � ; \fo,

1 /
rud,
Crude �=-C><:-(�d
The net result is ro dilure rhe original S&W
C
droplers

els of crude dehydration (remnanr vol %

• !
S&W). Desalcing equipmenc is now described, firsr +
5& v..· D:!ut1ot \\.:!1tr Dcs;i!tcr Wa1.::
conventional stage desalting and second che
more recent counter- current contact desalter. Figure 8-2 Two-Stage Desalling without
Recycle
 Desalring ofCrude Oil 147

injecring rhe second-stage desalrer effluent water into rhe

crude ahead of rhe first stage. In such a scheme (Fig.
8-3), the crude and dilurion water srrearns conract HV INSUL>,TEO HANGEA
OILUTIONWATER
the rwo desalrers countercurrently. The leve! of the oil- HEAOER.

water interface inside the treater can be raised by

inrernally recycling sorne of rhe water leaving rhe desalter HV GAIO
as shown
in Figure 8-4.

Countcrcurrent Contact Desalter

OtSTAIBUTOR
Figure 8-5 shows NATCO's Electrodynamic Desalter™
(Warrcn and Prestridge, 1988 and Warren, 1990). This .... ....... INTERFACE

countercurrent con cace desalrer is very similar to che hor-

izontal elecrrostatic hearer trearers described in
Chapter
8. One major dilTerence is thar the dilution water is
introduced above che electrodes using a sysrem of larerals.
Orífices in rhe lateral, produce a slighr pressure drop
ar
design flow rates and feed the dilutio� water into the Figure 8-Sa Electrodynamic Desalter'" (Warren and
desalteras coarse drops, Tbese dilution water drops muse Pestridge, 1966)
be large enough to fall and llow verrically down berween

E
rhe high voltage (HV) grid of elecrrodes. Small drops COHOuCTN'f ARfA 0F ELECTAOOE

OkCONOUCTIVf AIIEA
(•JHIGHVOI..TAGE
F11"1,LS1age Secood S1:11?e
Oehydr:tlor De:w!tcr.
Dc�.i.hed LOW COHoucnvt: AAEA
Crude

Firs1Sta�e Figure 8-Sb Composite Electrode (NATC0, 1966)

water Tó Dtlution
Dt-sposal
w.uer
Pump
would be carried up by and [eave wich the upwardly flow-
Recyele
ing crude oil.
Altemate
Pump Discbarge As shown in Figure 8-6, the elecrrodes consist of
ver- tical parallel piares connected to diodes so rhar
alternare
Fig1,1re 8-3 Two-Stage Desalting with Recycle (Burris,
1978) piares are oppositely charged. Borh diodes are connected
to the sarne end of rhe transformer secondary winding,
rhus charging the piares on alternare half-cycles of AC
Firs1S1agc
power. This creares a DC field between the elecrrodes,
Crude
ou The other end of the secondary winding is connecred to
ground, rherefore, the electrode-ro-vessel field is AC
(Warren and Prestridge, 1988). Borh rhe vessel shell and
warerTo che water phase are grounded lo minimize corrosion. The
Disposal
Desaltcd upward flow of crude oil and the downward flow of dilu-
Crude Second Stagc tion water resulr in countercurrent contaa.
Desalting is achieved by varying the strength of the

-
DC electric field berween rhe electrodes. As shown in
Rccyclc Ditution Figure 8-7, each cycle consists of four steps: drop dis-
water Water persing, mixing, coalescing, and sectling.
As previously described in Chapter 7, rhe artractive
Figure 8-4 Two-Stage Desalling with Recycle and force berween rwo drops of equal size aligned in rhe
Interna! Recycle (Burris, 1976) direction of rhe electric field gradienr is:
 148 Desalting of Crude Oil

ELEcrqooE CONFIGUAATION

,...;J��-"""'_'
-
40000�

( Mixlng Mlxing

"' WAfEA OUT '

30000

,!l
o
>

E ... ULSIO,,, ,,.

ELECTROS TA TIC FIELDS

20000

10000
\
Dispersing
\
Oispersing

VOLJAGE WAVEfOAMS

Time (Seconds)

· · . , , �VílV{\V[I\J(\V
"' ° "º ' "'
e-;
Figure 8-7
1990)
Mixing/Coatescing Modulation (Warren,

In the mixing step, the high electrostatic field maxt-

mizes drop subdivision and causes the droplers to move
toward and away from the electrodes. This horizontal
migrarion produces numerous collisions and effective
Stl, •o,usr, .. e e e flEcro,001
mixing of the dilution water and S&W drops.
During the coakscing rtep rhe electric field is reduced,
VOL f4C,f "'.OVEH)IIUO

Figure 8-6 Dual Polarity '" Coalescer (Warren and rhus allowing rhe drops to coalesce or join togerher on
Prestridge, 1988) collision. Thus, this reduced electrostatic force allows the
formation of large aqueous drops.
(8-3) In the settling srep rhere is no elecrrosraric field and
the aqueous drops are free to sertle by gravity. Srokes
where Fe = electrosratic force, N
Law is conventionally used to estimare rhe setding
E0 = perminiviry of free .space velociry:
V= g d2 (pw- po>f18 [10 (8-4)

= 10 -9/36 n (farad/mecer) where v = settling velociry

E0 ¡ 1 = dielectric constanr of crude oil g = accderation due ro gravicy

E¡-= electric fidd gradient, V/m d = drop diameter

Pw = densiry of aqueous drop
d = drop diameter, m
Po = densiry of oil phase
x = center-to-center distance berween drops, m
�10 = absolure viscosiry of oil phase.
When the voltage is increased during the dispersing
Stokes Law shows that che sertling velociry is propor-
step, large drops experience very large elecrrostatic forces tional to the square of the drop diameter. Therefore,
rhat tear them into smaller ones. Therefore, both the the large drops formed by coalescence of small
dilution-water and rhe S&W drops are broken into very
dilution- water and S&W droplets fall rapidly clown
large numbers of small drops.
berween rhe electrodes.

Therefore, as rhe dilurion water falls down between che
electrode ir has many conract cydes wirh che S&W in rhe
rising crude oil. This contact is very similar ro che famil-
iar counrercurrenr srage (or cray) contacr berween the
falling liquid and rising vapor in a fractionarion column.
Cornposite piare electrodes (Subleue and Presrridge,
1989) are equally as advancageous in desalting as in
dehydracion. In particular the decreasing volrage fidd
caused by rhe rop, low-conductiviry arca of elecrrode
(Figure 8-5b) coalesces any very small S&W/dilurion
water droplets thar are carried up chrough che high
volt- age area by the rising crude srrearn.
Electrostatic forces acc only on polar molecules (i. e. ,
che aqueous drops and nor che crude oil). Accordingly,
the abovc electrodynamic mixing achieves very effecrive
commingling of che S&W and dilution-warer drops
without turbulenc mixing of rhe continuous crude oil
phase. This reduces emulsion formarion.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Often che main concern is che amount of dilurion water
required. This. in turn, depends on whecher convén-
cional stage or counrercurrent contact desalrers are bcing
used. Usually, rhe following are che major parameters:
1. The nurnber of desalting stages,
2. The dehydracion levels achieved (vol% S&W
remaining in crude leaving desalcer(s)),
3. The salinity of che brine (S&W) entrained in che
crudc,
4. The efficiency of mixing or commingling che dilu-
cion water wich che entrained S&W drops,
5. The salinity of che dilution water,
6. The required PTB specificarion.
The field operaror has very lirtle, if any, control over
che salinity of che S&W produced wich che crude and
che required PTB. The saliniry of che make-up water
for dilurion can be reduced via reverse osmosis or other
desalinacion units. Alrhough expensive, sornetirnes chis is
necessary. Accordingly, che remaining variables are
emphasized. However, if che required sale specificacion
is
20-50 PTB, seawater may be used for dilurion
water.
Numbcr of Stages
As previously cited, rhe usual dilurion water require-
mencs are 5-7 vol% and 1-2 vol% of che crude produc-
rion for single and rwo-srage desalcing respecrively, These
Des,hing of Crude Oil 149
rules of thumb should be viewed only as inicial approxi-
macions and should never be used in place of rigorous
material balance calculacions. Nevertheless, two stages of
desalcing are usually employed. Three-scage desalcing or
"countercurrent conract" is used most commonly in
refineries handling very heavy (I0-20ºAPI), viscous
crudes.
Leve! of Dehydration
This is che single mosc imporcanc variable for reducing
che dilucion water requirement (Burris, 1978). Equation
8-2 clearly shows chat che dilucion of rhe encering
brine
(ppmw NaCI in remnanc S&W) required to achieve a
fixed PTB specificarion is inversely proporcional to che
dehydrarion leve! achieved (remnanc vol% S&W). In
addicion Table 8-1 reinforces che prime importance of
reducing rhe rernnant vol% S&W for meeting a 1 O PTB
spec. This explains rhe almost universal use of electrosta-
tic coalescencc ro reduce che remnant S&W to about
0.1--0.15 vol%. Wichouc clecrric fields the
remnant S&W usually varíes berween 0.2-1.0 vol%.
In many cases, ic is very difficult to achieve 0.5 volo/o
without use of eleccroscacic fields.
Mixing Effidency
Aner dehydration the remnanc S&W exists as very many
small drops dispersed more or less evenly chroughouc che
crude (Burris, 1978). Complete commingling of ali chese
drops wich che dilucion water is not achievable.
Therefore, ir is standard praccice to assume chac a frac-
cion, E, of the dilucion water mixes complecely wich
che remnant S&W drops while che remaining
portion, (]-E), of che dilucion wacer passes chrough rhe
desalccr unchanged. Generally "l 00 E" may be
considered the mixing efficiency. While chis assumpcion is
obviously not physically rcalistic, che mixing efficiency
concepc can be used for dcsign.
In practice the mixing efficiency varics with rhe volume
of remnanr S&W, che volume of dilucion water, and
che incensicy of incermingling che crude and che dilucion
water. Commingling remnant S&W and dilution water
becomes increasingly difficulc when che vol% S&W
and/or che dilution water flow rates are reduced.
Fortunately, che water leaving in a desalcer can be
internally recycled to
increase che warer/crud� volume ratio as previously shown
in Figure 8-4 (Burris, 1978). Such interna/ rrcycling does
not change the dilution water requirement, nor docs ir
affecc any material balance calculacions.
BIBLIOTECA DEL H'f?
1 SO Desalting of Crudc Oil

Of necessiry, "mixing" the dilution water and crude Table 8-2 Equipment Questionnaire: Dehydration/Desalting
involvcs shearing rhe dilution water inro many drops and
l. Total fluid to be processed:
dispcrsing these dilute drops throughout the crude. Such ,. Oíl, BPD
agitation is very likely to create stable emulsions. Severa! b. Water, BPD
rnethods have been used to commingle rhe dilurion 2. G.O.R. (Average)
3. Specific gravity of oil
water wirh the remnant S&W withour simulcaneously 4. Specific graviry of water
crearing tight emulsions. These merhods include: 5. Anricipated maximum and mínimum
percentage of water produced
l. Pumping rhe injection water rhrough a tee into the 6. Treating unit maximum and minimum
crude, operating pressure
7. Allowable pressure drop across
2. lnjccting the dilution water through a tee and then
dcsalting plant to tank
following rhe ree wirh a partially open globe-rype 8. Oil viscosiry at four temper:uures
mixing valve operating ar 15-25 psi pressure drop, 9. Salinity of produccd water (water
3. Pumping the dilution water rhrough a system of analysis, if available)
l O. Type of fucl available
spray nozzles and rhen following the spray injector 11. Mínimum inlet temperacure of
with a difTerential control valve operating ar 5-15 oil
psi pressure drop (Burris, 1978), ar station
12. Salinity of water for dilucion
4. Adding static mixers which are designed ro mix via 13. Maximum amounc of dilution
rwo-by-two division, cross-rnixing, and back-mixing water available
wirhour requiring high fluid-shearing velocities 14. Type of elecrriciry available: Hertz voltage,
phase. wattagc
(Anon, 1983). 15. Requiremcnts for oudet oil:
a % BS&W
Achievernenr of high mixing efficiencies wirhour ere-
b. Salr contenr in pounds
ating right emulsions requires considerable experrise. per
Considerable savings in pump horsepower, fuel, and 1 ,000 barreis of oil (PTB)
16. Crude oil characteristics, including
emulsión breaking chemicals can be realized by reducing pour point, cloud point, wax content,
che mixing pressure drop, lowering the desalter separa- sand/solids content
tion temperature, and avoiding excessive fluid shearing. 17. Ambicnt temperature:
a Summer-maximum, minimum
b. Wlnter-maximum, minimum
Interface-Level Measuremcnt 18. Type of emulsion-breaking chemical
being used ar preferred
Displacernenr-rype level transmitters can cause problems 19. General fidd description and physica!
plant l:iyout wirh Possible planc si1es
when sludge builds up ar rhe oil-warer interface and
(anach skerch or drawing)
when crude gravity and temperature vary radically
Source. NATCO, 1991
(Bartley, 1983). Adminance-rype probes, which sense
the elecrrical adminance (reciproca! of impedance), are
3. lron sulfide confirms aggressive corrosion by sulfate-
immune to graviry and temperature changes (Barrley,
reducing bacteria.
1983; Morris, 1984).
4. Solids such as fines, drilling muds, corrosion prod-
ucts often stabilize the crude emulsion. Ir may be
Equipment Questionnaire advantageous to add a surfacrant to alter che \Vetta-
Table 8-2 shows a typical equipment questionnaire for bility of the solids.
dehydrarion/desalring. Most of rhe iterns are self-
explanatory: accordingly, comments are confined to the
DESIGN PROCEDURES
water and crude analyses. Such analyses can detect
potential and present problerns. Chesire (1979) provides
Horizontal electrostatic desalters are generally sized using
rhe following examples:
the vertical (rise) velocity of the crude oil ar rhe center-
1. Carbonate/bicarbonate indicares a strong scaling line. This rise velocity is established either by field
tendency. test- ing or by experience with similar crudes.
2. Calcium/magnesium silicate denotes reservoir fines. Dilution water requirements are now established by
material balances for conventional single-stage and

-
 Desalcing of Crude Oil 151

rwo-stage desalring wirh recycle. The current procedure Two cases ofcen arise:
is parrerned afrer Burris (1978) and Smirh (1974).
Unforrunarely, the larrer article contains sorne rypo- Case l. Calculate rhe 1Jluent PTB given the dilurion
graphical errors. water: (i.,., calculare Z given A, KA, B, O, Ko
and E).
Equanon (8-8) may be used direcdy.
Single-Stage Case 2. Ca/cu/ate the dilutíon water required pro- 10

Figure 8--8 shows rhe flowsheer for convenrional single- duce a specified PTB: i.,., calculare D given A,
stage desalting. This flowsheet helps us wrire material of KA, B, Z (or K8), K0, and E.
balances by showing how che various srream are mixed Rearrange equation (8-1 O):
and separated if a mixing efficiency of E is assumed. The
"strearn," D(I-E), is not an actual strearn; ir is creared D = A(B KA - Z)/E(Z - B Ko) (8-l l)
by the mixing ef!iciency, E. The fo!lowing balances can Norice rhar Z cannor be reduced below B K0.
be writren (see p. 156 for rhe nornenclature):
Overall brine balance (ali volumes in barreis) Two-Stage with Rccyclc
A+D=B+V (8-5) Figure 8--9 shows a typical flowsheet for convenrional two-
Brin e balance on mixing tee and valve (ali vol u mes in srage desalting. The dilucion water is injecred berween rhe
barreis) two scages and che second-stage desalter water is recvcled
and injecred inro rhe inler crude ahead of rhe first stage.
A+ED=L (8--0)
The fol!owing balances can be written:
Salt balance on mixing tee and valvc
¡ A KA + E D Ko = KL L (8-7)
l. Overall volumetric brine balance on second desalrer
B+D=C+R (8-!2)
�
Combine equations (8-6) and (8-7):
2. Salt balance on rhe second desaire,
KL = (A KA E D Ko)i(A + E D)
+ (8-8) B Ks + D Ko = e Kc + R KR (8-13)
Consider che crude srrearn, B, leaving che desalcer: 3. Brine volumerric balance on second mixing tee and
lb sah (bbl brine) (lb sah) val ve
1000 bbl crude (1000 bbl crude)(bbl brine) (8-!4)
or Z = B Ks (8-91 4. Salr mass balance on brinc: mixc:d in second tee and
Bu, mixer
KL = K B• rherefore
B Ks + E2 D Ko = \1 K�f
Z = B Ks = B(A KA+ E D Ko)i(A + E D) (8-10)
S. Brine volumerric balance on first mixing tee and valve
A+ E1 R =� (8-IG)

6. Salt mass balance on brine mixed in first tee and mixer

Tee
-.
Mixer
- L
Desalter , (8-l 7)
KL
CE A
D ( 1 - E) ' B �� e
First S1.ige l'Cond S!�JC
XA KN Xe ;.:: �I X.-
C¡R .E;:D
K
A KB 1 K,
fl·Ef !l·C:tD z
R v :,
KR Kv Ko
Figure 8--8 Flawsheet al Single-Stage Desalting (see Figure 8-9 Flawsheet far Twa-Stage Desalting with
p. 156 far Namenclature) Recycle (See p. 156 fer Nomenclature)
-
-- 152 Desalring of Crudc Oil

-
Combine equarions (8-14) and (8-15):
KM = (B Ks + E2 D Ko)/(B + Ez D)
Combine equations (8-16) and (8-17):
KN = (A KA + E1 R KR)/(A + E1 R)
Example Calculations
(8-18) Case History (Burris, 1978). A crude oil comains
10 vol% produced water containing 70 lb of NaCI
(equivalenr) per barre! of remnant water.
(8-19) The available dilution water contains 2.1 lb NaCI

-
Figure 8-9 shows rhat: (equivalent) per barre!.
A dehydration leve! of 0.1 vol% S&W and mixing
(8-20)
efficiencies of 80% can be achieved.
(8-21) Use a basis of 1,000 barreis of clean crude for ali

-
cal-
Use equarion (8-20) ro substirure for KN in equation culations.

-
(8-19).
Example 8-1. Seawarer as a Dilunon Water
(8-22)
Obviously, rhe remnam S&W can, in
In the crude meam lcaving rhe sccond desalrer: the limit, be diluted ro rhe saliniry of
Z = C Kc by definirion. Use equations (8-21) and rhe dilution water and no furrher.
(8-18) to obtain: Mathemarically in equarion 8-11,
Z = C J<c = C KM = C(B Ks + E2 D Ko)/(B + E2 D) (8-23) (Z - B Ko) can, in rhe case of infinite
dilurion water, approach zero but can-
Rearrange equation (8-23) not be negarive. Equation 8-2, rhere-

-
fore, provides che absolute mínimum
B K8 + E2 D K0 = (B + E2 D)(Z/C) (8-24)
PTB using seawater.
Again rwo cases commonly arise:
PTB • (1000) (O. I) (350 x 1.02) (3.5>
(100-0.1) (100)
Case l. Calculare che dilution water, D, when rhe PTB, = 12.5
Z, is specified.
where SG = 1.02 for seawater (Figure 4-15)
One calculacion procedurc is:
assume that seawarer saliniry is 35,000
l. Calculare F = Z - C Ko (8-25)
ppmw or 3.5 wro/o.
2. G = E1 Ez F (8-26)
Conclusion: Seawarer is not suitable as a dilucion
3. H = (B E1 + A Er C E1 E¡)F (8-27)
4. J = AB(Z - C KA) water.

-
(8-28)
5. D • ( -H + �rH_2 4_G_J-/2 G
(8-29) Example 8-2. Single-Stage Desalring
This procedure is derived in Appcndix I at end of rhe
The case hisrory supplies rhe following:
chapter.
KA = 70 lb NaCl/bbl A
K0 = 2.1 lb NaCl/bbl D
Case 2. Calculare the mulring sal: content, Z, when the
XA = .10
dilution ílowrate is specified.
X8 = .001
One calculation procedure is: E= .80
l. Calculare R = B + D - C (8-30) From rhe nomenclature and setting T
2. N =A+ E1 R (8-16) = 1,000 bbl clean crude:
3. M = B + Ez D (8-14)
A =T XA/(1 - XA) = (1000)(.10)/(.90)
BAKA(M-C) + NDK 0(M - E 2C)
4 . RKR --��----,------�-,--�- (8-31) = 111 bbl brine
M:s; + BEi(C - M)
B = T X8/(I - X8) = (1000)(.001)/(.999)
5. KB = (A KA + E1 R KR)/N (8-32) = 1.001 bbl brine
6. Z = B Ks + D Ko - R KR (8-33)
This procedure is derived in Appendix 2 at end of the Case l. Calculare rhe dilution water required to
chapter. achieve a 10 lb NaCl/1000 bbl specificarion,
-
 Dcsalting of Crude Oil 153

Z is given, cherefore, equacion (8-11) may be used. A= T XA/(1 -XA) = (I.000)(.10)/(.90) = 111 bbl brine
B = T Xa/0 -Xa) = (I.000)(.001)/(.999)
D • A{B KA - Z)/E{Z - B Ko)
= 1.001 bbl brin e
• {l l l)({l.OOl){70) - 10)/(.80)110- (1.001)(2.J)J
C = T J<cl(l -XcJ = (I,OOO){.OOJ)/(.999)
• 1055 bbl dilution waier/1000 bbl clean crude.
= 1.001 bbl brin e
Case 2. Calculare che resulcing PTB content if 1,055
bbl of dilution water are used, Case l. Calculate rhe dilurion water required to
D is given, therefore, equarion (8-10) may be used. achieve a l O PTB specificarion.
Z = B(A KA + E D Ko)i{A + E D) Fo!low "Design Procedures, Two-Stage wieh Recycle"
= {1.00I)[{I J J)(70) + (.80)(1055)(2.1))/[l l l + (.80)(1055)] (p.151).
= 10.0 lb NaCl/1000 bbl clean crude. 1. F - z - e K0 (8-25)
- 10 - (1.001)(2.1) = 7.898
Eumple 8-3. Two-Stage Desalting Wirhout Recycle 2. G - E1 E2 F (8-26)
When the second-stage desalrer water - (.80)(.80)(7.898) = 5.055
is not recycled co rhe fim desalrer, che 3. H - (B E1 + A E¡ - C E1 E2)(F) (8-27)
first stage of desalcing merely reduces - {(1.001 )(.80)+(111.11 )(.80) - ( 1.001 )(.80)(.80))(7.898)
the volume of remnant water in che -702.162
crude to 0.1 vol%. Even rhough che 4. J - A B (Z - C KA) (8-28)
rernnant water has not been dilured, - (111.11)(1.001 )[ l O - (1.001 )(70)]
- -6681.13 3
the first stage has reduced rhe sale con-
tent of rhe crudc scrcam from 7770
-2 ---
5. D -(-H+�H - 4GJ)/2G (8-29)
PTB to 70 PTB-or more than 99%
i ,.... removal.
-(702.162)+ V (702.162)
2
-{ 4)(5.055)(-6681.133)
Calculation procedures for che sec-
2(5.055)
ond-stage desalrer aro identical to
rhose for a single stage - 8.94 bbl dilurion water/] 000 bbl clean crude.

Case l. Calculare che second-stage dilution water

Case 2. Calculare the PTB achieved when 8.94 bbl of
required to achieve a l O PTB specification.
dilurion water are used.
Equarion (8-11) may be used because Z is Fo!low "Design Procedures, Two-Stage with Recycle"
g1ven.
(p. 151).
D = A{B KA - Z)/E{Z - B Ko)
• (l.OOl){{l.001)(70) - 10)/(.80)(10 - (1.001 )(2.1)] l. R·B+D-C (8-28)
= 9.52 bbl dilurion warer/1000 bbl clean crude. • 1.001 + 8.94 - 1.001 = 8.94 bbl
2. N ·A+ E¡ R (8-14)
Case 2. Calculare the resulcing PTB conrent if9.52 bbl • 111.11 + (.80)(8.94) = 118.26 bbl
of dilution water are used in the second stage. 3. M - B + E¡ D (8-12)
Equanon (8-10) may be used because D is given. • 1.001 + (.80)(8.94) = 8.15 bbl
Z • B(A KA + E D Ko)/(A + E D)
BAK\i\l -C) + NDKo{M -E¡C)
{l.OOJ){(l.001)(70) + (.80)(9.52)(2.1)) 4. R K R • . • o )
�I .S:+BE 1(C-M) (8-- 9
{J.001 + (.80)(9.52))
(1.001 )( 111.1 )(70)( 8.15-1.001)
= JO.O lb NaCl/1000 bbl clean crude. +(118.:61( 8. 94 )( 2. l )18.15-(.80)(1.001 )]
Example 8-4. Two-Srage Desalring with Recycle (118.26 )( 8.15) +(1.001 )(.80)(1.001 -8. 1 5.l)
The case history has supplied the following: - 75.13
E1 • .8 E¡ = .8 5. Ka • {A KA + E1 R KR)/N (8-30)
KA = 70 lb NaCl/bbl A K0 = 2.1 lb NaCl/bbl A • [(111.1 )(70) + {.80)(75.13))/(118.26)
T = 1000 bbl clean crude XA = .1 • 66.28
Xa = .001 Xc = .001 6. z-B Ka + D Ko - R KR (8-31)

-
Use the definitions in the nomenclarure: • (l.001)(66.28) + (8.94)(2.1)- 75.13
(basis = 1,000 bbl clean crude) = 9.99 lb sah/1000 bbl clean crude.

-
Example 8-5. Coumercurrent Contact
Desalter
Table 8--3 and Figure 8-
154 Desa!ting of Crude Oíl
10 compare
 Table 8-3 Cornparison of Mixing Valve and Elecrrosraric
Mixing Desalter Performance
the performance of a convencional
Crude Oíl is 43.8ºAPI at 60ºF.
single-srage desalter with a mixing valve Mixing Electro
and a countercurrent desalrer Test Parameters Val ve Mixer
(NATCO, 1994). Table 8--3 indicares Pressure drop (psi) 15 non e
that when compared at rhe sarne dilu- lnlet Cur (vol%) 0.5 0.5
rion water rate (as vol% of dry oil), rhe Inlet Brine concn (ppmw) 200,000 200,000
Dilution Water Rate (vol% dry oil) 1.00 1.0
countercurrent contacr desalter pro- o.t Viscosiry (cS at GOºF) 8.3 8 ..l
vides much higher salr rernovals. This Outlet Cut (vo!q.,o warer) 0.1 0.1
higher efficiency is obtained without Salr In (lb/1000 bbl 011) 400 400
the required pressure drop of the rnix- Salt Out (lb/ 1000 bbl oil) 80 0.3
Salt Removal (o/o) 80 99.92
ing valve. The greater efficiency of the Relative Power Consumption 1.0 0.:!8
countercurrent desalrer also allows for Source- NATCO, 1994
reductions in the dilurion water
requirements. Dilution water rates as
low as 1-1.5% of rhe dry oil volumet-
ric rate wich increased salt remova1 are OPERATION
very importance
claimed (NATCO,benefit in aridThis
1994). climates
is a Conraminant rernoval efficiencies, insrallarion, and trou-
where fresh water is scarce and also in bleshooting are discussed separarely.
the United States where there is a major
concern about rhe quantity and qua!ity
of desalrer effluenr in refineries. Contaminant Removal
Convencional desalrers can be Desalters rernove more rhan chloride salts; thev also
retrofir- red to use che electrostaric remove water-soluble salts, acids. and bases, water-
mixing and coalescence of rhe insoluble salts, sediments, and filterable solids, and sorne
countercurrent desalrer. An esrimated heavy metals.
cost for retro- fitting a l 2x60 ft Bart!ey ( 1982) reports the following typical contami-
desalter is $300,000 nant rernovals for a single-stage
(NATCO, 1994). unit:

•.a..
,..o,,.cr MIO -...,co'I

..
flfCTIO,.OUl&.C

....
f v n a .ll on.t.l. '"'
... SINGU ST&Gl
�----�

COfoN(NTION,U ot"S.UTlllS
'º"

- ' ' • �
'
. -i' . . ·t'
.. -
• i-C ..---- ·-·- Example:

� Expected ,mprovement in Operations

- -- L... -- • - 1- - -- ..

