Hole Problem Data Package

Hole Problem Data Package TS-D-003
Contents
Authorisation for Issue

Amendment Record
Amendment Summary
Distribution List
Preface
List of Abbreviations
Section 1 Shale Problems

Section 2 Wellbore Stability
Section 3 Hole Cleaning
Section 4 Barite Sag
Section 5 Torque and Drag

Section 6 Stuck Pipe
Section 7 Lost Circulation
Section 8 Mud Contaminants

Section 9 High Temperature High Pressure Fluids
Section 10 Reservoir Muds
Section 11 Corrosion in Drilling Fluids
Section 12 Gas Hydrates
Addendum 1 References
Addendum 2 Contacts
November 2002 Issue 2 i/ii

Authorisation for Issue
Issue Authority
Name: Bryan Chambers
Signature: ________________________________________________
Date: ________________________________________________
Position: Senior Adviser, Fluids, SSD, BP Dyce
Technical Authority
Name: Mark Aston
Signature: ________________________________________________
Date: ________________________________________________
Position: Senior Drilling Engineer, Fluids, BP Sunbury
November 2002 Issue 2 iii/iv

Amendment Record
For Audit Use

Amendment Incorporated By
Checked
Number
Name Signature Date Signature Date
AMOSAF.171
November 2002 Issue 2 v/vi

Amendment Summary
Issue No Date Description
Issue 1 April 1996 First Issue.

Issue 2 November 2002 Content unchanged.
Reformatted for DWO website.
At time of issue on website hard copy to remain
unchanged.
November 2002 Issue 2 vii/viii

Distribution List
Holders of Controlled Hard Copy
Copy Copyholder Location
01 N/A
Virtual Copyholders
Copy Copyholder
01 Document Issue Authority (Bryan Chambers)

02 Document Technical Authority (Mark Aston)
03 Onshore Well's Team Libraries
November 2002 Issue 2 ix/x

Preface
Controlled Hard Copyholders

Where controlled hard copy versions have been issued, it is the responsibility of the registered
copyholder to maintain the accuracy of the document by ensuring that all updates are promptly
incorporated and acknowledged.
Furthermore, the registered copyholder of controlled hard copy versions must at all times
maintain custody of this document unless prior approval is given by the relevant
Technical Authority.
Controlled hard copyholders are listed in the document Distribution List. The roles and
responsibilities of hard copyholders are detailed in the Document Control Procedure
(BPA-D-007) Section 1.
Uncontrolled Hard Copyholders

Where uncontrolled copies have been issued, each copy is identified as UNCONTROLLED.
Holders of uncontrolled copies should refer to the master version, available on the Drilling and
Well Operations (DWO) website, to access the most up-to-date information (refer below).
It is the responsibility of uncontrolled hard copyholders to ensure that they have access to the
most up-to-date information. Copies will be available on CD-ROM to facilitate electronic access
to locations without reliable access to the BP intranet.
Electronic Copy
In addition to the hard copies, the master (controlled) version is available on the DWO website.
The DWO website is accessible on the BP intranet at:
http://aberdeen.bpweb.bp.com/dwo/
The online document is to be considered the master version, containing the most up-to-date
information.
November 2002 Issue 2 xi

TS-D-003 Hole Problem Data Package
Virtual Copyholders
Registered virtual copyholders do not hold controlled hard copy versions of the document,
accessing it only online. However, virtual copyholders will be notified electronically when the
document is amended in any way.
Virtual copyholders are listed in the document Distribution List. The roles and responsibilities of
virtual copyholders are detailed in the Document Control Procedure (BPA-D-007) Section 1.
Review and Update

This document will be subject to 12-monthly review and update, when document holders will
have the opportunity to express opinions and suggest improvements.
However, the document control system allows for continuous update of this document. As
such, any user may at any time identify an error or suggest an improvement using an
Amendment Proposal proforma which is available electronically on the DWO website or from
the Data Control Centre (DCC) Supervisor, ODL. It should include a brief supporting justification
for the proposed amendment.
The completed Amendment Proposal should be sent by email or as hard copy to the DCC
Supervisor (address as detailed on the proforma). The DCC Supervisor will then progress the
Amendment Proposal in accordance with the process described in the Document Control
Procedure (BPA-D-007) Section 2, the first step being to forward the Amendment Proposal to
the document Technical Authority for review and approval.
Where appropriate, the relevant UTG personnel will progress the proposed amendment and
prepare revisions to the text of the document. Significant revisions will then be peer reviewed
for endorsement prior to authorisation for issue.
Upon approval, amendments or additions will be made to the document master file on the
DWO website. Holders of controlled hard copy and virtual copyholders are registered so that
they can be sent updates and be kept informed of changes or reviews. It is the responsibility of
uncontrolled hard copyholders to ensure that they access the most up-to-date information via
the DWO website.
xii November 2002 Issue 2

List of Abbreviations
AF Angle Factor
API American Petroleum Institute
BHA Bottomhole Assembly
BHT Bottomhole Temperature
BPX BP Exploration
CaCI2 Calcium Chloride
CaCO3 Lime
CFR Critical Flow Rate
CO2 Carbon Dioxide
DEAP Drilling Engineering Application Platform
DPP Drill Pipe Protectors
DSS Drill String Simulator
ECD Equivalent Circulating Density
ERD Extended Reach Drilling
ESC Environment Sensitive Cracking
FIT Formation Integrity Test
H2S Hydrogen Sulphide
HCI Hydrochloric Acid
HTHP High Temperature High Pressure
HSE Health, Safety and Environment
KOP Kvaerner Oilfield Products
LCM Lost Circulation Material
LGS Low Gravity Solids
LOT Leak-off Test
MBT Methylene Blue Test
MMH Mixed Metal Hydroxide
MMS Mixed Metal Silicate
MW Mud Weight
MWD Measurement Whilst Drilling
NaCI Sodium Chloride
OBM Oil-based Mud
PDC Poly-diamond Crystalline
PHPA Polyaclyamide
POOH Pull Out Of Hole
PRA Pipe Release Agent
PWD Pressure Whilst Drilling
November 2002 Issue 2 xiii

List of Abbreviations (cont’d)
QA Quality Assurance
QC Quality Control
RF Rheology Factor
ROP Rate of Penetration
SRB Sulphate Reducing Bacteria
SSC Sulphide Stress Cracking
TI Transport Index
TOC Top of Cement
TVD True Vertical Depth
WBM Water-based Mud
WOB Weight On Bit
YP Yield Point
xiv November 2002 Issue 2

Section 1
Shale Problems
Paragraph Page
1 Background 1-1
1.1 Mechanical Effects 1-2
1.2 Chemical Effects 1-2
2 Problems in Soft/Firm Shales 1-3

2.1 Bit Balling 1-3
2.2 Mud Rings 1-4
2.3 Tight Hole 1-5
2.4 Erosion/Washout 1-6
3 Problems in Hard/Brittle Shales 1-8

3.1 Tight Hole 1-8
3.2 Sloughing, Cavings and Packing-off 1-9
Table
1.1 Classification of Shales According to Hardness 1-1
Figure
1.1 Balled Stabiliser, Reactive North Sea Shale 1-3
1.2 Hole Washout 1-6
1.3 Wellbore Caving: Geopressured Formations 1-9
Shale Problems
November 2002 Issue 2 1-i/ii
1 Background
Shales can be defined as clay-rich sedimentary rocks. They are sensitive to both
mechanical and chemical influences, and so are particularly problematic to drill.
A useful classification of shales can be made in terms of hardness. Soft shales tend to
be relatively young and are usually located near to surface. Harder shales are older and
usually more deeply buried. Each type can be associated with a particular set of drilling
problems, as summarised in the table below. For example, soft shales are more likely to
cause tight hole, bit balling and hole erosion problems. Hard or brittle shales suffer more
from sudden cavings and breakout due to failure at the wellbore wall. It is also seen from
the shale that hardness correlates with other properties such as MBT, water content and
shale density.
In tackling drilling problems in shales, both mechanical and chemical aspects should
always be borne in mind. Table 1.1 provides a brief summary of the key points:
Shale Typical Hole Problems MBT* Water Clay Wt % Density

Type (meq/100g) Content (wt%) Types (g/cc)
Soft tight hole due to 20-40 25-70 smectite 20-30 1.2-1.5
swelling + illite
hole enlargement due to
washout (dispersion)
ledges if interbedded
with sandstones
bit balling, mud rings,
blocked flow lines
Firm tight hole due to 10-20 15-25 illite + 20-30 1.5-2.2
swelling mixed
possible washout (with layer
poorly inhibitive mud)
particularly prone to bit
balling
occasional cavings
Hard Cavings 3-10 5-15 illite + 20-30 2.2-2.5
cuttings beds leading to poss.
packing off smectice
tight hole in stressed
formations
Brittle Cavings 0-3 2-5 illite, 5-30 2.5-2.7
hole collapse kaolinite
chlorite
time-delayed failure
*MBT = methylene blue test – a measure of cation exchange capacity; high MBT equates to
smectite-rich shale.
Table 1.1 Classification of Shales According to Hardness
Shale Problems
November 2002 Issue 2 1-1
1.1 Mechanical Effects

There are a large number of variables. Those which can be controlled, and have a
significant influence over hole stability are:
• Well Trajectory
• Bit Type
• Nozzle Size
• Weight on Bit
• Swab/Surge Pressures
• Drillstring Vibration
• Mud Weight
• BHA Design
• Jet Velocity
• ROP (rpm)
• Mud Flow Rate
• Mud Rheology
Of these, mud weight is probably the most fundamental with respect to hole condition.
If the mud weight is too low, tight hole or wellbore breakout can occur. Too high a mud
weight can fracture the formation.
1.2 Chemical Effects

Water will hydrate the clay minerals in shale. This can lead to swelling, softening and
dispersion in softer types, or rock failure (fracturing) in the harder materials. If the shale
is physically constrained so that it cannot swell, significant swelling pressures
can develop.
It is crucial to minimise the reaction with water (ie, create good inhibition) utilising
appropriate drilling fluids. For water based muds, this is done using a combination of
mud additives such as salts and polymers. Salts, e.g. kcl, reduce clay swelling and
dispersion, and polymers may encapsulate the shale to hold it together (eg PHPA) or
have a chemical strengthening effect (eg glycols). The action with water can be
eliminated completely by using oil based mud, but the salinity of the mud must be
sufficient to prevent water entering the shale by osmosis.
Shale Problems
1-2 November 2002 Issue 2
2 Problems in Soft/Firm Shales

