Organization and Management

GAS 11-2
Group 5 & 6

VII- DIRECTING
A. Towards umderstanding organizational behavior
 Early Advocates
 The Hawthorne Studies
 Early Motivation Theories
 Early Leadership Theorires
B. Foundation of Behavior
 Goals organizational Behavior
 Attitudes
 Perception
 Emotional Quotient
DIRECTING
A basic management function that building an effective work climate and creating opportunity for
motivation, supervising, scheduling, and disciplining.

A. Towards understanding organizational behavior

EARLY ADVOCATES
Organizational behavior (OB) research has contributed much of what we know about
behavioral views of management, human resources management, motivation, leadership,
trust, teamwork, and conflict management.
Early Advocates: Four people stand out as early advocates of the OB approach. These include
Robert Owen, Hugo Munsterberg, Mary Parker Follett, and Chester Barnard.
1. Robert Owen
a successful Scottish businessman, proposed a utopian workplace.
2. Hugo Munsterberg
created the field of industrial psychology—the scientific study of individuals at work to
maximize their productivity and adjustment.
3. Mary Parker Follett
 was a social philosopher who thought the manager’s job was to harmonize and coordinate
group efforts.

4. Chester Barnard
president of New Jersey Bell Telephone Company, saw organizations as social systems
that required human cooperation. a. He believed that managers’ major roles were to
communicate and stimulate subordinates to high levels of effort. b. He also introduced
the idea that managers have to examine the environment and then adjust the organization
to maintain a state of equilibrium.

5. Hugo Munsterbeg (1863-1916)

is considered to be the “father of industrial psychology” and is regarded by students of
psychology as an important figure as Frederick Taylor is by students of management.
Munsterberg attempted to develop practical applications of psychology. He argued that
psychologists could help industry in three major areas: a. Finding ways to identify
individuals best suited to particular jobs. b. Identifying the psychological conditions for
optimum efficiency. c. Finding ways to influence individual behavior to be congruent
with management’s objectives.

6. Mary Parker Follett (1868-1933)

brought to management the perspectives of political science and social work. She
identified: a. The importance of the functioning of groups, not just individuals, in
organization. b. The principle of “power with” rather than “Power over” in
managementemployee relations. c. Conflict resolution through integration, i.e., finding a
solution to a conflict that would satisfy both parties. d. The achievement of integrative
unity, whereby the organization operates as a functional whole, with the various
interrelated parts working together effectively to achieve organizational goals.
THE HAWTHORNE STUDIES
Hawthorne studies reflected the scientific management tradition of seeking greater
efficiency by improving the tools and methods of work—in this case, lighting.
1. In the first set of studies, no correlation was found between changes in lighting
conditions and individual work performance. In fact, performance nearly always went up with
any change—brighter or darker—in illumination.
2. In the second set of studies, the concept of the Hawthorne effect emerged. The
Hawthorne effect refers to the possibility that individuals singled out for a study may improve
their performance simply because of the added attention they receive from the researchers, rather
than because of any specific factors being tested in the study.
3. The third set of studies centered on group production norms and individual motivation.
4. Although simplistic and methodologically primitive, the Hawthorne studies established
the impact that social aspects of the job (and the informal group) have on productivity.
EARLY MOTIVATIONAL THEORIES
Motivation theories are used to understand, explain and influence human behavior. Early
and modern theories of motivation allow a manager to find the reasons for people’s actions,
desires, and needs. Motivation theories also explain how to influence one’s direction to behavior
that allows controlling and guiding employees actions. Many theories
of motivation are developed by phycologists and human resources specialist.
THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
1. Hierarchy of Needs Theory by Maslow,
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a theory in psychology proposed by Abraham Maslow in
his 1943 paper "A Theory of Human Motivation" in Psychological Review. Maslow
subsequently extended the idea to include his observations of humans' innate curiosity.
2. Theory X and Theory Y by Mcgregor,
and Theory X stands for the set of traditional beliefs held, while Theory-Y stands for the
set of beliefs based on researchers in behavioral science which are concerned with modern social
views on the man at work.
Theory X assumptions are negative;
Employees inherently dislike work and, whenever possible, will attempt to avoid it.
Since’ employees dislike work, they must be coerced, controlled, or threatened with punishment.