•
.,
,_L
1
. i ' -:
-+-++-! : ��
""

.. ¡__ ' '

j - - '
Conditions:

..
_¡__,
20 PTB salt inlel
- ..
. -- --r--� . -,'.---�1 '
0.1 % waler in oil
- L_ ·• ·
-
...
1
: ¡ 1: i
.-
+--- l
- 40º API oil gravity
'-----· 1 Conventional Desalter @ 1.35 PTB
1 1 ' '
.. ! : ELECTRO-DYNAMIC Desalter
' '
'
'
' ---.1M.. ..OYl .. ,n 1 1
' 1
e
 @ .135 PTB
i '
1
i ' Results: '
90% improvement in salt ' '
i
removal
., , , .. ,

.
1

i
. . S 1 7 1 t 1t

1
l
l 1 :
' 1
'
1
'
fULUtllll - Ltol.T "111 fMOUIAIIID l&llt'lla

Figure Pr-10 Theoretical Desalter Performance (NATCO, 1994)

 Dcsalcing of Crudc Oil 155

salt 90% ash (dry ppm) 75% • High Interface Level in Coalescing Secrion
Fe 75% V 30% -Interface control malfunction
Zn 75% Mg 60% -Defective water dump valve
Ca 90% Na 90% -Water valve sanded off or plugged
Countcrcurrent contact units can achicve highcr
-Loss of insrrument air
removal lcvels because the numerous "contact cycles" • Recycling Problem Emulsions, Tank Bortoms, etc.
berween rhe dilution water and S&W are more efficient -May require addirional chemical (recycle pump
rhan one siage of mixing. suction is good injection point)
Naeger and Perugini (1991) claim 1hac injecting -Rccycle rare too high
from • 1 ncreased Flow Through Treater
0.1-100 PTB of an organic amine improves desalting in -Excessive recycling
perroleurn refineries, The patent claims a wash solution -Ficld surging
consisting of20 vol% erhylene diarnine, 1.8 vol% KOH, -New wells brought on stream
and 78.2 vol% water. • Electrical Malfunctions
-Follow rnanufacturer's guidclines
lnstallation -Observe ALL SAFETY regulations

Observe the foUowing guidclines:

Review Questions
• Vesscls must be level for proper
operation.
l. Mineral sales exist in crude oil in severa] forms.
• Follow manufacturer's recornmendauons, especially
List ar least rhree forms.
when handling/installing rhe high-voltage cable.
Which form is most common?
• Be sure transforrner and vessel are grounded beforc
Which form contributes the mosr saliniry?
connecting linc power.
2. How saline is connare water or produced brine?
• Padlock circuir breaker in the off posirion unril instal-
larion and ali chccks have been cornpleted.
3. Salt in crude oil can cause opcrating problems.
List sorne typical refinery and oilfield problems.
These same precautions also apply to elecrrosraric 4. W'hat assumprions are needed ro derive equation 8-1?
treaters. 5. Can seawater be used as a dilurion water? lf not, why
not?

. ,... TROUBLESHOOTING

Desalting, like dehydrating, uses four components

6. Why are rwo stagcs of desalting usually used instead
of one stage?
7. Define interna! recycling of desalter water.

. ,... (chernicals, time, heat, and elecrriciry) 10 achieve good

treatment. If one component is changed, or lost, the oth-
ers rnust be changed 10 compensare. lf ali components
are maintained propcrly and treatment still slips, then
one logical conclusion is rhar the emulsión has changed.
The following rroubleshooting guide is recornmended
(NATCO, 1991):
• Low Operating Tcmperarurc
-Thcrmostat set too low
-Low-level shurdown
-Pilot burner out or main burner has failed to ignite
• Loss of Chemical Injection
Rare
-Chemical pump malfunction
• Excessive Sludge Build-up on Oil/Water Interface
-lnadequate hear 01 chemical
-May require change in dcmulsificr
-lf necessary, remove excessive sludge
Why is interna! recycling practiced?
How does interna! recycling influence dilurion water
requirements?
8. List the advantages of rhe countercurrent contacr
desalter described in Figure 8-5.
9. Define "cornposire elecrrodes." Why are they used
somctimcs?
l O. In designing a crude-oil desalting system,
a. What are rhe majar concerns?
b. List the major parameters.
c. Which parameters can design cngineers control?
d. Which parameters have the target influence on
the leve! of desalting realized (PTB) and the
dilu- tion water required?
11. What mechods can be used to mix dilution water
and remnant S&W'
156 Desalting of Crudc Oil
Whar problems, if any, can occur?
12. How is "mixing efficiency" defined?
Is your definirion physically realisric?
13. What is che mínimum PTB (or Z) thar can be
achieved. even wirh very large amounts of dilurion
water?
14. What assurnptions are required to derive equarions
8-10, 8-11, and 8-24?
15. What levels of dehydration (final vol% S&W) can
be achieved in desahing'
What rype of dehy equipmem is usually used? Why?
16. The countercurrenr desalter is claimed to offer
major benefits over convencional mixing valve unirs.
List and discuss these benefits.
17. Can desalters remove contaminants other chan sale?
If so, list che conraminants and estimare
rypical
removal percentages.
18. What precautions should be raken when installing a
Nomenclature
desalter?
Emphasize electrical components.
Desalting Calculations
19. List ar least five problems chat can occur during
operation of a desalter? How can rhese problems be
resolved?
Problcms
1. a. If a brine contains 3.0 wc0/o sale, estimare che
max- imum permissible S&W conrent (vol%)
if rhe dehydrated crude rnust meet a I O lb sah
per 1000 bbl (10 PTB) specification.
b. lf che crude can be dehydrared ro 0.2 vol% S&W,
calculare rhe maximum allowable S&W sa]t con-
tent (in ppmw equivalent NaCI) if che I O PTB
salt specification muse be met.
2. A crude oil contains 15 vol% produced water con-
taining 75 lb of sah (NaCI equivalenr) per barre!
of remnant water.
a. lf che only dilurion water available is seawater
(35,000 ppmw salt) estimare the mínimum PTB
chat can be achieved.
Srare your assumptions.
b. Calculare che dilution water required to achieve a
I O PTB specification. Assume:
l. Dilution water conrains 4 lb salt/bbl
2. Dehydrarion leve] achievable is 0.15 vol%
S&W
3. Mixing efficiency = 80%.
Use the following desalring processes:
l. Single-stage desalting (Figures 8-1 and 8-8)
2. Two-stage desalring without recycle: dilurion
water is added to second stage (Figure 8-2)
3. Two-stage desalting wirh recycle (Figures 8-3
and 8-9)
4. Two-stage desalring wich recycle and interna!
recycle {Figure 8--4).
S. A countercurrent contact desalrer,
3. A countercurrent contact desalrer has che following
operanng pararneters:
• Height of vertical electrode 15 in.
• Crude rise rate 100 bbl/day-ft2
• Time for one mixing/coalescing/
setrling extracrion cycle 21 sec.
Estimare che number of exrracrion cycles berween
the saline crude and che dilution water.
A= T X1/(l -X1) = bbl brine in T bbl of clean crude
B = T Xzi(l - Xz) = bbl brine in T bbl of clean
crude leaving first stage
C = T X3'(1 - X3) = bbl brine in T bbl of clean
crude leaving second stage
d = drop diarnerer
O = dilution water flowrate (bb] per T bb] of
clean crude produced)
E = mixing efficiency of O wich A
E1 = mixing efficiency of R wirh A in firsr-stage
desalter
Ez = mixing efficiency of D with B in second-stage
desalcer
Er = eleccric field gradienc, V/m
F = Z - C K0 (see equarion 8-25)
Fe = electrostatic force, N
g = acceleration due to graviry
G = E1 E2 F (see equation 8-26)
H = (B E1 + A E2 - C E1 E2)F (see equation 8-27)
J = A B(Z - C KA) {see equation 8-28)
K = salr concent of water phase (lb salc/bbl
brine) L = brine mixed in single-stage desalrer
(bbl)
= A + E O {equation 8--0, Figure 8-8)
M = brine mixed in second-scage desalter (bbl)
= B + E2 O (equation 8-14, Figure 8-9)
r,,....
!
Desalring of Crude Oíl 157

N = brine mixed in first-stagc desalrer (bbl)
= A + E1 R (equarion 8-16, Figure 8-9)
PTB = of salr (equivalenr NaCI) per thousand bbl of
clean (water-free) crude
R = recycle stream flowrare (bbl)
S&W = sedirnents and water
T = clean (water-free) crude volurne = 1000 bbl
v = setding velociry
V = brine leaving first-stage desalrer (bbl) (Figure
8-3 or 8-9)
x = cenrer-to-cenrer discance berween drops, m
X = volume fraction of brine in crude srream
Z = salt content of final crude stream (lb
NaCI/ 1000 bbl clean crude oil)
E = dielectric constant of crude oil
E0 = perrnirtiviry of free space
µ0 = absolure viscosiry of oil phase
Pw = densiry of aqueous drop
Po = densiry of oíl phase
SubsrríplI
A, B. C, D. M, N, R denote strearns A, B, C, D,
M, N, R respecrively
References
Anon (1983). "Staric Mixer Improves Desalring Effi-
ciency," Oil & Gas journal, Vol. 8], No. 42, pp. 128-
29 (Oct. 17).
Bartley, Don (1982), "Heavy Crudes, Stocks Pose
Desalring Problems," Oil & Gas Joumal, Vol. 80, No. 5,
pp. 117-124 (Feb. 1).
Burris, Don (1974), "Field Desalring: A Growing
NATCO (1991), Tulsa, OK. Personal Communica-
uon.
NATCO (1994), Tulsa, OK. Personal Communica-
non.
Smith, Robert S. (1974), "How To Calculare Rapidly
far Two-Srage Desalting," Oi! & Gas Journal, Vol. 72,
No. 39, pp. 79-80 (Sept. 30).
Subletre, Kerry L. and Floyd L. Presrridge (1989),
"Resolurion of Ernulsions wirh Mulriple Electric Fields,"
U.S. Parent 4,804,453 (Feb. 14). Assigned ro Narional
Tank Co., Tulsa, OK.
Warren, K. W., and F. L. Presrridge (1988), "Crude
Oil Desalring by Coumerflow Elecrrostaric Mixing,"
Annual National Perroleurn Refiners Associarion,
Meeting, Paper No. AM-88-78 (March 20-22).
Warren, Kennerh W, ( 1990), "Desalring Heavy Crude
Oíl by Counter-Flow Elecrrosraric Mixing," S.P.E. Larin
America Petroleum Engineering Conference, Paper No.
SPE-21176 (Ocrober 14-19).
APPENDIX 8-1
Dilution Water Requirement for Two-Stage
Dcsaltíng with Recycle
Calculare rhe dilurion water, D, required given A, KA, B,
C, Ko, E1• E2, and Z.
The starting equarions are:
B+D•C+R (8-12)
B Ks + D Ko = z + R KR (8-13)
Ks = (A KA+ E1 R KR)/(A + E¡ R) (8-22)
B Ks + E¡ D Ko • (B + E¡ D)(Z/C) (8-24)

Producer Problem Worldwide," Pu. Enginur, Vol. 46, One procedure to solve for rhe four unknown variables;
No. 6, pp. 38, 39, 41, 44 ()une). R, KR, Ks, and D is:
Burris, Don (1978), "How To Design an Efficient l. Use equarion (8-13) to subsri-ure for R KR in
Crude Desalting Sysrern," World ou.
Vol. 186, No. 7, equa- tion (8-22)
pp. 150-156 (June).
Ks = A KA+ E1(B Ks + D Ko- Z)/(A + E, R} (8-34)
Chesire, D. A. (1979), "NPRA Q & A-8. Trearing and
Desalring." ou & Gas journal, Vol. 77, No. 29, p. 72 2. Use equarion (8-12) ro substirute far R in equation
(July 16). (8-34)
Morris, David R. (1984), "NPRA Q & A-3. Heavy
Ks = [A KA+ E¡ (B Ks + D Ko- Z)]/(A + E¡(B + D - C))
Feeds Stress Desalring, Other Operarions," Oil & Gas (8-35)
journal, Vol. 82, No. 21, pp. 149-50 (May 21).
Naegcr, Dennis P and Joseph J. Perugini, (1991 ), "Crude 3. Salve equation (8-35) fo, Ks:
Oíl Desalring Process," U.S. Parenr 4,992,210 (Feb. 12). Ks = [A KA+ E,(D Ko-Z)]/(A + E¡(D-C)) (8-36)
 158 Desalting oí Crude Oil

4. Use equation (8-36) to substitute for Ks in equa- B+D=C+R (8-12)

tion (8-24)
B Ks + D Ko = z + R KR (8-13)
8AKA+E1(DK0-Z)+E 2 DK •(B+E 2 D)z Ks = (A KA + E1 R KR)/(A + E1 R) (8-22)
A+E1(D-C) D C
(8-37) B K8 + [i D K0 = (B + E2 D)(Z/C) (8-24)

One procedure to solve for the four unknown vari-

5. Rearrange equation (8-37) ables; R, KR, Ks, and Z is:

E1 E2(C Ko- Z)D2 + [B E1(C Ko- Z) l. Eliminare Z in equation (8-13) using equation
+ 'A - E1 C)(C Ko- Z)E2JD + A 8 C KA (8-24)
- B C Z E1 - B Z(A - E1 C) = O (8- 8 Ks + D Ko = (B Ks + E2 D Ko)C/M + R KR (8-40)
38)
whm M = B + E2 D (8-14)

6. Let F = Z - C Ko (8-25) 2. Rearrange equarion (8-40)

G = E1 E2 F (8-26)
R KR = B K8(M -C)/M + D K0-C E2 D K0/M (8-41)
H = (B E1 + A E2-C E1 E2)F (8-27)
3. Eliminare Ks in equarion (8-41) and in equarion
j = -A 8 C KA+ 8 Z(A- E1 C) + 8 C Z E¡
(8-22)
= A B(Z - C KA) (8-28)
RK • AKA+E1 RKR(M-C)
Then G 02 + HD + J=O (8-37) R N M (8-42)

7. Find the posirive root oí quadratic equarion (8-37)

CDE2 DKo
to obrain equarion (8-29). +D K o- M

where N =A+ E1 R (8-16)

APPENDIX 8-i 4. Solve equation (8-42) for R KR to yield:
BAKA(M-C)+NDKo(M-E2 C)
Resulting PTB for Two-Stage Desalting with Recycle RKR = --�--:--,--,--::---:--:-::--":--::----�
M N +B E1 (C-M) (8-31)
Cakulate resulting PTB (Z) given A, KA, B, C, D, 5. The procedure recommended in the section "Design
Ko,
Procedures, Two-Stage wirh Recycle" may now be
E1, and E2.
fo!lowed.
The starting equations are:
t
Chapter 9
Stabilization and Sweetening of Crude Oil
- INTRODUCTION
Dissolved gas in the wellhead crude oil must be removed
to meet pipeline, scorage, or tanker Reid vapor pressure
(RVP) specificarions. When rhe oil is essentially free of
dissolved natural gas, or "dead," then ir can be stored in
a venced tank ac arrnospheric pressure subject, of course,
to emission regulacions. As discussed in Chapter 3, che
presence of the most volatile hydrocarbons «n. C2, C3,
etc.) increases rhe RVP dramatically. Removal of rhese
dissolved natural-gas components is called crude oil
stabilization.
The Reíd vapor pressure is usually set in che range of
10-12 psia, which generally yields a true vapor pressure
(TVP)--0r, more properly, a bubblepoint pressure ar
1 OOºF--0f slighdj: higher value, 13-15 psia. As nored in
Chaprer 2, orher imporcant specifications rhar muse be
mee are BS&W and H2S content. Reduction of BS&W
content is discussed in Chaprer 7. Hydrogen sulfide
specificarions are usually in che range of 10--60
ppm
(Moins, l 980b).
Often a considerable amount of gas is dissolved in
crude oíl. Hydrocarbons are usually worrh more as liq-
uid (i.e., in che crude oil phase rhan in che vapor or nat-
ural gas phase), even when rhe associared gas is used for
LNG or when che gas is sold and condensare is exrracted.
The comparison for NGL separared from condensare
was discussed in Yolume 1, Chapter 14. Recall rhar if
natural gas can be sold for US 52.00, rhe equivalenr liq-
uid price is about US S0.20/gal, which is less rhan the
usual selling price of NGL in the United Stares.
Similarly, if '.\!GL are ,piked inro rhe crude oil to
increase
rhe crude vol u me, then the value ar US $12.00/bbl is
US
$0.286/US gallon.
A second possible benefir of spiking crude oíl wirh
light hydrocarbons is rhe porential for increased price
160 Stabiliz.ation and Swecccning ofCrudc Oil and retrograde condensaríon are rhen discussed. Sorne more
complex stabilizarion schemes are presented nexr. A discussion
of sweecening techniques concludes che chaprer, The present
due to increased API graviry, This increase is usually
small, however-less rhan one degree APl-and
the price increase is also rnodesr: about I O cents/bbl per
'API increase.
As previously discussed in Chapter 2, sour crudes do
conrain sulfur compounds in general and hydrogen sul-
fide in particular. Stabilization must also remove che
volatile sulfur compounds to meer sales or transport
specificarions.
The economic goal of srabilization is ro maxirnize
srock-tank oil recovery while meeting vapor pressure and
H¡S content specificarions, as well as BS&W. Butanes
increase che vapor pressure of crude oil considerably,
since che true vapor pressures of i-C4 and n-C4 are 72.6
and 52. I psia, respecrively. Control of rhe burane con-
tenr control, rhe RVP and TVP.
The technical goal of stabilizarion is to rernove CJ,
C2, and C3 as cornplerely as possible while leaving rhe
maximum amounts of C4 (and CS and heavier) in
the crude oíl.
Crude oil can be stabilized by passing ir through a
series of flash drums or vapor-liquid separator vessels at
successively lower pressures. Tray towers wirh reboilers,
alremarively or in conjunction with separators, are also
used, rhough less often. More complex processing is also
used on occasion, as derailed larer.
Stabilization can also sweeren rhe crude because che
chief sulfur-containing or sour contaminan t. H:!S, has
a boiling point of -76.SºF, intermediare to rhar of
erhane and propane. Incidenrally, dissolved radon gas
will also be removed with che light hydrocarbons; its
boiling point is -79.2ºF. Radon radioacriviry muse be
considered very carefully.
Multistage separarion is described firsr, with ernphasis
on the oprimurn number of srages. The potential problems
of excessive compression ratio, condensate formation,
159
discussion assurnes thar ali pro- duced water has been
removed as described in Chapters
1, 5. 6, 7, and 8 (i.,., the crude has been separated
from
rhe natural gas and produced water, dehydrated and, if
necessary, desalted).
MULTISTAGE SEPARATION
Two cases are of interese; namely, maximum liquid pro-
ducrion and mínimum gas compression horsepower.
Each is discussed. The effect of using a reboiled srabilizer
is also described.
Maximum Liquid Production
The mosr common method of removing dissolved gas
from crude oil is by phase separation in a series of flash
drums or vapor-liquid separacor vessels ar successively
lower pressures (or multistage separation, MSS). Figure
9-1 shows a rypical rhree-srage separator train, The
con-
dicions shown were used in a computer simularion for
the wellstrearn described in Table 9-1 ro produce a sra-
ble crude oil wirh true vapor pressure 13. 5 psia. Note rhe
pressure of che [a et separacor is set ar armospheric.
As mencioned in Chapter 3. norice also rhar rhere
are
two rypes of components shown in Table 9-1: real indi-
vidual compounds (N2 rhrough C6) and "pseudo" or
"boiling-point" components. The Íatter are delined arbi-
trarily using overal] average properties such as boiling
point range and average specilic graviry. Such perroleurn
mixtures are far coa complex ro break inro actual
chemi- cal cornpounds, so chac average cechniques muse
be used.
The pressure of 1,005 psig in rhe high-pmsure separa-
tor is" set by Jormarion pressure or by rhe desire to injecr
rhe gas inro a pipeline ar reasonably high pressure. The
srabilized oil has an API graviry of 41.4 and an overall
GOR of approximarely 500
scf/bbl.
The computarions for Figure 9-1 and succeeding cases
were perforrned wirh che HYSIM simulator package
(Hyprotech, 1993) wirh Peng-Robinson K-va!ues.
Propenies of rhe C7 + components are also given in
Table
9-1. The use of five pseudocomponents is sarisfacrory
for
phase-separarion compucarions. Atrnospheric pressure of
14.7 psia is used. The arbirrary flow rate basis in Table 9-1
yields approximarely 100,000 bpd of stabilized crude.
. ...
Figure �1 Basic Multiple-Stage Separation Scheme
The firsr- and second-srage pressures are varied to
determine rhe maximum yield of liquid, as shown
in Figure 9-2. The oprimum pressures are 136 and 19
psig, respecrively For rhis case and che arbitrary flowrare
cho- sen in Table 9-1, rhe yield was 98,070 bpd.
The maximum yield of srabilized crude is theorerically
obtained by differenrial separation, which corresponds to
an infinire number of separator srages. The effect of
one,
rwo, and rhree srages of separarion can be seen in
Figure
9-3 and Table 9-2, which show the increase in liquid
yield as the number of stages is varied. The benelit
of addítional srages is obvious. More rhan rhree stages
are seldom used in pracrice.
Also studied is rhe use of a rrboikd stabilizer coiurnn in
place of the rhird or lasr separa cor stage. Figure 9-4 is
a schernaric of che process. Scabilizcr columns are tray
columns usually provided with sieve or valve crays for '
vapor-liquid comacting. Vapor, which is produced in che
'
reboiler, Aows up rhe column, srripping out
the methane, erhane, propane, and sufficient bucanes to
pro· duce a srabilized crude oil. The separarion
obtained is much bener than in a simple flash drum. For
rhis reason, more crude oi] is produced than by MSS. The
higher the operating pressure, rhe higher rhe oil yield.
Orher aspects
of srabilizer operarion are menrioned later.
Reboiler remperature increases wirh increasing oper-
ating pressure. A heat source capable of providing
che required cemperarure muse be available. Sceam may
be appropriate for this service, if available.
Otherwise, a direct-lired hearer or heating-oil furnace is
required. For smaller flow rates, an indirect salr-bath
or water-barh heater may also be appropriate.
¡
Morris and Smirh (1984) suggest the possible use of 1
wasre heat recovery l
from power-generarion unics or compressor gas rurbine
drivers.
1
....
- Stabilization and Swcctcning of Crudc Oil 161

Table 9-1 Wdl Stream Propcnies

Componenr Mole Pcrccnc

N, 0.78
co, o.os
CI 33.86
C2 5.63
C3 4.40
iC4 1.21
nC4 3.42
iCS 1.85
nCS 2.44
C6 4.29
248F 9.96
340F 7.14
413F 6.11
472F S.44
657F 13.42
Total 100.00
Flow Rate, lbmol/h 12,298
Tcmperarure, ºF 120
Pressure, psia 1019.7

B.P Cut B.P, ºF S.G.@60'F/60'F T,, ºF Pe• psia

248F 248 0.762 573 442

340F 340 0.793 673 370
413F 413 0.817 750 350
472F 472 0.835 807 295
657F 657 0.887 975 220

N-

"""º 00-

.,
00
e•
I
e
"
30

ao
Fnt-
-....P11g
15-
• 120pllQ
140Pl'O
tO
,
111l pl'Q

tltlOII)
,. 17 ,, 21
04-
'
Mo.ofs_ ..
•
Second-Sllge Pr'Nal19, Plig
Figure 9-3 Dependence of Oil Recovery on Number of
Figure 9-2 Optímum Oíl Recovery Stages
 162 Scabilization and Sweecening ofCrude Oil

Table 9-2 Effect oí Number oí Stages on Separation Paramerers

No. of Stabilized Oil Graviry Stage Pressures Tmal GOR

Srages Crudc, bpd ºAPI Psig Scf/bbl
1 94,215 o 39.64 601
2 97,307 41.07 69, o· 543
3 98,070 4 J.44 136, 19,0' 503
• Maximum hqurd prcdccnon

Separator
Vapor

p
,
J
'
!
110Psig 100 psig

''
'
¡.
Stabilizer

'
y�,--- Stabilized '
Coolant Crude

Figure 9-4 Reboiled Stabilizer Process Scheme

Various auchors recommend differenc values for nurn-
ber of crays and pressure leve! in stabilizers. Maddox et al
(1979) recommend 20-25 trays and pressures of 110-160
psia, their emphasis is on cases in which separacor-gas
recornpression is considered. Overall, tower cray efficien-
cies for absorbers and strippers are rypically 25-33%. For
24 trays ar 25% efficiency, the tower equilibrium stages
(required far computer simulation) is rhus 6. The reboiler
is usually considered to be one equilibrium cray.
Moins (1980b) menrions 15-20 trays and pressures of
30-45 psia. His emphasis is on H2S stripping, however,
as opposed to separation efficiency and recompression
horsepower.
Penick and Thrasher (1977) cite heighr limitations for
offshore platform stabilizers, recommending 20-30
rrays. They menrion chac tower diarnerer, reboiler hear
input, and heat-exchange requirernenrs may preclude
srabilization of rhe entire oil stream. Morris and Smith
(1984) suggest thar the tower can be splir into two sec-
rions opcrating side by side.
Two cases where a stabilizer column is subsritured for
the rhird stage of rhe MSS scheme are now simulated. In
borh cases che second-stage separacor is ser ar 1 O psi
higher than rhe tower top pressure to allow splirring rhe
feed and prehearing half of rhe liquid for reboiler
energv savings. The dury of the exchanger is set ar one-
half the

1

Table 9-3 Simubrion Rcsults for Reboiled Srabilization
Sub. Oil I st-Srg
Simulated Crude Grav. Press.
Case Bpd ºAPI Psig
100P,ig 99.715 42.22 310·
Psig
15 98.773 41.80 155·
MSS 98,070 41.44 136º
• F or m:uimum liqu1d production
total heat duty required. Six equilibrium stages plus a
reboiler are specified, with che warm feed splir srrearn
entering rhe third stage down from the top. Srabilizer
pressures are set arbitrarily ar 100 and 15 psig. Figure
9-4 shows the process flow, as stared. Results for che two
computer simularions are summarized in Table 9-3,
along wirh the MSS 3-stage results for comparison. The
TVP ar lOOºF is rhe same for ali three cases (13.5 psia).
Stabilization enhances oil yield and API gravity with
correspondingly lower GOR. Reboiler temperature and
heat dury are much lower for che lower-pressure stabilizer
case, but the oil recovered is less, though substantially
higher rhan far MSS. Using a stabilizer provides more sta-
bilized crude oil bue adds investment cost and operacing
complexity. The designer rnust evaluare each individual sic-
uation and decide whecher to use MSS oc reboiled stabi-
lization. Such comparisons are of real economic benefir
only for high-volume, high [> 150 scf/bbl) GOR srreams.
Mínimum Compression Horsepower
The tacit assumption in che previous discussion is rhat the
produced gas is flared or venced. No allowance is made for
recompressing the gas. Current gas prices and/or energy
conservarion and environrnenral regulations usuaUy pro-
hibic such wasteful disposal of associated or separator gas.
In this case, rhe gas must be compressed and delivered to
a pipeline or reinjected into rhe formation.
When produced gas muse be compressed to pipeline
pressures, minimizing compressor horsepower may yield
rhe rnosr economic option, as stated by Kryska, et
al. (1976). Penick and Thrasher (1977) point out that
mín- imum horsepower also means Iess weight for an
offshore plarforrn.
Figure 9-5 shows che flow sheet for che produced gas
recompression case. HYSIM calculations are made for
chis flow scheme. Ali horsepower figures given in the fol-
lowing discussion are gas horsepowers and do not
Stabilization and Swcctcning of Crude Oil 163
Reboiler
To,al Column
GOR Temp. Dury Diam.
Scfibbl ºF MMBcu /h F,
499 344 68.5 10.5
516 187 22.1 11. 5
503
indude allowance for mechanical inefficiency. An isen-
tropic efficiency of 0.75 is used for ali cornpressors,
which is an average figure for centrifuga) compressors. A
pressure of 2 psig is used for che third-stage separator to
allow gas flow to che suction of che compressor wirhour
dropping che pressure below atmospheric.
Pressures P1 and P2 are varied to find rhe mínimum
horsepower, as shown in Figure 9-6. The oprimum
case is for firsc- and second-scage pressures of 400
and 90 psig, respectively. The compression rarios for
rhese pres- sure levels are as follows:
R =1019.7 =246. R, = 414.7 -J.9G; R = 104.7 _6.
1
414.7 . ' 3 27
- 104.7 16.7
There are two potencial problems--condensate forma-
tion and roo high a compression ratio. Liquids cannot
be fed into compressors wirhout causing severe damage,
so condensare formed in the compressor aftercoolers
must be removed before furcher compression (see
Volurne 1, Chaprer 10). Any condensed liquids are
assumed to be separared in che compressor succion
scrubber.
Too large a compression ratio in a reciprocating com-
pressor can resulc in too high a discharge gas tempera cure
and/or excessive loading of che pisron rods for recipro-
caring compressors. Discharge gas temperatures higher
chan 300ºF can cause coking of rhe lubricating oil. In
rhe case shown here che firsc two compression ratios are
acceptable, wirh reasonable values and outlet tempera-
cures (238'F and 267°F for che laner, respeccively).
The low-pressure compression ratio is past the practica!
limit far a recip. However, rhe 2·psig separator gas is
quite heavy and when compressed to 90 psig is heated
only to
263'F. The required gas horsepower is 819 wich a succion
flow of 4121 acfm, which probably allows use of a cen-
trifuga! compressor. With a recip. two stages without
intercooling are required.
Table 9-4 compares che resulcs of the mrmmum
horsepower and maximun1 liquid ca.Jes. The m1n1mum
 164 Stabiliution and Swectcning of Crudc Oil

Condensa te

Stablllzed
Cruda
Figure �5 MSS with Gas Recompression

,....
horsepower case suffers very licrle penalty in terms of

..eec c oil producrion and API gravity. The use of a 2 psig

separa-

.
., '---/
cor pressure increases che lVP of rhe crude, which will
cause wearhering loss and less srabilized crude rhan indi-

.!
'le
cated in the rabie. Addirion of an oíl hearer upsrream of
the last separator would provide an acceprable TVP. A

. cooler may then be necessary far rhe srabilized crude.