2.1 Bit Balling
Occurrence
Some shales can adhere to the BHA, causing clogging of the drill bit, stabilisers and drill
collars. This is most likely with soft-firm, and especially with plastic shale sequences,
and when poorly inhibited water based muds are used. Bit balling is extremely rare in oil
based muds.
Preventative Measures
• Review previous incidence of balling in the area and adopt similar procedures if they
were successful.
• Use inhibiting mud package (eg KCl/polymer rather than lime or gyp/PAC mud,
consider KCl/glycol muds).
• Add film-forming lubricant (consult service company for specific product).
• Avoid excessive weight on bit.
• Ensure good hole cleaning to avoid excessive cuttings build-up at the bit.
• Use appropriate bit type – PDC bits are more prone to balling that tricone.
Figure 1.1 Balled Stabiliser, Reactive North Sea Shale
Shale Problems
Symptoms
• Increased pump pressures as pathways become blocked.
• Reduced ROP due to balled bit.
• Less cuttings coming over shakers (lower ROP + possible blockages).
• Blocked shaker screens indicative of clay with balling tendency.
• Overpull on trips due to restricted fluid pathway.
• Possible stuck pipe.
Cure
• Reduce weight on bit.
• Add drilling detergent to WBM to disperse the balled clay. If this works, maintain
detergent in the mud. If it fails, consider freshwater pill to disperse the clay.
Addition of glycol (e.g. BP Chemicals DCP208 or DCP101), has also been known to
cure balling.
If still unsuccessful, POOH slowly whilst rotating, clean BHA, and adopt preventative
measures.
• In OBM (rarely a problem), increase mud salinity to draw more moisture from the
shale and increase its hardness.
2.2 Mud Rings
Occurrence
Soft cuttings may agglomerate in the annulus to form a 'doughnut' ring which impedes
mud flow and cuttings transport. The ring of cuttings can migrate up or down depending
upon mud flow, and may lead to blocked flow lines. Restriction of cuttings flow could
ultimately lead to pack-off. Tends to occur only with WBMs.
• Use sufficient mud inhibition to avoid sticky cuttings (e.g. KCl/polymer rather than
lime or gyp/PAC mud, consider high KCl or KCl/glycol muds).
• Circulate annulus clean before trips.
• Use large diameter flowlines.
• Avoid excessive ROPs.
• Ensure good hole cleaning to prevent cuttings build-up.
Shale Problems
Symptoms
• Increase in pump pressures as the annulus partially blocks.
• Reduction in cuttings flow rate, seen at the shakers.
• Increase in torque due to braking effect of mud ring.
• Decrease in ROP and hook load as mud ring acts as piston to lift the drillpipe.
• Blocked flow line/plugged shaker screens.
Cure
• Circulate annulus clean by increasing flow rate (if ECD's permit). Increase size
of flowlines if possible to prevent blockage. If necessary, use viscous pill to
circulate clean.
• If mud ring is severe, adding detergent may help to disperse the aggregated clay
making it easier to remove. If detergent is successful, maintain this in the mud
system to prevent recurrence.
2.3 Tight Hole
Occurrence
Reactive shales can swell, causing a reduction in the diameter of the wellbore. This is
common with soft shales due to their frequent high swelling clay content. There may be
some time delay (the shale takes some time to react). Thus, the bit may be free at the
time of drilling, but subsequently could be difficult to pull out of hole.
Note that tight hole becomes more severe in deviated wells, due to increased
drillpipe friction.
Tectonic movement and high pore pressures can also contribute to tight hole. However,
their role is generally more significant in the harder more deeply buried shales
(see Section 3).
Preventative
• Use inhibiting mud systems in soft reactive formations.
• Use sufficient mud weight to balance downhole stresses.
• Maintain around 20-30ppb KCl (or equivalent) in WBM when drilling highly swelling
shales.
• Use sufficient salinity when OBM is used.
• Make regular wiper trips.
• Use proprietary lubricant additive in deviated wells.
• Minimise open hole exposure time (casing design).
Shale Problems
Symptoms
• Increased torque.
• Higher pump pressures.
• Difficult to POOH, high overpull/drag.
Cure
• Backream through tight sections.
• Increase mud weight to force wellbore back (provided fracture gradient allows).
• Check mud salinity:
- WBMs:
Ensure sufficient salt is present (salt is the single most important additive for
reducing swelling). KCl is the most effective salt; levels of around 50ppb have been
used, although 20-30ppb is usually sufficient for North Sea type shales. NaCl is
less effective. Lime (CaCO3) is limited by low solubility; CaCl2 is very soluble but
not recommended due to incompatibility with other additives (e.g. PHPA, XC
polymer, CO2 influxes). Acetate or formate salts (e.g. potassium acetate) can be
used where use of chlorides is restricted.
- OBMs:
Ensure mud salinity is high enough to prevent shale swelling by osmosis. Mud
salinity must be equal to or higher than the pore fluid salinity.
• Add lubricant to mud.
2.4 Erosion/Washout
Occurrence
This is the result of the dispersive nature of soft reactive shales, leading to enlarged
hole. The effect is mainly associated with WBMs, and is rare in OBM. Often localised, it
is possible to experience washed out sections and tight hole simultaneously. Washout
can lead to problems of hole cleaning and difficulty running into hole, plus poor
cementing jobs, etc.
Figure 1.2 Hole Washout
Shale Problems
• Establish shale reactivity prior to drilling (e.g. by reviewing offset data, and/or running
lab. tests).
• Select appropriate level of mud inhibition. Use glycol mud in soft reactive shales,
if WBM is to be used.
• Use mud with good hole cleaning properties (see 'cure' below).
• If there is a high probability of washout, and particularly in deviated holes, consider
well-inhibited high XC polymer systems. MMH (mixed metal hydroxide) and MMS
(mixed metal silicate) systems give excellent hole cleaning, but are not recommended
for highly reactive shales as with current technology shale inhibition with these muds
tends to be poor.
Symptoms
• Increase in cuttings volumes.
• Difficulty running in hole due to ledges.
• Poor hole cleaning leading to packing-off of the BHA.
• Packing off increases overpull and drag.
• Directional problems.
• Bottoms-up time increases.
Cure
• Increase mud inhibition (WBMs), by using appropriate salt/raising salt level – see
previous section, and, if available, by adding glycol (e.g. BP Chemicals DCP208 or
DCP101). Glycols harden soft shales, so reducing dispersion/erosion.
• Improve low shear rheology of mud (higher YP and higher gels) to ensure good hole
cleaning. This will help to clean washed-out sections and prevent cuttings slip.
Alternative regime is to use turbulent flow conditions (low viscosity mud) – consult
Sunbury on this. Hole cleaning is particularly important in deviated holes.
• Maintain mud circulation to prevent cuttings slip.
• When making trips, POOH slowly to minimise swab/surge pressures.
Shale Problems
3 Problems in Hard/Brittle Shales

3.1 Tight Hole
Occurrence
Tight hole due to chemical swelling is less common in harder shales, due to lower
swelling clay (smectite) content. However, high downhole stresses can lead to tight
hole, especially if accompanied by high pore pressures. Oval-shaped (elliptical) holes may
occur in some cases.
• Establish mud weight window using available data/rock mechanics models. Utilise
resistivity and gamma log data if available.
• Strength tests will give better handle on maximum permissible mud weights.
• Screen shale samples, if available, to determine chemical reactivity, and use results to
select appropriate drilling fluid.
• Consider optimum direction for deviated and horizontal wells, to minimise hole
closure due to stress effects.
Symptoms
• Increased torque.
• High pump pressures.
• Increased drag/overpull.
Cure
• If chemical reactivity is suspected, reduce swelling by improving shale inhibition
(see section on soft shales).
• If mechanical (i.e. due to downhole stresses), raise the mud weight.
• Do not raise mud weight if the formation is naturally fractured as this could destabilise
the wellbore (fluid will enter the fractures and 'lever' rock away).
• Add lubricant.
• Run 4-arm caliper to check for elliptical hole, which is indicative of unsymmetrical
rock stresses.
Shale Problems
3.2 Sloughing, Cavings and Packing-off
Occurrence
Many hard/brittle shales tend to fragment into cavings at the wellbore wall, leading to
sloughing and sometimes causing packing-off. This is particularly likely in naturally
fractured formations and in very brittle shale types. The hole enlargement which occurs
can be sudden (even catastrophic) and can be difficult to predict or control. Highly
stressed formations are the most problematic.
Figure 1.3 Wellbore Caving: Geopressured Formations
• Establish mud weight window using available data/rock mechanics models. Strength
tests will give better handle on maximum permissible mud weights.
• Consider optimum direction for deviated and horizontal wells, to minimise hole
instability due to stress effects.
• Choose casing points carefully to reduce exposure time of unstable sections to
drilling fluid.
• Screen shale samples, if available, to determine chemical reactivity, and use results to
select appropriate drilling fluid.
• Use mud with well-defined and understood rheology profile. Consider high XC
polymer system, or MMH (mixed metal hydroxide), or MMS (mixed metal silicate)
system for superior hole cleaning.
• Add particles (e.g. gilsonites, asphaltenes, micas, calcium carbonates) to seal
fractures in naturally fractured shales. Selection of appropriate particles requires
screening tests as particle size distribution and shape are important.
• Take steps to minimise/reduce drillstring vibration in brittle shales.
Shale Problems
Symptoms
• Production of characteristically-shaped cavings at the shakers – appearance of smooth
curved surfaces indicative of pieces once at the wellbore wall.
• Sudden increase in cuttings volumes, possibly large hard chunks.
• Difficulty running in hole due to jamming on ledges.
• Cuttings fall back due to poor hole cleaning, causing pack-off.
• Torque/pump pressures increase.
• High torque and drag due to trapped cavings.
• Bottoms up time increased.
• Directional problems.
Cure
• Raise mud weight.
• Do not raise mud weight if the formation is naturally fractured as this could destabilise
the wellbore (fluid will enter the fractures and lever rock away).
• Improve the low shear rheology of mud (higher YP and higher gels) to ensure good
hole cleaning. This will help to clean washed-out sections and prevent cuttings slip.
Alternative regime is to use turbulent flow conditions (low viscosity mud) – consult
Sunbury on this. Hole cleaning is particularly important in deviated holes.
• Maintain mud circulation at all times to prevent cavings settlement.
• When making trips, POOH slowly to minimise swab/surge pressures.
Shale Problems
Section 2
Wellbore Stability
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 2-1
1.1 Common Misconceptions 2-1
2 The Mechanisms of Wellbore Instability –

Mechanical Aspects 2-2
2.1 Unconsolidated Formations 2-2
2.2 Competent Formations 2-3

Chemical Aspects 2-7
3.1 Preventative Action – Chemical 2-8
3.2 Symptoms and Remedial Action 2-9
4 Special Cases 2-10

4.1 Salt Formations 2-10
4.2 Coal Formations 2-10
Figure
2.1 Mechanical Hole Instability 2-3
2.2 The Mud Weight Window 2-4
Wellbore Stability
1 Introduction
The maintenance of wellbore stability is one of the most critical considerations in any
drilling operation. As a minimum, an unstable wellbore will reduce drilling performance
and in the worst case could result in the loss of the hole through borehole collapse.
Wellbore instability can occur as a result of mechanical effects, chemical effects, or a
combination of both. In simple terms, mechanical effects are usually related to mud
weight (mud weight too high or too low) or drilling practice (rate of penetration, vibration
effects, torque and drag and frequency of trips), whereas chemical effects are mud type
related (inappropriate mud type or inhibition level for the formation being drilled).
The following sections give more detail on this, and provide a guide to minimise wellbore
instability in the planning, implementation and drilling phases.
1.1 Common Misconceptions