 Employees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible.
 Most workers place security above all other factors and will display little ambition.

Managers who accept theory-X assumptions have a tendency to structure, control and closely
supervise their employees. These managers think that external control is clearly appropriate for
dealing with unreliable, irresponsible and immature people.

Drawing heavily on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, McGregor concluded that theory-X

assumptions about the nature of man are generally inaccurate and the management practices that
develop from these assumptions will often fail to motivate individuals to work toward
organizational goals.

Management by direction and control may not succeed as it is a questionable way of

motivating people whose physiological and safety needs are reasonably satisfied and whose
social, esteem and self-actualization needs are becoming predominant.

Theory Y assumptions are positive;

 Employees can view work as being as natural as rest or play.

 People will exercise self-direction and self-control if they are committed to the
objectives.
 The average person can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility.
 The ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population.
Managers who accept theory-Y assumptions about nature of man do not attempt to structure,
control or closely supervise the employees.

3. The Two-Factor Theory

Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation is based on two types of factors. These factors
are satisfiers (motivational) and dissatisfy (maintenance or hygiene).
 Frederick Herzberg’s two-factor theory is also known as the motivation-hygiene theory.
 Frederick Herzberg a well-known management theorist developed a specific content theory
of work motivation; developed his theory by interviewing 200 accountants and engineers
employed by firms in and around Pitsburg in the 1950s.

4. Erg Theory: Developed by Clayton Alderfer

ERG Theory of Motivation
ERG theory consists of three groups of core needs: existence, relatedness, and growth.
ERG theory shows that a person works on fulfilling these needs simultaneously or separately
depending on the difference of goals, status, and the environment. Clayton Alderfer
reworked Maslow’s need hierarchy to align it with the empirical research. His revised need
hierarchy is labeled ERG theory.

5. Acquired needs Theory.

Acquired Needs Theory – Need for Achievement, Power & Affiliation
Acquired needs theory studies individuals needs and classify them into as three motivating
drivers, need for achievement, power or affiliation.. In acquired needs theory, McClelland
proposes each person falls into one three types of needs based on personal preference and
personal experience of that person. David McClelland describes how an individual’s life
experiences can change the type of individual needs over time.

6. Goal setting Theory

Goal setting theory of motivation states that specific and challenging goals along with
appropriate feedback contribute to higher and better task performance.
Goals indicate and give direction to an employee about what needs to be done and how much
efforts are required to be put in.
In 1960’s, Edwin Locke put forward the goal setting theory of motivation. The theory states that
goal setting is essentially linked to task performance.

5 Principles of Goal Setting Theory

1. Clarity.
Clear goals are measurable and unambiguous.
When a goal is dear and specific, with a definite time set for completion, there is less
misunderstanding about what behaviors will be rewarded.
2. Challenge.
People are often motivated by achievement, and they’ll judge a goal based on the significance of the
anticipated accomplishment. Rewards typically increase for more difficult goals. If you believe you’ll
be well compensated or otherwise rewarded for achieving a challenging goal that will boost your
enthusiasm and your drive to get it done.

3. Commitment.
Goals must be understood and agreed upon if they are to be effective. Employees are more likely to
“buy into” a goal if they feel they were part of creating that goal. The notion of participative
management rests on this idea of involving employees in setting goals and making decisions.

4. Feedback.
 Feedback provides opportunities to clarify expectations, adjust goal difficulty, and gain recognition.
It’s important to provide benchmark opportunities or targets, so individuals can determine for
themselves how they’re doing.

5. Task Complexity
Self-efficiency
Self-efficiency is the individual’s self-confidence and faith that he has potential. if performing the
task. Higher the level of self-efficiency, greater will be the efforts pm in by the individual when they
face challenging tasks. While lower the level of self-efficiency, less will be the efforts put in by the
individual or he might even quit while meeting challenges.