Comprcssor horsepower is calculared for rhe maxi-

.
mum liquid case. The assumprion is made rhar compres-
sion from the arrnospheric-pressure separator is accepr-
,....
...•,•
able. Horsepowers for che rwo cases are compared in
m.g. ,,.....,
S.00.ld P'III.
Table 9-5 .
:9gure � Minimization of Total Recompression The heavy penalty in horsepower far a small incre-
Horsepower
mental oíl production is readily evident. If recompres-
sion is necessary, horsepower oprirnizarion (minimiza-
tion) will probably pay off
 Stabilization and Sweetcning of Crude Oíl
-
165

Table 9-4 Comparison of Minimum Horsepower and Máximum Oil

Srabilized Oil Gravity Stage Pressures Tolll GOR 1VP

Case Crude, bpd ºAPI Psig Scfibbl Psi,
 Min HP 97,873 41.39 400,90, 2 502
Maxüil 98,070 41.44 136, 19. O 503

Table 9-5 Comparison of Compressor HP for Mrnimurn

The stabilizer tower not only gives greater oil yield, bur
Horsepower and Maximum Oil
also can grearly decrease the recompression horsepower.
Case In any event, rhe case scudies show thar oprimizing che
Compression
Srage design may not be as simple as maximizing stock tank oil
Min HP Max 011
recovery (i.e., minimizing crude oil shrinkage). A detailed
819 hp 25 hp economic study would include severa! addirional factors
2 1,289 hp 690 hp
3 1,485 hp l,82l"hp such as che current and fucure estimares of crude and gas
1,632" hp prices, rhe discrere sizes of available compressors, the avail-
Total 3.593 hp 4,268 hp abiliry and/or safery of reboiling, and ali rhe individual
* Two stages oí compression required ro avoid gas temperature greater rhan fue! gas requiremenrs (flow rates and supply pressures).
300ºF.

CONDENSATE
Table 9--6 Comparison ofCompressor HP for Mmimum
Horsepower and Reboiled Scabilizer
Consider rhe process scheme shown in Figure 9-5, wirh
Compression l Oü-psig
Stage MinHP Srabrhzer" recompression of che separator gas. Notice rhar conden- sation is
extremely likely co occur in che compressor afrercoolers, and chis
1 819
produces condensare streams that are unstable ar atmospheric
2 1,289 -32
3 1,485 2.018 pressure. These Jiquids muse be handled in sorne manner. Severa!
Total 3.593 2.-so possibilities exist:
• Final crude TVP is 15.5 psia lfl borh rases. l. Transpon condensare separately by pipeline, truck,
barge, or tanker.
Figure 9-6 also indicares that operarion at ocher rhan che exact 2. Injecr condensate inco crude oil (crude spike).
oprirnum pressures changes che rotal horse- power very lirtle 3. Commingle condensare with gas into gas pipeline.
from the minimum horsepower case. One might argue that equal 4. Recycle condensate to exrinction by injecring back inro
compression ratios would be more desirable, bue wirh rhe varying separator feeds.
gas ílow rates in each stage, balancing of rhe stage compression
loads is not possible in any event. Fuel gas requirements should Separate Transport
also be considered.
Separa te condensa te rransportarion is ofcen a very expen- sive
Kryska et al. (1976) performed a similar compression oprion. Storage and rransportacion of a high-vapor- pressure liguid
horsepower minimization on a four-srage phase- separation scheme
present difticulr handling problems. The alrernacive is to srabilize the
fo, a wellmeam wirh a GOR of 1, 100 scf/bbl. Figure 9-7 shows condensare in a reboiled contactor in che same manner as che
how che total recompression horsepower varies with changes in che crude oil is stabi-
second and rhird stage pressures. Kryska et al corroborare the lized. The overhead vapor from rhe stabilizer must be recycled, flared,
previously srared results and also show rnodest horsepower penalty or used as fuel. An extra pipeline for con- densare transporc may be
far operacing near but nor ar che optirnum. cose prohibicive. Tanker, barge, or truck transporc may cost less.
What is rhe horsepower advantage of stabilization? Table
9--{5 compares the 100 psig case wirh the previous (Table Crude Injcction
9-4 and 9-5) mínimum horsepower case.
lnjection of the condensare into rhe crude oil (or crude
spike) is atcraccive because ir increases che crude oil
 166 Stabi)ization and Swcctcning of Crudc Oil

,-
.a
c.

. ,-
200
32 34 41 42 43 44
Combined theoretical hp (stages 2, 3, 4)/1,000 bbl

Variation of Second-Stage Pressure

,-

,- 150

"
·; ;.
,- Q.

:!'
::,
� 100
.._e

70

50

Combined theoretical gas hp (stages 2, 3, 4)/1,00Ó bbl

Variation of Third-Stage Pressure
Figure 9-7 Minimization of Recompression Horsepower (Kryska et al., 1976)
 Stabilization and Sweetcning of Crude Oil 167

volume and API graviry. Eicher che condensare muse be -eccc T

scabilized before blending ora high-vapor-pressure crude 15XO

muse be pipelined and che vapor pressure adjusred ar che '

''00: i 1! -9- :•co"'<!o"��,
outlet end of the pipeline. ·200 '
.=.
e 1-T-O:ne<>l>COl"··,,.,.,i

roce o ! Í-:- :ot·c.:,, �"11'1 ; \

Injcction into Gas Pipeline -o-.! ooo,
••
'•
¡-•- v"' OOD
1

.
o eoc c
lnjeccion of the condensare inca che gas pipeline produces ' \
rwo-phase flow and che accompanying problems of a larger
so: J l •
f o \
¡
•O:)
line diameter and che need for periodic pigging of the line. + '
In sorne cases chis alternative may represent an economic
solurion. As discussed larer, rwo-phase flow in rhe
xc e j
pipeline is alrnost certain unless prevenrive actions are
raken. Any
gas condensation increases rhe liquid content slighcly.
Figure 9-9 P-T Diagrams lor Dew-point Temperature
Recycling Control

Recycling che condensare is possible, as is shown in (LET) in the pipeline. This dew point control may
Figure
require mechanical refrigeration, which is a complex
9-8. In this process only rwo producrs are produced;
process not ahvays appropriate in a field processing
namely, gas and stable oil. However, che recycle srreams
planr, Furcher- more, as Penick (1983) has stated,
may cause prohibicively high increases in compressor horse- reduction of the gas dew poinr to such a low level may
power due to the buildup of internally recycled material.
produce a condensare that cannot be injected or recycled
Anorher problem that may occur with gas recompres-
inro the crude oil wirh-
sion is shown in Figure 9-9, which shows che
out raising the crude vapor pressure above 14.7 psia.
phase diagram of a gas separared at high pressure from a
The previous discussion clearly indicares rhar rhe
con- densare. The gas is ar its dew poinr at che separaror
selecrion of a field processing scheme for a mediurn-ro-
pres- sure of say, 1,000 psig. Because this gas is
high GOR crude oil may be a complex process requiring
transponed in a pipeline at decreasing pressure and
a thorough technical and economic anaJysis. These issues
temperature, retro- grade condensation occurs and causes
were raised in Chapter 5. The general rule in field pro-
two-phase j!ow.
cessing may be said to do as lirr!e processing as possible.
The only simple remedy is to cool rhe gas in the
This recommendacion is especially appropriate for off-
field to a remperature less chan the louest expected
shore placforms where plan area is exceedingly expensive
temperature and weight lirnitarions very

... �_
o.t,ydrallon
severe.

MORE-COMPLEX PROCESS[NG
The previous discussion of using a reboiled stabilizer
tower demonstrated higher crude oil yield and increased
API graviry of the oil, as well as less recompressor horse-
power. The advanrage of higher crude yield is also real-
ized by processing rhe combined high-pressure gas to
recover condensate (Minkkenen, 1981). Figure 9-10
illustrates the use of refrigeranr chilling with stabilizarion
of rhe condensare prior to injecrion into che
crude. Stabilizer overhead gas will satisfy sorne of rhe fuel
needs for rhe compression train. This process eliminares
retro- grade condensation in the gas pipeline.
A fairly simple modification of che MSS process is to

-
heat the oil ar sorne point in che process. For example,
if
Figure s--8 MSS with Gas Recompression and Con-
densate Recycle
 168 StabiJiz.ation and Swcctcning ofCrudc Oil
••
Figure 9-10 MSS with Sales Gas Dew-point Control
che wellstream is nor very warrn, a hor-oil exchanger can
be used to heat the oil and increase che yield ofhigh-pres-
sure gas. Because che gas contains more heavy hydrocar-
bons, chis approach is compatible with condensare recov-
ery. Also, the crude oil flowing inro rhe final separator
stage can be heated to produce a pipeline oil of lower
RVP. A cooler for the pipeline oil may be required, as
shown in Figure 9-1 l.
Sanderson (1976) presents a stage-separation scheme
wich gas recompression that recycles pipeline crude oil to
absorb natural gas liquids, as shown in Figure 9-12. The
combined gas and oil is cooled prior to separation. This
technique is not a true recycle process because che
"recy- cled" crude oil, afier conracr wirh the gas to be
pipelined, is flashed toan intermediare pressure and rhen
reinjected into the crude oil pipeline. However, rhere is a
recycle of condensa te at rhe second and third stages. The
advanrage claimed for chis process is less condensare in
che gas pipeline. The crude oil obviously has a fairly
high RVP.
Penick and Thrasher ( 1977) discuss severa! variarions
on recycle and cooling, as well as reboiled stabilization.
Perhaps che most sophisticared processing suggested is
-
that described by Minkkenen (1981 ). As shown in
Figure 9-13 nearly ali remaining volatile components
(Cl-C4) are firsr removed from che crude oil by rhe
atmospheric-pressure flash separaror followed by heating
che liquid from this separator ro 140-190ºF. The hot
crude is flashed ar acmospheric pressure. The separator
.
Hot Oil
Cooler Cruda 011
Hot Atmospher1c
Separator
Figure 9-11 Crude AVP Control by Heating
crude oil, which has a RVP of only 3-4 psia, is then
cooled. The resulting vapor strearns are combined, com-
pressed, cooled, and dehydrated wirh triethylene glycol.
The high-pressure gas is chilled by refrigeration and sep-
arared to obcain a lean sales gas and a condensare. The
condensare is stabilized to obcain a liquid containing
mosrly C4+ in a fractionator refluxed by a second
propane chiller. The bottoms strearn is finally spiked
back into the dead crude, thus producing rhe maximum
recovery of l O RVP crude. Compared to a simple, con-
venrional MSS process this method:
1. lncreases crude recovery several percenr.
2. lncreases the crude API graviry
3. Reduces gas production.
4. Reduces rhe gas HC dew poinr.
For one crude oil and 1980 prices, Minkkenen
claimed a project payout time of one
year.
SWEETENJNG
So-called sour crude oil conrains H2S and orher sulfur-
containing compounds. Even small amounts ofH2S make
the crude oil extremely toxic and corrosive. The other sul-
fur compounds, which are described in Chapter 2, are far
less toxic and noc so aggressively corrosive, even chough
sorne have equally strong odors. The presence of liquid
water exacerbares rhe corrosion as does C02. Personnel
safety and equipment prorection require thar H2S and (to
a lesser extent) orher sulfur compounds be removed.
Sorne reservoirs produce sour crude from day one.
Orher production turns sour afrer waterílooding,
because in spire of extensive preventive efforts sulfate-
reducing bacteria are injecred inro rhe formation.
,1 -
Figure 9-12 Brent Field Process (Sanderson, 1976)
Regardless of the source, sour crude must be sweetened
to prorect personnel, mitigare corrosion, and meet sales
specifications.
Crude oil can be sweetened by many of rhe same chern-
icals used to rernove H2S and C02 from acid natural
gases. Amines, causric, zinc sales, and orher bases and/or
oxidizing agents have been considered. Because crude oil
usual!y contains far more contaminants, liquid/liquid
chemical processes are seldom used,
Removal of H2S is usua!ly accomplished by mipping
wirh cold or hor natural gas. The volariliry of H2S is
intermediare to that of erhane and propane; rherefore, ir
-
Stabilization and Swcctening of Crude Oil 169
auto
�-- Dehydratlon
Fue!
C!ude
+ Cond.
to
Pipeline
is quite volarile and tends to go to che vapor in a gas-oil
separaror.
As an illustration, a crude oil ar l20ºF concaining
2,000 ppmw H2S passes adiabatically rhrough rhree
stages of separarion ar 400, 70, and 17 psia, respecrively
Simulation predicts rhar because H2S is highly volarile,
rhe MSS removes H2S !O 266 ppmw in che stabilized oil.
Usually, rhe specificarion is 10--60 ppmw; rherefore,
sim- ple MSS may nor reduce the H2S 10 an acceptable
leve], Crude is stripped by flowing rhe oil downward
over
rrays in a mulristage column. Natural gas flows counrer-
currendy upward to remove or strip rhe H2S from the
- 170 Srabiliz.acion and Sweetening o( Crude Oil

SllesGu

CompreBtlon '1
Boo8t8r 2nd S1aga l
TEG Dehy

l !

HotOII
HP Sap'r. 011

Crude 011
Atmospher1c Hot Almospher1c
Saparator Separator
Figure 9-13 Selective Stabilization Process (Minkkenen. 1981)

crude. The gas may be an available sweet gas strearn (con- Moins (1980 a, b) examines the H2S removal capabil-
taining virrually no H25), or ir may be vapor icies of six srabilizarion processes:
generared
by reboiling the bonoms crude, ar in sorne cases, borh,
The =» may be simple sieve ar V-plug trays ar more l. Multi-stage separation (MS5).
cosdy valve rrays chat have a wider operaring range. 2. M5S with NGL recovery and crude spiking.
Reboiled scrippers are very efficient and can reduce 3. M55 with cold scripping.
rhe residual H 25 to very low levels. Problems may be sal, 4. M55 wirh hor scripping.
deposinon and/or corrosion in che reboiler. Gas stripping 5. M55 with two-stage recrificarion.
is simple but requires sweet gas far good H25 removal. 6. M55 wirh a refluxed srabilizarion.

Because H 25 cannot be venced to che surroundings

rhe overhead gas from stripping muse be sv.. ·eerened using
rhe rnethods described in Volume 1, Chaprer 7.
Moins (l 980a) also suggests crude oil stabilization
by distillasion. He poinrs out thar H25 in rhe crude oil
rhar is not removed to a sufliciendy low level by stage
separa- rion may be by her stabilization, This merhod
rejects rhe H25 to the gas strearn, from which it is
removed by treat-
1ng or sweeterung,
Moins simulares ali rhe previous processing schemes
using a 28ºAPI crude. By definition the srabilized, sweet-
ened crude has I O RVP and 60 ppmw H 25 specifica-
rions. The H25 composition of the produced crude is
arrificially varied from 50-5,000 ppmw to compare the
processing ahernarives. Cooling water temperarure is
fixed ar 77ºF. Figures 9-14, 9-15 and 9-16 sumrnarize
Moins' comparison of mcthod, 1-5.
 Stabilizatlon and Sweetening ofCrudc Oil 171

Figure 9-16 shows very clcarly that cold stripping is 3. MSS with hot stripping (Method 4) or wirh rwo-
by far the cheapesr scherne. When rhe reservoir is too sour stage rectificarion (Method 5) provide good crude
for cold stripping or MSS to meet sales specs, then hor rccovery and are not limired by the feed H2S content.
strip- ping is the next rnost economical altemative. These
eco- nomics explain the popularity of cold and hor In theory, MSS with a refluxcd stabilizer offers many
stripping, advantages: high recovery, flexibiliry, can handle high
Moins presenrs the following conclusions.
l. MSS (Method 1) and MSS with cold mipping
H,S in well tlrNm = 5000 ppm
(Merhod 3) cannot rneer rhe H2S specs when the Truted oH AVP('. 10
reservoir fluid contains more than 2,000 ppmw
H2S. The srable stock-tank crude recovcry is at leasr
1 o/o less than thar of the orher
rnerhods. a.o
2. MSS wirh NGL recovery and crude spiking
17.5
(Method 2) provides good stock tank recovery when

-
,- rhe reservoir fluid contains less than 2,000 ppmw
H2S.
J 17.0

r·· -· - -
.,,. �
..........
t 40la l��--

•
1,._o oil 9Cl«tfk:11Mon eo pPfl'
H,S ,
TVA, IORVP ... .....
.
"..
cr as.o

....
.,
"o l"id-

'·
l- 1 1

15.0!,---..,,':-----,J,----l,�-J,-�-L�.J.....�..L..J
o 10 m • � � m
Hr$ lre8ted oll tPKlfiUlon., ppm

oo,

H1S in weu 1ueam .:. 1000 pPtn

Tr•ated oil RVP < 10

""
Stock Tank Recovery
a.o
;
17.5
T, .. 1ec1 Oil aOtldffeallOII· H,S (" 80 JIP"'
T'Vft e 10 .. VP 87.0
1 TVV, 0.15 q.,911 cm.� .. 31.1• c.
t J
5 ... -, ,¡-- _¿'! #- 86.5
i
l o.,
\
IY'\
.
·, ',
�
---

-----._¿_�
--
,9 ----- í
� N.O
a:

¡
� o.,

-
i
0.1 • Mulli1� �r1hon
11
·-·---

Muláaútoe + NGL rtcov.ty

II Co6d .trlppll'fll Wl1h li ... \ stllge gH
15.5

f 0..1 8 Hol lttlpplng 15.0

j • T--«aoe rec:tlfic1tÍOl'I

u OSL-��.�000��---,2000::'-���,ooo���-"°'.L_��-,ooo.L_�
,-
HiS treat.d ou apeciflc.alion, ppm
True Vapor Pressure oo,

Figure 9-14 Comparison of Five Stabilization Schemes Figure 9-15 Crude Recovery vs. H2S Specification
(Moins, 1980b) (Moins, 1980b)
-
- 172 Stabiliz.ation and Swcctcning of Crudc Oil

-
- •

-
30

. �..
o

-
e
o
li 20
E

2•
o
o

-
10

Cok:1 slrippil"g

3000 ...., 1000 2000 3000 4000

H,S In reservoi, Huid. ppm
5000

H¡S in resenooir fluid, ppm oo, oo,

Figure 9-16 Investment Cost and Utilities (Moins, 1980b)

H2S crudes, and. produce LPG. However, ir is not suir-
able for heavy crudes because srabilizer bottom tempera-
ture is too high.
SUMMARY
Crude separation, dehydrarion, desalring and stabiliza-
tion and sweetening have now been discussed in
Chaprers 6, 7, 8, and 9, respecrivelv. Accordingly, sorne
overall considerations are summarized firsr. Then sweet-
ening and scabilization are reviewed.
Complex processing in the field is usually avoided, if
possible. Of course, product specificarions (e.g., crude
RVP and sulfur conrent) muse be mer and all enviren-
rhe processing scherne (i.e., rhe equipmenr used ro dehy-
drare, stabilize and, if necessary, sweeren rhe crude).
Wash tanks are very attraccive when che GOR is very
low, (less rhan 25 scf/bbl) because there is nor enough gas
evolved to fue! hearer treaters, etc. Low-GOR crudes
rend to be low ºAPI; rherefore, there is usually no eco-
nomic incentive to optimize che crude treacing.
When rhe GOR is berween 25-100 scf/bbl, onshore
locarions are likely to use one scage of Aash separarion
fol- lowed by wash tanks. Oftshore, rwo stages of
separarion rnight be atrracrive, a high-pressure flash to
provide fue! fol- lowed by a low-pressure separaror ro control
rhe crude RVP When rhe GOR is high (above 150
scf/bbl), rhen a complete compurer simulacion is

-
warranted to optirnize liquid crude oil recuvery and gas
menral regularions musr be followed. Field operators are cornpression coses. Fue! gas requirernents, borh vol u me
ofren not well versed in operaring complex, (scf/d) and pressure, rnust be sarisfied. Gas rurbines

-
refinery-rype units. Also, central proct ssing ar a locarion can require natural gas ar
near supplies and skilled personnel is ofren preferable to 220-400 psig.
remoce processing far from eirher resource. The decision Optirnizarion of a multistage separarion process is of

-
is economical to a large exrent, bue the bese economics real econornic benefir only on high-volume, high-GOR
can fail in the face of poor operarion and maintenance, wellstreams. However, computer sirnulation of low-
Generalizations are ofren very dangerous. Never- GOR streams is sornetirnes perforrned to ascerrain

--
whether sufficienr fue! gas is available ar rhe required
pressures.
rheless, the GOR of rhe wellsrream usually determines
-
Srabiliz.ation and Swectening of Crude Oil 173

Review Questions nC5 2.83

C6 0.83
J. Why do RVP specifications range from 10-12 psia? C7+ 23.43 (BP = 530ºF, SG = 0.8463)
2. Suggest ar least three process schernes to stabilize a This wellstream is inirially ar l 20ºF and 1,000

-
volarile crude oil. psia and has a llow rare of 28,740 lb molihr.
3. Consider a multisrage separation process (MSS). Using computer simulation (t.g., OPSIM Appendix

-
How do stock tank recovery, GOR, and shrinkage
vary wirh rhe number of srages selected?
4. What criteria should be considered in optimizing a
MSS process?
5. Lisr at leasr rwo potenrial problem:, associated wirh
MSS processes.
4), develop complete material balances for:
a. Two stages of adiabaric vapor-liquid separation a!
1,000 psia; and rhe stock tank pressure of 24.7
psia, respectively
b. Three stages of adiabatic vapor-liquid separarion
ar 1,000 psia; 160 psia; and 24.7 psia, respecrively

-
6. Suggest four methods of handling condensare pro- c. Four stages of adiaba tic vapor-liquid separarion ac
duced in compressor aftercoolers. 1,000 psia; 290 psía; 85 psía; and 24. 7 psia,

-
7. Compare a rypical MSS process (Figure 9-1) and respectively
MSS wirh recycling (Figure 9-8). d. Compare rhe above rhree cases by consídering
Include crude recovcry and RVP. recompression I. crude oil: bpd (60ºF. 1 atrn)

-
horsepower, and retrograde condensation in the gas crude gravíty (ºAPI)
pipeline. Reíd Vapor Pressure (RVP)
8. Compare the process schemes suggesced by 2. natural gas: scfd (60ºF, 14.696 psía)

-
Minkkenen (Figure 9-12) and Moins (Merhod 6,
MSS with a refluxed stabilizer).
9. Suggest severa! rnethods for sweetening crude oil.
Which methods are most popular?
I O. Why'
Sketch suitable stabilization/sweerening process
flowsheers for rhe six schemes suggested bv Moins
(1980 a, b).
Compare your flowsheers wirh rhose presented by
Moins.
11. Compurer simularion indicares thar MSS and cold
stripping with sweet gas would mect the required
RVP and H2S contenr specifications. Unforrunarely,
rhe only available gas is roo sour. Suggesr a
solution.
gas gravíry (SG)
gross heating value (HHV)
3. gas recompression horsepower:
(pipeline pressure is 1,000 psia)
assume isentropic efficiency = 750/o
mechanícal efficíency = 95%
e. Redesign the rhree-srage (case b) scheme to pro·
duce a crude wírh RVP = 12. Assume 12 RVP cor·
responds to TVP = 13 psía.
f. Sketch ali process flow schemes.
Srare ali assurnptions clearly.
ldentify rhe means ofhandling ali gas meams and
any recycle strcams.

Nomenclaturc
Problems
acfm = actual cubic feet per minute
1. A wellmeam has che following composicion BP = boiling point
(water- free basis): GOR = gas-oil ratio, scf gas per bbl of oil
N2 2.75 mol% LET = lowesr expecred tempera tu re
C02 0.13 MSS = rnultisrage separarion process
174 CJ 35.13 and Swe<tening
Stabilization Pe = critica! pressure
Maddox, R. N., J. H. Erbar, and Ahmad
ofCrude Oil
C2 I J.45 R = compression ratio: absolure discharge
Shariar,
pressure/absolute suction pressure
C3 10.99
(1979), "Disrillarion crudc stabilization boosrs
iC4 2.01 RVP = Reid vapor pressure
Refere recov- ery," Oil & Gas [ournal, Vol. 77, No. 17,
nC4 7.92 T, = critica! rernperarure
nces pp. 70-76 (Apr, 23).
iCS 2.35 TVP = true vapor pressure or bubble point
Minkkenen, A. (1981), "Make Best Use of
Kryska, T. B., K. B. Lindsey, and J. W. Hasz, Associated
(1976), "Offshorc Process Sysrern Dcsign Rcquircs Gas," Hydrocarbon Procnsing, Vol. 60, No.
Exact Planning," Oil& Gasjournal, Vol. 74, No. 4, pp.
30, pp. 129, 119-122,
130, 135 (july (April).
26).
 Moins, Georges, (l 980a), "Optimizarion of
Crude
Stabilization Unirs," ou & Gas [oumal; Vol. 78,
No. 3,
Moins, Gcorgcs, (l 980b), "Stabilization Process
pp. 91-93
(january 21). Comparison Hclps Selecrion," Oi! & Ga, journal, Vol.
78, No. 4, pp. 163, 164, 167, 168, 173 (january
28). Morris, J. K. and R. S. Smith, (1984),
"Crude
Stabilizer Can Savc Moncy Offshorc," Oil & Gas Journal,

-
Vol. 82, No. 19, pp. 112-116 (May 7).
Penick, D. P. and W. B. Thrasher, (1977),
"Mobil's Dcsign Considerations for North Sea
Oil/Gas Separarion Facilities," Petral Enginuring,
Vol. 49, No. 11, pp. 1
22-34 (Oct.).

