NOTES IN BIOLOGY ZOOLOGY LECTURSE

By: Sebastian T. Narciso

Introduction to the Science of Zoology

Date: January 31, 2019

1. Chemical Uniqueness & Organization

- All organisms exhibit variation in terms of chemical composition

- Each species has differences in molecular organization in biomolecules which leads to
biodiversity

2. Hierarchical Organization

Cellular level- heart muscle cell

- Sponges are the simplest animal because their bodies are in the cellular level

Tissue level
- Group of cells that perform a single common function
- Animals under Phylum Cnidarians such as jellyfish, sea corals, and hydras are under the
tissue level of organization

Organ level
- Several tissues that perform a single common function
- Heart with its role to pump blood

Organ System Level

- Multiple organs working together to serve a common function
- Circulatory level where multiple organs work to bring blood all over the body to transport
things such as oxygen

Other than this, there are other levels of organization that is higher than the organismic level

Levels of Organization
- Population- same species
- Community- composed of different populations of living organisms; not just animals like
bacteria, plants, and fungi that interact in a particular are
- Ecosystem- more inclusive; includes the abiotic factor like water and air
 - Biosphere- highest level of biological organization

3. Animals use Energy

- In the living world, there are two important processes: photosynthesis and cellular
respiration
- Some do both, and these are referred to as autotrophs. Examples of these plants,
phytoplankton, cyanobacteria.
- Us animals, we are considered to be heterotrophs because we only perform cellular
respiration and can’t do photosynthesis. To supply energy, we need to consume other
organisms/food.

Photosynthesis- light energy, in the presence of CO2 and water, is converted into ATP
(chemical energy) and is stored in the chemical bonds of glucose. This happens so animals can
consume the carbohydrates and break it down to use the energy

Cellular Respiration- sugar (glucose) is broken down into simpler molecules. Simultaneously,
energy in the form of ATP is being released. This energy is used to perform complex metabolic
functions.

4. Animals Respond to Stimuli

- Stimuli is anything that causes an organism to react
- This reaction is important for organisms to survive in their changing environment
- In response to the stimulus of predation, horned lizard sprays predator with blood to
escape
- Emperor penguins group together and huddle to survive the cold (huddling)
- Some animals during cold winter seasons also tend to hibernate; they change different
physiological activities. This can be seen in the kojac bear.
- Plants such as the venus fly trap thrives in nitrogen deficient areas. It predates anything
that touches its leaves. It can liquify the nitrogen cells present in the animal or insect it
consumes.

5. Ability of Living Organisms to Reproduce (Reproduction)

- There are two kinds of reproduction: Sexual and Asexual Reproduction
- Asexual- does not utilize gametes; the progeny are exact copies of the parent
- Sexual- Animals use gametes to produce offspring using the combination of the sperm
and egg cells making the offspring unique. It is a combination of the genetic material of
the maternal and paternal cells. It is better because of variation/evolution.

6. DNA Is transmitted from one generation to the next

- DNA is referred to as the main hereditary material of life
- It contains the genes that are translated into proteins. These are manifested in living
organisms as living traits.
- Nucleus- chromosomes are found in the nucleus
- Gene-
- Chromosome- is the condensed form of DNA. It is coiled and condensed.
7. Animals Grow and Develop
- Organismic Growth- increase in cell size and number
- Development refers to all changes that occur in the body of the organism whether
morphological or physiological
- Ecdysis- basically the molting thing

8. All organisms are capable of movement

- All are capable of precise movement; does not have to be conspicuous. It can be in the
cellular as well. Think about the xylem and phloem of plants. Their response to life and
stuff.