Before detailing aspects of hole stability problems some popular misconceptions must
be dispelled.
• Many in the drilling industry believe that well control purposes alone dictate the
required mud weight. They often also assume that hole collapse is simply a result of
drilling with insufficient mud weight. Thus, the perception is that drilling with a
nominal overbalance for well control will also ensure hole stability. The logic behind
these beliefs is flawed. Weak formations may need overbalance in excess of 1000 psi
to prevent hole collapse, whereas some mudstones can be drilled problem free in
'underbalanced' conditions.
• It is common to assume that increasing mud weight is always the answer to hole
instability problems. This is not always correct. Increasing mud weight can amplify
problems. For instance, more rapid failure could occur in fractured rocks, whereas in
some porous formations the resulting higher fluid losses and thicker mud cakes could
promote differential sticking.
• Many believe that the use of an oil based mud will prevent any problems occurring
while drilling in shales. Hole instability can still occur particularly if mud weight or
water phase salinity is inappropriate.
• It must be recognised that mud recommendations based on theoretical models are
liable to be unreliable and often require 'fixing' to give sensible, practical mud
weights. Area experience is a better guide.
• Too great an emphasis is often placed on the role of annular velocity in the process of
hole enlargement. Reducing API filtrate and increasing inhibition and overbalance will
often have a more beneficial effect than reducing annular velocity.
Wellbore Stability

Mechanical Aspects
2.1 Unconsolidated Formations
This type of formation would usually be associated with top hole intervals, but may also
be encountered in fault zones or in unconsolidated reservoirs. Unconsolidated
formations have no cohesive strength. Consequently when they are drilled with a clear
fluid that exerts no confining stress on the wall of the hole the formation will slough into
the hole. Most commonly the unconsolidated formation will be a sand. However,
in some tectonically active areas, a fault zone will be encountered that contains rock
flour and unconsolidated rubble.
2.1.1 Preventative and Remedial Action

• Drilling this type of formation with a mud that has good filtration characteristics will
produce a filtercake on the rock. The pressure drop across this cake will impart
cohesive strength and a gauge, or near gauge, hole can often be achieved. The mud
should contain bridging solids (usually calcium carbonate or fibrous seepage loss
material) to promote the rapid build up of a filter cake. If a cake is not quickly
established the turbulent flow at the bit will produce washed out hole.
• Use the minimum flow rate that will clean the hole to prevent the erosion of the
filter cake.
• Consider the use of a mud with good low shear rheology so that high pump rates are
not required. Xanthan polymer and mixed metal hydroxide muds have an application
in these situations.
• Do all that is possible to avoid the mechanical removal of the filter cake – minimise
trips, minimise reaming and backreaming, avoid rotating stabiliser next to the
unconsolidated formation.
• The use of a mud known to have enhanced fracture sealing capabilities may help to
stabilise fault zone rubble beds. Consult your local fluids group to discuss how this
can be best achieved. Recent work by the fluids team at XTP Sunbury has highlighted
the use of specific mud systems and specialist additives for this problem.
Wellbore Stability
2.2 Competent Formations

There are two extremes of mechanical hole instability, referred to as compressive failure
and formation breakdown (Figure 2.1). Compressive failure occurs when the mud weight
is too low – this results in hole closure (tight hole) or hole collapse. In contrast to this,
formation breakdown occurs if the mud weight is too high. Mud pressure may then
induce a fracture or open a natural fracture system, leading to massive mud losses.
Figure 2.1 Mechanical Hole Instability
In general, hole sections will contain shales/mudstones which will collapse if given
insufficient support, and sands/carbonates which will lead to mud losses and/or
differential sticking if drilled with too high an overbalance. To drill a hole section with
little or no instability problems requires the maximum mud weight tolerated by the
sand/carbonates to exceed the minimum mud weight required to support the
mudstones. These upper and lower bounds to the mud weight define the 'mud weight
window' (see Figure 2.2 (a)). The wider the window the easier the well is to drill.
Conversely, the narrower the window the more difficult it is to contain the mud weight
within the stable region, and hence the risk of wellbore instability is much greater.
In certain highly tectonically stressed regions (e.g. foothills of the Casanare region in
Colombia) the collapse gradient in the shales can exceed the fracture gradient in the
sands, even for nominally vertical wells. In such cases there is no drilling window and it
is impossible to select a mud weight to simultaneously avoid both losses and collapse.
Hence, one or both forms of instability must be tolerated to some extent.
Wellbore Stability
Figure 2.2 The Mud Weight Window
In general, a mud weight window will exist. The 'width' of the window will depend on a
number of operator controlled factors, but primarily well inclination. Increased well
inclination will usually reduce the width of the mud weight window (Figure 2.2 (b)), thus
increasing the risk of straying from the region of safe mud weights. Hence, ERD wells
are typically more prone to instability than other more conventional wells drilled in
the region.
Another factor strongly influencing the integrity of the hole is the open-hole time. Even
stable shales are seldom stable for an indefinite period and the longer the open-hole
time the greater the risk that instability will occur. This is particularly the case when
using water based muds. Increased hole section length and therefore increased open-
hole time are a natural consequence of drilling ERD wells. Where possible, a gradual
increase in mud weight can be effective in combating this time element and can stabilise
the formation for a longer period.
When assessing ERD options in a region previously drilled with conventional wells, the
primary hole stability consideration is to assess the impact of trajectory on the mud
weight window. If conventionally drilled wells have proved difficult to drill due to a
narrow mud weight window, then serious thought must be given to whether a casing
program can be designed to combat the increased risks projected in the ERD well.
Wellbore Stability
2.2.1 Preventative Action – Mechanical
Pre Drilling
The purpose of any data collection is to attempt to define the optimum drilling window
for offset wells and to project that window to planned wells. Without any offset well
data then there is little value in any wellbore stability study.
The data of most value are:
• Drilling Completion reports from offset wells (which may contain much of the other
information listed below).
• Details of any formation stress tests including LOTs and FITs.
• Daily mud properties.
• Details of any mud losses encountered.
• Details of any pipe 'sticking' and/or excess reaming.
• Composite logs, dipmeter or borehole geometry logs, any caliper logs, density logs
and sonic logs.
• Description of any major faulting in the region (normal, strike-slip, etc).
Planning Stage
Well Inclination
• Allow for increases in mud weight of between 0.5 ppg and 1.0 ppg per 30 degrees
inclination through shale/mudstone sections to combat hole collapse. Only local
experience will determine at which end of the scale you need to be.
• No increase in mud weight with hole inclination is necessary across permeable
formations, e.g. sands. Formations with reasonable matrix permeability can be drilled
with nominal overbalance, regardless of well trajectory or formation strength.
• Be aware that the fracture gradient may reduce with increased inclination.
Fracture Gradient
• Recognise that the fracture gradient for a hole section is more likely to be controlled
by a carbonate or sand rather than the shale within which the LOT was performed
(see Figure 2.2).
• On ERD wells, drilling high pressure reservoirs may prove extremely difficult due to a
very tight mud weight window between taking a kick and getting losses. The extent
and effect of ECDs need careful consideration at the planning stage.
• During appraisal, consider performing micro-frac tests (essentially a LOT taken
beyond the point of breakdown) to better determine the fracture gradient in
formations that may prove to be critical in an ERD well.
Wellbore Stability
Regional Stress State

• Process any dipmeter or borehole imaging log data to determine in situ stress
directions. This may help to interpret any problems seen during the drilling operation
and thus hasten corrective actions.
• In highly tectonically stressed regions, drilling up dip of the major faults may provide a
larger mud weight window than drilling down-dip, cross-dip or vertically.
• The in situ stress state near a salt diapir is highly disturbed, such that well trajectories
which approach the diapir normal to its surface provide a larger mud weight window
than trajectories tangential to its surface.
Casing Program
• Having planned for an increased mud weight to control shales in an ERD well,
assess whether the planned casing setting depths still provide a sufficient mud
weight window.
• In ERD wells the mud weight required to drill a normally pressured reservoir is often
significantly less then that required to prevent collapse in the cap rock. The setting
of the production casing should minimise or exclude the presence of cap rock in
the reservoir hole section, thus allowing the reservoir to be drilled with a
nominal overbalance.
General
• Oil based muds often allow a lower mud weight to be used to prevent collapse in
shales. This provides a larger mud weight window.
• The risk of instability in highly laminated shales may be reduced when adopting a
trajectory normal to bedding.
2.2.2 Symptoms and Remedial Action

• The onset of cavings from a formation while it is being drilled may indicate
underbalance conditions. An increase in mud weight or a reduction in ROP may help.
• The onset of cavings more than a few hours after drilling a shale indicates that the
benefit of the initial overbalance has been lost. This is a result of migration of filtrate
into the formation causing near wellbore pressure increases. An increase in mud
weight and/or a reduction in fluid loss are likely to help.
• Often an improvement in LOT value can be observed as the section is drilled.
Consider repeating the LOT where low values have originally been obtained.
• Even in normally stressed regions the mud weight window may be influenced by well
azimuth. Be prepared to increase the mud weight in wells with azimuths sub-parallel
to the maximum horizontal stress direction.
• Controlling mud filtrate loss to a minimum is particularly important in ERD wells and
all hole sections, not simply the reservoir section.
Wellbore Stability
• Swab and surge pressures may trigger off instability in weak or highly fractured
shales. Particular care is required when running in and pulling out of hole sections
with such formations present. Pressure while drilling (PWD) measurements indicate
that surge pressures equivalent to 1.5 ppg (0.18 SG) can be generated not just when
tripping but also on connections made with a top drive.
• Unless absolutely necessary, do not reduce the mud weight while drilling if a shale is
present in the open hole section, otherwise the risk of hole instability is greatly
increased. If operational difficulties necessitate a mud weight reduction then the
slower this is done the better.

Chemical Aspects
Chemical wellbore instability is due to chemical interaction between the formation being
drilled and the drilling fluid. This can occur in two main types of formation:
• shales
• salt formations
In both cases, it is an interaction with water which causes instability. Thus, chemical
instability is always minimised by using oil based muds.
When shales react with water, they can soften, disperse, swell and crack. These effects
can cause a wide range of operational problems such as tight hole, hole enlargement,
ledging, bit balling and caving.
To minimise these problems, it is important to characterise the shale type at the
planning stage of a well, and to use an appropriately-designed drilling fluid (see
Section 1).
In salt formations, chemical instability occurs if the formation is soluble in water. The use
of an incorrectly formulated fluid will lead to uncontrollable washouts in these situations.
Formation types which exhibit this behaviour are:
• Halite (NaCl)
• Carnallite (KMgCl3.6H2O)
• Bischofite (MgCl2.6H2O)
• Sylvite (KCl)
• Polyhalite (K2Ca2Mg(SO4)4. 2H2O)
Wellbore Stability
3.1 Preventative Action – Chemical
Pre Drilling
• When planning a well, first decide if shales or salts will be encountered. Offset well
data and mud reports will be particularly useful.
• Design the casing/well programme to minimise the length of time reactive formations
are exposed to the mud. Because shales have very low permeability (10-9 – 10-6D),
they may appear stable for a time, but water can slowly penetrate leading to
time-delayed effects.
• Characterise shale types by XRD analysis. This technique should also be supported by
laboratory inhibition tests, which are best done on preserved shale.
• Watch out for interbedded formations (e.g. salt stringers in shale or reactive shale in
competent shale). A mud system compatible with both formation types will be
required.
• The best way to minimise chemical instability in shales or salt sections is to use an oil
based mud. This should be the first choice.
• Do not rely on chemical-mechanical wellbore stability models to design the mud.
There is invariably insufficient input data, and they do not take account of specific
chemical reactions.
Oil Based Mud – Engineering Comments