'
Penick, Dudley P., (1983), "Factors !O Use in
Dealing wirh North Sea Gas,"
Vol. 81, No.
ou
& Ga, [ournal,

25, pp. 114, 116, 120 (june 20).

Sandcrson, B. M., (1976), "Brent Field Gas Facilities
1
Under Way," Oil & Gas journal, Vol. 74, No. 36, pp.
123-126 (Sept. 6).
-
������ ---
-
Gear pumps have been insta!led by Brirish
Petroleum on a Southeasr Forties platform
and by Shell on its Bokor field platform B,
offshore Malaysia.
Pumps converr che rorary morion of a

--
prime mover inro rhe linear rnotion of rhe

Chapter liquid in the piping. As a sec- ondary function,

pumps occasionally serve to rnix fluids.

10

Pumps
-
- INTRODUCTION

Pumps have a myriad of uses in the oilfield. Large pumps

provide rhe pressure driving force needed to move oil
through piping from poinr to point during irs gathering,
processing, and pipeline transpon. lnitially, high formation
pressure may provide the required driving force for garher-
ing and processing; however, subsequent pressure decline
may require addition of pumps later in the field life.
Crude oil ís stabilized by stage separation to or near
atmospheric pressure for transportarion and storage.
Accordingly, main-line oil (MLO) pumps are required for
pipeline tr,1nsport or rransfer pumps for delivery inca
other carrier or storage.
Large pumps are also needed for injecrion water and
produced brine rransport and disposal. Present operaring
pracrice is ro injecc water inro many formarions early in
rhe life of the fiel d. Produced water m ust also be trans-
ported in rhe producrion facilities and possibly reinjected.
Small-floto meteringpumps injecr chemicals such as cor-
rosion inhibirors and demulsifiers. Small flows of water
are required forman y purposes, particularly if production
is associated wirh a ga,-oil separation plant (GOSPJ or
other processing plant. These purposes include desalter
dilurion, process cooling, fire-exringuishing, sanitary, and
drinking waters.
Multipha,e pumps are a new development. Oil-gas gear
pumps (Anon., 1989); rwin-screw rotary pumps
(Goodridge, 1991; Ryall, 1991 ); and helico-axial pumps
(Darrigan, 1992; Gie et al, 1992) have been described,

Compressors serve che same purpose for gas streams as pumps do
for liquids. Compressors are discussed in Volume 1, Chapter IO.
Universal pracrice is thar liquids are pumped and gases are compres.sed
because gases harm pumps and liquids ruin compressors. There may
be an
occasional application in which ir is not clear whecher the
device used is a compressor ora pump. One example is the pumping
(or compressing) of supercritical carbon dioxide in enhanced oil
recovery (EOR}. In this case, rhe fluid being transporced is a "dense
- 176 Pumps
che inside of che pump casing and rhe atrnosphere
neces-
sitates packing glands or seals,
Pumps generally rcquire mucb lower power tban
corn- pressors and are usually driven by clcctrical
motors. Large main-line oil (MLO) pumps may be
driven by gas tur- bines. Emergency pumps may be
diesel-driven, Srearn turbines and power turbincs
are used occasionally when che motive fluid is
available, Sorne drivers have a speed reducer or
incrcaser to match rhe speed of pumps.
-
Pump sizing uses rhe mechanical energy
balance or
Bemoulli cquation. Unlike compressors,
temperature gain across a pump is generally small
and usually has lit-
de effcct on che of che mcchanical encrgy
application bal-
ance. Exceptions are llows much below dcsign
-
and che handling of highly viscous crude oils. The
effective vis- cosiry of such an oil may change with
temperature.
In English enginecring units, the capacity of a
pump is expressed in gpm (U. S. gallons pcr
minute) at flow
conditions. Work unir mass is expresse in fi:-
per d lbf/lbm
fluid," nor clearly eirher a gas or a liquid. A centrifuga)
device is used for chis service.
Cenrrifugal, reciprocaring, rocary, and metering are
the types commonly used in crude oil handling, water
injecrio n. and other field applications. Accordinglv, these
rypes are first described qualirarively: however, manufac-
rurers publications should be consulred for detatled
mechanical descriptions. Pump discussion continúes
wirh drivers, pump selecuon, design rheory, design pro-
cedure. insrallarion and operation, and rroubleshooring.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
There are two basic classes of pumps: posirive displace-
ment and centrifuga!.
Posune displacemenr pumps trap a portien of the liquid
in a fixed volu me and deliver ir rnechanically ro a higher
pressure. The entrapment may be done by a reciprocar-
ing pisron or plunger in a cylinder, or by a rorating slid-
1ng vane, or gear, or scre\l.!.
Centrifi,gal pumps propel liquid in a smooth, uninrer-
rupted stream. Centrifuga! pumps accelerate the liquid
by impellers and convert the induced kinetic energ,· of
che liquid into pressure energy by an increase in cross-
secrion. ,-\lso included in rhis category are axial and
mixed-flo,v pumps. The difference in pressure ben,·een
Centrifuga/ Pump Standard,, Hydraulic lnstiture,
Detroir, MI, 14ch ed., 1983.
Equipment Ttsting Procedur« far Cmtrifogal
Pumps (Newtonian Liquids), American Institute
of Cbemical Engineers, N. Y., NY, 2nd ed., 1984.
GPSA Enginming Data Boo!t, Section 12, Gas Processors
Suppliers Associarion, Tulsa, OK, 1987.
l. J. Karassik, "Centrifuga) Pump Clinic," Marcel
Dekker, lnc., NY, 1981.
Dcscription
A centrifuga! pump consists of a rotaring impdler
mounred inside a casing, as shown in Figure 10-1·.
Fluid
cnters che casing at the cerner from one side (or, in
sorne cases, both) inro che so-called "eye" of che
impcller. The impeller vanes (Figure 10-2) lean
backward and so accel- erate the fluid to che
periphery. This accclerated íluid is
expanded into the exit nozzle. converting the kinetic
 (or fi: of "head"), and work per unir time
(power) in horsepower, In SI units, llows are
expressed in cubic meters pcr second, work pcr
unir mass in kJ/kg, and work pcr unit time in W.
-
Because the power rcquired by pumps is
gcnerally
lower chan comprcssors, the purchase and opcrating
coses of pumps are usually much lower. In
-
processes thar involve handling of large quanriries
of gas, compressor costs may dominare che total
cose of an insrallarion; chis is seldom true for
pumps.
CENTRIFUGAL
PUMPS
The most common typc of pump used in ficld
-
handling of crude oil is che centrifuga! Centrifuga!
pumps operare rcliably, require low rnaintenance,
and are well-suited for automaric control. They
-
produce srnooth output flow and operare safdy
against partially closed control valves---cven
against a closcd valve for short time peri-
ods. Centrifuga! pumps opcratc flexibly over a
wide
range of flow rates (from a few gpm to 100,000
bpd) at heads ranging from a few psi to 3,000 psi.
-
Useful references for centrifuga) pumps include:
ANSI 873.1-Specifications far Horizontal,
End Suction Cmtrifogal Pumps far Chcmical
Process, American National Standards
lnstitute,
New York, NY 10018.
API STO 610-Cmtrifogal Pumpsfar General
Refincry
Service American Petroleum lnsrirurc,
s, Washington,
-
DC, 7th ed., Feb.,
1989.
energy to pressure
energy.
The clearance bcrwccn che impeller and casing
and ,he free-whccling of the impcller may allow
back.ílow through a centrifuga) pump when che
driver is turned off or fails. Thus, centrifuga! pumps
should be installed with a cher!t va/ve in the
discharge line to prevent back.ílow.
The drive shafi: of che impeller muse enter rhe
casing and rotate the impcller without leaking,
which necessi- tates a stufling box (mechanical
packing) or mechanical seal (Figure 10-1).
Mechanical pac!tings are classified as compression or
jam, automatic, or floating (Figure 10-3).
Packings can be metallic (e.g.• lead, babbitt,
copper or alu- minum), plastic, rubber-and-
duck, or rubber-and- asbestos and are lubricated.
Asbestos is being replaced. Mcchanical packings
are low cost but must allow sorne leakage ro
provide cooling. Use is limited to water pumps.
(See Hoyle (1978) for more details on
mechanical packings.)
Seals consist of precision-made rotating and stationary
faces chat ride against one another; che sea! may requirc
cooling and/or lubrication. Figure 10--4
(Ramsden,
1979) shows a typical single mechanical ual. Note
che basic componenrs: 1- srationary face. 2-
stationary sec- ondary sea!, 3- rotating face, 4-
rotary secondary scal, and 5- sorne device (<.g.• a
single spring) to hold che faces together (face
closing). Mechanical seals can be balanced or
unbalanced (Figure 10--4).
Single mechanical scals have process liquid on the
back side and acr against che side of the pump housing
-
 -- Suction Discharge
Pumps 177

7
- D
--
-------

Figure 10-1 Overhung-lmpeller, Separately-Coupled, Single-Stage, Frame-Mounted Centrifuga! Pump

escaping to the outside; the barrier liquid leaks into the

process fluid, and not vice-versa. Seal flush systems are
described in API RP 610 (1989). Tantkm seals are

f
essentially two single seals arranged side by side. Single
seals are preferred over double seals whcre possiblc
I Sholt

-
ffl�
Nozzle
Figure 10-2 Sectional View of a Centrifuga! Pump
(Jackson, 1973)
nearer che driver; if the process liquid is dirry,
externa! seal liquid is providcd to isolate rhe seal
from che proccss liquid. Double seals act in borh
direcrions to iso- late the shaft from rhe process liquid;
these must have a scparate sealing liquid (Figure 10-5).
The harmless bar- rier or sealing liquid prevents rhe
process fluid from
(Love, 1972).
Mechanical seals are used when che ternperature, pres-
sure, or nature of che liquid are unsuitable for available
packing, or when che pump location or mounting make
access difficult and long periods of uninterrupted ar
unattended service are rcquired (Karassik, 1981).
Mechanical seals are more common than packing.
Journal and thrust bearings provide the necessary sup-
port and alignment for the impeller shaft. Thrust
bear- ings are provided either on che pump rotor or on
the dri- ver. In cases of excessive thrusc, balancing
devices are used (Duncan and Hood, 1977). Prime
examples are
electric subrnersible pumps.

Pumped Pocklng
Uquld

Compresslon Automatlc Floatlng

Figure 1 D--3 Mechanical Packings (Hoyle, 1978)
178
Pumps
- AP! Standard 610 (1989) lists rnarerials and
material specifications for centrifuga! pump parts

-
(Appendix H), as well as material classes
(Appendix K). Common material, of consrruction
are cast-steel or cast-iron for che casing with various
rnerals for interna] parrs. The standard contains 11
materials classes for 16 different pump parts,
including:
Unb1llnced • Casing
SNI
• lnner case parts (bowls, diffusers, diaphragms)
• lmpeller
• Case wearing
rings lmpeller
wearing rings
• Shafr
• Shafr sleeves (packed pumps)
• Shafr sleeves (mechanical seals)
Bal1ncod
Seol
• Throat bushings
• lncerstage sleeves
• lnterstage bushings
Motor size should be based on rhe design
Figure 10-4 Single Mechanical Seal (Ramsden,
1978) brake horse-
power of rhe pump, but accounting for
the electrical
motor efficiency.

- Figure 10-5 Back-to-Back Double Seals

(Ramsden,
1978)

The most common driver for cenrrifugal

pumps in process applications is rhe AC, fixed-
speed, inductton motor. Large, main-line oil pumps
thar require efficient operation overa range offlows
may be driven by a variable- speed motor.
Motors may be "close-coupled" on rhe same
shafr as rhe pump or mounted separarely on the
base piare with a flexible coupling connecting
the motor and pump shafrs. The larter
arrangement is more bulky but pro- vides easier
maintenance. The motor and pump shafrs
should be carefully aligned. Drivers are usually
rhree- phase morors, so che direcrion of rotation
of rhe pump should be checked when ir is
installed to make sure ir is correct.
• Lantern ring (packed 10-6. The head delivered bv the pump
purnps)
(pressure rise across the pump divided by liquid
Gland (packing ar plate-retaining mechanical densiry) is a function of che flow rate, varying
seal)
from a maximum value ar zero flow ro a lower
• Gland sruds or
values at higher flow rates. The pump efficiency
bolts
(i.e., che fraccion of rhe po,ver input to che
• Case
sruds pump shafr rhat is delivered to rhe fluid)
increases from
• Case
gasker zero ar no ílow ro a rnaximum, and rhen
falls off.
Buse (1992) gives materials recornmendarions for chem- The location of the head-capaciry curve can be
icaJ pumps. Pump manufacturers will provide changed for a given pump by eirher changing rhe
recommenda- tions far particular service condirions. An driver speed or the impeller diamerer, as can be
importan e consid- eration is che necessary pressure rating seen in Figure 10-6.
for che pump casing. The head versus capaciry curve for a piping
system in which a pump is insralled will have

Operating Characteristics rhe general shape shown by curve A in Figure

10-7, srarring ar che sraric head ar zero flow and
Because of its consrruccion, the cenrrifugal pump has increasing as the flow increases. The svstem curve
a
is obrained by applying rhe mechanical energy
characteristic curve of che general shape shown in
Figure balance for che sysrem, as discussed in Chapter 13.
lf a pump wirh che characrerisric curve shown in
Figure

Pumps 179

- 750 RPM

Head
r--u'- mp Curve

2
1
System Curves

- f 40

.L"
- , . ,
O 40 10 120 200 240 Flow
Aow Rate, Gal/Mln

-
Figure 10-7 Operating Point for Centrifuga! Pump in a
Figure 1<>-óa Centrifuga! Pump Performance Curves Piping System

------
-
'-:,o

-
The characteristic curve for a cencrifugal pump indi-

.I
100

l
(Mabe and Mulholland, 1990). Variable-speed control

cares that far higher speeds that smaller impellers are

required. Smaller impellers operate more efficiently
• a: also means operating the pump wichout a partially closed

---J 1 " control valve on rhe ouclet srrearn, maincaining the pump
near its BEP wirhour wasted pressure-rhrortling loss.
"' 1.

. 1
.
• +------
. A centrifuga] pump can operare for short periods of
...
10 11G 1IO
Flow Rite, Gal/Mln
, o
Figure 1<>-ób Characteristic Curves for 11;, in. lmpeller
10-7 is inscalled in rhe piping system, che operating poinr
will lie at the intersection of rhe head-capaciry curve of che
piping system and che pump curve (point 1 ). Good pump
selecrion consists of matching rhe system and pump so
rhar the pump operares ar or near its maximum efficiencv,
which is the so-called best-eff,ciency point (BEP).
lf the system characrerisric curve is changed by parcial
closing a valve, the systen1: curve is raised as shown by
curve B in Figure 10-7. The system operating poinr now
shifts to poinr 2. The pump is no longer ar irs BEP, bue
the effi- ciency will not be reduced grearly, as seen in
Figure 10-6.
lf a bad mismatch between pump and system occurs
for any reason, a change in rhe impeller size or pump
speed may solve rhe problem (see Chaprer 14, problem
-
4). For the most efficient operation, a variable-speed dri-
ver should be used, allowing the pump to operare closer
to its BEP. Operating a pump ar flows less rhan one-
half of the BEP flow is not recommended.
4
z
' 2
5
1 1.
e:
However, higher-speed pumps require higher NPSH
(net positive suction head), as is discussed below A booster
.
pump or inducer in the pump sucrion may be required.
time against a closed valve in che outlet line. However,
most of che pump power is then dissipated into the
liq- uid, which will soon overhear rhe pump and driver.
Multistage Pum ps
The maximum head thar can be developed in a constant-
speed, single-stage centrifuga! pump is abour 250 ft
(approxirnarelv 90 psi for oil, 11 O psi for water). Thus, if
higher head is needed, more than one stage muse be pro-
vided. The alternative is a higher-speed driver (Mabe and
Mulholland, 1990).
Centrifuga! pumps can be "sracked": thar is, a number
of srages can be mounred in che same casing in series.
The head for the series is rhe sum of the heads of each
stage, Multisrage pumps are required for high-head
applicarions. Horizontal arrangement of rhe stages is
shown in Figure 1 0-8. The stages may be stacked verri-
cally, for rhe vertical rurbine pump, which is used to
lower the pump ro rhe source of rhe fluid in low-
suction- head applicarions, such as sea-water pumps
and deep-
- 180 Pumps
--
-
- Figure 10-8
Pumps lnc.
Horizontal Multistage Centrifuga! Pump. GPSA (1987). p. 12-5, Fig. 12-4c. Courtesy of Sulzer Bingham
- llead
Individual� curve
Fla.,
Figure 1o-9a Parallel Operation Matched Centrifuga!
Pumps
well pumps (Dever, 1983). Another example is electrical
submersible pumps used for artificial lift; rhese can have
over l 00 stages in series.
Parallel Pumps
Centrifuga! pumps may be operated in parallel at the
same head ro provide greater capaciry rhan a single pum p.
Parallel llows are addirive at the same head. Extreme care
must be exercised thar parallel pumps have identical, or
nearly idenrical, performance curves. Figure I0-9a shows
the desired condition; in the case of idenrical curves, the
llows are addirive. Figure 10-9b indicares rhe difficulty
encountered for pumps with nonmatching curves. At
heads higher than rhe maximum of the lower-head pump,
the higher-head pump delivers flow and rhe lower-head
pump does not. In rhe larter case, rhe lower-head pump
simply pumps zero Row against its closed discharge check
valve, wasting energy and overheating quicl<ly.
1'
FJa.,
Figure 10-9b Parallel Operation Mismatched Centri-
fuga! Pumps
Net Positive Suction Head Required
An important consideracion in pump selection is che so-
called na positive suctíon head required (NPSHR), which is
the head that must be supplied ar rhe pump inlet in order
to avoid or rninimize cavitation. Fluid entering a pump
passes rhrough a consuiction at the eye of the impeller.
This constriction creares friccion and increases che speed
and kinetic energy of the liquid, which lowers the pres-
sure below the pump sucrion pressure. Ross (1983) states
rhat there is also a shock loss due to blade entry that
depends on blade angle and shape.
lf the pressure in the eye of the impeller falls below
the vapor pressure of che fluid, sorne vaporization
occurs. Ar a subsequent point in the pump, the pressure
rises and rhese bubbles collapse, creating sound pressure
waves (cavirarion) thar erode rhe pump irnpeller,
Jackson (1973) presents pictures of caviration in action:
he notes thar the resulring blade damage can be severe
and cannot
-
 Pumps 181
always be sccn by inspecrion of the impcller through the
suction flange. In addition to pump damage, pump effi-

--
as well as impcllers. Sorne pumps present a choice of
ciency is rcduccd below the rated value. Taylor (1978)
inducers; choosing che incorrcct inducer can actually increase
display, phoros of impeller-blade erosion that are quite
rather than decreasc the NPSHR over lirnired flows (e.g.,
dramatic, as do Schiavello (1992) and Gulich and Rosch
Grohmann, 1979).
(1989). The larter authors prescnt a method for calcular- ing
the rate of material loss in the impeller by cavitation.
The mínimum NPSHR is usually mcasured by observ- ing Spccific Speed
the total hcad and efficiency at constanr flow, q, and
This important parameter in centrifuga) pump selecrion is
calculated by:
speed,n, under varying net positive suction hettd availabk S = n(q1xp)O.S/(hp)0.75 (10-1)
(NPSHA) conditions, Because rhe exact value of NPSHA at whcre S = specific speed
which cavitation starts is difficult to pinpoint, míni- mum
n = spced of rotation, rev/min (rpm)
NPSHR is usually taken to be rhe NPSHA at which the pump qbcp = flow race ar best cfficicncy point, gpm
hcad has dropped 3% (e.g., Karassik, 1982). hp = pump head at bes, efliciency point, ft
One remedy for cavitation is to supply more NPSH
by lirniting che velociry of rhe liquid in rhe sucrion line, since Figure 10-1 O shows che relation berween spccific
friction loss in rhis line is proporcional to the square of rhe speed and impeller design. The recommcnded impeller

-
velociry. NPSHR data are provided by the manufaccurer as shape varíes from pure centrifuga! (radial flow) at low
determined by testing rhe pump. The NPSHA ar rhe pump specific speeds, through mixed-flow impellers at inter-
suction is calculated later. mediare speeds, to pure axial impcllers ar high specific
Additional remedies for cavitation and low NPSHA speeds. Centrifuga! pumps are rypically low-to-rnoderare
are (jackson, 1978): capaciry pumps wirh high hcad. Axial pumps are rypi- cally
low-head, high-capaciry machines.

-
• Lower speed
• Double-sucrion pump (narrow opcraring range)
• Parallcl pumps of 50% capaciry Suction Specific Speed
• Vertical pump
Sucrion specific speed is defined by:
• Boosrer pump (usually axial)
• lnducer (small axial impcller builr into pump sucrion) SS = n(q1xpJ0-5/(NPSHR)0.75 (10-2)
• Elevaced supply tank wherc SS = suction spccific spced
• Pump placed in a pir (This may be an explosion hazard.) Note NPSHR = net posirive sucrion head required, ft-lbfllbm
rhar inducer selecrion must be done carefully; A maximum suction specific speed of l 1,000 is widely
Schiavello (1992) reports cavication damage to inducers accepted for centrifuga! pumps (Hallam, 1982); higher

Values of Spccific Spceds. (Single

Suction)
o o o o o
8 ,... a:i o, o "'o ...o o
o
o
o o
8 88.. o 8 o
o
o o o o o

M
8
. o o
"'
o
"'
o
., �
o
.o...

RadlaJ-Vane Area

COMPARISON OF PUMP PROFILES

Profiles of several pump impeller designs ranging from the Low Specuic _Speed Radial F_I� on lhe' lefl to a High Spec.uc
Speed Axial Flow on the right, placed according to where each des1gn flts on the Specific Spttd scate
Figure 10-10 lmpeller Design as a Function of Specific Speed. Courtesy of the Hydraulic lnstitute. .�
. .. ·- .
-...... \. �.,: \,
:
,)� c;l._,.h .. � � . ,.,
.• ·.¡.._}-.--
 182 Pump,

spccific speeds limit the pump operarion to too narrow a

Numbcr oí Single- Acting Vclociry Va.riation
capacicy range and cause: failure at rwice the rate encoun- PumpType Pumping FJcmcncs Pcrccnt
tered for speeds below 11,000. Jacobs ( 1965) recommencls
Duplex 2 0-160
increasing che NPSHA to solve spccific speed problems.
Triplex 3 82-107
Ross and Fabeck (1985) claim rhar ptoperly designed Quintuplcx 5 95-102
inducers can allow use of high suction specific speeds.
lnducers are specially configured axial blades mounted ar
Pulsation dampeners can also be used to smooth rhe
rhe intake of a cenrrifugal pump (a sort of builr-in
pressure oucput from reciprocating pumps (Miller,
booster pump),
1983). The benefits are noc only smoothing the pressure
pulsarions, bue rhe resulring reduction of vibracion,
noise, and fatigue of parts. Reducing vibracion may also
POSITIVE DISPLACEMENf PUMPS
reduce damage due to the natural frequencies of piping
members. Two cypes of dampeners are used (Miller,
Posirive displacement pumps ate reviewed by Cody et
1983): gas-filled bladders and acoustic dampeners
al. (1985) and Vandall and Froerg (1993).
(Figure 10-12). B!adderdampmm absorb energy on the
Henshaw (1981) discusses reciprocating pumps in great
discharge srroke and give ir back during rhe
derail. Reciprocating, rotary, and merering pumps are now
sucrion
described individually in that order.

Reciproating Pump•
Reciprocaring pumps are used primarily for low- to
moderate-capaciry service with high head requirernent or
for viscous fluicls. The pressure rise across the pump can be
very high. Examples for use include chemicals injection,
boiler feed water, produced-water feed pumps for steam HORIZONTAL POUBLE-ACTING PISTON POWER PUMP
generators, and amine and glycol recirculacion pumps.
Figure 10-11 Typical Reciprocating Pump
Standards. The basic standard, for
reciprocating pumps include:
API Standard 674, "Positive Displacernenr Pumps-
Reciprocating," American Perroleum Institure, Refining
Oepartment, Washington, OC (1987).
API Standard 675, "Posirive Displacernenr Pumps-
Conrrolled Volume," American Perroleum Institute,
Rcfining Departrnent, Washington, OC (1980).
Reciprocating Pump Standards, Hydraulic Institute,
Detroit, MI, 14th ed., 1983.

Dcscriptioo. Reciprocating pumps consisr of a pisten-

cylinder or plunger (Figure 10-11) with appropriate check
valves in che succion and discharge ports to prevenr back- Acoustic dampener
flow. The pump fills on the back stroke and discharges on
the forward stroke. Reciprocating pumps generally require
high maincenance due to rhe forces and vibration involved
in their operacion.
The output of a single-piston or simpúx pump is pulsar-
ing. Dupúx or tripkr pumps use two or rhree parallel cylin-
ders acting in cimed sequence to smooth the output pres-
surc pulsations as summarized below (Henshaw, 1981 ):
Figure 10-12 Reciprocating Pump Dampeners. (Miller,
1983).
 Pumps 183

srroke. Acoustic dampeners are flow-resistance devices pumps do not have separare suction and discharge valves.

-
containing severa! volume sectjons interconnected by
chokes. Bladder dampeners are more effecrive.
Types. Reciprocating pumps are classified as power
purnps or direct-acting, depending on their drive mech-
anism (API Standard 674, 1987). Pouer pumps are driven
by a crankshafr wirh connecting rod operating rhrough a
crosshead. Any rotary driver can operare the crankshaft.
Single-acting, plunger-rype power pumps deliver from
rhe discharge side of rhe plunger and are shorr-srroke
(2 ro 8 in.), high-speed (200 to 500 rpm) devices.
Pertinenr references include:
API Standard 676, "Positive Displacement Pumps-
Rotary," American Perroleum Institute, Refining
Department, Washington, OC (1987).
Rotary Pump Standards, Hydraulic Institure, Detroir,
MI, l 4th ed.,
1983.
Types. Rotary pumps are classified according to the
actuator element. Three important actuators are rhe slid-
ing vane, gear, and screw. Figure 10-13 shows these rhree

-
Double-acting power pumps deliver from borh sides
of
the pistón, so that while one side is filling rhe other
side is discharging. Double-acting pumps are appropriate
types. Other actuators are used, including pistons, lobes,
and cams. (See manufacturcrs' literature for more detail
and relarive advantages, disadvantages, and applications.)
Clearances are necessary in rotary pumps so thar there

-
for highly viscous liquids. Speeds are slower rhan for
single- acring pumps, (e.g., 70-140 rpm, and strokes are
longer (] O- 16 in.).
Varíable-speed drivers are often used with power
pumps to provide flexible rhroughput. The altemative
is sorne slippage of fluid, but the action is principally
positive displacement. Packing glands or mechanical
seals are used to prevent liquid leakage.
Rotary pumps are useful for very viscous liquids that
have good lubricating properties. Applications include

-
is to use by-pass control, routing sorne of rhe
throughput of a constant-speed pump back to the
suction, which is less energy efficienc. Driver rotacional
speed is kept low to avoid wear and reduce acousrica]
problems.
Dírect-actíngpumps have a piston-cylinder on the drive
end of che pistan rod rhat is operared by sream, air, or gas.
Control of rhe motive-fluid flow rate conrrols the speed
of rhe direct-acting pump. See rhe Hydraulic Insritute
Standards (1983) for addirional details. Hydraulic power
turbines powered by high-pressure process liquid streams
are sometimes used for direct-pump drivers (GPSA,
1987, Section 12) to conserve energy.
pumping clean liquids of high viscosity. Brennan (1992)
states that screw pumps may be more efficient than cen-
trifuga! or reciprocating pumps for pumping crude oil
wirh API gravity of 20º or less. Capacities of 1-500,000
bpd are claimed ar discharge pressures from 150-5,000
psi. Brennan also states thac screw pumps can handle
up to 40 volume percent gas ac suction condicions, in
con- trast with centrifuga! pumps, which become
vapor bound and do not deliver at ali.
Rotary pump capacity is direcdy proportional to rota-
tional speed, usually 100-700 rpm. Any pump head up
to rhe pump-and-drive rating is delivered at essentially

-
che same flow race.
Contro!kd-volume or meteríng are plunger pump,
capable of delivering a conrrolled flow These are described
[arer,

-
Ali reciprocating pumps must be provided with relief
va/ves, usually delivering back to the suction of rhe pump,
to protect against a closed valve in che discharge line.