9. Animal Populations undergo Genetic Changes over time

- Related to animal response to stimuli
- We can respond to stimuli because of our adaptations
- Adaptations- all that help organism to better survive in its environment
- When environmental changes occur, they can be long-term or short-term. For long-term
environmental changes, we expect to adapt or evolve.
- Evolution- process of adaptation that results in genetic changes. Sometimes these
genetic changes happen in a large scale. This may result in Speciation.
- Speciation- leads to new species because of evolution

Systematic Biology
Date: January 31, 2019

Biological Diversity
- Animals can be categorized into bacteria, archaea, or Eukarya

Bacteria- prokaryotic organisms; their DNA is naked and not enclosed within a membrane. It
also lacks the nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. It is still capable of protein synthesis
though because of its ribosomes.

Archaea- they are known as extremophiles. This is because they survive in extreme
environments like hot springs or areas with high salinity. Achaeans are still prokaryotic. They
exhibit molecular structures are different from bacteria; this is why they were separated. They
have different lipid structures.

Eukaryotes- they have nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. They (Eukaryotes and
Achaeans) share a common ancestor or something similar. They utilize the same enzymes for
DNA replication such as helicase and DNA polymerase.

Hierarchical Classification
 - We’ve seen that there are different domains of life. In order to not be confused by all the
organisms, the hierarchical classification was developed by taxonomists.

- Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

- It becomes less and less inclusive through each level

- We owe the Binomial System of Nomenclature to Carolus Linnaeus. That he developed.

- Scientific Names
o Genus Names
o Specific Epithet
- St. Peter’s fish/ Oreochromis niloticus/ Oreochromis niloticus/ O. niloticus

Scientific Method
- The scientific method may be summarized as a series of steps.

1. Observation
2. Hypothesis
3. Empirical test
4. Conclusion- reject or approve of the hypothesis
5. Publication

It does not necessarily start with an observation. It can involve the identification of a problem.

Chromosomes are the condensed version of the DNA. And DNA comprises the genes.

The Chemical Composition of Cells

Date: February 7, 2019

An Introduction to basic Chemistry

- All living and non-living things are made up of matter
- And matter are typically composed of elements
- There are 94 naturally occurring elements
- And there are also elements that are synthesized in the laboratory
o The smallest particle that comprise an element is an atom; it is the basic unit of an
element
- Atoms are composed of subatomic particles
- Proton (+)
- Electron (-)
- Neutron

Center of atom is the nucleus where the proton and neutrons are found
Revolving around the nucleus is the electron cloud

Atomic Number and Atomic Mass

- Atomic number is the number of protons
- Atomic mass is the proton + neutron (molecular weight)

Chemical Bonds
- For atoms to form complex molecules, they form bonds with other atoms
- Chemical bonds form substances known as compounds such as water and methane
- It is always in fixed ratios in terms of their composition
- 2 – 1st energy level
- 8 – 2nd energy level
- 18- 3rd energy
- 32- 4th energy
Outermost energy level is the valence shell- and the electrons found there are called the valence
electrons

Valence shell/electron cloud is unstable

For atoms with electrons in higher energy levels, they need to follow the octet rule

Ionic Bond
- Result in the formation of ions or charged atoms
- The two atoms that comb
- Valence electrons 1,2,3 lose
- 5,6,7 gain electron
- Metal – non metal
- Electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions
-

Covalent Bond
- Required for the formation of biomolecules
- Sharing of electrons between two atoms
- Molecular forms
- 2 hydrogen atoms form molecular hydrogen
 -

- Polar or Non polar

Basic Chemistry
Date: February 12, 2019

Hydrogen Bonds
o Weak bonds
o But strong enough for the formation of organic compounds

Hydrogen bonds make water good as a solvent

- Good for DNA linking
- They are also involved in the proper folding of our proteins

Organic and Inorganic Compounds

- Inorganic compounds- acids, bases, water
- Organic compounds- saturated with hydrocarbons; carbo, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid

Inorganic Compounds

Water
Properties of water
- Highly polar molecule
 - Universal solvent
- Cytoplasm uses water to break down substances in our body; which is usually used for
the synthesis of
- High heat capacity
- is able to transfer heat and can act as an evaporative coolant for the body of living
organisms
- High Surface tension
o Cohesion- how water molecules are strongly attracted to other water molecules
o Adhesion- how water molecules are attracted to other polar molecules
o This is important for the transport of water throughout different plants as well as it
is important for insects especially in many water bodies