• Oil mud salinity must be at least as high as the pore fluid salinity of the shale. This will
prevent water entering the shale by osmosis.
• When drilling salt formations, OBM salinity should be high (e.g. 300,000 mg/l
chloride), to minimise salt dissolution into the water phase of the mud.
• Synthetic oil muds (pseudo oil muds) should be considered where environmental
constraints restrict the use of conventional oil. Shale inhibition is equally effective in
these systems.
• In microfractured shales, use a very low fluid loss mud (HTHP < 3mls), and add
fracture sealing additives.
• Always consult BP mud specialists as systems vary widely in rheological properties,
temperature stability, and cost per barrel.
Wellbore Stability
Water based mud – Engineering Comments

• If water based mud is to be used, carry out a screening programme at an early stage
to allow optimisation, and discuss issues with BP fluids specialists and the mud
companies.
• Water based muds are less lubricating than oil muds, therefore expect higher torque
in high angle wells. It may be necessary to add lubricants to the system.
• In salt sections, it is important to match the fluid to the type of salt. Salt saturated
muds (NaCl) are used for simple halites; mixed salt systems are available for complex
salts such as Carnallite. Obtain specialist advice on these.
• Use a low fluid loss mud (e.g. API < 5ml, HTHP (250°F) <14ml) in microfractured
shales, and add fracture sealing additives.
3.2 Symptoms and Remedial Action

Having planned the well using all available data the risk of mechanical and/or chemical
borehole instability will be limited. It is, however, important that should instability occur it
should be identified and suitable remedial action should be quickly adopted.
Indication of the condition of the hole can be inferred from torque and drag
measurements, the condition and quantity of cuttings seen at the shale shakers and
variations in mud volumes.
• When drilling shales, monitor cuttings quality as a qualitative measure of inhibition.
Very soft cuttings will mean insufficient chemical inhibition or, in the case of OBM,
would suggest that the water phase salinity is too low.
• High torque values would suggest a tight hole possibly requiring increase in mud
weight or an increase in inhibition to reduce the swelling of clays.
• A sudden appearance of large or increased volume of 'cuttings' at the shale shakers is
indicative of well bore caving.
• An unplanned increase in mud rheology could be due to a build up of fine solids in the
mud which in turn could be an indication of poor inhibition or hole washout.
• The downhole loss of whole mud would indicate that the formation was being
fractured by the use of too high a mud weight.
• Difficulty running in the hole could be attributed to ledges, swelling clays or caving
formations.
A caliper log can be run at section TD. The gauge of the hole will give an indication of
whether mud weight and inhibition was at a correct level for that interval. If an oriented
4-arm caliper is used information on stress orientations can be obtained. A typical
indication of stress induced borehole instability is the presence of an oval rather than
circular hole. Information regarding the two horizontal in situ stresses can be deduced
from this type of log. Knowing the direction of the stresses is valuable when
planning development wells as the well directions least prone to hole problems can
be established.
Wellbore Stability
4 Special Cases
4.1 Salt Formations
• Drilling near a salt diapir presents a special case because of the altered in situ
stresses near to the diapir. The behaviour of wells within a few hundred meters of a
diapir may be totally different to wells only a kilometre or so away. In general hole
problems are accentuated near a diapir.
• The maintenance of gauge or near gauge hole is important when drilling massive salt
formations. Greatly washed out hole will probably result in a poor cement job. This in
turn will allow salt behind the casing to creep, impinging on the casing and,
in extreme cases cause the casing to buckle.
• Stuck pipe is a common problem when drilling in salt formations. Salt formations tend
to creep and impinge on the drillstring. The only way to stop this process is to drill
with a mud weight equivalent to overburden pressure (approximately 19 ppg in the
S N Sea and 17 ppg in the Gulf of Mexico). In practice the rate of creep can often be
reduced to acceptable levels at lower mud weights, typically 14.0 ppg. The use of
eccentric bits to slightly increase the diameter of the hole has proved beneficial in
some operations.
4.2 Coal Formations

Coal is a very brittle formation with low compressive strength. It is usually highly
fractured and in areas of high tectonic stress can instantly collapse into the bore hole
when the horizontal stress is relieved by the bit – stuck pipe is often the end result. High
mud weights can rarely be used to stabilise the coal formations because of their inherent
low fracture gradients. The recognised technique to drill coal is to limit penetration so
that the stresses are given chance to equilibrate and so that the blocky pieces of coal
can be removed from the hole. Good hole cleaning is essential – it may be necessary to
modify the cleaning capacity of the mud while drilling coals. The properties can be
restored to normal when the coal has been drilled. Alternatively viscous, weighted
sweeps can be used to enhance hole cleaning – this is particularly appropriate if the coal
seam is anticipated to be thin.
Should the pipe become stuck in coal, and circulation is possible, experience shows that
spotting a high pH pill around the coal can help to free the pipe.
Where the coal seam is not tectonically stressed and geological information regarding
the seam is required care must be taken with fluid properties and drilling practices. Seat
earths and marine bands both provide valuable information about the coal but both are
easily washed out. When coring with water based muds a low filtrate should be utilised
and jet velocity should be minimised. There is some evidence that these fractured rocks
can be stabilised with products such as Gilsonite and Soltex.
Wellbore Stability
Section 3
Hole Cleaning
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 3-1
2 General Factors Effecting Hole Cleaning 3-2

2.1 Cuttings Transport 3-2
2.2 Rheology 3-3
2.3 Yield Stress 3-3
2.4 Pump Rate 3-3
2.5 Hole Geometry 3-3
2.6 Mud Weight 3-4
2.7 Cuttings Properties 3-4
2.8 Rate of Penetration 3-4
2.9 Drillpipe Rotation 3-4
3 Rig Site Monitoring 3-4
4 Vertical and Near Vertical Wells 3-5

4.1 Hole Cleaning in Near Vertical Wells – Guidelines 3-5
5 High Angle, Extended-reach Wells 3-6

5.1 Hole Cleaning in Deviated Wells – Guidelines 3-6
6 Washed Out Hole 3-11
7 Hole Cleaning Charts 3-11

7.1 Example 3-11
Table
3.1 Typical Flow Rates 3-6
3.2 Typical Volumes 3-8
3.3 Number of Bottoms Ups Prior to Tripping 3-10
Hole Cleaning
November 2002 Issue 2 3-i
Section 3
Hole Cleaning
Figure Page
3.1 Cuttings Transport Mechanisms 3-2
3.2 Effect of Yield Point on Critical Flow Rate 3-7
3.3 Hole Cleaning Charts for 17 1/2" Hole 3-12
3.4 Rheology Factor for 17 1/2" Hole 3-13
3.5 17 1/2" Hole Cleaning Chart 3-13
3.6 Hole cleaning Charts for 12 1/4" Hole 3-14
3.9 Hole Cleaning Charts for 8 1/2" Hole 3-15
Hole Cleaning
3-ii November 2002 Issue 2
1 Introduction
Removal of cuttings from the wellbore is an essential part of the drilling operation.
Efficient hole cleaning must be maintained in all wells. Failure to effectively transport the
cuttings can result in a number of drilling problems including:
• Excessive overpull on trips
• High rotary torque
• Stuck pipe
• Hole pack-off
• Formation break down
• Slow ROP
• Lost Circulation
All of these are potential problems for both near vertical (less than 30° deviation) and
ERD wells. In general however hole cleaning rarely presents a problem in near vertical
wells. The problems listed above are common on highly deviated wells.
Successful hole cleaning relies upon integrating optimum mud properties with best
drilling practices. When difficulties are encountered it is essential to understand the
nature and causes of the problem. This allows options to be focused to determine the
most appropriate actions.
Hole Cleaning
2 General Factors Effecting Hole Cleaning

There are a large number of drilling variables which influence the hole cleaning process.
Some variables the driller has a direct control on, others are pre-determined by the
constraints of the drilling operation.
2.1 Cuttings Transport

Figure 3.1 is a schematic representation of the cuttings transport mechanisms for a
range of well inclinations.
Figure 3.1 Cuttings Transport Mechanisms
In holes inclined less than 30 degrees, the cuttings are effectively suspended by the fluid
shear and cuttings beds do not form (zones 1 and 3). For such cases conventional
transport calculations based on vertical slip velocities are applicable. Generally for these
shallow angles annular velocity requirements are typically 20-30% in excess of vertical
wells. Beyond 30 degrees the cuttings form beds on the low side of the hole which can
slide back down the well, causing the annulus to pack-off. Cuttings which form on the
low side of the hole can either move en-masse as a sliding bed (zone 4) or alternatively
may be transported at the bed/mud interface as ripples or dune (zone 2).
Hole Cleaning
Flow patterns in the annulus depend strongly upon flow rate and mud rheology. Thin
fluids with low YPs tend to promote turbulence and cuttings saltation. Thick fluid with
high YPs increase the fluid drag force and causes the cuttings bed to slide.
The ideal zones for cuttings transport are Zones 1 and 2. Zone 5 virtually guarantees tight
hole problems.
2.2 Rheology
The effect of mud rheology on hole cleaning depends on the annular flow regime. In the
laminar regime, increasing mud viscosity will improve hole cleaning and it is particularly
effective if the low shear rheology and YP/PV ratio are high. In the turbulent regime
reducing mud viscosity will help remove cuttings.
2.3 Yield Stress

This is a measure of the low shear properties of the mud. It is determined from
the 6 rpm and 3 rpm readings of a conventional Fann viscometer, [YS = (2 x Fann 3) –
Fann 6]. This property controls the size of cuttings which can be suspended by the
flowing mud (dynamic suspension). The dynamic suspension will be affected by cuttings
size and mud density. In practice the optimum level required is best established based
on field data and experience.
2.4 Pump Rate

The mud flow rate provides the lifting force on cuttings to carry them out of the well.
In highly deviated wells mud flow rate is the most important factor for hole cleaning. For
vertical wells the rate of cuttings removal increases with increasing annular velocity
and/or increased rheology.
2.5 Hole Geometry

Hole diameter has a very significant effect on annular velocity. Reducing hole diameter
from 17 1/2 to 16 inch will for example increase annular velocity by approximately 20%.
Hole Cleaning
2.6 Mud Weight

Mud weight influences hole cleaning by affecting the buoyancy of the drilled cuttings.
As mud weight increases, the cuttings will tend to 'float' out of the well making hole
cleaning easier. In practice the mud weight window will be constrained by drilling factors
other than hole cleaning (wellbore stability, ECD, differential sticking etc).
2.7 Cuttings Properties

Hole cleaning is dependent upon both cuttings size and density. Increasing size and
density both tend to increase the cuttings' slip velocity. This makes transport more
difficult. The effects of higher slip velocity can be combated by an appropriate increase in
yield stress and mud gel. In extreme circumstances bit selection can be used to
generate smaller cuttings and, hence, reduce slip velocity.
2.8 Rate of Penetration

Increases in penetration rate result in a higher cuttings concentration in the annulus. This
will lead to a higher effective mud density in the annulus and higher circulating pressures
which may, in turn, limit flow rates.
2.9 Drillpipe Rotation