Goal commitment
Goal setting theory assumes that the individual is committed to the goal and will not leave the goal.
The goal commitment is dependent on the following factors:

 Goals are made open, known and broadcasted.

 Goals should be set-self by individual rather than designated.

Features of Goal Setting Theory

1. The willingness to work towards the attainment of the goal is the main source of job
motivation. Clear, particular and difficult goals arc greater motivating factors than easy,
general and vague goals.
2. Specific and clear goals lead to greater output and better performance. Unambiguous,
measurable and clear goals accompanied by a deadline for completion avoids
misunderstanding.
3. Goals should be realistic and challenging. This gives an individual a feeling of pride and
triumph when he attains them, and sets him up for the attainment of next goal. The more
challenging the goal the greater is the reward generally and the more is the passion for
achieving it.
4. Better and appropriate feedback of results directs the employee behavior and contributes
to higher performance than an absence of feedback. Feedback is a means of gaining
reputation, making clarifications and regulating goal difficulties. It helps employees to work
with more involvement and leads to greater job satisfaction.
5. Employees’ participation in goal is not always desirable. Participation in setting the goal,
however, makes the goal more acceptable and leads to more involvement.
Advantages of Goal Setting Theory

1. Goal setting theory is a technique used to raise incentives for employees to complete
work quickly effectively.
2. Goal setting leads to better performance by increasing motivation and efforts, but also
through increasing and improving the feedback quality.

Limitations of Goal Setting theory

1. At times, the organizational goals are in conflict with the managerial goals. Goal conflict
has a detrimental effect on the performance if it motivates incompatible action drift.
2. Very difficult and complex goals stimulate riskier behavior.
3. If the employee lacks skills and competencies to perform actions essential for goal, then
the goal-setting can fail and lead to an undermining of performance.
4. There is no evidence to prove that goal-setting improves job satisfaction.

7. Theory of self efficacy by Albert Bandura

Self-Efficacy Theory of Bandura follows the principle that people are likely to engage in
activities to the extent that they perceive themselves to be competent at those activities.
Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s effectiveness in performing specific tasks.
According to staples et al. (1998), self-efficacy theory suggests that there are four major sources
of information used by individuals when forming self-efficacy judgments.
In order of strength:
People who regard themselves as a highly efficacious act, think, and feel differently from those
who perceive themselves as inefficacious. They produce their own future, rather than simply
foretell It. – Albert Bandura

Sources of Self-Efficacy Beliefs

Performance Accomplishments
Personal assessment information that is based on an individual’s personal
accomplishments.
Previous successes raise mastery expectations, while repeated failures lower them.

Vicarious Experience
Gained by observing others perform activities successfully.
This is often referred to as modeling, and it can generate expectations in observers that they can
improve their own performance by learning from what they have observed.

Social Persuasion
Activities where people are led, through suggestion, into believing that they can cope
successfully with specific tasks. Coaching and giving evaluative feedback on performance are
common types of social persuasion.

Physiological and Emotional States

The individual’s physiological or emotional states influence self-efficacy judgments with
respect to specific tasks. Emotional reactions to such tasks (e.g., anxiety) can lead to negative
judgments of one’s ability to complete the tasks.

8. Reinforcement Theory of Motivation

Reinforcement theory of motivation is based law of effect, where behaviors are selected
by their consequences and overlook the individual’s internal state. Reinforcement theory
of motivation was proposed by B.F. Skinner and his associates. It states that individual’s
behavior is a function of its consequences.
Positive Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement implies giving a positive response when an individual shows
positive and required behavior.
Positive reinforcement stimulates occurrence of a behavior. It must be noted that more
spontaneous is the giving of reward, the greater reinforcement value it has.