Acids and Bases

Acids
- Acids + water will dissociate into hydrogen atoms and a negatively charged ion
- Carbonic acid, fruits, vinegar

Bases
- Bases + water will dissociate into a positively charged ion and a hydroxide (OH-) ion
- Baking soda
- 0-6 acidic
- 8-

Organic Compounds
- There are 4 recognized organic compounds

Carbohydrates
- Sugar and starches
- All carbohydrates are composed of these atoms in fixed ratios. 1:2:1
- Composition: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen
- They function as fuel because they carry ATP; This molecule can store energy and
they also act as structural components of organisms like the cell wall of the plant
which is composed of cellulose.
- 3 kinds of carbohydrates (different by sugar subunits)
o Monosaccharides (1 subunit)
 Glucose
 Fructose
o Disaccharides (2 sugar subunits)
 Condensation reaction (covalent bond which is the glycosidic bonds)
between 2 monosaccharides
 Sucrose
o Polysaccharides (complex sugar)
 Starches- storage molecule in plant cells; glucose from photosynthesis
get stored
  Cellulose- for structure
 Glycogen- human storage molecule

Lipids
- Greasy and oily in consistency
- Fats and Oils
o Fats- animal sources; solid at room temperature; effective fuel molecules; more
efficient than carbohydrate in terms of energy; This is because per gram of lipid it
contains 9 cals of energy while carbs contain 4 cals. It is harder to break down in
comparison to carbs. Better for active people, less for less active.
o Oils-plant sources
- In plants, they have cuticle which prevents excess evaporation
- Most lipids are composed of triglycerides
o This
o Glycerol
o Fatty Acid
 Saturated vs Unsaturated fatty acids- unsaturated fatty acids have one or
more double bonds
 Saturated- from animals; solid at room temperature; unhealthy and can
lead to problems in tubular structures
 Unsaturated- from plants; have carbon chains that are usually bent
 This makes them liquid at room temperature
- Phospolipids have phosphate head and
o Ampiphatic nature- this usually has 2 ends; one end is hydrophilic and the other is
hydrophobic
o It is because of this nature that a lipid bilayer forms when exposed to watery
environment;
o This is why it can compartmentalize components within cells
Proteins
- Structure: composed of amino acids
- There are 20 recognized amino acids
- In terms of composition, they have the ff parts: central carbon, attached to this is an
amino group, carboxyl, free hydrogen atom, side chain or r group
- They link together through the peptide bonds (covalent bond); formed between
carboxyl group of one amino acid and amino group of another amino acid; they are
formed through the removal of water between two amino acids
- 4 levels of organization:
o Primary Protein Structure- proteins are usually in their linear sequence;
referred to as polypeptide.
o Secondary Protein Structure- proteins usually in the form of alpha helices or
beta pleated sheets; this is achieved when hydrogen bonds form between
amino acids
o Tertiary Protein Structure- proteins already exhibit 3D shape; It is during
this formation that the proteins are already functional. This is achieved when
 different dipole-dipole interactions (ionic bonds, disulfide bonds, hydrogen
bonds) are formed between side chains.
o Quaternary Protein Structure- not all proteins can exhibit this level of
organization; only those with more than one polypeptide or amino acid chain
can achieve this; one example is hemoglobin protein which is composed of 4
different polypeptides.