In deviated wells high pipe rotation speeds provide an effective means of mechanically
disturbing cuttings beds and reintroducing them into the main mud flow for removal.
Drillpipe rotation has little effect on hole cleaning in near vertical wells.
3 Rig Site Monitoring

There are a number of rig-site indicators that should be used to monitor the hole
condition and allow preventative action to be taken. These should normally be examined
for trends and sudden departures rather than absolute values.
• The shape and size of the cuttings coming over the shaker should be regularly
monitored. Small rounded cuttings indicate that cuttings have been spending
extended periods downhole being reground by the BHA.
• The cuttings return rate at the shakers should also be measured and compared with
the volume predicted from ROP. Simple devices are available to automate the
measurement.
• Torque and drag can be used to determine whether cuttings beds are adding to the
wellbore friction. Simulations should be conducted in advance using the DSS (part of
the DEAP program). Deviations from the normal trend line can be indicative of
cuttings bed forming.
• Erratic signal in torque or SPP can also be an early warning of cuttings beds.
Hole Cleaning
4 Vertical and Near Vertical Wells

Rheology plays a very important role in transporting cuttings in vertical and near-vertical
holes. Large diameter holes, in particular, cannot be cleaned by velocity alone. However,
assuming that the mud has the correct rheology, hole cleaning on these wells is not
normally a problem. The mud annular velocity is generally far greater than the cuttings
slip velocity and so the cuttings are carried out of the hole. To ensure that a low slip
velocity is achieved these wells are usually drilled with viscous, high yield point muds.
4.1 Hole Cleaning in Near Vertical Wells – Guidelines

• Select mud properties to provide optimum hole cleaning whilst drilling. The specific
properties will depend upon available pump rate. In all cases mud rheology should be
maintained at a level that will reduce slip velocity to acceptable levels.
Specific requirements for annular velocity cf. cuttings slip velocity can be obtained
within DEAP.
• Poor hole cleaning will result in high cuttings loading in the annulus. When circulation
is stopped these cuttings can fall back and pack-off the BHA. When packing-off
occurs this means the flow rate is too low or the well has not been circulated for
sufficient time (assuming that the above criteria for mud properties has been met).
• Circulate the hole thoroughly prior to tripping – A single bottoms-up is not sufficient.
The minimum recommended volume for vertical wells is 1.3 x bottoms-up (1.5 for
holes > 8 1/2'). Monitor the shakers to ensure the cuttings return rate is reduced to
an acceptable background level prior to commencing tripping.
• Limit use of high viscosity pills to supplement hole cleaning. Rather adjust the
properties of the active mud in circulation to provide optimum cleaning capacity. High
weight pills should not be used in vertical wells.
• For vertical holes reciprocate rather than rotate the pipe during circulation prior to
tripping – this helps remove cuttings from stagnant zones near the wellbore wall.
• Pulling through tight spots is OK provided the pipe is free going down. Agree a
maximum allowable overpull in advance with the Company Man/Drilling
Superintendent. Do not go immediately to the maximum overpull, but work up
progressively ensuring that the pipe is free to go down on every occasion.
• Stop and circulate the hole clean if overpulls become excessive.
• Avoid precautionary backreaming. Understand the nature and causes of any problems
encountered on tripping. Only backream when essential.
Hole Cleaning
5 High Angle, Extended-reach Wells

Much of the information given above relating to hole cleaning in near vertical wells is
relevant to ERD wells. However it is far more difficult to maintain clean hole in deviated
wells. The guidelines in Paragraph 5.1 below are based on the conclusions derived from
both laboratory and field data:
5.1 Hole Cleaning in Deviated Wells – Guidelines
5.1.1 Flow Rate

The single most important factor relating to hole cleaning in deviated wells is flow rate
(ie annular velocity). During directional drilling operations, drilled cuttings will settle on
the low side of the hole and form a stationary bed if insufficient annular fluid velocity is
used. The critical flow rate (CFR) required to prevent cuttings bed formation can be
determined from the BP Hole Cleaning Model. When planning a well it is imperative that
mud pumps of sufficient size and capacity are selected to achieve this required rate.
Typically few hole cleaning problems exist in vertical or horizontal sections.
Most problems associated with hole cleaning are seen on deviated wells occur in the
50 – 60 deg section where gravity effects can cause cuttings beds to slump down
the hole. The BP Hole Cleaning Model should be used in the planning of all wells and in
particular Extended Reach applications.
Typical flow rates to aim for in ERD wells are given Table 3.1.
Hole Size Typical Flow Rates

17 1/2' 1100 gpm minimum
Some rigs achieve 1250 – 1400 gpm
12 1/4' Aim for 1100 gpm (although 800 – 1000 gpm is typically achieved)
If 1000 gpm is not achievable, ensure tripping procedures are in place for
poorly cleaned hole.
8 1/2' Aim for 500 gpm
Table 3.1 Typical Flow Rates
Hole Cleaning
5.1.2 Selection of Flow Regime

When correctly designed, both laminar and turbulent flow regimes will effectively clean a
deviated well. In general increasing the viscosity of a fluid in laminar flow will improve
hole cleaning as will a reduction of the viscosity of a fluid in turbulent flow. It is important
that one/or the other regime is selected and that the transition zone between the two is
avoided (Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2 Effect of Yield Point on Critical Flow Rate
Generally viscous fluids in laminar flow are preferred because:

• It is possible to achieve higher cleaning capacity (rheology factor).
• Viscous fluids give better transport in the near-vertical sections.
• Viscous mud has better suspension characteristics when circulation is stopped.
• Its difficult to achieve 'turbulent flow' except in small hole sizes.
Turbulent flow effectively prevents the formation of cuttings beds on the low side of
highly deviated wells and helps to minimise ECD. For these reasons turbulence may be
preferred in deviated holes where there is a small window between mud weight and
fracture gradient. It is however difficult to achieve turbulence in large diameter holes
(12 1/4' and greater) particularly when weighted muds are being used.
Turbulent regimes should not be used in friable, non competent formations. Subsequent
wash-out of the rock will reduce annular velocities to a point where laminar flow will
develop in a fluid with properties specifically designed for turbulence. Cuttings bed
formation and barite sag will almost inevitably follow. Effectively the same process can
occur as the fluid, designed for turbulence in small diameter hole, enters larger
diameters further up the hole. All fluids designed for turbulence must have, as a
minimum, sufficient suspension characteristics and carrying capacity to clean these
larger hole (casing) sizes.
Hole Cleaning
5.1.3 Mud Rheology

Experience has shown that good mud rheology is extremely important to hole cleaning
when drilling a high angle well. Studies show that the effects of mud rheology and
annular flow regime are mutually dependent. In the laminar regime, increasing mud
viscosity will improve hole cleaning and this is particularly effective if the Yield Stress is
high. In the turbulent regime, however, reducing mud viscosity will help removing
cuttings. Therefore the mud rheology should be designed to avoid the transitional flow
regime. For hole sizes above 8 1/2”, the annular flow is laminar under most
circumstances. Therefore it is desirable to specify a minimum Yield Stress. In practice
the optimum level required is best established based on field data and experience.
5.1.4 Hole Cleaning Charts

A series of Hole Cleaning Charts have been developed which can be used to determine
the Critical Flow Rate for various hole sizes when drilling a deviated well. These charts,
with examples, are included at the end of this section.
5.1.5 Hydraulics
Conventional drilling hydraulics rely upon optimising hydraulic horsepower or hydraulic
impact at the bit. This requires approximately 60-70% of the system pressure loss to be
dissipated at the bit. For ERD wells where the flow rates for hole cleaning are higher,
it is often necessary to reach a compromise and reduce the energy spent at the bit.
This is achieved by selecting larger nozzle diameters. The distribution of pressure losses
throughout the circulating system depends upon well geometry and fluid properties.
In conventional drilling the annular pressure drop is generally <5% of the overall system
loss (this proportion increases dramatically for slimhole configurations). The annular
pressure loss, whilst only a small fraction of the total loss is critical for determining ECD.
5.1.6 Use of Mud Pills

Proper use of mud pills may improve hole cleaning in a high angle well. High viscosity
(preferably weighted) pills are often effective in hole sizes larger than 8 1/2” whilst low
viscosity pills are beneficial in smaller holes. When using a low viscosity pill, it is
important to maintain the normal high flow rate and minimise the stagnant circulation
time. Also it is often necessary for a low viscosity pill to be followed by a high viscosity
(weighted) pill in order to ensure adequate hole cleaning in the larger vertical hole
section. The specific pill volumes should be determined based on the hole size and the
calculated effect on hydrostatic head. Typical volumes used are:
17 1/2 and 16 Intervals 12 1/4 Intervals 8 1/2 Intervals

50 + bbl 30 – 50 bbl 20 bbl
Table 3.2 Typical Volumes
Note: The use of low viscosity, turbulent flow pills is not recommended in weakly
consolidated formations as washout or destabilisation may occur.
Hole Cleaning
5.1.7 Steady ROP

A higher ROP requires a higher flow rate to clean the hole. It is a good practice to drill
the hole with a steady ROP and select the required flow rate for hole cleaning
accordingly. In cases where this can not be achieved, the average ROP over a 30 m
(100 ft) interval should be used to select the flow rate.
5.1.8 Drillpipe Rotation/Reciprocation

Experience has shown that drillpipe rotation/reciprocation is very effective in improving
hole cleaning, in particular at high speeds. This is because the drillpipe
rotation/reciprocation will mechanically agitate the cuttings bed and therefore help
removing cuttings. Discuss limitations of rotary speeds when using downhole motors
with the directional drilling company.
5.1.9 Large Surface Hole Section

When drilling ERD wells, it is often necessary to kick off in the large surface hole section
(22"/24"/26"). However, as a deviated large sized hole requires a very high flow rate to
remove the cuttings, it is necessary to limit the maximum angle in the hole section,
often in the range of 20~30 deg. Also, minimising the hole size will greatly improve hole
cleaning, e.g. by drilling a 22" hole instead of 24" or 26" if possible. Drilling a pilot hole
and then opening up to the full size only marginally reduce the required flow rate for
effective hole cleaning.
5.1.10 Use of Larger Drillpipes

The pump pressure is often the limiting factor for achieving the required flow rate for
hole cleaning. Therefore, it is often necessary to use larger than conventional
5" drillpipes such as 5 1/2" or 6 5/8" in order to reduce the pump pressure. However, as
use of a larger drillpipe size results in higher surface torque, its length should
be optimised.
Hole Cleaning
5.1.11 Circulation Prior to Connections or Tripping

Before making a connection, the hole should be circulated at the normal flow rate to
clear the cuttings from around the BHA. Depending upon the hole angle and the length
of BHA, a circulation time of 5 to 10 min is often necessary.
Before tripping out, the hole should be circulated at the normal flow rate until the
shakers are clean, and the drillpipe be rotated at maximum speed/reciprocated in the
mean time. This may require up to 3 bottoms-ups, depending upon the hole angle and
hole size. Table 3.3 lists the recommended number of calculated bottom ups prior
to tripping.
Hole Angle 8 1/2' 12 1/4' 17 1/2'