Negative Reinforcement
Negative reinforcement implies rewarding an employee by removing
negative/undesirable consequences. Both positive and negative reinforcement can be used for
increasing desirable / required behavior.
Punishment
Punishment reinforcement implies removing positive consequences so as to lower the
probability of repeating the undesirable behavior in future. In other words, punishment means
applying undesirable consequence for showing undesirable behavior.

Extinction
Extinction reinforcement implies the absence of reinforcements. In other words,
extinction implies lowering the probability of an undesired behavior by removing reward for that
kind of behavior.
.
Implications of Reinforcement Theory
Reinforcement theory explains in detail how an individual learns behavior.Managers who are
making attempt to motivate the employees must ensure that they do not reward all employees
simultaneously. The reinforcement theory suggests that managers should try to structure the
contingencies of rewards and punishments on the job in such a way that the consequences of
effective job behavior are positive while the consequences of ineffective work behavior are
negative o: unpleasant.
The basic notion underlying reinforcement theory is the concept of reinforcement itself. An event
is said to be reinforcing if the event following some behavior makes the behavior more likely to
occur again in the future.
 9. Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Cognitive Evaluation Theory is a theory in Psychology that is designed to explain the effects of external
consequences on internal motivation. Cognitive Evaluation Theory theory suggests that there are actually
two motivation systems; intrinsic and extrinsic those correspond to two kinds of motivators.

Intrinsic Motivators
Achievement, responsibility, and competence — motivators that come from the actual
performance of the task or job — the intrinsic interest of the work.

Extrinsic Motivators
Pay, promotion, feedback, working conditions — things that come from a person’s environment,
controlled by others.

If the cognitive evaluation theory is valid, it should have major implications for managerial
practices.

 If pay or other extrinsic rewards arc to be effective motivators, they should be made
contingent on an individual’s performance.
 Cognitive evaluation theorists would argue that this will tend only to decrease the internal
satisfaction that the individual receives from doing the job.
 If correct; it would make sense to make an individual’s pay non-contingent on
performance in order to avoid decreasing intrinsic motivation.

9. Expectancy Theory of Motivation

Expectancy theory of motivation argues that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way
depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and
on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual.
Very simply, the expectancy theory says that an employee will be motivated to exert a high level
of effort when he or she believes that:
The effort will lead to a good performance appraisal.
A good appraisal will lead to organizational rewards.
The organizational rewards will satisfy his or her personal goals.
The key to the expectancy theory is an understanding of an individual’s goals and the
relationships between effort and performance, between performance and rewards, and finally,
between the rewards and individual goal satisfaction.
In 1964, Victor H. Vroom developed the Expectancy theory through his study of the motivations
behind decision making.
The expectancy theory says that individuals have different sets of goals and can be motivated if
they believe that:

 There is a positive correlation between efforts and performance,

 The favorable performance will result in a desirable reward,
 The reward will satisfy an important need,
 The desire to satisfy the need is strong enough to make the effort worthwhile

Vroom introduces three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V)
expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I).
The 3 elements are important in choosing one element over another because they are clearly
defined:

 Effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy) and

 Performance-outcome expectancy (P>0 expectancy).

Three components of Expectancy theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, and Valence

1. Expectancy: Effort—» Performance( E—»P)

Expectancy is the belief that one’s effort (E) will result in attainment of desired performance (P)
goals usually based on an individual’s past experience, self-confidence, and the perceived
difficulty of the performance standard or goal.
Factors associated with the individual’s Expectancy perception are –

1. Self-efficacy,
2. Goal difficulty, and
3. Control.

Self-efficacy is the person’s belief in their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior.

2. Instrumentality: Performance—»Outcome(P—O)

Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is
met.
This reward may come in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of
accomplishment.
 Instrumentality is low when the reward is given for all performances given.
Factors associated with the individual’s instrumentality for outcomes arc trust, control, and
policies.
If individuals trust their superiors, they are more likely to believe their leader’s promises. When
there is a lack of trust in leadership, people often attempt to control the reward system.
When individuals believe they have some kind of control over how, when, and why rewards are
distributed. Instrumentality tends to increase.
Formalized written policies impact the individuals’ instrumentality perceptions. Instrumentality
is increased when formalized policies associate rewards to performance.