Enzymes
- Are molecules proteinaceous in nature
- They act as catalysts that speed up chemical reactions
- They are highly-specific; only interact with specific substrates
- Enzyme-substrate complex- sucrase only for sucrose
o Active sites; they follow the shape of their specific substrates
o Activation energy level- they can reduce activation energy of chemical
reactions;
o It would take super long for us to process sucrose if we didn’t have sucrase
enzyme

Nucleic Acids
- DNA and RNA; often considered main hereditary material of living systems
- Protein Synthesis
o Chromosomes
o DNA
o Genes
- Basic structural components: nucleotides
- 2 nucleotide chain for DNA; 1 nucleotide for RNA
- Sugar phosphate backbone with nitrogenous base for nucleotide of DNA
- Deoxyribose sugar for DNA; RNA for ribose sugar
- Nitrogenous bases: Adenine guanine cytosine thymine- DNA
- Adenine guanine cytosine uracil- RNA ‘
- ATP is a nucleotide; sugar phosphate component and a nitrogenous base, adenine;
- Nucleotides are not just building blocks of nucleic acids, but they can also act as
energy molecules such as ATP

The Animal Cell

Date: February 12, 2019

Methods of Study Cells

- Microscopes
o Light Microscope- usually to observe the nucleus of the cell
o Transmission Electron Microscope- observe internal contents of specimen
 o Scanning Electron Microscope- to observe the external aspects of specimen

Cells basic unit of life

- Eukaryotic vs Prokaryotic Cells
o Difference in membrane bound organelles and presence of nucleus
o Prokaryotic is smaller
o DNA in eukaryotic in nucleus; DNA in nucleoid in prokaryotic
 Nucleoid is not a structure but a region where their DNA can be found
o Prokaryotic undergo binary fission while eukaryotic undergo mitosis
o Cell walls; prokaryotic with peptidoglycan while eukaryotic
o Similarities: membrane bound; dna,; ribosomes

The structure of animal Cells: Plasma Membrane

- Outer boundary of the cell; but in plants it is still enclosed in cell wall
- In terms of flow of material, the plasma membrane is selectively permeable

Molecules that can diffuse through the membrane

- Oxygen, CO2, and water can easily pass through; usually gases
- Ions need the help of carrier proteins like sodium potassium ions
- Large complex molecules, and other substances need to undergo an energy demanding
process known as endocytosis

Biological Membranes

- Phospholipids; Major structural component of most Biological Membranes are the

phospholipids (amphatic and can confine cellular contents; this is also the reason why the
plasma membranes is selective in what can enter the cell)
- Membrane proteins; some can act as enzymes and signal transduction. They act as
antennas that can be found in the extracellular environment.
- Membrane carbohydrates; Carbohydrates cannot be found embedded in the lipid
bilayer; They are important for cell to cell recognition. For example, the white blood cells
can identify the foreign material from local material
- Fluid Mosaic Model- mosaic part is because of the multiple components that comprise
it; it is described as fluid because things can freely move through the surface of the lipid
bilayer

Passage of materials across biological membranes

- Diffusion- small polar molecules can pass like water; flow from higher concentration to
one of lower concentration
- Osmosis- is basically like diffusion but it only pertains to water; movement of water
through biological membranes and is dependent on concentration in environment.
- Solution
o Solute
o Hypotonic- lower concentration in the outside than internal concentration;
tendency for water molecules is to move inside the cell causing it to swell or burst
 o Hypertonic- - higher concentration in the outside than internal concentration; the
water molecules will move outside the biological membrane causing it to shrink
o Isotonic- equal concentrations inside and outside causing equal exit and entry
through biological membrane
- Facilitated Difussion or Passive transport
o Facilitated by ions; it is also considered to be diffusion;
o They move from higher to lower concentration as well
- Active Transport
o Molecules specifically ions move against the concentration gradient
o They move from lower to higher concentration
o This is done through carrier proteins using the input of energy
o It is very important for action potentials such as electrical impulses that activate
our neurons
- Endocytosis
o Vitamins, minerals, and hormones are the ones capable of undergoing endocytosis
o It is the collective term for phagocytosis and pinocytosis
o It is an energy-demanding process and will not happen unless mitochondria
supplies energy to cell membrane
o 2 steps: Invagination and the formation of the vesicles that enclose
extracellular materials