Suction Head. Cavitation and NPSH are potential

problems wich reciprocating pumps, just as with cen-

-
trifugals, but the cause of the problem is rhe suction
valves, wirh rhe acceleracing flow that occurs during each
srroke. Specific allowanc,. is made for acceleration in SUDINGVANE TYPE SCREW TYPE
NPSHR calculations for reciprocaring pumps.

Rotary Pumps
Rotary pumps are posirive-displacernent pumps rhat
have a chamber wich internal actuator elemenrs rhat trap the liq uid
berween the actuator and the charnber wall, thus propelling rhe
GEAR nPE --
liquid through the pump. Rotary Figure 10-13 Rotary Pumps
- 184 Pumps

Rotary pumps must be provided with relief valves,

-
usually ddivering back to rhe suction of the pump, to
protect against a closed valve in the discharge line,
As previously indicated, one recenr application of
rotary pumps is rhe simultaneous pumping of crude oil
and gas (Anonymous, 1989). In chis case a gear pump is
used, with counrer-rotaring, intermeshing gcars on sepa-
rate shafu. Capacity is high: 55,000 and 80,000 bpd
(1,600 and 2,300 gpm). Double mechanical seals are

-
used, with sea! liquid injecrion berween. Bearings and

-- -
timing gears are separately lubricated. The casing with-
stands 2,160 psig (ANSI Class 900).

Metering Pumps Figuro 10-14 Packed Pl unge r Liqu id End

Mctering pumps use a plunger to ddiver (or inject) a pre-

determined flow of liquid with extreme accuracy (±1 %).
Ali metering pumps have (Poynton, 1981):
l. A drive mechanism to adjust capaciry,
2. A prime mover.
3. A liquid end or displacement chamber.
Orive Mcchanism. The in-and-out rnotion of a
plungcr displaces thc liquid either directly or by flcxing a
diaphragm. Metering pump capaciry depcnds on the cross-
sectional arca of the plunger, the effecrive stroke length, and
rhe stroking spced. Stroking length and/or speed control
the delivery rare. In rurn, stroke length is adjusred either by
Metering Pump
(Brenneisen, 1981 ). Reprinted wih permissioo from HYOROCARBON
PROCESSING, January 1981, oopyrigttt 1981 by Gu� Publishing Co.,
aJ\ rights reserved.
results and this decreases che volumetric efficiency of rhe
pump. The packed-plunger type is chosen for its low cost
where sorne leakage and maincenance is perrnissible.
In diaphragm liquid md pumps, rhe plunger moves a
plasnc diaphragm and does not contact the liquid being

-
varying the radius of eccentricity of the drive mechanism pumped. Again, check valves in the inlet and exir lines
or by changing the ponion of the fixed crank travel that control the flow of liquid chrough the pump. In the disc
dis- places the plunger. See Poynton (1981) for more diaphragm type, the tetrafluoroethylene disc diaphragm
detail. flexes berween rwo contour plates having flow-through
hales. The conrour piares hold the diaphragm and pre-
Prime Mover. A constant-speed AC electric motor is vent rupture. Diaphragm pumps are used when leakage

-
the most popular choice. Variable-spced drives can be
used with the AC motor. Other choices are adjustable-
frequency AC drives and variable-speed OC motors.
Liquid Eod. There are rwo typcs of liquid ends;
As shown in
cannot be tolerated.
Brenneisen (1981) discusses instal!arion and trou-
bleshooring of metering pumps in detail. lnstal!ation of
a gauge glass on the feed tank provides a simple and
accurate way of monitoring che chemical injection race.
DRIVERS

--
The usual driver for ali rypes of pumps is che ,lectric motor,
namely, packed plunger and diaphragm.
Figure 10-14, in the paclud-plunger md pump, the include interna! combuscion engines, steam gas
plunger contacts the pumped fluid. One-way check turbines, rurbines, and hydraulic-power-recovery
turbines.
valves on the inler and oudet ends operate 180º out of required to sea! the plunger and plunger

-
phase and so allow filling of che displacernenr chamber bore, and sorne
during the sucrion stroke and prohibir any backflow
during the discharge stroke, Packed-plunger ends are
economical and simple, and they can develop high
(7,500 psi) discharge pressures. However, packing is
-
Gas turbines and spark-ignited interna! combusrion
engines are discussed in Chapter I O of Volume 1. Gas
turbines are used primarily for large MLO pumps or
leakage is required for cooling. Sorne wear inevirably water injection pumps. Gas engines are seldom (if ever)
used as pump drivers. Diesel engines are used mainly in
essential services for emergency backup if electrical
power fails. The following discussion is limited to electric
motors, fluid couplings, and hydraulic turbines.

Elcctric Motor
Conscant-speed, motor-driven, centrifuga! pumps with
discharge flow control valves are often used. The result-
ing operation is often away from che BEP point of che
pump and throctling loss across the valve is wasted, Frorn
an cnergy standpoint, speed control is more desirable.
-
Variable speed can be provided for AC rnotors by
means of solid-state electronic devices thar change che
frequency
1
of che electrical power. A four-pole motor with a fre-
quency range of 50-120 Hz has a speed range frorn
1500-3600 rpm (GPSA, 1989, Section 15, p.
25).
More reccntly, Mabe and Mulholland (1990) describe
motors with frequency range from "a few" to 400 Hz,
giving an even wider range of speed control. The motor
of che previous example could run at rotacional speeds up
to 10,000 rpm.
Gas turbine drives can be speed-controlled over a
somewhat Iimited range. Furthermore, their fuel effi-
ciency is lower chan interna) combustion engines.
-
Nevertheless, gas turbines should be considered for large
pumps wirh stable flow tates.
f1uid Couplings
Elderton (1977) describes che use of variable-filling
fluid couplings for speed control of cenrrifugal pumps.
He clairns rhree advantages.
-
l. Use of consranr-speed, squirrel-cage motor eases cose
of flame-proofing (imporranr offshore).
2. Reliable operacion.
3. Flexible operation, 5: 1 oucput speed range.
The fluid coupling is a centrifuga! device rhat varíes
che proportion of a impeller-driven oil scream that is
fed to an output turbine. Possible applications are
MLO pumps, canker loading pumps; and storage-tank,
water- level control pumps.
Hydraulic Turbincs
If a motive liquid stream is available at high pressure and
is going to be delivered to a low pressure chrough a rhrot-
-
tling valve, che recovery of a portian of che ocherwise
wasted energy is attraccive. A centrifugal, hydraulic
power-recovery rurbine can be ucilized for this purpose.
If more power is available rhan is required, a portian of
che liquid can be by-passed around che curbine. If insuf-
-
ficient power is available, rhe turbine can operare in par-
allel wich a second driver.
Pumps 185
A hydraulic curbine is essentially a centrifuga! pump
operated in reverse. Efficiencies are comparable.
PUMP SELECTION
Sclcction Critcria
Proper line sizing is absolutely necessary for correct pump
selection. Use of too small a pipe diameter may reduce ini-
cial consrruction coses bue will require excessive fricrion
losses, too large a pump, and will waste energy. Pump selec-
tion is based on the required hcad and throughput of che
pump, along with other service requirements, including:
• Continuous versus periodic use
• Widely varying versus constan e flow
• Flow behavior (highly viscous or non-Newconian)
• Operating philosophy
• Corrosive nature of liquid
• Space requirernents
• Need far precise control
The selecrion chart in Figure 10-15 indicares chat
posicive displacement pumps are used mainly for high-
head, low-flow applications and axial pumps for high-
flow, low-head applicacions. Most other applications are
handled by centrifuga! pumps of one rype or another.
Recommendarions are included in Table 10-1.
Vertical rurbine pumps may have vibration problems
because of the long, flexible shaft (Allen and Chang,
1991 ), as discussed under Troubleshooting. Figure
10-16 summarizes centrifuga! pump applicacions in
terms of llow and head.
Required net posirive succion head must be considered
in pump selection.
Continuous Versus Periodic Use. This considera-
tion rnighr dictare a lighrer dury pump for periodic use
than required for continuous use.
Widely-varying Versus Constan! How. Driver selec-
tion far a relatively-constant Aow application rnighr be a
single-speed, AC motor, wich rhrortling-valve flow control.
Where wide variations in flow are encountered, either a
variable-speed drive ar parallel pumps may be appropriace.
Flow Behavior (Highly Viscous ar Non-Ncwtonian).
In an extreme case, che pour poi ne of a crude oil rnight be
so high that che crude will not llow uncil che pump pro-
duced a pressure above the yield stress of the oil. Such
- 186 Pumps

-
=

At-01
1
'' °
•• • •

"
1

• 1() 2 j 1111
• • IODOO
1()
s IOO 2 000 2
Capoc1ry, 001 tm,n.

-
PUmp coverage Chart based on normal ranges of operation of commercially available tyl)e$.
Solid Unes-use left Ofdinate. head scale. Brol<en lines-use right ordlnate, pressure scale.
Figure 10-15 Pump Selectioo Guide. Perry's Chemical Engineers' Handbook, Perry and Green (Ed�ors). 6th ed., (1984), Fig. 6-
3; By permission of McGraw Hill Book Co.
,
. ·······- .. • -Eii
6000
-
Table 10-1 Advice for Selection of Cenrrifugal Pumps
-
� ,
. 1

-
Centrifuga! Pump Type
Service ¡
1
' ;
1
1
1
1
Horizontal, Single-Stage ¡ -·......
" "'
Normal service. for heads up ro 250 ft.
Llght-Duty ANSI Spec B73.1, 150 psi flang, on ¡ 1 j1

-
1000 1
discharge pipe (far low discharge l!: 1:
pressures). Q
-· '

- --�'
Medium-Ducy ,c
Meets ANSI Spec B73. l specs, but
better wear with additional features. ":z ':
(J .,,
1
'
Heavy-Duty
·I
API Standard 610, heavier consrruction,
'
higher heads and flows at higher i
pre55ures and temperatures. -e
Z 100
. ...
, -
1 -
Double-Suction For low NPSHA service. >
-
--
...
¡
o - --- --
.. .. 1
-
Horizontal, rnulristage API Standard 61 O, for high-head -·
-
applic.:uions.
.
,. �,,

-
ln-Line ANSI Spec 873.2, when space is limited. 1

Vertical Canned Turbine Suction lifr. suction is placed e

;
below liquid level, pump is inside
10
Vertical Submcrsiblc can. Suction lift, pump is placed 100 1000
below

-
liquid leve! (sealed unit). 10

LEGEND
U. ..........
.
S. GALL
. ..
S PER MINUTE
.... ,......., Msltdlal

a phenomenon must be anricipared and the pump selected

- - - - .. . . . . . . . . ..................
. . . _.
, . . , . . . .
O. . N . . .. "" '-' . -
. . . .............
111 111 111Ñ
wirh this in mind.

- - . . .. .
. . . . . ...
Operating Philosophy. In sorne operations ir is Court..sy of Sulzer Blngham Pumps, lnc.
ll liln 1i.
rnandatory to have sorne flow capaciry at ali times, which
-
may dictare using rhree 50% pumps, one as aspare, or in Figure 10-16 Centrifuga! Pump Selection Guide
sorne cases even a pair of 100% pumps. (GPSA, 1987, p. 12�, Fig. 12-SA)

-
-
and the other diesel-engine driven.

- Corrosive Llquids. Toxic, corrosive, or environrnen- rally

-
dangerous liquid marerials may dictare careful mate- rials
selection and conservative component selection, cspccially
pump seals.

Space Requircments. lnline or vertical pumps may be

selected in applicacions where space limirations are

-
importan t.

Need for Precise Control. A metering pump will be

sclected for small, precise chemical injection requirements.
Operation of a centrifugal pump against a partially throt- rled
control valve will be indicated for high-flow rates.

Offshorc Applications
Opcration on offshore plarforrns dictares severe limita- cions
on space, mass, and utilities, as well as che need for safety and

-
securiry, Sorne important considerations fol- low (Prodger,
1977; Duncan and Hood, 1977):

Crude Oil Pumps. Flows will generally be qui ce large duc

to neccssity to deliver the fidd or placform produc- rion
(150,000 bbl/day or 1000 m3/hr). Heads may vary from 500
ft (150 m) for a satellire platform to nearly ten times as great
for main-line oil (MLO) pumps. Variable- speed, gas-turbine
drives may be appropriare for MLO pumps, electrical rnorors
for smaller applications. The platform electrical-power
generation sysrern must be capable of starting che drive
motors. Gas escape from lines must be contained, requiring
double mechanical seals, alarm systems, and rhe capability of
removing gas and oil rhar havc leaked. Series and paralld
pumps must be con- trollcd to protect against malfunction on
pump failure.

Service Water. Ali needs must be considered to ensure

adequate capaciry, such as process cooling, water injection, fresh
water rnakers, mud rnixing, washdown, flare-rip spray water, and

-
so forth. Parallel pumps may be indicated for flexibility and to
prevent overload of the generator system.

Water lnjcction. Llkcly requires severa! multistage cen- t:

ifugal pumps with booster pumps to deliver water at ade- quate
NPSH from the deaerarors through a filtrarion sys- tem. Aow
rate will be high, [e.g., 300,000 bbl/day (2,000 m3/hr)] with
head up to 8,200 ft (2,500 m). Seawarer requires use of
stainless steel, titaniurn, or other alloys.

-
Fire Water. Muse be reliable: probably two 100%-
capacity, verrical-rurbine pumps, one electrically-driven
 Pumps 187

Gas-Condcnsatc. Flows will be low <o moderare, bue heads very high,
as with water injection (rnulristage, low- specific-speed centrifugals).

Electrical Systcms. The platforrn will constitute a Class I, Division

1 area (i.e., Aammable gases and vapors may be present in quantiries
sufficient to produce explo- sion or ignition). (Refer ro API RP 500A
and NEC Secrion 500 for proper equipment insrallarion.)

Codes and Standards

There are rwo common codes for centrifuga! pumps: AP! 610
"Centrifuga! Pumps for General Refinery Services" and ANSI B73. 1
"Specificarions for Horizon- tal, End Sucrion Centrifuga! Pumps
for Chemical Process." The API 61 O "heavy-dury" standard is far more
stringent because a performance test is required and rhe specificarions
address pump casings (ASME Secrion VII, Division 1 ), wear rings,
mechanical seals, critica! shaft speed. three-year life for ball bearings,
baseplates, etc. ANSI 873.1 "light-dury" pumps are limited <o Class 150 and
cemperatures up to SOOºF, and don't have require- ments for wear rings,
mechanical seals, critica! shafr speed. or baseplates. 8loch and Johnson (
1985) repor< an Exxon Chemical study thar revealed che following weak-
nesses of ANSI 873.1 pumps:

l. Shaft defleccion is excessive.

2. lnsufficient space for superior mechanical seals.
3. Shortcomings in bearing designs and lubricacing systems.
4. Frangible pressure-containment devi�es creare safety
hazards.
5. 8aseplace design does noc provide accepcable struc-
<ural integrity and load-bearing capabilicy.

8loch and Johnson (1985) recommend improved designs to

correct chese problems and in so doing define an upgraded, medium-
duty, (UMD) centrifuga! pump. Neerken (1987) and others do no< feel
thac a chird UMD pump standard is necessary.
There is no disagreement cha< pump selection should
be based on the following considerations:
l. First cost (ali too often lowest bid is paramount).
2. Maintenance cose over life cycle.
3. Cost of power.
4. Costs incurred during downrime.
S. Potencial safery haz.a.rd.s and environmencal emissions.
 188 Pumps

Al! these factor, must be carefully considered if
che true overall cost of the pump is going to be
dererrnined and oprimized.
PUMP DESIGN THEORY
Pump design mighr more properly be called "pump
selection." ln other words, given a pumping system
with irs required flow rate, elevation changes, and
length, what type of pump should be chosen? Then, in
rhe type category, what sub-rype is indicated? And
finally, which
particular pump?
The very same relarionships that are detailed for
pump selection apply equally to evaluation of exisring
designaced by subscript 2. Stricdy speaking, the kinetic
energy cerm should have a coefficient mulciplier
that varíes from 0.5 in laminar flow to approximately
1.0 in fully developed turbulent llow. This coefficient is
ornit- red here, as is common practice.
Each term in Equacion 10-3 has che unics of energy
or work per unir mass (ft-lbf/lbm in English engineering
unics or kJ/kg in SI). If rhe lbf and lbm are irnproperly
cancelled, che net unir is ft. Alrernarively, che whole
equation can be multiplied by g/g, which properly
lea ves each term with che units of ft because the basis is
now unir weighr, lbf, instead of unir mass, lbm. We
fol-
low chis practice and refer to each rerrn in Equarion 10-4
as a "head" term,

-
pumps. Is a given pump operating properly and consis- (Pz- P1)/y + Zr Z1 + (Vi- V12)/(2g) + 11cFig = -& W/g
rently with its rating] Is rhere a possible NPSH problem? hpr + hst + h, + hfric hp
These and similar questions may be addressed. (10-4)

-
The basic design relation in pump applications is rhe Velociry Friction Pump
Pressure Sta tic
general mechanical energy balance, which is used to analyze Head Head Head Head Head
che piping system inro which che pump provides the
desired motive power. Suction-head requirement is corn- where y = pg/!k = specific weight
pured from the mechanical energy-balance equarion for che
Note cha, rhe pump head is posrnve because che

-
pump suction piping. Discharge temperarure is estimated
pump work, Ws, is always negacive for rhe prescnt sign
using rhe total energy balance. A high viscosiry correction
convention.
is required for centrifuga! pumps. The change in
Suppose pressure gages are mounced ac the suction and
centrifu- ga! pump performance wirh speed may be
discharge of a pump. The staric head difference berween
predicted using che so-called Fan Laws. These topics are discharge and suction is negligible, as is any velocity head
now presented. change caused by a difference in che siz.e of rhe sucrion
and discharge pipes. The friction loss in che pump itself
Mcchanical Encrgy Balance is provided for by the pump efficiency, as indicated in
Equacion 10-1 O, below. Thus, the head received by the

-
The mechanical energy balance, or Bernoulli equation,
liquid, hp, (sometimes called the total head¡ is given by che
for rhe steady-stare, isochermal flow of incompressible
difference in che pressure-gage readings divided by the
fluids is used for pump calculations.
fluid density or, more correcdy, che liquid specific weight.

-
(P2- P1)/p + g(Z2-Z1)i& + (Vi2-V12)/(2g.) + F = -W,

Pressure Potential Kinecic Frictional Pump

Energy Energy Energy Energy Work
Friction Loss
(10-3)
where P = pressure The friction loss for a piping system is esrimated by:
p = liquid densiry
g = !ocal acceleration of gravity hfri, = F 11cig = (fllD; + l:K)(V2/(2g) (10-5)

Z = elevation where f = fricrion factor, given below

-
&:: = conversion factor from MLT to FLT units L = length of maight pipe
V = average velocity of the liquid in rhe pipe D, = ID of pipe
W, = work done by che liquid (negarive) !K = summation of resistance coefficients for ali
F = pipe and fining fricrion loss rerm valves and finings

Equacion 10-5 is for a single pipe diametet; if chere

are rwo or more pipes of different diameters in series

-
This equation is applied for a system with one inler
stream, designated by subscript l, and one ourlet stream,
-
-
-- and/or paralld in rhe sysrern, each is handled
separarely. Furrher details are given in Chapter 13, "Oil
Pumps

the pumped liquid). The bralu powtr, or power input to

the pump shaft, is higher because of inefficiencies,
189

Transpon." The friction factor,¡; is a funcrion of che including sea! and bearing losses and friction loss of che
dirnension- fluid inside the pump casing. Pump efficiency, r¡, relates

-
less Reynolds number (which characterizes the scale of che fluid power to brake power.
rurbulence) and the relarive roughness, r/01 (which
{10-10)
characrerizes the condirion of the inside surface of rhe
pipe). The Reynolds number is: Pump effi.ciencies are obrained from manufacturer's

-
Re= D¡Yp/µ (10-6)
curves, which are often based on single mechanical seals.
whcre µ = absolutc viscosiry of che liquid. Double mechanical seals consume more power. Buse (1985)
The relative roughness for line pipes is discussed in estimares that chis effect becomes significant at 2 bhp for a
Chapter 13. Use rhe Moody-chart values for plant pip- !Ji-in. sleeve diarneter and at 10-15 hp for a J:.-in. sleeve.
ing. The Moody or Darcy fricrion factor is read from the Elecrrical motor drives are not 100% efficient. In
familiar Moody plot-Moody (1944) or Crane (1985) other words, che shaft power output (as measured by a
prony brake for example) is less than rhe electrical power
and see Chapter 13. Ahernatively, the following equa-
tions can be used. input to che motor. To allow for chis phenornenon,
API Sed. 610 recommends che power ratings for motor
drives
f = 64 I Re, for Re < 2000 (10-7) given in Table 10-2.
and f = 0.25/{log10[(0.27027EID,) + (5.74/Reº 9)]l2,
for Re ;o 2000 (10-8)
Net Positivo Suction Head Available

-
The larter equarion is given by Swamee and Jain
(1976), Prevention of cavitation damage and excessive wear on
and ir is explicit in f The Moody charr is based on impellers and shafts requires adequate pressure at the
suction of rhe pump, so-called NPSHA. Equation 10-11
rhe
Colebrook equarion (1939), which is implicit in fand chus results from che application of Equation 10-5 from che
surface of che liquid in the sucrion surge tank (poinr
difficult to use for hand calcu!ations. The Swamee and Jain
1) to the inler or sucrion pipe at che cenrerline of rhe
equation is sufficiendy close for engineering calculacions.
pump (point 2); NPSHA is che sucrion pressure

-
Losses far miscellaneous resiscances must include:
minus rhe vapor pressure of che liquid.
• Contractions
NPS�,nnif= (Z1 -Zi) + 144(P1 - P,p)/y - hr,¡, -
• Expansions Vi2i(2g)
• Pitrings=-telbows, tees, etc.} (10-11)
• Valves whcrc Pvp = vapor prcssurc ofliquid, units consistcnt with
These items are represented by che IK terrn in the prcssure unir of P1 (psia or psig).
Equation 10-5. Figure 10-17 can be used to estimare lf che liquid is ar its bubble poinr (or saturated) in
resistance coefficienrs, K, for che individual resistances. the sucrion surge tank, then che vapor pressure is equal to
More complete information is given in che Crane Co., che tank pressure. The second term in the right side
Technical Nott 410, (1985). of Equation 10-11 is then zero. This is often the case in
oil- field applications.
Pump Power

-
Equation 10-4 is solved for hp• the pump brad. The
Table 10-2 Power Ratings for rv1otor Orives
pump power is found by multiplying the head by che
flow rare and gl&- Motor Nameplate Rating

(10-9)
Percencage of
wherc m = mass Aow rate of liquid Horsepower Kilowaus R:ucd Pump Power
pf = fluid power s 25 s 18.5 125
30-75 22-;5 115
The power given by Equation 10-9 is che fluid
� 100 ;o 75 110
oc hydraulic power (i. e. , the work per unir time received
by
190 Pumps

RíSISTANCC OF \'ALVES ANO FITTINGS TO í-"LUIO f'LO\V

IN EQUIVALENT FEET OF ST�AIGHT PIPE
(TUROULENT FLOW)

POI VAJ.V(S. "' QOS(O O ,o . ,o . L.

\
!
,o ¡
'·"' h- lhi• ch.<flH Ate •W49Ml..d:

.
f
·r« �min11 Uow. lh• 101
'·"' d
:�O:�"i ��!'::�'::!• o:;::,�:d
,..o.u•

.
for •11 trp,,. of Y1lvH. no ,o d
,.ooo
. .. ... ...
l•Qvi,e

10
CVfllCIIOD
¡

...
1
11,lliplJ' ,

... '
br JJVJ% •
•
)O

. ..... .. .
1.000 ro, 1lbow1 .,.4 b1nd•.
1

••' ",.
11

• • .. 10.
,o
,.,.... ....,_ ,o

' ¡
,' •"•
,oc
,OC· 1,

"
.... .:
10 10

'
100

S..-. c._., v.1-. - 1

IIO" C- 1,,---,1 1- .. �
!-2
, �
�
I•
;;;,-
7
• '
....- " '
'
:i..--..,i .. , .... :.-.. ,_
. . .._.....i
,o·,...... -.,.......1
""""""'° ,_ ._ .._..
,. o
)O

,,,,,- ....-
/
�
..?
�� ... j
o
,o· ,,,,, ' ,� "
y "
-
--. ....-
. "• =,....- o t
,
� s.:... ..
o·�- .,

... .. ..
- ¡�
c,·�
......-.........
\
� ....... � ! .
1";, -
,o·�,-,
... »: s � �
1
¡
. - ¡:
.o· S...OC..-• ,_
'\, .......
/ lh
-..... , ........., ,_ S'
,_ .. t-.1 ._ ·-

••
( ·-
=z
2 <

I"'-
'",o"·',-"..".".. - .- , 1

..
1-o•w,u•.-...,-_..•,-, ""
1
1 ' -· ' A

w..w... ,... - .... ' - J

�,-
-,
�
,o·w Val.u 1n'1 {iuini;• ,.,,u.:
.6
,..,.,J klu or r,ru·

ni h<:.aJ (m Ícct of flu1tl) <lln loe: d •• ntly

 ,u·wc�-v ,-- / :, 1
...... � 1111( drop in (•C(H oí 11 ... :amount .:an•.NI by
oí ccru1l nial lco¡:lh. Thc c•ccn ka�
f>'f'C'

e1ln.l:al(J 1,r :ar11l)i"t a f.actor K tn 1hc

vdocity he.id in lhc IOfnu,b
..:v2
1( (l,cad) :::
.1

. ". - -
,,
or ,1 <.ln lic- 11Lcn ,,,1n urounl in thc r•co·

.' " 1urc ,tro¡, c-;,ln,bhr"" l,y .,t.liu¡: 1lw: ct¡uu

akul. kn¡:lh 1.,r- ..,¡ cul, ,·.,l,c or l,nm¡; 10
ti.e .a.,,'11 ic-11¡:11, ,,f ti..- o·,1c ....
T! ...· ,·,luo "' J.: c,n i< rud al tl,c ldl

... . ,..,
n1.ucin ni tl,c ''""' C"lthcr d,rccilt. or (lnr

.�. .
. 0 7
..... ...... ,o....l>' ..
,.i.hn.. dl�m·� "'"' 1..-,..i.. ,oo,ln<hoo,

u illudral<"I fu, "" ... ,.,,,,le l>C"low.