3. Valence- V(R)

Valence is the value the individual places on the rewards based on their needs, goals, values, and
Sources of Motivation.
Factors associated with the individual’s valence for outcomes are values, needs, goals,
preferences, and Sources of Motivation Strength of an individual’s preference for a particular
outcome.

Motivational Force (MF) = Expectancy X Instrumentality X Valence

When deciding among behavioral options, individuals select the option with the greatest
motivational force (MF).
Expectancy and instrumentality are attitudes (cognition) that represent an individual’s perception
of the likelihood that effort will lead to performance that will lead to the desired outcomes.
These perceptions represent the individual’s subjective reality, and may or may not bear a close
resemblance to actual probabilities.

11. Equity Theory of Motivation in Management

The equity theory of motivationdescribes the relationship between the employee’s perception of
how fairly is he being treated and how hard he is motivated to work. J. Stacy Adams developed
equity theory.
Equity Theory states that the employees perceive what they get from a job situation (outcomes)
in relation to what they put into it( inputs) and then compare their inputs- outcomes ratio with the
inputs- outcomes ratios of others.

 Inputs: Inputs include all the rich and diverse elements that employees believe they bring
or contribute to the job – their education, experience, effort, loyalty, commitment.
 Outcomes: Outcomes are rewards they perceive they get from their jobs and employers
outcomes include- direct pay and bonuses, fringe benefit, job security, social rewards and
psychological.
 Overrewarded: if employees fell over-rewarded equity theory predicts then they will
feel an imbalance in their relationship with their employee and seek to restore that balance.
 Equity: if employees perceive equity then they will be motivated to continue to
contribute act about the same level.
 Unrewarded: unrewarded who feel they have been unrewarded and seek to reduce their
feeling in equity through the same types of strategies but same of this specific action are now
reverse.

This theory is based on the following two assumptions about human behavior:

1. Individuals make contributions (inputs) for which they expect certain outcomes
(rewards). Inputs include such things as the person’s past training and experience, special
knowledge, personal characteristics etc. Outcomes include pay, recognition, promotion,
prestige, fringe benefits etc.
2. Individuals decide whether or not a particular exchange is satisfactory, by comparing
their inputs and outcomes to those of others, in the form of a ratio. Equity exists when an
individual concludes that his/her own outcome/input ratio is equal to that of other people.

The essential aspects of the equity theory may be shown by an equation;

There should be a balance of the outcomes/inputs relationship for one person in comparison with
that for another person. If the person thinks that the rewards are greater than what is considered,
he/she may work harder.
If the person perceives the rewards as equitable, he/she probably will continue at the same level
of output.

Roles played by equity in motivation;