Phagocytosis- large complex molecules are being engulfed by cells; this term means cell
eating
o When the vesicles are formed, they fuse with lysosome.
o White blood cell trying to engulf a bacteria
o The vesicles that are formed are called phagosomes
Pinocytosis
o Invagination only in a small area of the membrane; no fusing with lysosome.
o Vitamins, minerals, growth hormones
o The vesicles that are formed are called caveolae
Exocytosis- the events are the same, but they happen in reverse. The vesicles come from
the golgi complex that formed them. These vesicles fuse them to the plasma membrane,
so the plasma membrane can expel different intracellular materials.

Nucleus- Houses the DNA;

- nuclear pores basically lets different materials in the nucleus
Nuclear envelope
Nucleoplasm- houses the nucleoli which synthesizes the ribosomes

Ribosomes- read the genes;

Mitochondria- Powerhouse of the cell

o 2 membranes: outer and inner mitochondrial membrane
o Folded parts called the cristae
 o Fluid part called the matrix that has the necessary components for cellular
respiration

Endoplasmic reticulum- manufacturing centers of the cell

- Rough ER- has ribosomes for protein synthesis
- Smooth ER- lipid synthesis

Golgi Apparatus- packaging centers of the cell

- Exocytosis because the allow vesicles to form in the cell
- These vesicles can transport materials from one organelle to another

Cytoskeleton
- It is the main part of the cell that provides structure and helps it maintain shape
- Holds everything in place
- Different elements: Microtubules, Microfilaments, Intermediate Filaments
- Microtubules- largest of the elements; protein that compose them is tubulin;
important in the process of cell division wherein they allow equal separation of
the chromosomes when cells divide. They emerge from the centrioles which are
only present in animal cells.
- Microfilaments- smallest of the elements; protein that compose them is actin
- Intermediate filament- medium sized elements; cell-type specific.

Surfaces of Cells
- Prominent structures in the plasma membrane; sometimes they allow animals to
move and the sweeping of the materials from one area to another
- Cilia and Flagella- in terms of composition, they are the same. They are
composed of microtubules or protein tubulin. They emerge from the kinetosome.
- Cilia- back and forth motion; flagella- propeller-like structure
- Pseudopodia- false feed; these structures are utilized to move. One example is the
white blood cells.

Cell Reproduction
- Cells undergo division for 3 purposes: cells divide for growth, cells for repair, and
to pass genetic information from one to another

Eukaryotes
- Mitosis- performed by somatic cells or body cells
- Meiosis- performed by sex cells; formation of sex cells or gametes

Mitosis
- The cell cycle
1. Interphase: G1, S phase, G2 phase
2. Interphase takes longer than m phase. This is because the cell prepares
itself before the actual division. They need to prepare a lot.
 - Interphase
1. G1 Phase- Cell increases in size together with its organelles
2. S Phase- Chromosomes double in number; they replicate themselves.
Replication of chromosomes
3. G2 Phase- Cell will continue to increase in size. New cytoplasm is
formed; organelles double; all other structures needed for mitosis form
- Mitosis
1. Process that divides the cell nucleus
2. Prophase- Chromosomes condense and the nuclear envelope disappears.
Spindle fibers begin to appear.
3. Metaphase- The chromosomes align at the metaphase plate. The spindle
fibers attach to the centers of the chromosomes (centromeres).
4. Anaphase- The chromosomes move towards the opposite poles of the
cells. This moving away from the sister chromatids is made possible by
the shortening of the spindle fibers.
5. Telophase- The chromosomes decondense to form chromatin or DNA.
The nuclear envelope begins to reappear. The spindle fibers disappear
together with the centrioles. A proteinaceous substance forms between the
cells known as the cleavage furrow. The cleavage furrow pinches the two
parts apart. The plant equivalent is the cell plate.
6. Cytokinesis- The actual separation of the two cells. Separation of the
daughter cell from the parent cell.
Meiosis
- Not in detail; focus on the basic difference between mitosis and meiosis
- The sex cells undergo two phases of division
- 2 cell divisions
1. Meiosis I
 PMAT
 A diploid cell divides into 2 daughter cells that are diploid
Crossing over- during prophase I; the arms tend to overlap
forming a cross-like structure. During this overlapping, the
exchange of genetic material occurs.
 Synapsis- is the region of crossing over
 Chiasma- the part of the chromosome that overlap. Touching point
of the arms.
 This exchange of genetic material leads to genetic recombination.
The mixing of genetic material leads to evolutionary genetic
variation.
2. Meiosis II
 The resulting cells of meiosis I will divide again and form 4
haploid cells (half of the number of the chromosomes)
 It is not a cycle; the haploid cells are formed and cannot undergo
cell division
 The diploid for sperm is the spermatophyte containing 46
chromosomes
  The females have diploid cells called oocytes. They will undergo
another division until another haploid forms.