�n,T

Tl,c

e- .. ............ _._ ,·;,.tu.-, oí K can loe ,...,•ulnl 1,110 c,1u,.·1!r111

.o, _......,
1 k,,¡,:;th, 1-c ª" rcíc-, ,ni In a frir1io,.
.o, ' coc:lfict(r,t
of O.oJG 1.y coo,nc-c-t;uc thr J..: uluc wilh cloc

.. , 11irc ,Ji;,.n,ctcr ,n.J 1,0i;,,t' 11..: .,,,uc-l""f'I ol thc-

!� ·1r..Sc-
Euouplc. Fuul J.:: •nd L, fo, 41"' n,l,u1
lx-...:1 oí(,- ,hn,1a,J ,u,cl,1 ¡.;!'(. [utu l,o1

-
ton, oí chart wuh ru,o 41/6 ::: ]. ¡:o ur
fOI euowi & Mt<>S. R!d-
IOIC�S&.
O
• 10 lónc m,rl<nl -ncr1eh� tnd urou lo K-
1calr. on which • ul.,c of 0.J(, io ,.:�J.
Con,.HI
�.ns. d/d'- o OA
º·' 1luo poi"t w,11, 6 on d·onlc .,..1 ,url 1 S II
on L..-,calc
--Covrtl'SV of Tul,(' Turnl. Iuc

Figure 10-17 Resistance Coefficients for Pipe Fittings (GPSA, 1979)

-
- Pumps 191

Sorne authorities, [,.g., GPSA (1987) and Karassik for the remperature range 40º-I IOºF (Jennings and
( 1982)] ornit the velociry head rerrn when calcularing the Meade, 1956). The data are fitted well by the follow-
. .
NPSHA. Karassik ( 1982) discusses NPSH in detail using 1ng equatton.
many examples. ,Hwmp, = (P disch - P,ual cxp(3.77 - 3.729 G)/1000 (10-16)
The previous is for a centrifuga! pump. For reciprocar-
ing pumps, an accelerarion rerrn is added that takes where 6. T,ompr = temperature rise due to adiaba tic
compression, ºF
into consideration the pulsating ílow (AP! RP l 4E, 1991
G = specific graviry of che liquid (water = l)
).
P = pressure in psi
NPSHA,ec;p = (Z¡ - Z2l • 144(P1 - P,p)/y - hfr"
- V 22/(2g) - h, (! 0-
12) Correction for Viscous Flow
The acceleration cerm is given by:
h, = LV n C/(K g) (I0-13) The performance of centrifuga! pumps is reduced when
handling viscous fluids. As shown in Figure 10-18,
where L = actual length of suction pipe (ft)
(not rhc equivalem length) capaciry and head are reduced modesdy while rhere is a

-
V= vclociry ofliquid in sucrion pipe (ft/s) marked lowering of pump eíliciency. Doane ( 1993) pre·
n = pump speed (rpm) senes curve firs far che Hydraulic lnstitute's performance
C = empirical constant for pump type chart and recommends using a spreadsheet to determine
= 0.200 for simplex, double-acring and for che purnp's viscous performance. To predice che viscous
duplcx, singlc-acring performance, the coefficiencs Cq, Ch, and Ce are firsc
= 0.115 for duplex, double-acting read from Figure 10-18. Then:
::: 0.066 for triplex, single or double acring
K = empirical constanr for fluid cype qvis = cq qw (l0-17)
= 1.4 for deaerared water
hvis = ch hw (10-18)
==l. 5 for amine, gJycol, water
= 2.0 for most hydrocarbons P vis = qvis hv,s G/Cr: (10-19)
= 2. 5 for hot oil or crhane
g = 32.2 fr/sec' Fan or Affinity Laws

See API RP 14E (1991) for furrher discussion of

The effect of modest changes in rotacional speed may
reci- procaring pump NPSHA.
be predicred using the Fan Laws. Holding impeller
Discharge Tcmpcrature. The remperarure of rhe liq- diame- ter, D¡, constanr:
uid leaving a pump is higher than the inler temperarure q "' n (10-20)
beca use of dissiparion of fricciona! energy and adiabatic If the rotacional speed, n, is held constant:
compression of the liquid.
The total temperature rise is: q"' D¡ p "'D;3 (l0-21)
The Fan Laws apply only to centrifuga! and not to posi-
ó.T,o,al = ó.Truc + ó.Tcompr (10-14)
tive displacernenr pumps and compressors. Their range is
The fictional term is cornpured assuming ali ineffi- limited because increasing rhe speed, n, increases rhe
ciencies in rhe pump cause lemperature rise in che liquid; required power dramarically. Equation 10-20 shows that
this neglects conduction down the pump shafr and con- increasing n by 10%, increases q by 10%, h by 21 %, and
vecrion to the environment. p by 33%.
,Hr,;,. hP [(lh¡l - 1J I cP (J0-15)
where hp = pump head (see Equation 10--4)
DESIGN PROCEDURE
cp : heat capaciry of rhe liquid
tl = pump dlicicncy (sec Equation 10-10)
First, the required data are idenrified, Then a pump sizing
The adiabatic compression term can be obrained
from thermodynamic considerations, if necessary.
-
procedure is oudined. Examples of pipe sizing, estimating
rhe pressure drop in a piping system, pump sizing, calcu-
laring NPSHA, and toral remperarure rise follow.
Data far crude oil and irs fractions were derermined

192
Pumps

-
""'
� r-06•0
1 . . . "'\,. "-0ª1,.,
C/) 1 '\,"·I
a: 60· O
x
Q
CJ "·I

-
JOO 2
xlO

r--. 1
:
1
r--....
o>
e(
b
. . . !!!
1'
'
CJ <,
¡z¡ : r-, 1-.. ['\. -
o .. . 80
t "{
1.
!'-.
III - 1

111 : ª --
-�1 \
8�CJ - \_e;
1 '

-
e(
Q.

"'
e(
CJ
t
.1
1
\
1 \

\
\ " \ \ \ \ \ \ :, " \ \\ \
\ \ \ ' \ \ \ \ \ 1\
1\ .
�V'�� ;
6 00

\ ., \

¡¡:

1
1
1
.
e
e
(
C
/)

liia:
-
\ " \' \1\ \'I\ \ti\"\ \1\ \ v�-".:"�

..-UII?
\ 1\ .. \ 'I\ ' '' I\I\' 1 \\\.)i::::,.:;::��
i::��t� ����
\ 1\ \ 1\ \ \ \ � \ � \ l::::'.l::: i-1-
1 \ \1\1\
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"""�'l"�:?,l?::,¡a ', \ \ \ .\ '\ '\\ \
t:
...
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e ! ¡
. .:e.
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/"".'. �¿;? �� '<'. "'.:)( (, \ \ \ \ \\ \ 1 ;

CAPACITY IN
100 GPM

-
Figure 10-18 Performance Corrections for Viscous Flow (Courtesy of the Hydraulic lnstitute)

-
 Pumps 193

Required Data Example 10--1. Select a pump for rhe applicarion

The following data are needed for an adequate pump shown in Figure 10-19.
design to be rnade (Haniangadi, 1970): Solurion
• Flowing cemperature and pressure, and any variarions l. Line sizes must be determined.
in rhese, if importan e Select line sizes using recommendations of Chaprer 13.
• Liquid propernes ar Aowing condirions: The flow rate is fim changed to ft3/s.
Densiry, viscosiry, vapor pressure, toxiciry, flammabil- 150 ft
--
gal/min
q �--"--- -=0.3342 3 Is
¡¡y 7.4805 gal!ft3 x60 s/min
• Capaciry range: Normal and maximum. The latter
Use Sch. 40 pipe for this low-pressure and low-
should not be too much higher than the normal for
rernperarure application. Obcain dirnensions from
good centrifuga! pump design, 10--25%.
the tables.
• Suction pressure (for pump casing pressure rating), cal-
culated as described below
• Discharge pressure and differential head, calculaced as Nom. Size ID, in. Area, ft2 Y=qiA, ft/s
described below
1;.; 1.610 0.01414 23.64
• Capaciry of pump (100%, 50%, 33%) and require- 2 2.067 0.02330 14.34
menc for spares 3 3.068 0.05134 6.510
• Pump rype 4 4.026 0.08840 3.c80
6 6.065 0.2006 1.666

Design Procedure Select 3-in. for the pump discharge, 4-in. for pump
For NPSH problems with a new piping system, rhe sucrion. The vclociry in rhe latter is a bit high,
fol- lowing procedure is recommended (Anon., 1986): bur the NPSHA will be checked.
2. Evaluare the friction loss.
1. Conceive process scheme. Suction line:
2. Determine vessel heights and diamerers, and esti- p = (0.78)(62.4) = 48.7 lbm/ft3
mare liquid levels {if perrinenr), µ = (0.4)(0.000672) = 0.0002688 lbm/ft-s
3. Develop conceptual plot layouts and elevation D¡ = (4.026)/12 = 0.3355 ft
skerches for equipment and piping stanchions. Re= (0.3355)(3.780)(48.7)/0.0002688
4. Conmuct three-dirnensional sketch of piping, = 2.298 X 105
showing ali firtings and valves. For sreel pipe, EiD¡ = 0.00015/0.3355
). Estimare pipe lengths and ali pipe diameters. = 4.47 X lQ·4
6. Determine low, normal, and high liquid levels m Then by Equarion {10-8), f = 0.0184
vessels on pump succion and discharge. fLiD¡ = (0.0184)(32)/0.3355 = 1.76
7. CaJculare flow requirements: rate, temperarure, and
Use Figure 10-17 for the firrings.
pressure (for normal and limiring condirions).
8. Estimare resisrance coefficienrs of valves and fitcings. Fitting K
9. Esrimace head loss for equipmcnt such as heat 90º welding elbow 0.31 x 4 =
exchangers, if any. 1.24
I O. Calculare pump head. Open gate
Strainer valveas swing0.21
(treat x 2 =
check) 0.42
2.35
I l. Calculare NPSHA. Toral 4.01
l 2. Select pump based on BEP and NPSHR. By Equarion (10-5),
l 3. Calculare brake horsepower,
14. Complete preliminary process design and submir to F = (1.76 + 4.01)(3.780)2/(2 x 32.174) = 1.3 ft-lbfllbm
mechanical designers for plot plans, etc. Discharge line:
15. Csing mechanical layouts, .repeat steps (]) to (14). D, = 3.068/J 2 = 0.2557
16. Prepare system head/capaciry curve analysis Re= (0.2557)(6.510)(48.7)/0.0002688 = 3.016 x 105
 194 Pumps

r_c
. T
31 PSIA

1
IOFTICH40Pli'!
I CHECK VAL.VI

:
1IO OPM NORMAL 1 2·1N. CONTROL YAI.V!
- CC,r
E
41.t)

T � . -
��PO�
O.I

í
4 ELLS

k � � le- - - - ir'
32 FT ICH 40 PI:
+ 4 ELLI
C PV l8C

IQATIVALVU
(WID! OPEN)
1 STIWNER

-
Figure 10-19 Pump Application Sketch

By Equation (10--8), f = 0.0188 outler of the 3-in. line encering che ves sel ar rhe
!LID¡= (0.0188)(90)/0.2557 = 6.62 right.
Control valvc: K = 891 d•tC,.2' = 891(2.067)4/41.92 2
144(35-18) 32.174(60-8) (6.510)

1
= 9.26 --'----'-+ + + 14.2 = -W
' Formula from Cran, Handbook (1985) 48.7 32.174 2(32.174) s

Use Figure 10-17 for the [ittings. 50.3 + 52.0 + 0.7 + 14.2 = -W,
J

t
-W, = 117 ft-lbf/lbm
Fitting K
90º welding dbow 0.31 X 4 = 1.24 4. Selecta Suirable Pump
Open gate valve 0.2lx2= 0.42 The operating point for chis requirement is sbown
3"x2" ASA contr.' 0.085(3.068/2.067)4 = 0.41 on rhe pump curve depicred in Figure 10-20 (same
2"x3" ASA expan.' as Figure 10-6). This pump appears to be sarisfac-
!'
0.33(3.068/2.067)4 = 1.60
Control valve 9.26 tory, since che operating point is near che BEP.
Total 12.93 However, note rhat che pump has a 3-in. suction
* Contraction and expansion K's are based on che nozzle anda 1;.,-in. discharge nozzle, so rhar the fric-

•
velocity in the smaller pipe, so the K must be corrected rion loss should include terms for a 4" x 3"
as fol!ows if ir is be used for the larger pipe. reducer ar che sucrion anda IM" x 3" exp ar rhe
discharge.
F = K V22/2g, = K V12(D1tD2)4/2g, 4" x 3" ASA conrr. 0.05(4.026/3.068)4 = O. 15
By Equation (10-5), 1:-,·· x 3" ASA expan. 0.65(3.068/1.610)4 = 8.57
8.72
F = (6.62+12.93)(6.510)2/(2 x 32.174) = 12.9 ft-lbfilbm
Total F = 1.3 + 12.9 = 14.2 ft-lbf/lbm F,dd = (8.72)(6.510)2]/(2 x 32.174) = 5.7

3. Calculare Pump Work or Head -Ws = 117 + 5.7 = 123 ft-lbfllbm

Apply Equation 10--3, where poinr 1 is at rhe surface
This point is also plotted at 150 gpm on Fig. 10-20.
of the liquid in the feed tank, and poinr 2 is ar
Tcnrarively, the pump looks sarisfactory.
rhe
 Pumps 195

750 RPM
siderations, so rhat mechanical and elcctrical engi-
:r Si.tetlon neers are involved in rhe final pump selection.

. 1·1/2° DtlCh
"' IO
.
Example 10-2. Crude oil of specific graviry 0.85 is
compressed from 20-1020 psia in
a

I
pump with an efficiency of 0.55 .
The specific heat of rhe oil is 0.46
Bru/lbm-ºF.
Determine rhe total ternperarure rise.
Solution The head is
.¡
2 2
1

!L OPERATINQ POINT' 1000 lbf/in x 144 in tfr' _ ft-lbf/lbm

hp - 2714
[ I W/REDUCEAI
I 0.85 X 62.43 lbm/ft3
Lw,o REDUCERS
1- 1
2714[(1/0.55)-1] fr-lbf/lbm
o "°
o'���-��-�--,-L-���-c"-:-�--,�
eo 120
Flow Rite, G1I/Mln
1so 200 240 --�-�--�-�---- � 6.2ºF
778 ft-lbf/Btu x 0.46 Brn/lbm-ºF

Figure 10-20 Pump Selection Near BEP t. Tcomp, = (1020-20)exp[3.77-(3.729 x 0.85))/1000 =

5. Check NPSH
Check the NPSHA by Equarion 10-11. Note thar
the liquid in rhe surge tank is a saturared liquid.
Therefore, P1 and Pvp are the same. and rhar term
drops out. Add 0.15 lor rhe 4"x3" reducer.
TotalK=4.0l +0.15=4.16and
F = (1.75 + 4.16)(3.780)2/(2 x 32.174) = 1.3 ft-lbfllbm
:S:PSHA = 8 -1.3 - (3.780)'/{2 x 32.174)
Figure 10-Gb indicares NPSHR = 5.2 ft, so
the
choice seems satisfactory.
6. Calculate Pump Power
m = 0.3342 ft3/s x 48.7 lbm/ft3 = 16.3 lbm/s
Pr = 16.3 x 122.6/550 = 3.63 hp
From Figure 10-6b, rhe pump efficiency is 0.54,
so
JJ b = 3.6310. 54 = 6. 7 hp <--
Jn che previous example, rhe normal flow rate was
considered only. The C; specified for rhe control
valve was based on che normal tate. The val ve can
be opened farther to obtain lower resistance to flow
or closed to obtain higher resistance to flow. This
will, in rurn, influence the fricrion rerrns, since the
veloc- iry will change. The system operating curve
super- imposed on the pump curve will indicare the
flow rhat will occur for any setting of rhe control
valve. (See Chapter 16 for more detail on control-val
ve siz- ing and required pressure drop.)
In addirion to che process conditions, which are
evaluated by the process engineer, pump selection
also involves mechanical factors and electrical con-
l.8ºF
t.T,0,,1 = 6.2 + 1.82 = 8.0ºF <--
This is a rarher extreme example in terms of pressure
rise, but it illustraccs che procedure and gives an idea
of rhe rnagnirude of rhe changes.
API RP l 4E (1991) presents two derailed design
examples on flowline-pipeline design and pump-suction
piping design.
= 6.5 ft-lbfilbm
JNSTALLATION AND OPERATION
Pumps are mounted on base places, as shown in Figure
10-21. The base piare is mounted on a concrete pad and
bolred in place. The pad should be leve! and vibration-
free. Small pumps can be mounted on concrete floors.
Larger pump pads should be elevared above lloor leve!
(Hydraulic Institute Standards, 1983). Pumps located in
pits should be protected from llooding. Any leakage of
llammable liquids is an explosion/fire hazard. Adequate
space should be allowed for maintenance.
Piping should be supported so thar its weight is not
exerted on the pump. The sucrion line should have a
Suctlon I Dlocherge 7
;
/ /
r=
. .,-::;:;::: '
(�
'¡
, .J
.
Figure 10-21 Typical Centrifuga! Pump Mounting
 196 Pumps

strainer to protect che unir during start-up. The dis- Reciprocating

charge line should have a pressure gage for observing the
ddivery pressure. The discharge line should have a check A reciprocating pump should be srarted with bypass to
the feed tank or suction of che pump. This arrangement

-
valve, as well as a relief valve for positive displacernent
pumps.
A rernovable strainer should be provided in rhe suc-
tion line to che pump to prorect che moving pares, espe-
cially during start-up.
Further commencs are given for the various pump rypes.
Centrifugal
allows starring wirhout undue power requirernenr before
establishing flow to the process or pipeline. The bypass
valve, or unloader, can then be closed to establish normal
flow. The pump should not be started wirhour bypass
(Hydraulic lnstitute Standards, 1983). Figure 10-22
shows Union Purnp's recommendations (t.g., Henshaw,
1982) for installing a reciprocating pump correcrly.

Pump shafr alignment should be checked carefully, as well Rotary

as the direction of rotation of the impeller. Mechanical
scals require cooling water and sea! flush.
There should be a check valve in the discharge line, as
stated previously. Centrifuga! pumps are generally pro-
vided with a top vent for purging air or gas anda
bottom drain for maintenance.
Pumps should be starred carefully, making sure rhat ali
valves are properly posicioned and che process sysrem
prepared for operation. If rhere is any doubt, consult
the manufacturer. A centrifuga! pump is usually started
wirh rhe discharge valve closed; the valve is rhen
opened slowly to esrablish flow.
Rotary pumps are normally self-priming but should
not be srarred dry; presence of liquid provides
lubrication and cooling.
Ficld Performance Test
Shull and Church (1991) recommend a field perfor-
mance test ar pump insrallacion so rhar future perfor-
mance can be compared with chis index. This assumes
rhar operation is bese ar installacion. Running similar
field tests at appropriare intervals is the besr way of gaug-
ing when majar or minar repairs are needed,

GIIL 8-IZ-Jt

LIN[ V[LOCITV
.5-t, FT./SEC RELIE� VALVE W/
10 PERCCNT MAX
PAESSURC
ACCUMULATION)

�
t
STAAT-UP ANO
CAPAC IT v. C()t,,(fAOI...
VALV[

PULSATION
/
OAMPENEA
FULL- OPENING
VALVE

LIN[ vEi...oc1rv
l-lOfTJS(C.
ECC[NTAIC REOUCCA MINIMUM NUt.lB(A OF TVANS
W/ f'LAT SIDC UP C.000 PtPING SUPPOAT

Figure 10-22 Reciprocating Pump lnstallation (Henshaw, 1981)

t

lnspections
Follow manufacturer's recommendations. Shul! and
Church (1991) recommend che
following:
• Daily: Observe sound of pump running, bearing rern-
peratures, any change in leakage, and ali pressure gages
and flow merers. lf possible, check capaciry, head, and
power consumpuon.
• Semi-annually: Make minor adjusrrnents, check stuff-
ing box and gland boles for free movemenr and dean-
liness, check pump and motor alignment, drain and
refill oil-lubricated bearings, check oil for moisrure,
check arnount and consistency of grease in grease-
lubricated bearings, check flow in balancing devices.
• Annually: Exrend semi-annual inspecrion to include a
running test and compare critically wirh index and last
year's data. Remove, examine, clean and recoar bear-
ings, inspect shaft or shaft-sleeve for wear, check align-
rnenr and determine shafr rnovernent increase, check
ali auxiliary functions.
TROUBLESHOOTING
Detecrion of causes for pump problems requires a thor-
ough understanding of pump operation and of the man-
ner in which the sysrem can affecr pumps. Sorne sugges-
tions for review in individual cases follow:
• Check rhe characreristic curve of rhe pump (if cen-
trifugal); is ir operating ar or near irs BEP'
• Does the pump have adequare NPSH'
• Is the fluid being pumped the same or similar to
rhar
of rhe original specificarions?
• Aie rhe rnaterials of construcrion appropriate for rhe
service?
• Check the suction line for closed valves, strainer block-
age, excessive lengrh or resistance.
• If rhe pump is posirive displacement, check for proper
operarion of che relief valve.
• Check direction of flow in rhe discharge check
valve,
• Check rhe direction of rotation of rhe impeller
shaft.
• Check rhe alignment of rhe pump and impeller,
• Check alignmenr of pump and driver shafts. A flexible
coupling is not an excuse for misalignment.
• Check to see if rhe pump is primed (i.e., filled
with fluid).
• Check for air leak.s in che sucrion
sysrem.
• Check to see if bearings are worn or irnpeller shaft bent.
Pumps 197
• Check mechanical seal for proper installation and
operanon.
Yedidiah (1977) lists suggesrions for diagnosing cen-
rrifugal pump troubles, as do Bloch (1992) and NPRA
(1990). Many problems encountered in centrifugal
pump applicarions are associared with alignment, seals,
and bearings. Seals can be a panícula, problem because
of fugirive emission and environrnenral concerns.
Allen and Chang (1991) repon a particular problem
encounrered wirh can-type vertical turbine pumps in a
water flood injecrion systern. The pumps exhibited exces-
sive failures of motor bearings, seals, and rhroat bushings
and erosion of rhe pump shaft in rhe throat-bushing area.
The throar bushing is located just below rhe sea!.
Resonant vibration of rhe long shaft proved to be rhe
cause. Pump performance was greatly improved by sriff-
ening the motor mounting and throat bushing; righren-
ing the clearances for che mocor-stator, rhrust-bearing,
and guide-bearing registers; and rhe addirion of weights
to balance rhe motor armature. Significant improvernent
in pump performance was obtained.
Tables 10-3 and 10-4 present concise troubleshoor-
ing guides for centrifuga! and reciprocaring pumps,
respectively,
Review Questions
l. Lisr sorne oilfield uses of pumps.
2. Name rhe two basic classes of pumps.
3. Describe a rypical centrifugal pump.
4. Describe and compare mechanical packing and seals.
5. Define characterisric curves, BEP. efficiency, and
operaring point.
How is rhe operating point derermined?
How can the operating point be changed'
G. Describe how the operating point is changed
when identical pumps ate placed in series and in
parallel. What precautions should be caken when
combining pumps in series and in parallel?
7. Define NPSH, NPSHR, and NPSHA.
How are NPSHR and NPSHA determined?
What problems occur if the NPSHA is too small'
8. Define specific speed, suction specific speed.
9. List the common types of positive
displacement pumps.
I O. Define simplex, duplex, triplex, single acting, and
double acting.
 ,... 198 Pumps 'f
. .

11""' Table 10-3 Centrifuga) Pump Troublcshooting Table 10--4 Reciprocaring Pump Troubleshooring

Liquid not delivered Low Volumeuic Efficiency (Rated Capacity and Head not Delivered)
Pump not primed Air ar vapor pocker in succion line
Air or v:1por pockct in line Air or vapor trapped above suction valves
Pump not up to rared speed Air leak in sruffing box packing
Wrong rotation Air or gases entrained in liquid
Irnpeller or passages clogged Foreign object holding valve open
Loase valve covers or cylinder heads
Failure to Ddiver rated capaciry and pressure Worn valve covers or sears
NPSHA not sufficient
Pump not up to rared speed Too Low NPSH Available
Wrong Rotarion (Reversed Phases) Sucrion valve spring too strong
Impcller or passagcs panially dogged Suenan line pania!!y dogged
Wear rings worn or impcller damagcd Vapor pressure too high
Air ar gases in liquid Pumping temperatures too high
Air or vapor
Viscosiry pocket graviry
or specific in suction
notline
as specificd Resrricted sucrion pipe finings
Air leak in stuffing box Liquid Nor Delivered
Total head gre:uer than head for which pump designed Pump nor primed
lnjection of low-vapor-pressure oil in lantern ring of hor pump Air or vapor pocker in suction line
Clogged sucuon line
Pump loses prime Ali suction valves propped open
A.ir leak in suction line Ali discharge valves propped open
Air leak in stuffing box
Air or gases in liquid Pump overloads driver
Pump speed too high
Pump overloads driver Low volrage ar orher electrical trouble
Specd too high Trouble wnh engine, turbine, gear ar orher relared equ1pment
Spccific graviry or viscosity too high Excessive discharge line pressure
Packing roo tight Clogged discharge line
Misalignment Closed valve in discharge line
Total head lower chan raced head lncorrecr lincr size
Low vohage or othcr electrical crouble Improper bypass conditions
Trouble wirh engtne, turbint, gear or other allied t:"qu1pment
Sruffing boA l<:'akage
Pump Vibracion Worn packing
Available NPSH not sufficient Worn rods ar plungers
Air or gases in liquid Worn stuffing boxes
Misalignment Wrong size packing
Worn bearings
Damaged rotacing element Scud failure
Foundation not rigid Excess1ve d1scharge pressure
Pump operating bdow minimum recommended capaciry Improptr torquing of nuts
Shock oYerload caused by pump caviution
lmpellcr dogged
Suction or discharge line vibration
Sruffing box overheats
Suction line too small
Packing too cighr
Too many bends in suction line
Packing not lubricared
r-..1ulnple pump installations operating in phase
Incorrect type packing
Gland cocked Noisy Operation
Loase or worn crosshead pins and bushings
Bearings overhear or wear rapidly
Worn connecting rc.d bearings
lncorrect oil leve!
Misalignment or piping srrains Worn crossheads
lnsufficient cooling water Main bearing cnd play exceSSÍ\"C
Bearings roo tighc or prelcaded Worn gears
Oil rings not functioning Gears out of line
Valve noise amplified 1hrough p�wcr end
Suction pressure appreciably different than specified
Pump c.1.vitation
Improper lubrication
Vibra e ion
Fluid knock
Hydraulic noise in fluid end
Dirt or w.. rer in bearings

,- Source. GPSA, 1979

-
 Pumps 199

Table 10-4 Reciproating Pump Troubleshooting (continued) Problems

Brokcn shafis, Bcnt rods. strippcd threads, and other carastrophic failures
Start-up against closed discharge g.a.tc valve l. From "Oil Production-Surface", By Permission,
Main bcaring failure Rike Service, !ne., New Orleans,
Piston or plungcr suiking cylinder head
Disintegration of worn valve LA
Froz.cn liquid ín fluid body You boughr two idencical and used pumps at an
Low oil leve! equiprnenr auction and sold thern at a handsome
Contaminatcd oil
profit to Cajun Oil & Rice Company (CORCO).
Packing failure Normal Within a rnonth CORCO telephones you wirh
wear Improper
marerial lmproper "good news and bad news."
lubricarion The "good news" is rhar one pump is being used to
Excessive valve noise irrigate a rice field on fee land and is a "going jessie."
Broken or weak valve spring The "bad news" is that che orher pump is being used
Pump caviration
for loading liquid propane and was expected to load
Source: GPSA, 1979 a 20,000 gallan transport truck in about 40 min-
utes. lnstead, ir takes up to 5 hours. The disgrunrled
11. Describe any differences in che f!ow from foreman also complains that che propane pump is
centrifuga!, reciprocating, and rotary pumps. exrrernely noisy, that che discharge pressure fluctu-
How can flow pulsations be decreased? ares widely, and rhar che "rotten propane" has eaten
12. Describe a cypical metering pump. up che pump seals, shafr, and bearings.
13. What driver is used most commonly for oilfield Upan request, rhey fax you che auached drawings.
pumps? (Figures
14. What factors should be considered when selecring a 10-23 and 10-24).
pump' Analyze this complaint and make appropriate rec-
15. List the codes and standards rhat apply to oilfield ommendations.
pumps. 2. The speed of a centrifuga! pump is increased 25%.
Describe che majar difierences between API 61 O and Estimare che change in che flow, head, and
power.

FEI.D .l. NAt.l�TE l)ATA:

ANSI 873. l pumps. ,_..oa,... '1IOP ..... LOACIINO ........