1. Employees make comparisons between their job inputs and outcomes relative to
those of others.
 If we perceive our ratio to be equal to that of the relevant others with whom
we compare ourselves, a state of equity is said to exist. We perceive our situation as
fair.
 When we see the ratio as unequal, we experience equity tension.
2. Additionally, the referent that an employee selects adds to the complexity of equity
theory. There are four referent comparisons that an employee can use:
 Self-inside: An employee’s experiences in a different position inside his or
her current organization.
 Self-outside: An employee’s experiences in a situation or position outside his
or her current organization.
 Other-inside: Another individual or group of individuals inside the employee’s
organization.
 Other-outside: Another individual or group of individuals outside the
employee’s organization.
3. Which referent an employee chooses will be influenced by the information the
employee holds about referents, as well as by the attractiveness of the referent. There
are 4 moderating variables: gender, the length of tenure, level in the organization, and
the amount of education or professionalism.Men and women prefer same-sex
comparisons. This also suggests that if women are tolerant of lower pay, it may be due to
the comparative standard they use.Employees in jobs that are not sex-segregated will
 make more cross-sex comparisons than those in jobs that are either male- or female-
dominated.
4. Employees with a short tenure in their current organizations tend to have little
information about others.
5. Employees with long tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison.
6. Upper-level employees tend to be more cosmopolitan and have better information
about people in other organizations. Therefore, these types of employees will make more
other- outside comparisons.
7. When employees perceive an inequity, they can be predicted to make one of six
choices:
 Change their inputs.
 Change their outcomes.
 Distort perceptions of self.
 Distort perceptions of others.
 Choose a different referent.
 Leave the field.
8. The theory establishes the following propositions relating to inequitable pay:
 Given payment by time, over-rewarded employees will produce more than will
equitably pay employees.
 Given payment by the quantity of production, over-rewarded employees will
produce fewer, but higher quality, units that will equitably pay employees.
 Given payment by time, under-rewarded employees will produce less or
poorer quality of output.
9. Given payment by the quantity of production, under-rewarded employees will
produce a large number of low-quality units in comparison with equitably paid employees.
10. These propositions have generally been supported with a few minor qualifications.
 Inequities created by over-payment do not seem to have a very significant
impact on behavior in most work situations.
 Not all people are equity-sensitive.
11. Employees also seem to look for equity in the distribution of other organizational
rewards.
12. Finally, recent research has been directed at expanding what is meant by equity or
fairness.
 Historically, equity theory focused on distributive justice or the perceived
fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards among individuals.
 Equity should also consider procedural justice, the perceived fairness of the
process used to determine the distribution of rewards.
 The evidence indicates that distributive justice has a greater influence on
employee satisfaction than procedural justice,
 Procedural justice tends to affect an employee’s organizational commitment,
trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit.
 By increasing the perception of procedural fairness, employees are likely to
view their bosses and the organization as positive even if they are dissatisfied with
pay, promotions, and other personal outcomes.

Equity theory demonstrates that, for most employees, motivation is influenced significantly
by relative rewards as well as by absolute rewards, but some key issues are still unclear.
EARLY LEADERSHIP THEORIES

The Great Man theory evolved around the mid 19th century. Even though no one was able to identify
with any scientific certainty, which human characteristic or combination of, were responsible for
identifying great leaders. Everyone recognized that just as the name suggests; only a man could have the
characteristic (s) of a great leader.
The trait leadership theory believes that people are either born or are made with certain
qualities that will make them excel in leadership roles. That is, certain qualities such as
intelligence, sense of responsibility, creativity and other values puts anyone in the shoes of a
good leader. In fact, Gordon Allport, an American psychologist,"...identified almost 18,000
English personality-relevant terms" (Matthews, Deary & Whiteman, 2003, p. 3).

The behavioural theories are offering a new perspective, one that focuses on the behaviours of
the leaders as opposed to their mental, physical or social characteristics. Thus, with the
evolutions in psychometrics, notably the factor analysis, researchers were able to measure the
cause an effects relationship of specific human behaviours from leaders. From this point forward
anyone with the right conditioning could have access to the once before elite club of naturally
gifted leaders. In other words, leaders are made not born.

The Contingency Leadership theory argues that there is no single way of leading and that
every leadership style should be based on certain situations, which signifies that there are certain
people who perform at the maximum level in certain places; but at minimal performance when
taken out of their element.

The Transactional theories, also known as exchange theories of leadership, are characterized by
a transaction made between the leader and the followers. In fact, the theory values a positive and
mutually beneficial relationship.

The Transformational Leadership theory states that this process is by which a person interacts
with others and is able to create a solid relationship that results in a high percentage of trust, that
will later result in an increase of motivation, both intrinsic and extrinsic, in both leaders and
followers.

B. Foundations of Behaviour

GOALS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR (OB)

The Goals of Organizational Behaviour are to

The goals of OB are to explain, predict, and influence behavior. Managers need to be
able to explain why employees engage in some behaviors rather than
others, predict how employees will respond to various actions and decisions, and influence how
employees behave.
SIX important employee behaviors that managers are specifically concerned with
explaining, predicting, and influencing include the following:
1. Employee productivity—a performance measure of both work efficiency
and effectiveness. Managers want to know what factors will influence the efficiency
and effectiveness of employees.