Introduction to the Science of Zoology

Date: January 31, 2019

Energy Flow in the Biosphere

- Fuel molecules in food represent solar energy
- Animals depend on plant to convert it to chemical energy
- Chemical energy is in the form of ATP
- Radians are utilized through the process of photosynthesis
- Ingredients for photosynthesis = co2 and h20
Digestion
- In order to harness the energy from
- Mechanical Digestion- broken down to smaller pieces
- Chemical digestion- broken down to molecular level
1. Carbs- glucose; lipids- fatty acids; protein- amino acids

Energy is attained through the process of Cellular Respiration

Metabolism/Metabolic Reactions
- Anabolic or catabolic
- Anabolic- chemical reactions that allow simple molecules that group together to
form complex molecules; example is photosynthesis
- Catabolic- complex molecules are broken down to simpler; simultaneous release
of energy; Cellular respiration is example

The Process of Cellular Respiration

- Other biomolecules can be used for cellular respiration to generate ATP
- Process that releases energy by breaking down food (glucose) in the presence of
oxygen
1. This is why it is an aerobic reaction
- Four Main Metabolic Stages:
1. Glycolysis- 2 ATP generated
2. Acetyl-CoA- No ATP generated
3. Krebs Cycle- 2 ATP generated
 Through substrate-level phosphorylation; no atp investment
only nadh
4. Electron Transport Chain – 34 ATP
 Generation through oxidative phosphorylation

NADH and FADH2 are required to instigate the process of oxidative phosphorylation

Reduction is the gaining of electron

Oxidation is the losing of electron

This process is simultaneous with each other

Redox Reactions- the loss or gain of hydrogen atoms.

Electron carrying molecules are brought to the electron transport chain to produce more
ATP molecules

Glycolysis
- Occurs in the cytoplasm in the cells and does not require oxygen for its instigation
- In the presence or absence of oxygen
- Involves 10 enzymatically catalyzed reactions
- Glucose (6 carbon sugar) is split into 2 molecules of pyruvic acid which are (3
carbon compounds)
- 4 ATP molecules are formed
1. 2 ATP is used for the energy investment phase to continue the process
2. 2 Net ATP
- Energy Investment Phase- 2 are used
- Energy Payoff phase

10 nzymatic Reactions
 1. Hexokinase- detaches a phosphate from ATP and attaches it to the 6th carbon
of the glucose forming => Glucose-6-phosphate
2. Phosphoglucoisomerase- Turns it into Fructose-6-phosphate
1. Isomerase- a molecule is converted to its isomer
2. Isomer- same chem composition but different arrangement
3. Phosphofructokinase- turns it inrto Fructose 1,6-biphosphate
4. Aldolase- cleaves Fructose 1,6-biphosphate into 2 triose sugars 2 sugars:
dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate
5. Glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate advances onwards in the process
a. dihydroxyacetone phosphate gets converted to Glyceraldehyde 3
phosphate using isomerase (isomerization) because they are isomers
b. Everything after this happens twice;
6. Triose-phosphate dehydrogenase – forms 1,3 diphosphoglycerate