16. How are required pump head, pump horsepower,

NPSHA, and discharge 1emperature determined?
17. How does che performance of a centrifuga] pump
,ary when a viscous liquid is purnpedr
18. What are the Fan or Affinicy Laws?
19. List che informarion needed to design a pump.
Suggest a design procedure.
20. How does the pump efficiency change when the
piping-systern characteristic curve is raised by par-
tially closing a chrording valve? Explain.
21. List the precaurions thac should be caken when
installing centrifuga!, reciprocating, and rotary pumps.
22. Suggest a suitable maintenance schedule.
23. What is likely to occur when a reciprocating pump

l
is starred up againsc a closed discharge gate valve?
24. Assume thar che specified flow is, in realiry, 10% too
big.
Would you select a pump having a BEP flow
larger
or smaller chan che specified flow? Why? Figure 1 �23 CORCO Pump lnstallations
200
Pumps
- •
�
n = speed of rotation, rev/min
(rpm) NPSHA = available net posirive
sucrion head, ft-
l
r-, b

� ,
f
\ l
l
"

.-» �
\ b
m
e-, '' NPSHR = required net posirive sucrion
head, fr.
l
b
f

,,, l
l
b
m
P = pressure (psi in Equarions 10-11
and
1
0
-
1
2
)
p =
fluid
power
q = volumetric llow cate of liquid
%,p = llow rare ar besr efficiency
, .,/
•
poinr, gpm
V S = pump specific speed

-
• SS = pump sucrion specific speed

1
� V"
/ ...- T = remperarure (ºFin Equation 10-16)
V = average velociry of rhe liquid in rhe pipe

/ ¡...- .......
""

- -
W,
Z = =elevation
work done by rhe liquid
" -
- - 0-..,, o. ... - · Gre
ek
f

o
o -
Figure 10-24 Characteristic Curves for same piping bur rhe liq- uid being
CORCO's
Pumps pumped has a viscosiry of 1,000 el'
Stare ali
assumpti
3. A centrifuga! pump discharges 100 ons,
gpm of water against a total head of
100 ft. Nomcndature
Estimare the
power required, C = consrants used in Equarion
Estimare rhe power if the sarne pump 10-13
must deliver rhe same llow rhrough the Cp = heat capaciry of liquid
Cv = valve coefficient
 d = inside diarneter (ID) of pipe, in. ó
= denotes change (as in rernperature)

'•
D¡ = inside diarneter (ID) of pipe, ft. = pipe roughness
E
f = friccion factor y = specific weighr of liquid = pg/�
F = pipe and fining fricrion r¡ = pump efliciency (see Equarion 10-10)
loss term µ = absolute viscosiry
(Equa

'
of rhe liquid p = liquid
rion densiry
10-5)
L = denotes summacion
g = local acceleration of graviry
� = conversion factor from MLT to Subscripts
FLT unirs a = due ro accelerarion
G = specific graviry ofliquid b = brakc
(water= 1)
h = head-loss rerrn (see Equarion
10-4)
compr = due to adiabaric compression
of a liquid disch = ar pump discharge
j
t
f = fluid
K = resisrance coefficient for a
fitting, valve, or frie = due to fricciona! dissiparion
orher fricrional p = due to pump
resisrance source pr = due to pressure change
= constant used in st = staric, due to elevarion change
Equation 10-13 suct = ar pump suenan
L = lengrh of total = total change
straight pipe m = v = due to change
mass flow tate of in velociry vp

•
=
liquid vapor pressure
1 = refers to inler of flow sysrem
2 = refers to outlet of flow system

References

f
Allen, R. E. and L. C. Chang (1991), "Can-
Purnp Maintenance Problems Solved by
Engineering Modifi- carions," Oil & Gas } *
ourna!, Vol. 89, No. 4, pp. 77-83 (jan. 28).
- Pumps
AIChE (1984), "Equipment Tesring Procedure for
Centrifuga! Pumps (Newtonian Liquids)," American
Institute ofChemical Engineers, N. Y., NY, 2nd ed,
Anonymous ( 1986), "Performance Characterisrics and
Design Procedurcs for Centrifuga! Purnps," Conoco
lnc., Ponca Ciry, OK, Nov. 24.
Anonymous (1989), "Multiphase Pumps Field-
Tested,"
6).
ou & Gasfoumal, Vol. 87, No. 6, p. 51 (Feb.
-
Anonymous (1990), "Pump Specificarions," Arco Oil
and Gas Co., Dallas, TIC
ANSI 873.l (1991), "Specificarion for
Horizontal End Suction Centrifuga! Pumps for Chemical
Process", American National Standard, lnsritute, New
York, NY.
ANSI 873.2 (1991), "Specification for Vertical ln-
-
Line Centrifuga! Pumps for Chemical Process",
American National Standard, Institute, New York, NY.
API RP 14E (1991), Dtsign and Installation ofOffihore
Production P/aifórm Piping Sy,tems, 5th ed., American
Petroleum lnstitute, Washington, DC (Oct. 1).
API RP 500A (1991), Recommended Practice far
Classification of Locations far Ekctrica/ lnstallations in
Pesroieum Refinerie», l st. ed., American Petroleum
Insritute, Washington, DC.
API Standard 610 (1989), "Centrifuga! Pumps for
General Refinery Service," American Petroleurn
Institure, Washington, DC (Feb.).
API Standard 674 (1987), "Posirive Displacement
Pumps-Reciprocating," American Petroleum Instirute,
Washington, DC (Dec.).
API Standard 675 (1980), "Positive Displacernenr
Pumps-Controlled Volume," American Petroleurn
Institute, Washington, DC (March).
API Standard 676 (1987), "Positive Displacement
Pumps-s-Rorary," American Petroleurn Institute,
Washington, DC (Dec.).
Bloch, H. P. (1992), "Making Your ANSI Pumps Live
Longer," Cbemical Enginuring, Vol. 100, No. 12, p. 23
(Dec.).
Bloch, Heinz P. and Donald A. [ohnson (1985),
"Downrime Promprs Upgrading of Centrifuga! Pumps,"
Cbemical Enginuring, Vol. 92, No. 24, pp. 35-41
(Novernber 25).
Brennan, J. R. (1992), "Screw Pumps Cose Effeceive
for Heavy Crude Operations," Oil & Gas journa/, Vol.
90, No. 51, pp. 101-105 (Oec. 21).
Brenneisen, S. (1981), "Minirnize Metering Pump
Problerns," Hydrocarban Promsing, Vol. 60, No. I, pp.
130-136 (january).
201
Buse, Frederic W. (1985), "Power Consurnption of
Double Mechanical Seals," Cbemica! Enginemng, Vol:
92, No. 25, pp. 125-128 (Deccmbcr 9/23).
Buse, F. W. (1992), "Iake Many Factors Inro
Consideration When Selecting Pump Material,," Chemical
Engintmng Progms, Vol. 88, No. 5, pp. 84-87 (May).
Cody, Donald J., Craig A. Vandell, and Don Sprarr
(1985), "Sclecting Positive-Displacement Pumps,"
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(july 22).
Colebrook, C. F. (1939), ''Turbulent Flow in Pipes,
with Particular Reference to the Transition Region
berween the Smooth and Rough Pipe Laws," J lnst. C.
E. London, Vol. 11, pp. 133-156.
Crane Co. (1985), Flow ofFluids, Technical Note 410,
22nd Printing, New York, NY 10017.
Darrigan, Parrick R (1992), "Mukiphase Pressure
Boosring-Achievements and Challenges," Procccdings
l Oth. Offshore Northern Seas lnternational Conference,
Vol. 2, Paper No. T8, Sravanger, Norway (August 25-28).
Dever, T. C. (1983), "Options Available in
Construction
Materials fur Vertical Turbine Pwnps in Scawater Ser-vice,"
Oil Gasjoumal, Vol. 81, No. 48, pp. 116-120
(November
28).
Doane, R C. (1993), "Rate Pumps for Viscous Crudcs
Quickly," Hydrocarbans Processing, Vol. 72, No. 11,
pp.
94-97 (November).
Duncan, A. B., andJ. F. Hood (1977), in "Pumps and
Compressors for Offshore Oil and Gas," pp. 7-24, lnsr.
Mech. Eng., London.
Elderton, J. (1977), in "Pumps and Compressors for
Offshore Oil and Gas," pp. 85-93, lnsr. Mech. Eng.,
London.
Gie, Pierre, Pierre Buvac, Christian Braru, and P.
Durando (1992) "Poseidon Muleiphase Pump: Ficld Test
Results," Proceedings 24eh Annual SPE Offshore
Technology Conference, Vol. 4, pp. 489-502,
(May 4-7).
GPSA (1979), Engineering Data Book, 9th ed., Gas
Processors Suppliers Association Tulsa, OK.
GPSA (1987), Engin,ering Data Book, IOth ed., Gas
Processors Suppliers Association Tulsa, OK.
Goodridge, R. A. (1991 ), "Developrnenr of
Multiphase Pumps Units for Offshore Applications,"
Preprint Instirure of Marine Engineers
Meeting, London, England (january 22).
Grohmann, Martín (1979), "Exrend Pump
Application wirh lnducers," Hydrocarbon Promsing, Vol.
59, No. 12, pp. 121-124 (Decembcr).
202 Pumps
Gulich, J. F. and A. Rosch (1989), "Cavitation
Erosion in Centrifuga! Pumps," Chrmical Enginuring
Progress, Vol. 85, No. 11, pp. 68-73 (Novernber).
Hallam, J. L. (1982), "Centrifuga! Pumps: Which
Sucrion Specific Speeds Are Acceprable?" Hydrocarbon
Processing, Vol. 61, No. 4, pp. 195-197 (April).
Hattiangadi, U. S. (1970), "Specifying Centrifuga!
and Reciprocaring Pumps," Chrmical Enginuring. Vol.
77, No. 4, pp. 101-108 (Feb. 23).
Henshaw, Terry L. (1981 ), "Reciprocating Pumps,"
Chrmical Engineering, Vol. 88, No. 19, pp. !05-123
(Septernber 21).
Hoyle, Richard (1978), "How to Select and Use
Mechanical Packings," Cbemical Enginming, Vol. 85,
No. 22, pp. 103-110 (October 9).
Hydraulic Insrirure (1983), "Hydraulic Institure
Srandards," Parsippany, NJ, 14rh ed.
[ackson, C. (1973), "How to Prevent Pump
Cavitation," Hydrocarbon Prowsing, Vol. 52, No. 5, pp.
157-160 (May}.
Jacobs, J. K. (1965), "How to Selecr and Specify
Process Pumps," Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 44, No. 6,
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Jennings, G. P., and L. P. Meade (1956),
"Deterrninarion of Pump Efficiencies from Fluid
Temperature Rise," API Proc., Vol. 36, parr V, pp. 36-39.
Karassik, 1. J. (1981), Cencrifagal Pump Clmic, Marce!
Dekker, !ne., NY, 1981.
Leve, F. S. (1972), "Pumps: A Trouble-Shooting
Guide," Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp.
91-92 (Jan.).
Mabe, W. J., and R. A. Mulholland (1990), "Variable
High-Speed Motors Oprimize Sealless Pumps,"
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(February).
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No. 18, pp. 180-193 (May 2).
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51, pp. 47-50 (Dec. 17).
NEC 500 (1983), Th, National Elearic Code
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Associarion, Quincy, MA.
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(Septernber 14).
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Applications," Hydrocarbon Processing, Vol. 60, No. 11,
pp. 279-284 (November}.
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Offshore Oil and Gas," pp. I-é, lnst. Mech.
Eng., London.
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lnscall Mechanical Seals," Chemical Engineering, Vol. 85,
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¡
Problems and Cavitarion-Free NPSH in Centrifuga!
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78-81 (April 11).
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Shu!l, W W and M. L. Church (l 991 }, "Field
Performance Test: Key to Pump Savings," Hydrocarbon
Processing, Vol. 70, No. 1, pp. 77-79 Uanuary}.
Swamee, P. K. and A. K. Jain (1976), "Explicir
Equarions for Pipe-Flow Problerns," J. Hydr. Di»; ASCE,
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Taylor, l. (1978), "NPSH sun Pump-Applicarion
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103-108 (jan. 2).
Taylor, Ivan, Bill Cameron, and Bill Wong (1988), "A
Users' Guide to Mechanical Seals," Chemical Engineer-
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Vandell, Craig and Wolfgang Foerg (1993), "The
Pluses of Positive Displacernent," Chrmical Enginrering,
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Yedidiah, S. (1977), "Diagnosing Troubles of Centri-
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(Novernber 21); No. 26, pp. 141-143 (December 5).
 -
- Chapter 11

-
Measurement of Crude Oil

--
INTRODUCTION One cype of sliding vane meter, che Lease Automatic
Custody Transfer (LACT) unir, is ehe cradirional standard
Producers first sold oil in various sized containers for measuring crude oil. PD meters are also used for
called gasoline dispensing, aircraft fueling, kerosine and other
"barreis" and rhe Pennsylvania Oil Producers established
rhe standard barre! of oil as 42 US gallons at 60ºF in petroleurn produces, and in many other industries such
1866. The American Petroleum Insriture established as brewery, dairy, food, and so forth.
Code 25-"API Code on Measuring Field Production"-
in 1929 and Standard 2500 "Measuring, Sarnpling, and Differential Prcssure (DP) Fleweaeters
Testing Crude Oil" in 1955. Since 1977, che recognized
standard has been and currcntly is che API Manual of Here che flow rate (vclocicy) is inferred from the pressure
Petroleum Mea.ruremmt Standard: (1977-present). differential generated by accelerating the fluid chrough a
Firsr, the more common typcs of mcters are reviewed restriction in che line, The square-edged orífice plare (the
briefly, Then, the rhree most popular measurernenr standard for natural gas cusrody transfer) is the best
merhods used for custody transfer (srorage tanks, LACT known and most common. Natural gas measurernenr by
unirs, and rurbine merers) are discussed. Next, orifices as orífice rneters is covered by APl/ANSl 2530 and ISO
liquid rnerers and meter proving are described. Then 5167 Standard, and is discussed fully in Volume l ,
Coriolis mass rneters are reviewed and sorne promising Chapter 11. Ocher types of restrictions are used in
approaches to multiphase flow metcring are sumrnarized. ven-
turi meters, flow nozzles, Dall tu bes, and target meters as
Finally, che factors influencing meter selecrion and mecer is illusrrated in Figure 11-2.
accuracy are discussed. In a rotameter, rhe fluid flows upward rhrough a verti-
cal tapered rube (Figure 11-3). A float, which has a den-
TYPES OF METERS siry higher rhan the fluid, forms an annular resrrictiou
berween its maximum cross-section and che inside of
This summary describes the major cypes of commercial che
tube. The upward differential pressure force across che
flow meters and highlights rhe applicarions for which float balances rhe ner gravitacional downward force. A
rhey are best suited. Coverage of posirive displacemenc, rorameter is, therefore, a consrant DP, variable-flow-are.r
orífice, turbine, and mass rnerers is very brief because meter.
these four cypes are discussed lacer in more derail. DP meters are used exrensively in steam flow, cherni-
cal and process plants, seawater and marine applications,
Positive Displacement (PD) Meten and so forth.
As che name suggesrs, PD rneters are unique because chey
mechanically isolate and pass a known volume of liquid
Turbine or Propeller-Type Meters
wirh every revolution or oscillarion. The trapped volume
is defined by sliding vanes, oval gears, reciprocating pis- Turbine meters operare under che principie or assumption
rons, rorar:,· pisrons, nutating discs, and bi- and helical that a free-running rotor (coaxially mounted on che
ro-ors (Figure 11-1). pipe
centerline) rotates wich an angular speed proportional to
203
,-
204 Measurement of Crude OiJ
ROTATING VANE METER
Bl·ROTOR METER
ROTATING PADOlE METER
Figure 11-1 Positive Displacement Meters (Baker, 1977)
che actuating fluid velociry. lnline curbine merers are che
standard method for custody transfer ofhigh-volume, low-
viscosiry, North Sea crudes. Orher uses include natural gas
rneasurernent, milk and beer, chemica1s, and water.
Ultrasonic Meters
One rype of ulrrasonic meter exploirs the difference in
transir time when an ulrrasonic beam rravels with and
against che fluid flow (Figure l 1-4a). Single- and multi-
beam time-of-flighr rypes exist. To prevent scacrering of
che sound wave, rhis rype is used wirh clean liquids.
Anorher rype (Figure I l-4b) ernits a beam of ultrasonic
sound waves into rhe fluid and senses che signa! reflected
back from bubbles ar particles in rhe fluid. The fre-
quency of rhe reflecred signa! shifts and :his Doppler
change in frequency is proporrional to rhe fluid
velociry.
No pressure drop occurs wirh chis meter, bue che main
difficulry is che accuracy of sound velociry
measurement
OSCILLATING P1STON METER
OVAL GEAR METEP.
required ro pick up the much smaller flow velociry. Uses
include natural gas measurement in large pipes, sewage
and slurries, and corrosive liquids.
Vortex Meters
The frequency ar which vórtices are shed from a bluff
obsrruction is proportional ro the incident fluid velociry
for Reynolds numbers berween I0,000....1,000,000. Tlus
phenomenon is readily visible when a flag waves in rhe
breeze, The flag pole serves as the obscruction and gener-
ares the vórtices thar cause the flag to wave. Because the
vortices are detecred by a piezoelectric cryscal, vortex
merers generare a small OC volrage signal (Figure 11-5).
This rnakes chem very suitable for elecrronic control sys-
tems. The Reynolds number resrricrion makes vorrex
rneters suitable for gases, steam, and nonviscous líquids.
Very viscous liquids and abrasive slurries should be
avoided (Wilbeck, 1988). Vortex shedding is the only rype
 Mcasuremcnt of Crude Oil 205

_,,, '1
O�U1'SD"*"I 19"-G• ¡ l ¡ 5"·1s•

I
.
i1r::-� _J_
¡!...... � ...,
_.J .,¡_
•, venturi (Spink, 1978)

--...-. - . .-,,,. _

Flov Nozzle
. -·----·-..
(Spink, 1978)
..Ltt
FLAlf&C

Dall Tube (Cheremisinof!, 1979)

Target Meter (Spink, 1978) Spring-1.0aded Plov..ter

(Harrison, 1910)

Figure 11-2 Differential-Pressure Flowmeters

of fluid oscillation meter ro be marketed successfully.

(See Harrison (l 980) for descriptions of rhree orher
types- swirlmeter, and relaxanon and feedback-rype
oscillators.)

Electromagnetic Flowmeter

This meter exploits Faraday's Law thar rhe .nduced volr-

age is proporrional to rhe velociry ar which conducrive
fluids flow rhrough a magnecic field (Figure 11-6). The
flowmeter consists of a flow tube (eirher unlined non-
metallic or metal wich a nonconducrive lining, e.g., poly-
rerrafluoroethylene or polyurechane), elecrrical coils to
generare rhe magnetic field, and a pair of elecrrodes to
..
n a
pick up the induced vohage (Figure 11-6). Obvious
advancages are no moving parts and no head loss.
Figure 11-3 Rotameter (Cheremisinoff, 1979) Disadvantages include restriction to conducting liquids

206 Mcasurcmcnr of
Crudc OiJ
SUSPENDED

! Oscilll'tor
SOt.lOS OR BUBBLES '

.... --;----:-
Transmin
e, LVpoth•
Vcos8
..
·
:
.
--
-- ...·
---=
··

-·
7- - .:-:�= :_ -�-- :_ .
.

:
Oirtctk>n of flow V

EPOXY RESIN
BOND CABLE
TO
P1EZOELECTRIC FLOWME
CRYSTALS TER

SEN
SOR
HEA
D

(a) Simple Transit (b) Doppler Shift of

Time Frequency
(Harrison, (Cheremisinoff,
1980) 1979)
Figure 11-4 Ultrasonic
Flowmeters

rhe tubes which is superimposed on rhe original

(rnost hydrocarbons are excluded) and electrode
vibra- tions. The magnirude of rhis secondary
fouling (zero drift). Common uses include abrasive
motion is pro- portional to the mass flowrate ti.«,
slurries and water (disrriburion and power
to the product of the average velociry and the
stations, chcmical, nuclear, and proccss
average density).
industries). See Rose and Vass (1993) for more
Several excellenr and more exrensive reviews
derails.
of flow meters are available kg., Ginesi (1991) and
Ginesi and Grebe [1987]).
Coriolis Mass
Meter
STORAGE
The fluid flows through a sensor consiscing of a tube
TANKS
that is vibrated ar its natural resonanr frequency.
This har- monic motion imparts to rhe fluid a
Custody transfer of crude oil from storage tanks--
velocity component perpendicular to the normal
or, less formally, gauging, testing, and
axial component. In rurn, chis induced velociry running-involves five
causes a secondary movernent of

Figure 11-5 Vortex

Meter (Echeverria,
1985)
HIGH 'lflOCITY flUIO

M
U
1
(
J
I
1
0
1
1
(

At.TlRWAT(
VORTICE5

-
 Measuremenr of Crude Oil 207

Rose and Vass (1993) Kopp (1980)

Figure 11-9 Electromagnetic Meter (Fischer & Porter Co.). lllustration at left reproduced wilh permission of the
American lnstitute of Chemical Engineers, 1993 AIChE. Ali rights reserved.
tasks: gauging, sampling, and measuring the temperature, sized by measuring the outside circumference at a
ºAPI graviry, and o/o S&W of rhe oil. Determination speci- fied number of heights. API Standard 2550
of the size or capaciry of the rank or "strapping" and derails the location and number of srrappings for the
mea- suring rhe volume of oil leaving the tank or particular rype of tank (e.g., Figure 11-7). Afrer the
"gauging" are now reviewed. tape is positioned horizontally around the tank, che
Tanks may be calibrated by the traditional strapping tension is set ro rhe specified value (e.g., 10 to 30 lbf),
with a steel tape, by measuring the flow of water out of and the tape is read ro
che tank wirh a posirive displacement meter, by rneasur- 0.005 fr for single and 0.001 fr for mulriple rneasure-
ing tank dimensions optically, and recently, by electro- menes. Ali heights should be measured to O.O! fr.
opticai disrance ranging (EODR). Before a tank is cali- Measurements should include ··11 srrapping heighrs,
brated, ir must be filled ar least once wirh a liquidar leasr heighrs of piares in each ring, rora] gauge heighr, and
as dense as the crude oil. This requirement applies to ali maximum fill level. If tank is filled, record liquid level,
tank calibration rnethods, and ir is usually satisfied by rhe liquid O API, and temperature.
hydrostaric water tests applied afcer construction. The tank shell piare rhickness and paint thickness, tank
Tank gauging techniquer include the traditional man- rilt, and dimensions and locations of ali "deadwood"
ual innage and outage gauging, floar-operated (i.e., interna] pipes, ladders, hearers, ere.) must also be
automatic
recorded. The rank bottom must be carefully surveyed to
merhods, servo-powered and radar-gauging, and hydro- determine any level variations as is discussed later under
static gauging. Ali rhe approaches for borh calibration tank gauging.
and gauging are now reviewed. The rradirional hand
� ,:,T,.,..
1 ,,
.,
c••cu..,l�t�:l¡'t'

i
srrapping and gauging methods are ernphasized because 01 111�, •••••

H
i ,�.�,
,.,,e.,,ns
of their conrinued populariry.
,
,,. ,,....,tw<tc:t �
... , ,..,� .. u• "
1:!
j o� ""-"" !, Ee
�VltN(;f
'i "

1 ;
- -�"
Tauk Strapping ei•· •
1v• tlR(

i .. .. ...
�I � !al
O('"'-"ª :
1
0 1 •-.

API MPMS, Chapter 2.2A, formerly API Standard 2550 +- r

.a 'i "'· '!i
,,,.. 01 "-1>• :,:
� •
..
(ANSI/ASTM D 1220), or!SO/CD 7507-1 describe rhe
 : ;!
"'
.
�
� 1 ··"·
: .
o
e

-
ranks. These three standards are similar and differ mainly

! s
� �
procedure in detail for strapping upright cylindrical
! :,¡;
•
º1_ 1--,11.
" e

• • · 1.,.
c••e. .,.
o •
!

'
1 ••• ,

in the locarion and number of strappings. The usual tape

is sreel, 100 or 200 or 500 fr. long, 1/4 in. wide, and 'j' K ¡

.0 "' •
1
ca•t
¡
it is rnarked ar one or both ends in O.O] fr.
WELOEO
!
increments.
STEEL TANK
Vo,l,col $�u••
IIOLTEO
STEEL TANK
:".'] i
c •••••• u ••••• , ,·
.....
e
i
SMALL
AIVE'T[[) STEEL
TANK
i.tt4o '"'•tl•4 Co•Ot<oOI ••

This tape must be checked ar tank location againsr a Figure 11-7 Tank Strapping Measurements (PETEX,
standard tape calibrated by NIST (NBS). The tank is 1980)
208 Measuremcnr of Crudc Oil

Liquid Calibration The readings required for all the above locarions are:
Clean frcsh warer is usually used cxcept in subfreezing l. Liquid leve! gauge.
wearher, The tank is filled progressively by flowing rhe 2. Temperature of liquid in tank.
water through a posirive displacemenr meter and into the 3. Posirive displacemcnt meter reading.
tank, thus obtaining the volumes required to fill the tank 4. Temperature of liquid at meter.
to rhe desired levels.
Thcrmometers should be calibrated and read to 0.1 ºF.
Optical Reference Line Method (ORIM)
The PD merer should be carefully preved (repeatabiliry

wirhin 0.02%) befare and after rhe tank is filled. The
befare and after provings should also agree within
0.02%. When propcrly done, chis is che mosr accurate
tank calibration method.
Flow is stopped and the liquid leve! gauge and meter
readings recorded at rhe following locations (Yeandle,
199Jb):
l. Liquid rcaches datum piare.
2. At onc-inch intervals unril botrom is covered com-
plerely,
3. At lower and upper limits of deadwood.
4. Ar lower edge of floaring roof.
S. Ac several intermediare levels to establish increment.
6. When roof reaches Aoating posirion,
7. Every 6 in. up the tank wall.
8. At top of each plate course.
Vertical
Reference
Une
m 'f
r
•
The standard reference is API MPMS, Chapter 2.28.
First, the tank diamerer on che bottom course is measured
by strapping. Then deviarions from chis reference diame-
ter are measured optically. Two devices are required:
J. An optical plummet that consists of a theodolire and
an accurate leve! attached to a tripod. This
provides a line of sight from the theodolite that is
perpendic-
ular ro che tank radius being measured.
2. A magnetic trolley thar rraverses rhe tank verrically.
The trolley has a graduated horizontal scale rhar allow
changes in the tank radius to be sighred (Figure 11
Sa).
The number of theodolite or horizontal stations
required varíes from 8 for ranks SO fr in diameter to 36
for 350 fr diarneter ranks. The optical device must be lev-
elled at every starion. Sighrings musr be perpendicular as
Tank Tank
<t Horizontal <t
Weld Seam
20%
R,

Weld R
Tank Seam
• Shell
'
R2
Graduated .'1 r - 20%
Scale
1

' a
�
+
Horizontal
1' Weld Seam
1
1

' (b) S,ghtings per Course

(a) Magnetic Trolley and Scale
F.lgure 11-8 Optical Reference Line Method (Yeandle, 1991 b)

1
 Mcasnrermnt of Crude Oil 209

is verified by reading che scale, rotacing che optical device concentric to che tank. At each station che following ver-
180 dcgrees and reading again. These rwo readings must tical sighrings are taken-rwo per ring at least 1 ft from
agree within 0.005 ft. Readings srart with the trolley at a vertical weld seam and 20% from che lower and upper
che Iowesr reference heighr and che trolley is rhen moved horizontal weld seams. At each vertical leve! rhe tank wall
up. After che highest vertical reading, the trolley is low- is sighred on both che left and right of rhe sration and the
ered and the reference reading checked, The rwo refer-
angle 0' (Figure 11-9) read. The firsr vertical sighcing,
ence readings musr agree within 0.005 ft.
0, is made at rhe reference circumference.
Ar any chosen vertical heighr, the cank radius, r, is:
At any vertical height, the cank radius, r, is cakulared
r = Cir/2n + I [(a - m)/n] (11-1) using:
wherc: Cir = measurecl circumference at refcrence r = (Cir/2,c)(sin 0/sin 0') (11-2)
height
a = measurcd referencc offset (see Figure 11-8)
where: Cir = srrapped circumfcrcncc ar reference height
m = measured offset at selected vertical height
8 = angle sighting of refcrence circumferencc
n = numbcr of horizontal stations
0' = anglc sighting ac any highcr vertical heighr
I = summarion over ali n horizontal srarions
(see Figure 11-9)
The ORLM rnerhod is an alrernarive to manual map-
Again, readings are taken at rwo vertical heighrs for
ping so che n umber of vertical heights ar which rneasure-
each ring or course (Figure 11-Bb). The arirhrnetic aver-
rnents are required is specified by API 2550. In
age of ali readings at a given vertical height determines
general, rwo vertical stations are viewed for every ring
rhe rank radius ar that heigh« In rurn, che mean of the
(Figure
two tank radii for each course or ring is taken as rhe tank
11-Bb). The average of the two radius readings for each
radius for that ring or course, and ir is used to calculare
ring is taken as rhe rank radius ar chis ring, and ir is
the tank volume for that ring.
used to calculate rhe volume of rhe selected course.