2. Absenteeism—the failure to show up for work. It’s difficult for work to get done
if employees don’t show up. Studies have shown that the total of all major types
of absences cost organizations an average 35 percent of payroll, with unscheduled
absences costing companies around $660 per employee per year.1 Although
absenteeism can’t be totally eliminated, excessive levels have a direct and immediate
impact on the organization’s functioning.
3. Turnover—the voluntary and involuntary permanent withdrawal from an
organization. It can be a problem because of increased recruiting, selection, training
costs, and work disruptions. Just like absenteeism, managers can never eliminate
turnover, but it is something they want to minimize, especially among high-
performing employees.

4. Organizational citizenship behavior—discretionary behavior that’s not part of

an employee’s formal job requirements, but which promotes the effective functioning
of the organization.2 Examples of good OCB include helping others on one’s work
team, volunteering for extended job activities, avoiding unnecessary conflicts, and
making constructive statements about one’s work group and the organization.
Organizations need individuals who will do more than their usual job duties and the
evidence indicates that organizations that have such employees outperform those that
don’t.3 However, drawbacks to OCB arise if employees experience work overload,
stress, and work-family conflicts.4
5. Job satisfaction—an employee’s general attitude toward his or her job. Although job
satisfaction is an attitude rather than a behavior, it’s an outcome that concerns many
managers because satisfied employees are more likely to show up for work, have
higher levels of performance, and stay with an organization.

6. Workplace misbehavior—any intentional employee behavior that is potentially

harmful to the organization or individuals within the organization. Workplace
misbehavior shows up in organizations in four ways: deviance, aggression, antisocial
behavior, and violence.5 Such behaviors can range from playing loud music just to
irritate coworkers, to verbal aggression, to sabotaging work, all of which can create
havoc in any organization.

ATTITUDE

Attitudes are evaluative statements  either favorable or unfavorable

concerning objects, people, or events.
They reflect how an individual feels about something. When a person says, "I like my job," he
or she is
expressing an attitude about work.
To better understand the concept of attitudes, we should look at an attitude as made up
of three components:cognition, affect, and behavior. 
The cognitive component of an attitude is made up of the beliefs, opinions, knowledge,
or information held by a person. The belief that "discrimination is wrong" illustrates cognition.
The affective component  of an attitude is the emotional or feeling part of an attitude.
Using our earlier example, this component would be reflected by
the statement, "I don't like Ali because he discriminates against women".
Finally, affect can lead to behavioral outcomes. 
The behavioral component of an attitude refers to an intention to behave in
a certain way toward someone or something. To continue our example, I might choose to avoid 
Ali because of my feelings about him. Looking at attitudes as being made up
of three components  cognition, affect, and behavior 
helps show the complexity of attitudes. But for the sake of clarity, keep in mind that the
term attitude usually refers only to the affective component.

PERCEPTION
• Explain how an understanding of perception can help managers better understand individual
behavior.
• Describe the key elements of attribution theory.
• Discuss how the fundamental attribution error and self- serving bias can distort attributions.
• Name three shortcuts used in judging others. Learning
• Explain how operant conditioning helps managers understand, predict, and influence behavior.
• Describe the implications of social learning theory for managing people at work.
• Discuss how managers can shape behavior.
EMOTIONAL QUOTIENT
Emotions and Intelligence
Emotions
Intense feelings (reactions) that are directed at specific objects (someone or something)

Universal emotions:
 Anger
 Fear
 Sadness
 Happiness
 Disgust
 Surprise

Emotional Intelligence (EI)

An assortment of noncognitive skills, capabilities, and competencies that influence a person’s
ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures.
Dimensions of EI:
 Self-awareness: knowing what you’re feeling
 Self-management: managing emotions and impulses
 Self-motivation: persisting despite setbacks and failures
 Empathy: sensing how others are feeling
 Social skills: handling the emotions of others