Energy payoff Phase

- ATP molecules are being generated
7. Phosphoglycerokinase catalyzes the removal of 1 phosphate group from 1
bisphosphoglycerate and attaches it to ADP to form a ATP molecules
a. This step is called substrate-level phosphorylation
8. Transfers phosphate group from the 1st carbon to the 2nd carbon
9. Catalyzed by the enolase enzyme; the molecule 2phosphoglycerate is
converted through the removal of a water molecule (dehydration process);
after this 2-phosphoglycerate is converted to phosphoenolpyruvate
a. Water becomes a by-product / waste material
10. Catalyzed by Pyruvate kinase. This removes remaining phosphate group from
phosphoenolpyruvate and attaches it to ADP to form ATP. And after the
phosphate is removed, it forms pyruvate
a. This step is called substrate-level phosphorylation

Products of Glycolysis
- 4 ATP (2 Net ATP)
- 2 NAPH
- 2 H20

Acetyl-CoA formation
- 2 pyruvic acid molecules (from glycolysis) enter mitochondrion to form Acetyl-
CoA; catalyzed by pyruvate dehydrogenase
- 3 important reactions
1. Decarboxylation of pyruvate molecules- carbon is removed and it takes
the form of a by-product, CO2.
2. Oxidation-Reduction Reaction- the pyruvate is oxidized; hydrogen is
removed and added to nad+ to form NADH
3. Coenzyme A is added to form acetyl-CoA

Products of Acetyly-CoA
- 2 NADH
 - 2 Co2
- 2 Acetyl-CoA

Krebs Cycle or Citric Acid Cycle

- Oxidation of Acetyl-CoA
- Happens inside the matrix of the mitochondrion
- Acetyl-CoA is condensed with 4-carbon acid (oxaloacetic acid) to form citric acid

1. CoA is removed and after this is removed the remaining acetyl group
combines with 4-carbon acid (oxaloacetic acid) to form citrate (6 carbon)
2. The removal of water and addition of water molecule (simultaneous
hydration/dehydration reaction) in which citrate is converted into its
isomer isocitrate
3. 2 important reactions: redox reaction and decarboxylation - removal of
co2 from isocitrate and converted to alpha keto glutarate
4. 3 important reactions: decarboxylation- ; redox reaction; and addition of
CoA to form succinyl-CoA
5. Enzyme CoA is removed again and replaced by Pi (inorganic Phosphate9
to form GTp and GDP and then substrate level phosphorylatipon occurs
(ATP is formed). succinyl-CoA converted to form succinate.
6. Redox reaction of FAD to form FADH; succinate is converted to form
fumarate
7. Water is added to fumarate to form malate
8. Regeneration of oxaloacetate through the redox reaction of Malate (NAD
becomes NADH): oxaloacetate is formed
Products:
- 6 NADPH
- 2 FADH2
- 2 ATP
- 4 CO2

Electron Transport Chain

- Involve the transfer of electrons from NADH and FADH2 to molecular oxygen
- Involves an elaborate electron transport chain embedded in the inner
mitochondrial membrane
- Carrier molecules in chain are large transmembrane protein-based complexes

- Sequence of redox reactions- NADH releases the electrons it carries and are
transported from one electron acceptor molecule

- Electron carrying molecules release them as unstable. The reason why electrons
transport chain is so they can remove some energy so they can stabilize. The
energy that is removed is utilized by hydrogen atoms to transfer themselves
from one side of the membrane to another ( high to low concentration) and they
 do this by flowing through the ATP synthase. This causes the ATP synthase to
catalyze the ADP to form ATP.

2 parts: electron transport chain and the buildup of the hydrogen atoms in the inner
mitochondrial membrane.

The electrons are used to bond 2H and ½ o2 to form H20

Glycolysis
- 2