Optical Triangulation Method (OTM) Electro Optical Distance Ranging (EODR)

Again, che reference cank diamerer at the bottom EODR rneasures the disrance. D, horizontal angle, 0,
course is determined by strapping. The theodolite musr and vertical angle, l¡l, of carger poinrs on rhe cylindrical
have an angular graduarion and precision better chan rank wall from che EODR insrrument (Figure l l-10)
0.002º. Ar least four horizontal stations are selccted; these
are approximacely equally spaced and located on a o
o o
circle
Target Points o o
o
o o

o o
o o
o
Plate Course [
o o
o
o o
o
o
Reference
Target
Points

T
e; Horizontal Angle
<l> ; Vertical Angle
Reference Circumfet'ence At Any Glven Vertical Station O ; Slope Distance
Figure 11-9 Optical Triangulation Method (alter Figure 11-10 Electro Optical Distance Ranging (alter
Yeandle, 1991 b) Sivaraman and Wallace, 1992)
21 O Measuremenr of Crude Oil
(Sivaraman and \Vallace, 1992). The EODR instrument,
consisring of a single oprical laser, a distance ranging
device, and an on-line cornputer, is posirioned near che
tank center on a lirm base, leveled, curned on and
allowed to warm up. The inscrumenc is calibrared by
mcasuring repcatedly rhe discances, D, and angles, 9 and
tj), of cwo reference poinrs on rhe cank wall {Figure
11-10). When the repeated readings agree, rhe tank can
be calibrared, The mínimum nurnber of target points is
che same as in che ORLM merhod, 8 to 36 targets
(depending on tank diameter) for each vertical ring or
hcight and rwo vertical tings or heights for each course.
Comparison of Calibration Methods
Ali calibration merhods supply rhe information
required to prepare a tank calibrarion table rhar provides
che vol- ume of liquid in the tank ar any deprh,
Manual slTapping is a standard API method rhar is srill
popular and cose effecuve in sorne cases. As tank heights
and diameters increase, ir is increasingly difficulc to posi-
rion the tape correctly dueto tape sag, tank irregularities,
and che limiced cape lcngch.
Liquid calibration is rhe rnost accurate merhod and is
often preferred, even though ir is time consuming and
labor intensive.
The optical reference line and the optica! triangu!ation
metbods were developed in che early l 970s and are now
available commercially. In many cases, they compare
favorably wich the manual method.
Sivaraman (l 990a) presencs decision charcs rhar select
che bese method(s) to calibrace externa] floacing-roof,
interna! floacing-roof, and lixed roof tanks, respectively.
The key tank variables are welded or riveted, entry per-
rnirted or nor, and insulated or not.
Manual Tank Gauging or Strapping
API MPMS Chapter 3 (API Standard 2545) is che stan-
dard authoriry, The procedure should include:
l. lsolate the tank (i.e., prevenc any flow in or out).
2. Use face mask and fresh air bortles if H2S can be
present.
3. The gauger should prevent any sraric elecrrical dis-
charge by grounding his body before reaching che
top of che cank.
4. Stand upwind of rhe hacch befo re opening
ir.
5. Measure temperature at the specilied level(s) in rhe
tank.
6. Take sample(s) for BS&W dererminarion.
7. Using a thief cake a sample fo, gravity dererrninarion.
8. Gauge che rank, The flexible stee] cape should be 0.5
in. wide and have a 20-ounce brass bob attached to
keep che tape taut and vertical when gauging {Figure
11-11). The tape is calibrated in foot, inch,
and eight-inch markings that srarr ar che pointed
rip of rhe bob. For innage gauging, che gauger
stands on che roof and carefully unwinds che tape
until che bob just touches che tank bottom. The tape
is rhen withdrawn and che wetted deprh read to the
nearest
1/8 in. for tanks of over 1,000 bbl and to 114 in.
for
less than 1,000 bbl tanks. lncorrect readings are
obrained if che bob is lowered too far or nor
far enough. The tank is always gauged chrough the
same harch to che same srrike plate on the
borrom to ensure consistent readings. For outage
gauging, the deprh to che liquid surface is measured.
9. The oíl is rhen run out of rhe tank.
I O. The tank is rhen gauged again.
API Standard 2545 specilies rhe derailed procedures
for taking samples for S&W measurement and for mea-
suring che temperature of the crude in the rank. In
ranks larger than 1,000 bbl, the number of samples for
S&W content varíes with liquid height. For less chan I O
fe. one sample taken at middle of liquid; for heights
between
10-15 fe, two equal-volume samples-one 6 in. below
surface and the other at ouder conneccion for saleable oil;
and for heights over 15 fe, three equal-volume samples-
one 6 in. below surface, one at middle ofliquid, and one
at oudet connection for saleable oil. Do not gauge a
foaming or boiling tank. Note che S&W concenc, the
º API and the remperature can and do vary rhroughour
the tank.
Figure 11-12 shows three cup·case rhermomerers for
reading the oil remperarure. One reading at rhe middle is
taken for tanks with less than I O fe of liquid or with less
than 5,000 bbl. For tanks with 10-15 fe of oil. two mea-
surements are made--one 3 fi from the top and che
other
3 fe from che borrom. For tanks wich over 15 fe of liquid,
rhree measurements are specified: one 3 ft belo\v surface,
one at middle of liquid, and one 3 fe from the bottom.
Hydrostatic Tank Gauging (HTG)
As shown in Figure 11-13, hydrostatic tank
gauging, (HTG), of an atmospheric pressure tank
employs two precision sensors coupled wich
microprocessors and a
resistance temperature detector (RTD) (Beno, 1990).
The
-
 Measuremene of Crudc Oil 211

i
. ..

Figure 11-11 Gauge Tapes and Bobs (PETEX, 1980)

Figure 11-12 Cup-Case Thermometers (PETEX, 1980)

212 Measurcmcnt ofCrude Oil

,Jo top preuure -.-=-==-,

{tuJ\ Fleld interface
[:J]
tranamltt.r
(ptNau,lzed tanlra) · ¡�
''. . ,¡ Personal compuler

�:(�
HIU �
Translator
Pi PN11Ur•
tranaminer
o
o
o o
o

, ,

. . . . ..
ATO t o m p er

8h,,.

Host computer

OO.

Figure 11-13 Hydrostatic Gauging Equipment (Berto, 1990)

lower pressure sensor, P1, which is mounced on the ver-
tical shell of che tank just above rhe bottom, measures the
total hydrostaric pressute of the crude oil in che tank.
The second pressure sensor, P2, is mounted about 8 ft
above, and che pressure difference, P1 - P2, measures the
crude densiry or gravity. The RTD temperature sensor
allows che calculared gravity to be corrected to che
stan-
dard temperature of 60ºF.
The total mass (lb) of oil in the tank, MT, is given
by:
where AT = area of rank, ft2
P1 = observed prcssure ar lower sensor, psig
Crude densiry, p0 (lb/ft3), is calculated from:
Po= (P, - P2HI44)(GC)/(AH)
where P2 = observed pressure ar upper sensor, psig
GC = graviry coefficient for rernperature
(obtained from API, Table 5A)
ó.H = distance berween pressure sensors, ft
shown in Figure 11-14 (Sivaraman, 1990b). The radar
transmitter ernits a frequency-modulated concinuous
rnicrowave signa! in the range of 9-1 O GHz. The
microwave hits the liquid surface and is reflected back
to rhe receiving antenna. The distance from the antenna
to che liquid surface is proporcional to rhe change in
fre- quency of the rellected signa! from rhe original
ernirred one. Once calibrated, rhe radar gauge yields
the liquid
leve! direcdy.
(11-3)
(11-4)

Hydrostaric gauging measures the mass or weighr of

che crude oil in the tank. The volume musr rhen be
cal-
culated from che measured densiry between two sensors.

Automatic Tank Gauging Systems (ATG's)

API Standard 2545 (1965) describes rhree types of
tt
auto- rnatic tank gauging systems; namely, float- T.,.k dlal'M\et : M
j HcMe:Tl'emu.llQo,,clt'ttl/\MllcDll•nmc:ltd10�tlOY:�
T.nk re!. lle'9hl : IC 11: 11 (�) M 10 W\ICILrlal ll"r>IUIIOr>S
actuated or
float-tape, power-operared or servo-operated. and elec-
tronic surface sensing rypes. The electronic t) pe has
Figure 11-14 Radar Gauging System (Sivaraman,
the advantage of no moving parts. A radar gauging. 1990b)
systern is
--
 Measurcment of Crude Oil 213

Comparison of Gauging Methods Table 11-1 Accuracy ofTank Gauging Mechods

Manual tanlt gauging is che tradicional and mosr Typical Manual lnnage-gauging Errors
popular method and, as such, is also che refcrencc for Accuracy of rhe installation
judging or comparing the newer rnethods. Berro (1989) Tank cable errors ,0.6 m. 150 bbl (,0.15%)
compares in decail typical errors caused by incorrect tank Bortom movement +0.25 in. ,60 bbl (,0.06%)
construc- rion, improper installation of gauges, and faulty Shell diam. therrnal expansión +0.25 in. ,60 bbl
(,0.06%) Darurn piare upward movernent + 1.5 tn. >350 bbl
level and temperarure measurernenrs. As previously (,0.35%) Error in temp. reading, 3ºF. -0.5 tn. -120 bbl
stated, accu- rate oil measurement depends on four (-0.12%)
measurements: oil Accuracy of rhe tank gauge
'!"' volurne, temperarure, 0 API and o/o BS&W. Berro Tape calibration t0.12 in. ,30 bbl (,0.03%)
distin- Tape therma.l expansion •O.IS in. ,40 bbl (,0.04%)
Human errors-level reading .t0.12 in. dObbl (,0.03%)
guishes berween cwo rypes of errors: inherent ones chat
apply to all gauging methods and specific ones that are Manual Outage-gauging Errors

lirnired ro one rnethod, Accuracy of the instaJlation

Tank table errors ,0.6 in. ,150bbl (,0.15%)
lnhcrent errors include tank bottom movernent, rank Bottom movement +0.25 in. ,60 bbl (,0.06%)
rilring, movement of the autornatic gauging mount or Shell diam. thermal expansion ... 0.25 in. ,60 bbl
manual gauging reference point, and movernenr of che (,0.06%)
bottom datum plate. Tank bottoms can sink when rhe Roof-mounted re( pt rnovemenr �.06 in. -150bbl (-
0.15%)
tank is filled. There is negligible error if the sinking is Shcll-supported gauge movement ... 1.0 tn. ,250 bbl (,0.25%)
permanent or uniform. Error occurs when che rnove- Shell he. therma.l expansion +0.12 in. ,30 bbl (
ment is elastic or when che center sinks more chan che +0.05°/o) Error in temp. reading, 3ºF. -0.5 tn. -120 bbl
I""' circumference. Tank encrusration with waxy or viscous (-0.12%)
Accuracy of the eank gauge
crudes is a compensating error. Tank tables prepared
Tape calibration t0.12 in. , 30 bbl (.0.03%)
before 1965 neglecr che expansion of the steel shell due Human errors-level reading :t.0.12 in. , 30 bbl (,0.03%)
to liquid head. Many cank rabies assume 72ºF oil. Float-operared Tank-gauging Errors
Movement of rhe manual gaging reference point or rhe
Accuracy of the installation
autornaric gauge mounting causes the largest errors Tank table errors ,0.6 tn. ,150 bbl (,0.15%)
(Berro, 1989). Bottom movement +0.25 in. ,60 bbl (,0.06%)
Shell diam. thermal expansion •0.25 in. +60 bbl (,0.06%)
Specific Errors. Table 11-1 sumrnarizes Berto's Roof-mounted ref pt movement -1.2 tn. -300 bbl (-0.30%)
Shell hr. thermal expansion +0.25 in. .60 hbl {•Ü.Q6Wo)
analysis of rhe major errors for six different gauging rneth- Error in temp. reading, 3ºF. -0.; tn. -120 bbl (-0.12%)
ods. Table 11-1 is based on rhe following assumptions:
Accuracy of che tank gauge
Tank size: 150,000 bbl, 50 ft high, 150 ft in diameter ATG hysteresis t.25 in. , 60 bbl (,0.06%)
Delivery: 100,000 bbl, 120ºF oil, ambient 60ºF Servo-powered and Radar Gauging Errors
Accuracy of the insta.llation
Berto's analysis assumes honesr and skilled labor. Tank table errors t0.6 tn. tl50 bbl (t0.15%)
Jntentional errors can, of course, be much larger. Many Bottom movement +0.25 in. ,60 bbl
sources of error, such as readíng rhe tape, do not vary (.0.06%) Shell diam. thermal expansion +0.25 in. .60 bbl
(,0.06%) Roof-mounted ref. pe movement -1.2 tn. -300 bbl
with rhe amount of oil sold. One obvious (bur effective)
(-0.30%)
method of reducing errors is to transfer oil only by the Shell�supported gauge well
entire tankful. movement ... 1.0 In. •250 bbl (,0.25%)
Accuracy of the tank gauge
Servo ar radar gauge .t0.12 in. dObbl (±0.03%)
LEASE AUTOMATIC CUSTODY TRANSFER Hydrostatic Gauging Errors
(LACD UNITS Accuracy of the insta.llation
Tank table errors :!:.0.6 tn. ,150 bbl (,0.15%)
Bottom movemenc •0.25 in. ,60 bbl (,0.06%) Shell
Equipment
diam. thermaJ expansion +0.25 in. ,60 bbl (+0.06%)
The components of a typical LACT unir (Figure 11-15) Accuracy of the Tank Gauge
are now described in the order thar the crude flows HTG sensor calibration
and drift '1.2 in. ,300 bbl (t0.30%)
through the unit.
Source: Berro, 1989
Note. above estimares are ba.sed: on the fol!o1A·mg
a.ssumptions: Tank size: 150,000 bbl. 50 ft high, 150 ft in
d:iame1cr
Debvery: 100,000 bbl, 120�F oil. ambienr 60"F.
- 214 Measuremeru of Crude OH

[ll'.r-lAUST SAUPt_f P�OBf

,
/
, SOLl.'-OiO Í -
LACT
i
\
S - - - -,- - - - - - - - - - --/CONT1!Ct.l
f<áHif>...f" ) 1
l_"'T""� 1

VO...UU(
R[Cl.JL.A TOR SA�PU I
r----J C(),,ITAIN[R 1

Otl
SURG(
TANK

"'"'

'
RCORCULATI°'4 LP€
8.t.O< PA(SS\JR(
VA.LV( !>qQ\ltR LOOP
VA&. V[S

Figure 11-15 Typical LACT Schematic (Marshall et al., 1989)

Strainer. An inline scrainer immediately upstream of
rhe charge pump rernoves incoming debris, rhus prorect-
ing che pump and meter and also improving measure-
ment accuracy. The strainer houses a perforated basket
thar traps and collects ali particles larger rhan rhe perfo-
rations. Inline strainers are sized to hold considerable
amo un es of debris, however rhe basket should be
removed and cleaned regularly. Failure to so do can resulc
in excessive pressure buildup and possible rupture of che
basket. Ali collecced debris will chen be empried into rhe
pump and meter chus causing major damage.
to che monitor. lf rhe measured capacicance exceeds che
calibrated value for crude oíl plus rhe maximum allow-
able BS&W, rhe monitor activares an alarm. Usually, che
monitor is set to receive an unacceptably high reading for
a set time before ir activares rhe divert val ve or alarms the
control panel. For example, a BS&W monitor set for 1 %
BS&W wirh a l-rninure delay would allow a 1 % BS&W
reading for 1 minute before acrivating che divert valve
and che control panel alarm.
Typically, BS&W monicors have rhe following
opnons:

Pump, The charge pump and motor supply che
energy to flow rhe crude rhrough rhe unit and to keep che
crude above its bubblepoinr. To avoid flow pulsarions,
centrifuga! pumps are usually used for medium or large
flows while rorary pumps are sometimes used for low
flowrares, The driver is usually an elecrric motor, and borh
pump and motor are mounted on a common base place
with an alignment adjustmenr provided. Of course, che
pump (and motor) must be sized to satisfy flowrate, head,
horsepower and NPSH requirements. Sour crudes rcquire
cast iron fitcings; bronze is suitab]e only for sweet crudes.
BS&W Probc and Monitor. The BS&W monitor is
locaced immediacely downstream of che pump and in a
vertical pipe to insure thac rhe crude is well mixed. The
probe consiscs of a Aanged spool wich an interna! capac-
Ítance probe. Water has a dielectric constant of abouc 80
while che value for crude oil is approximacely 2. While
the capacitance probe measures che average dielectnc
constan! of rhe liquid flowing around ir, a signal is sene
1. An emergency shurdown chac diverts the crude back
to the stock tank when rhere is a po\"ler outage or
when che monitor and/or control panel fails.
2. An adjusrable BS&W range (O to 3%).
3. A rime delay device char prevenrs small pockecs of
BS&W from acri·,ating rhe diverr valve.
Air Eliminator. The air eliminaror, which removes
entrained air or vapor befare the crude enrers the
meter, is placed in che highest pare of rhe piping upmeam
of che meter. Air gradually accumulates ar che top of che
elirni- nator forcing rhe liquid leve! down until a Aoat
valve
drops discharging rhe air chrough an exhausr valve ro
a
drain or armospheric sump. A sofr-seared check valve in
the discharge piping prevenrs air from being sucked inro
rhe LACT unit when rhe Aoat val ve is down and che unir
is nor In use.
Sarnpler. As shown in Figure 11-15, rhe sampler
con- sists of a sampling probe, solenoid valve and volurne
reg- ulator, and a sample container. To insure a
representarive

sample, the probe rnust be in the middle part of a verti-
cal run of piping. The two common types of sample
probe are 45º bevel and isokinetic. The sample container
musr be large enough to hold ar least 10,000
sample grabs of ar least I mL in size. Refer to API
MPMS, Chapter 6.1, for ali rhe requirements.
Divcrt Valve. The inler of the three-way divert valve
is always the incoming crude oil, bur che discharge goes
to the LACT meter if rhe crude rneets sales specs or is
recycled back to the treater if rhe BS&W alarm is
acti- vated. Offshore a pneumatic actuator with an
electric solcnoid is rypical while onshore hydraulic
actuators are popular.
Meter. LACT units 1raditionally use posirive dis-
placement (PO) rnecers because rhey can measure accu-
rately viscous crudes with enrrained solids in a minimum
space. A PO meter consists of an externa! housing, a
measuring element, and a councer drive train. The exter-
na] housing, which is essentially a pressure vessel with
inler and outler connections. keeps rhe pressure on che
crude oil and houses che measuring element and
drive rrain. While single or double case construction is
found,
rneters larger than 4 in. are nearly always carbon steel,
double case construccion (Figure 11-16). Double
case
construction has rhrec ad,·antages;
lnner
un,1
Hous,ng Cam
Measunng
Ct'lamt>er
Meter
Housmg
Btaoe
Beannq
Path of
Bladn Rotor
double case
(a) Rotating Vane Meter
Figure 11-16 LACT Meter and Orive Train (Carlson, 1989)
Mcasurcmcnt of Crudc Oil 215
1. The measuring device is isolated from piping stresses.
2. The measuring elernenr can be removed more easily
for line flushing and/or maintenance.
3. The differenrial pressure across rhe inner unir hous-
ing is rninimized, thus eliminating any expansions
or conrractions due to Auid pressure changes.
The PD Measuring E!enzenr measures volumerric flow by
separaring the flow inco segments or measuring chambers
of known volume and counting the segments. As shown
in Figure 11-16a, a ror.1ci:!g vane meter consists of a
wheel with four vanes or blades. A cam exrends and con-
traces the blades once every revolucion. The flowing fluid
provides rhe torque ro rotare the wheel and drive rhe
accessories. The meter should have low mechanical fric-
cion, consume a small pressure drop. generare a high
corque, and pass encrained solids.
As shown in Figure l l-16b, rhe caunter drive train
consists of a gear train, a packing gland or rotary shaft
seal, and a calrbraror or adjuster. The measuring cham-
bers or volume segrnents vary, of course, with che
meter size and also among individual meters of rhe
same size. The gear tratn converrs volume passed per
revolution
inro a convenient unir such as S gal, l m3, or 1 bbl. A
seal is, of course, required where che rotating shafr passes
through che stationary mecer housing. This requires
repair v'hen leaking occurs. A calibmtor allows che
dnve
ccw ,
(b) Accessory Orive Train
 216 Measuremcnt of Crude Oil
rrain to register rhe true volume flowing chrough rhe
meter. lf che registered volume is corrected using a
meter factor, then a calibrator is nor required or used.
The meter is scaled ro prevenr rampering after
calibrarion or the meter factor is determined.
Prever Loop Valves
The prover manifold consists of one inline and rwo
bypass valves. During normal metering the inline valve is
open and che bypass valves are closed. Closing che inline
valve and opening the bypass valves causes the flow
through the meter to pass through the prover loop.
Bccause ali the merered crude oil must pass through the
prover loop, rhese valves must have block and bleed seats
to detect any leakage. To prove rhar there is no leakage
during proving, these valves should have "tattle-tale"
-
drain valves that can be opened when che valves are
closed. Most LACT unirs include a bidirectional sphere
prover because of space and cose advantages. Provees are
discussed later.
Back Pressure Valve
The back pressure valve is typically a spring-loaded
diaphragm, elecrrically-actuated, normally-closed globe
valve rhat maincains a conscanr fluid pressure on
che LACT unir. The setting should be 5-15 psi higher
than rhe sales pipeline pressure which, of course, should
also be higher than the bubblepoint pressure of rhe
crude.
CheckValve
The check valve prevents reverse flow from che sales line
back through the LACT unir to the storage tank. Such
back flow would result in sorne crude oil being rneasured
rwice and might allow air to enter, Air [low can
damage the unit especially rhe meter and the pump.
-
Vents and Dra.ins
Good design requires both vent and drain valves. Vent
valves are usually globe or ball valves locared at the
highest possible positions in rhe piping such as rhe
top of the BS&W loop, prover launch charnbers,
strainer cover, etc. Drain valves are typically ball, gate,
or plug. Drainage should be provided between each set
of block val ves.
-
Control Panel
As irs name irnplies, rhe control panel is rhe
electronic brains rhar operares the LACT unir, The
control panel starts che charge pump and motor when
the oil leve! in the surge or run tank (Figure 11-15)
reaches the high leve! switch. lf there are no operaring
problems (e.g., high BS&W), the LACT will run umil
rhe oil leve! reaches rhe low leve! switch. The unit then
shuts down until the
next high leve! switch signa!. In addition to the basic
starting and sropping rhe LACT, the control panel can
also (Marshall et al., 1989):
1. Indicare che total volume, and rhe instantaneous
flowrare, temperature, and pressure.
2. Indicare failure of rhe meter, BS&W, etc.
3. Activare alarms when failures occur.
Of course, che degree of aucomation desired deter-
mines rhe number of controls and if local and/or
remete indication and control are required, A local
explosion- proof control panel could include (Pirts,
1988):
• Auto/manual/off switch
• Pump on/off control and low pressure
• Sampling/sampling failure
• BS&W status: good or bad oil
• Position of chree-way divert valve
• Strainer differential pressure
• 4-way valve position=-prover sphere launch
• Sea! indicarors of 4-way valve and prover manifold
val ves
• Meter operating pressure, remperature, and flow rate
• Provee operating pressure, cemperature, and counter
• Meter select switch
Operation
LACT unirs are usually operated at low pressures (less
rhan 150 psig). ANSI 150 pipe and finings are standard
chus keeping coses low. Meter bodies are rated ar either
150 or 275 psig. This philosophy minimizes construc-
non coses.
A check-out and stan-up procedure should precede
opetation. Check-out should include:
1. Mak( sure char pumps are rotating in correct direc-
tion. lncorrect rotarion can loosen a rhreaded
impeller and damage che pump housing.
2. Check ali voltages applied to LACT unir.
·-
 Mcasurcmcm of Crudc Oil 217

3. Be sure that the coupling between motor and pump be che most attractive method for accurate measurernenr
is properly aligned. Misalignment causes prernarure of large volumes of low viscosiry petroleum liquids.
failures. A flexible coupling is no excuse for mis- The construction of turbine meters is presented first
alignment. and then meter performance is reviewed by discussing
4. Be sure inler piping connection is properly aligned che validity of two basic assurnprions: first, rhat the rotor
with the pump. rotation varíes linearly wirh the average fluid velociry and
Start-up procedure involves: second, that che volumetric Aowrate is proportional to
the average fluid velociry, Finally, meter sizing and meter
1. Remove straincr basket from straincr and meter
accuracy are summarized. Turbine rneters, for gas flows,
inner mechanism if appropriatc.
are described in Volume l , Chapter 11. Duplicarion is
2. Isolation prover by closing isolation valves.
avoided when possible.
3. Scarc pump and flow oil for 20-30 minutes to
flush out any debns,
4. After flushing, rurn off pump and replace strainer
basket and meter inncr mechanism. Construction ofTurbine Meters
5. Gravity fccd oil into unir carefully to expel ali air As shown in Figure 11-17, a turbine meter consists of
through the high-poinr vents. three components (Temple, 1994):
6. Start flow and open block valve downsrrearn of The housing consists of a short flanged rube 0.25-24
meter to be sure ali air is removed. Do not allow in. in diameter with 275-6000 psig work.ing pressure.
meter to overspin because chis can cause damage. Construcrion material is usually carbon steel or stainless
7. Adjust rhe valves for normal or metering operarion steel for corrosive environmencs and/or low-temperature
and turn the control panel to "autornatic." applications.
Normal operation should include (Seranee, 1991): The Interna/ Assembly consists of a rotor and usually
two stators that center and support che rotor. The rotor
l. Regular lubrication and maintenance.
has stainless steel blades, and it is supporred by sleeve-rype,
2. Verifying meter operation.
3. Calibrating BS&W monitor using a reference oil.
4. Verifying sampler frcquency and sample amount.
5. Checking mainer for plugging.
6. Verifying ali alarms, shur-down features, and diverr
valve.
7. Meter proving. (This is discussed in detail later.)
8. Checking meter transmitters.
9. Checking backpressurelflow-control valve,
As indicated later LACT units are che standard choice
for metering viscous crude oils and for low flows. LACT
unirs wirh good PO rneters are more accurate rhan tank
gaugmg.

TURBINE METERS

lntroduction

Use in che perroleurn industry developed in the l 960s

and API Standard 2534 "Measurement of Liquid
Hydrocarbon by Turbine Meter Systems" was first pub-
lished in 1970. The current standard is API MPMS,
Chapter 5.3. Since then the turbine meter has preved to Figure 11-17 Turbine Meter (Temple.
1994)