0 – 10 1.3 1.3 1.5
10 – 30 1.4 1.4 1.7
30 – 60 1.6 1.8 2.5
60+ 1.7 2.0 3.0
Table 3.3 Number of Bottoms Ups Prior to Tripping
5.1.12 Wiper Trips

Wiper trips or pumping-out-of-hole are often effective in eliminating hole cleaning
problems. So it is a good practice to have regular wiper trips say every 150 or 200 m
back into the previous casing when drilling a high angle section. This is particularly
important if the actual flow rate is below or close to the critical rate.
5.1.13 Data Acquisition

It is advised that trend sheets be used to log all hole cleaning parameters for future use,
ie flow rate, rpm, mud rheology vs depth and evidence of dirty hole on trips etc. Trip
procedures should be prepared in advance with guidance on tripping intervals,
backreaming rates and maximum overpull. These procedures can be modified over the
well as necessary.
By measuring the amount of cuttings over the shakers at regular intervals a cuttings
return log can be established which will provide valuable information on trends in
cuttings returns versus ROP.
Hole Cleaning
6 Washed Out Hole

In situations where out-of-gauge sections are common, every effort should be made to
minimise the extent of hole enlargement. Factors such as mud design (chemical) and
mud weight selection must be optimised to reduce the problem. Poorly consolidated
formations can be prone to hydraulic and mechanical erosion. Bit hydraulics and drilling
practices should be designed accordingly.
In areas such as Colombia where the formations are tectonically active the wellbore
sections are generally out of gauge. This causes a reduction in the annular velocity of the
mud which together with the large cavings (and hence higher slip velocity), makes hole
cleaning much more critical. Recommended ranges for rheological properties have been
developed from analysis of field data in Colombia. Similar studies can be performed by
XTP Sunbury for other assets.
7 Hole Cleaning Charts

The following charts have been derived based on the BP hole cleaning model by
assuming a set of drilling conditions which are considered typical of BPX North Sea and
Gulf of Mexico. Therefore, these charts should not be used in cases where the drilling
conditions are significantly different from the assumed typical conditions. Under these
circumstances the Drilling and Completion Branch, Sunbury, can be consulted.
7.1 Example
Hole Size 12 1/4

Deviation 60°
Mud Weight 1.5 sg
Plastic Viscosity 30 cp.
Yield Point 25 lb/100ft2
Anticipated ROP 20m/hr
The following charts can be used to determine the flow rate requirement to clean the
hole assuming:
• The hole is in gauge
• The hole is washed out to 13 1/2"
Hole Cleaning
Gauge Hole
• Find the Hole Cleaning Charts for 12 1/4" Hole
• Enter the left hand chart with PV = 30 and YP = 25, read off the Rheology Factor
RF = 0.99
• Use the Angle Factor (AF) table, read off AF = 1.07 for 60° deviation
• Calculate the Transport Index, TI = 1.5 x 0.99 x 1.07 = 1.59
• As the hole is in gauge there is no need to correct TI
• Enter the right hand chart with ROP = 20m/hr and TI = 1.59; giving a required flow
rate to clean the hole of 740gpm
Washed Out Hole

• Required flow rate must be determined based on actual hole size – 13 1/2"
• This is done by correcting the TI determined above
• Corrected TI =
2.44 x 1.59 ÷ (0.38 x 13.5 – 2.22) = 1.33
• Enter the right hand chart with ROP = 20m/hr and TI' = 1.33, giving a required flow
rate to clean the enlarged hole of 910 gpm
Figure 3.3 Hole Cleaning Charts for 17 1/2" Hole
Hole Cleaning
Figure 3.4 Rheology Factor for 17 1/2" Hole
Figure 3.5 17 1/2" Hole Cleaning Chart
Hole Cleaning
Figure 3.6 Hole cleaning Charts for 12 1/4" Hole
Hole Cleaning
Figure 3.9 Hole Cleaning Charts for 8 1/2" Hole
Hole Cleaning
Hole Cleaning
Section 4
Barite Sag
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 4-1
2 Occurrence 4-1
3 Symptoms 4-2
4 Preventative Measures and Remedial Action 4-3

4.1 Well Planning 4-3
4.2 Mud Properties and Testing 4-4
4.3 Operational Practices 4-5
Barite Sag
1 Introduction
In oilfield terminology 'sag' describes the process which results in significant mud
density variations being seen at the flowline after the mud has been static for extended
periods, most commonly during trips. It is the fact that the weight variations are most
commonly seen after static periods that has, in the past, resulted in a failure to
understand the mechanism that causes them. Flow loop testing has proved that the
majority of density variations are due to dynamic settling of weight material to the low
side of a deviated hole. The beds of weight material then slump during periods when the
mud is static. Some static (hindered) settling can, and does occur, but is less likely to
produce large scale density differences.
A recent joint study has been conducted with one of the major drilling fluids companies
to investigate the controlling parameters of barite sag. From this study it has also been
concluded that:
• Sag is a dynamic phenomenon which may not occur when mud is static.
• Sag is exacerbated by low annular velocities.
• Hole inclinations close to 75 degrees are most critical.
• Drillpipe rotation significantly reduces sag.
• Mud rheology at low shear plays a key role in controlling sag.
The test results clearly show that flow rate (annular velocity), hole angle, drillpipe rotation
and drillpipe eccentricity are inter-related. The combination of these conditions also
dictates how barite deposition continues with time. Correct drilling practices that will
discourage bed formation and disturb any beds that do develop must be adopted.
2 Occurrence
The following parameters have been shown in both the laboratory and the field to
contribute to the occurrence of barite sag.
• Flow rate
The greatest sag occurs at the lower annular velocities. When the drillpipe is
concentric sag is virtually eliminated at 100 fpm. Higher (nominal) annular velocities
are needed to eliminate sag in the case of eccentric drillpipe.
• Mud rheology
The experimental study indicated that increased low shear rheology assists in
reducing sag. A Yield Stress of 15 lb/100 sq. ft (based on Fann 3 and 6 rpm) was
shown to virtually eliminate sag on the laboratory test facility.
• Mud density
Sag was shown to occur over the full range of mud weights tested (11.6 – 16.0 ppg).
Mud weight did not significantly influence the extent of sag over the mud weight
range examined. However to date most problem BP wells have occurred with mud
weights >13 ppg.
Barite Sag
• Hole angle
Sag is shown to occur at all angles between 30 and 90 degrees. Sag tendency is
lower in the range 30-50 degrees compared with 60-90 degrees. The worst angle for
sag is 75 degrees.. Less potential hole problems occur with the stable beds that form
beyond 75 degrees. Also in many cases these beds can be eroded by a combination
of annular flow and drillpipe rotation.
• Drillpipe rotation
Non rotation of the pipe when orienting/sliding is conducive to barite sag. Rotation of
the drillpipe reduces the sag tendency in all conditions. The effect is particularly
noticeable in the range 60-75 degrees where sag is at a maximum. Rotation at
150 rpm virtually eliminates sag under all conditions.
• Eccentricity
When the drillpipe lies on the low side of the hole without rotation, sag occurs over a
wider range of flow rates. This is due to the reduction in annular velocity in an
eccentric annulus. However drillpipe rotation is very effective at removing the bed.
• Time
Results from the test loop suggest that at most angles an equilibrium is established
between the rate of barite deposition and the rate at which the bed is eroded. In
general the time taken to establish the bed increases with hole angle. However for
intermediate angles (60-75 degrees) deposition rates are higher and generally no
equilibrium occurred within the time frame of the experiments.
Note: Sag occurs with both Oil Based Mud (conventional and synthetic) and Water
Based Mud.
3 Symptoms
Mud weight
At critical stages of the well, ensure that the mud weight in and out is measured at
15 minute intervals. The mud sample must be at a constant temperature (e.g. 50°C) to
minimise variations in mud weight due to thermal expansion of the fluid, this is
particularly important when using oil muds. Use a pressurised mud balance to obtain
accurate data. Ensure the balance is operating properly and has been recently calibrated.
Any significant variation, unexplainable by other mechanisms, will be an indication of
barite sag. Heavy spots can sometimes be correlated to circulating the slug out of the
hole. Light spots are often the first indication of barite sag.
Stand pipe pressure

Fluctuations in stand pipe pressure may occur as slugs of light and heavy mud pass
through the bit nozzles. Changes can occur from both changes in hydrostatic (U-tube
effect) and differences in frictional pressure loss.
Barite Sag
Torque and drag

Settled barite beds may behave in a similar manner to cuttings beds in deviated wells.
High overpulls may indicate that barite is forming a restriction on the low side of
the hole.
Mud losses and gains

Ensure mud loggers accurately monitor active pit volumes. Unexpected losses may
occur as heavy spots of mud in the annulus reach the near-vertical sections of the well
and rapidly increase the hydrostatic pressure. The opposite effect can occur with light
mud, which may cause the well to flow.
4 Preventative Measures and Remedial Action

4.1 Well Planning
• Well type
Most critical wells are ERD where the margin between the pore pressure and fracture
gradient is small. In these wells the maximum rheology is limited by a need to
control ECD.
• Well environment
Temperature and pressure are critical for mud design. High temperatures cause the
mud to thin which increases the chances for sag. Ensure that mud service company
conducts rheology measurements at HP/HT conditions. For critical wells consider
making HP/HT rheology measurements at the rig-site.
• Angle/profile
Sag can occur in all wells > 30 degrees. Most critical region 60-75 degrees.
• Casing design
Avoid casing designs which give rise to low annular velocities. In cases where 6" hole
is drilled through a 7" drilling liner, recognise the increased potential for barite sag to
occur in higher casing/drillpipe annuli.
• Hole sizes
Barite sag has been shown to occur over a wide range of annular velocities and well
angles. Most field problems have occurred in 12 1/4" and 8 1/2" sections.
Barite Sag
4.2 Mud Properties and Testing
Rheology
Increasing low shear rheology (Fann 6 and 3 and gels) helps reduce sag. Evidence exists
that in OBM 'clay' type products are more effective than fatty acid low shear enhancers
alone. The use of a combination of clay and rheology modifier in a ratio of approximately
2 : 1 has proved effective in North Sea operations. Good recent successes have been
achieved using organophilic attapulgite. Mud which has previously been treated with
thinners is more prone to sag, even after post treatment to increase viscosity. The use
of oil wetting agents rather than specific thinners has proved beneficial in some
operations.
Yield Stress
A minimum mud yield stress is required to provide adequate barite suspension. Based
on available data the minimum yield stress (based on Fann 3 and 6 rpm) should be in the
range 7 – 15 lb/100 sq. ft.
Testing
Mud properties should be optimised to maintain the mud weight differential < 1ppg on
the Jefferson Test. For high temperature applications it is recommended that the high
angle sag tester (HAST) is utilised. In this equipment the drilling fluid is aged at a given
angle and temperature similar to the conditions prevalent on the well. The change in the
centre of mass is measured regularly (e.g. every 10 minutes) over a sixteen hour period.
This is then plotted against time and expressed as the sag coefficient. In cases where
the mud is left static for extended periods, the lab tests should also be conducted for
comparable time scales.
Particle size
Smaller barite particles have less tendency to sag. Products such as Micromax
(manganese tetroxide) have been shown to 'eliminate' sag. Some success has been
seen using mixtures with wide particle size distribution. (e.g. barite/calcium carbonate or
barite/Micromax). Before Micromax comes into common oilfield use some potential
disadvantages must be addressed. These include: cost; QC; fluid loss characteristics;
formation damage potential and HSE matters.
Oil/Water Ratio
Increasing oil content tends to thin mud and causes sag to increase.
Surfactant Concentration
Levels of wetting agent in OBM must be sufficient to prevent barite agglomerating into
large clusters. Over-treatment must also be avoided to prevent undesirable viscosity
reduction.
Barite Sag
Fluid Loss Additives

Information on this is limited but it is worth noting that problems have been experienced
when using > 4 lb/bbl Soltex in oil muds. These problems have been attributed to the
'thinning' effect of this product. If the use of Soltex is desired to enhance other
properties (filtration and lubricity) the potential problem can be avoided by the use of
preplanned or remedial treatments of organophilic clay.
4.3 Operational Practices
Rotary versus Sliding

Data clearly demonstrates that sag is worst when drillpipe is stationary. Particularly
important for wells 60-75 degrees where even high annular velocities do not eliminate
sag. Minimise sliding in these intervals. If extended periods of sliding, without rotation,
are operationally unavoidable the drilling fluid rheology should be adjusted to have a Yield
Stress > 10. Use pipe rotation to disturb cuttings beds – pull back one stand and rotate
at up to 150 rpm after extended periods of sliding – design the BHA to allow for this high
rotation rate.
Rotary wiper trips

Between extended periods of sliding consider use of rotary wiper trips to stir-up any
deposited barite beds.
Time between trips

Recognise that sag increases with time. The effect is particularly pronounced in the
range 60-75 degrees. It may be necessary to stage in the hole after extended trips
to reduce the impact of reintroducing settled barite or other weight material into
the system.
Conditioning mud
If excessive swings in mud density are observed at surface, stop and condition the mud.
Allow a minimum of 2 total mud circulations to enable chemical treatments to be
effective and to ensure that all density fluctuations are eliminated.
Mud conditioning prior to cementing

Avoid over treatment of the mud prior to running casing and cementing. Excessive
dilution or chemical treatment in OBM can dramatically increase the likelihood of sag.
As the mud will usually be thinner under downhole conditions than at the standard 120°F
surface test it is advisable to plan cement jobs using HTHP rheology (Fann 70 or
equivalent) results.
Barite Sag
Operations under low shear conditions

Recognise that barite sag is a dynamic phenomenon which occurs under conditions of
low shear in the annulus. Any operation which induces low shear (e.g. SCR, running
casing or running logs) has the potential to accelerate sag. Ensure the mud is in good
condition prior to conducting such operations, particularly if they occur for significant
time periods.
Barite Sag
Section 5
Torque and Drag
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 5-1
2 Factors Which Affect Torque and Drag 5-2

2.1 The Wall Force 5-2
2.2 Wellbore Inclination 5-2
2.3 Tension around Doglegs 5-2
2.4 Surface Properties 5-2
2.5 Mud Lubricity 5-3
2.6 Wellbore Stability/Shale Inhibition 5-3
2.7 Hole Cleaning 5-3
3 Predicting and Monitoring Torque/Drag 5-4

3.1 The Coefficient of Friction 5-4
3.2 The Drill String Simulator 5-5
4 Ways to Minimise Torque and Drag 5-6

4.1 Well Profile Design 5-6
4.2 Drillstring Design 5-6
4.3 BHA Design 5-6
4.4 Mud Design 5-7
4.5 Physical Methods 5-8
Table
5.1 'Default' Coefficient of Friction Values 5-4
Figure
5.1 Wytch Farm 1F-20 9 5/8" Casing Drag 5-5
5.2 The Ideal Profile 5-6
Torque and Drag

1 Introduction
Torque and drag are caused by the frictional forces encountered between the drillstring
and the borehole wall.
Torque refers to a measurement of the force required to rotate the drillstring in
the borehole.
Drag refers to a measurement of the incremental force required to move the
drillstring up or down in the borehole.
In extended reach and horizontal drilling, frictional forces may limit the extent of stepout
possible and it is therefore important to understand the causes of these forces and how
they may be minimised. During well planning, torque and drag calculations will influence
the possible well geometries and stepout as well as the equipment specifications
required in order to successfully drill the well.
Excessive torque and drag can result in a number of problems including:
• Twist Offs
• Stalling
• Downhole Make-Up
• High Break-Out Torques
• Stuck-Pipe
• High Overpulls
• Inability to Slide
Although torque and drag are usually problematical features of the drilling process, they
can also be used as indicators of hole condition. During drilling, monitoring torque and
drag is a method for optimising drilling performance and may provide indications of other
potential problems such as:
• Differential Sticking
• Key Seating
• Poor Hole Cleaning
• Hole Instability
• Ledging
Torque and Drag

2 Factors Which Affect Torque and Drag

The main influences on torque and drag are:
• The wall force
• The nature of the surfaces in contact (e.g. type and roughness)
• Mud lubricity
• Wellbore stability
• Hole Cleaning
2.1 The Wall Force
The wall force is effectively the force which pushes the drillstring or BHA against the
wellbore. The greater this force, the higher will be the torque and drag. The influences
on this are primarily the wellbore inclination and tension around doglegs.
2.2 Wellbore Inclination

As wellbore inclination increases, more of the drillstring's weight is supported by the
wellbore wall. This is why high angle and ERD wells have higher torque and drag than
vertical wells.
2.3 Tension Around Doglegs

A drillstring under tension is pulled into doglegs as it tends to 'straighten itself out'.
These doglegs can be either build or drop sections or unintentional tortuosity.
Some wallforce may be generated by the bending of the drill pipe around curvatures.
Calculations show that these forces are much smaller than the wallforces described
above, even for stiff drill collars.
Drillstring weight will have some influence on wall force, particularly in horizontal wells
where gravity forces the pipe onto the low side of the hole. The use of lightweight pipe
will help to minimise this.
2.4 Surface Properties

Smooth surfaces will tend to produce lower torques than rough ones. Thus, cased hole
generates less friction than open hole. There is also evidence that drilling harder
sandstones leads to higher torques than when drilling softer shale formations.
Torque and Drag

2.5 Mud Lubricity

The type of fluid present in the hole can have a significant influence on torque and drag.
Oil muds are found to be more lubricating than water based muds. Thus, oil muds are
preferred for ERD wells.
It is also important to note that the concentration and type of solids in the mud can
influence torque, as can the presence of lubricant additives. Refer to Paragraphs 3.1 and
3.2 for more detail.
2.6 Wellbore Stability/Shale Inhibition

Hole instability can be a major contributing factor to high torque and drag. Insufficient
mud weight may lead to breakout/cavings which fall into the hole and pack-off. In plastic
formations, such as salts and some shales, low mud weights can allow the formation to
deform (creep) into the hole. In tectonically stressed areas, in-situ stresses can have a
similar effect, possibly leading to oval hole if the stresses are not symmetrical around
the borehole.
In reactive shale sequences, mud chemistry will influence the condition of the wellbore.
A water based mud with low inhibition may allow the shale to swell, leading to tight hole
and hence increased torque and drag. Poor inhibition can cause shale softening, which
could have some lubricating effect, but can also make the shale more 'sticky'.
In hard-brittle shales, insufficient shale inhibition can lead to cavings and packing off.
2.7 Hole Cleaning

Hole cleaning efficiency has a direct influence on torque and drag. Failure to clean the
hole properly will allow cuttings beds to build, interfering with pipe rotation and
movement of the pipe in and out of the hole. In some ERD wells, torque has been used
to monitor hole cleaning efficiency.
There is some laboratory evidence suggesting that cuttings beds can actually improve
lubricity and reduce torque, by providing a lubricating bed for the drillpipe. However, the
potential adverse effects (pipe sticking, large overpulls etc.) outweigh any benefit.
Torque and Drag

3 Predicting and Monitoring Torque/Drag

3.1 The Coefficient of Friction
The coefficient of friction (u) provides a useful measure of the friction between two
moving surfaces. Values for u are used in predictive models (e.g. the Drillstring Simulator
– refer to Paragraph 3.2) to estimate likely torque and drag figures.
The coefficient of friction is the ratio between the applied (sliding) force, F, and the
normal force, N, between two surfaces in contact, i.e.:
u = F/N
In drilling, N is effectively the wall force (refer to Paragraph 2.1), and F is the torque or
drag. A simple case would be a tool joint resting on the borehole wall in a horizontal well;
the normal force would be the weight of the drill string, and the applied force would be
the torque required to turn it. The coefficient of friction is independent of contact area
and velocity, but depends upon surface type (including roughness) and the nature of any
fluid between the surfaces.
Some important facts relating to u are:
• A low value of u is best
The lower the value of u, the lower the torque and drag.
• Mud Lubricity
Oil based mud gives lower values of u than water based mud.
• Cased/Open Hole
Cased hole generates less friction (lower u) than open hole.
• Formation Type
In general, drilling harder sandstones leads to higher coefficients of friction than
drilling softer shale formations.
Mud Type Cased Hole Uncased Hole

OBM 0.17 0.21
WBM 0.24 0.29
Table 5.1 ‘Default’ Coefficient of Friction Values
Torque and Drag

3.2 The Drill String Simulator

Proper analysis of the interactions downhole requires the use of a torque and drag
simulation model. BP has its own dedicated torque/drag model, the Drill String Simulator
(DSS). This is available as an engineering application on the DEAP database. Current well
data can be easily imported into the DSS and a drillstring analysed at the push of a
button. BP Sunbury can advise on the use of the DSS and offer training courses (see
contacts at the end of the torque and drag section section).
Note that torque and drag analysis is not limited to drillstrings, but can be conducted for
all strings in the wellbore.
As an example of DSS use, Wytch Farm have conducted drag simulations for running
the 9 5/8' casing on the Stage III ERD wells (refer to Figure 5.1). Divergence from
prediction gives an early indication of running problems and prompts the driller to
circulate until hookloads return to predicted.
Figure 5.1 Wytch Farm 1F-20 9 5/8" Casing Drag
Colombian Drilling Operations have implemented procedures to record the following

data at the rigsite at every connection:
(1) Rotating Weight – off bottom with normal circulation
(2) Torque Off Bottom – with normal circulation
(3) Pick-Up Weight – with no rotation but normal circulation
(4) Slack-Off Weight – with no rotation but normal circulation
(5) Torque On Bottom – with normal WOB and normal circulation
These values are recorded in the drillers handover notes to ensure that the knowledge
gained is passed over between crews.
Torque and Drag

4 Ways to Minimise Torque and Drag

4.1 Well Profile Design
Well profile design to minimise torque and drag involves minimising wallforces. Since
string tension is always highest at surface (which can lead to high wallforces, refer to
Paragraph 2.1), the way to minimise wallforces is to minimise doglegs (build rates) at
surface, and to build angle towards the target further downhole where string tension will
be less. This is achieved by drilling the well with a tangent angle as close to the critical
sliding angle as possible, causing the string to 'glide' under its own weight.
Figure 5.2 The Ideal Profile
Well profile design is also a compromise meeting a large variety of requirements, of

which torque and drag minimisation is just one factor. For conventional wells (low
reach/TVD ratio), 'undersection' profiles (which have a deep KOP) are better because
they give tangent angles closer to the critical sliding angle. In contrast, the 'build and
hold' profile causes higher tension, hence torque and drag. In ERD wells however (high
reach/TVD ratio), a high kick off point will be required to provide the critical sliding angle
in the tangent section.
Note that in deep wells, it is particularly important to drill the top sections as smoothly as
possible to minimise the torque contribution from tortuosity. Excessive use of steerable
assemblies can worsen tortuosity, rotary assemblies are beneficial.
4.2 Drillstring Design

Torque and drag can be minimised by optimising drillstring design. By using the smallest
and lightest weight drillpipe weight and tension is minimised. Tapered drillstrings are
particularly effective where stronger 6 5/8" or 5 1/2" drillpipe is only used at the top of the
string where loads are lightest.
4.3 BHA Design

BHAs have historically been designed to ensure that WOB can be applied to the bit
without putting drillpipe into compression. Experience with horizontal wells where
compressive forces in drillpipe cannot be avoided have shown these assumptions to be
overly conservative. BHAs should be designed for directional control and of minimal
weight in ERD wells. A torque and drag program (such as DSS) would be used to
analyse the probability and consequences of buckling.
Torque and Drag

4.4 Mud Design

As noted earlier, mud type can have a significant influence on torque and drag.
To minimise torque and drag, muds should be designed to satisfy the requirements of
wellbore stability, hole cleaning, and lubricity. Wellbore stability and hole cleaning are
covered elsewhere in this manual (in the shale problems section, wellbore stability
section, and hole cleaning section). Here we only consider mud lubricity.
Mud lubricity can be assessed in the laboratory with testing devices which crudely
attempt to simulate field conditions. The resulting friction coefficients possess a degree
of error. However, they indicate trends and so are a useful way of screening lubricant
additives and comparing mud systems. The trends are most useful when correlated with
data from actual wells.
4.4.1 Water Based Muds

• The coefficient of friction will depend on the formation type being drilled. For water
based muds where shale softening is possible due to poor inhibition, decreased
values of friction may be observed. In hard sandstone etc. higher values of friction
may be observed for an identical mud system.
• Baryte improves lubricity when used in weighted systems possibly due to the
formation of a soft 'bearing layer' modifying the surface contacts. Above ca. 1.2 to 1.3
sg baryte promotes reduced coefficients of friction.
• Polymers in water based muds can have a beneficial effect on lubricity – partially
hydrolysed polyacylamide (PHPA) can exhibit a friction reducing effect.
• The coefficient of friction is less for a steel/steel contact than a steel/rock contact
(cased hole has a lower coefficient of friction than open hole).
• A wide variety of lubricants are available for addition to water based mud systems.
These have been systematically evaluated within BP and all show different
performance features in reducing the coefficient of friction. They are of benefit in low
mud weight systems but less benefit in high mud weight systems.
4.4.2 Oil Based Muds

• In the laboratory and in the field, oil based mud systems exhibit lower values of
friction than water based mud systems. By virtue of its film forming capacity, oil is
intrinsically a better lubricant than water however the presence of strong surfactant
packages in an oil based mud system may also aid the lubricity effect.
• The positive effect of baryte is less pronounced for oil based muds but oil/water ratio
does noticeably affect lubricity: lubricity decreases as the water content of the oil
mud is increased.
• The coefficient of friction value measured in laboratory tests is comparable for metal-
metal and metal-sandstone contact. As with water based mud, it is still observed that
cased hole has a lower coefficient of friction than open hole.
Torque and Drag

• Some of the new synthetic oil mud systems demonstrate better lubricity then those
formulated with mineral oil.
• So far, lubricants in oil based mud have had little application, as OBMs are considered
sufficiently lubricating. Water based mud lubricants are not effective in OBM. Solid
lubricants (graphite powder and lubra beads (refer to Paragraph 4.5.1)) are more
effective.
4.5 Physical Methods
4.5.1 Lubricating Beads

A commercially available product called Lubra beads (small glass spheres which function
like ball bearings) has been trialled with some success resulting in torque reductions of
up to 20%. Removal of the beads by cuttings handling equipment can be a problem.
To get around this, the product can be used selectively to spot areas where high torque
is occurring.
4.5.2 Drillpipe Coatings

A small amount of work has been carried out looking at coatings which could be applied
to steel to reduce the steel/steel friction coefficient. Hardbanding of tooljoints to reduce
casing wear has also been examined. Because of the extreme forces involved in drilling,
the integrity of the coating remains an issue.
4.5.3 Drillpipe Protectors

Non-rotating drill pipe protectors (DPPs) have been shown to reduce torque by up to
30% in many ERD wells. The recommended tool at the moment is the Western Well
Tool non-rotating stabiliser, although other tools are being developed. However, there
are a number of downsides to their use:
• Annular pressure loss is increased (up to 2 psi per tool, quoted in Norway)
• Sliding ability is reduced
• Durability still causes some problems
• Their use is restricted to cased hole
• Significant cost and installation/removal time
Their use should therefore be optimised by placing them in areas of highest wallforce.
Wallforce should be calculated with the DSS to determine optimum placement and the
number per joint required.
4.5.4 Bearing Subs

Bearing subs may be used in open hole where DPPs are not suitable. The DBS bearing
sub has been successfully trialled on Miller. Again, sliding may be hindered in very high
angle wells. Time for make up, and cost, must also be considered.
Torque and Drag

Section 6
Stuck Pipe
Paragraph Page
1 General Rules of Stuck Pipe Prevention 6-1

1.1 Teamwork, Planning and Actions 6-1
1.2 Bottom Hole Assemblies 6-2
1.3 Drilling 6-2
1.4 Tripping 6-3
1.5 Casing and Cementing 6-4
2 Specific Stuck Pipe Causes and Avoidance Measures 6-4

2.1 Hole Cleaning 6-4
2.2 Wellbore Instability 6-5
2.3 Differential Sticking 6-9
2.4 Other Causes of Stuck Pipe 6-11
3 Freeing Stuck Pipe 6-13

3.1 Mechanical Freeing (All Stuck Pipe) 6-13
3.2 Differential Sticking 6-17
3.3 Packed-Off Hole (Wellbore Instability and Hole Cleaning) 6-20
3.4 Salt: Freshwater Pill 6-21
3.5 Cement/Limestone Chalk: Inhibited HCl Pill 6-21
Table
6.1 Stuck Pipe Freeing Table 6-15
6.2 Effect of Circulation and Jar Type 6-16
6.3 Variables 6-18
Stuck Pipe
1 General Rules of Stuck Pipe Prevention

• Teamwork, Planning and Actions
• Bottom Hole Assemblies
• Drilling
• Tripping
• Casing and Cementing
1.1 Teamwork, Planning and Actions

• Communicate effectively
Keep your team members regularly informed of what the hole is saying. What may
seem trivial to you may be vital to someone else. Ensure hole condition is recorded
and handed over at shift change.
• Plan ahead
Torque, drag, cuttings, pump pressure are all indicators of hole condition. Record all
information; this will help identify important trends. Changes in parameters may
indicate hole problems.
• Maintain good mud
Keep all mud properties within specification, especially density, rheology, low gravity
solids and fluid loss. Analyse reasons for change in any mud properties.
• Keep the pipe moving
Whenever possible when in open hole. Reciprocation is preferable to rotation.
• Clean the hole as fast as you drill it
Remember that overgauge hole and directional holes require faster circulation to
clean them effectively. Always circulate clean before tripping.
• Take action early
To fix stuck pipe problems: do not let them get bigger. Stuck pipe and hole cleaning
problems will hardly ever cure themselves – you must do it.
Stuck Pipe
1.2 Bottom Hole Assemblies

• Operate the bit, BHA and drillstring within the limits specified by the suppliers. Only
use equipment that has been inspected.
• Keep the BHA as simple as possible; only run the equipment that is necessary to
drill the hole. Minimise BHA changes, but anticipate reaming if a locked assembly
follows a flexible one.
• Design the BHA to run the jar in either tension or compression never at the neutral
point. Know how the jars work, particularly when running a shock-sub. Understand
the effects of jar pump open force and the effect of torque on mechanical jars.
• Whenever possible use spiral drill collars. Only run sufficient drill collars to give the
designed WOB. Higher WOB is always available by running the jar and HWDP in
compression. Remember that tapered BHA's give greater weight over shorter length
but reduce annular clearance.
• Stabilise the BHA to minimise wall contact.. Undergauge stabilisers can be used
further up the BHA as only the first three stabilisers really affect directional control.
Do not run any stabiliser above the jar unless specifically instructed to do so.
• Always gauge bits and stabilisers accurately when tripping out. Ensure the correct
gauge ring is used and that the gauge ring is checked regularly. An undergauge bit is
a good indicator of an undergauge hole.
1.3 Drilling
• Failure to clean the hole as fast as it is being drilled can cause serious hole problems.
Select hole cleaning to match the maximum instantaneous penetration rate.
• Monitor the hole constantly for changes in drilling trends. Record the magnitudes
and depths of high torques and drags. Always know the bit and stabiliser depths
relative to trouble spots. Check the shakers regularly for changes in shape and
volume of cuttings.
• Perform wiper trips as hole conditions dictate. A wiper trip interval can be based on
either time or footage (e.g. every 1000ft drilled, or every 12 hours in mobile
formations). Specify a wiper trip interval in any instructions but be prepared to alter
this if hole conditions change.
• Wipe/ream the last single before making a connection in difficult hole conditions
(last stand with a top drive). Circulate for as long as possible before a connection.
Avoid turning pumps off before picking up.
Note: The hole may need wiping more often than once per stand with a top drive as
fewer connections are made.
• Wipe the last single or stand before taking a survey. Keep the pipe moving the
survey can wait.
Stuck Pipe
• When drilling to casing point, calculate a target depth based on the casing tally.
Minimise the rathole below the casing shoe (generally 3-5 ft unless local conditions
say otherwise). Excessive rathole can cause hole cleaning problems, keyseating, and
is almost always the cause of the casing shoe joint getting backed off.
• Semi-submersibles and Drill ships:
Drill with the compensator stroked out as far as weather and heave permit.
This reduces the chance of jamming the BHA in the hole if the bit drops suddenly or
torques up.
1.4 Tripping
• Plan the trip: know where all the potential trouble spots are from drilling and from
previous trips. Compare drags/fill volumes with previous trips to monitor hole
improvement/deterioration. Ensure trip notes are recorded and handed over at
shift change.
• Know the swab and surge pressures (get these from the mud loggers). Do not
exceed the maximum allowable pipe speed when tripping, otherwise well control
or formation instability problems may result.
• Agree on a first response to tight hole and maximum allowable overpull prior to
each trip. Generally pull back/run in one stand (depending on trip direction) and
establish circulation. Note: tight hole is defined as drag in excess of half of the
buoyant BHA weight below the jars.
• Circulate clean prior to tripping. Bottoms up is almost never enough. Keep the pipe
moving while circulating; rotation stirs up cuttings beds in deviated holes (max
60rpm). Rotate and reciprocate the pipe to avoid keyseating.
• Ream and condition the hole when tripping in. Wash and ream the last three
singles to bottom if directional parameters allow.
• If undergauge hole is suspected (from bit gauge or if in mobile formations) trip slowly
and ream. If all the stabilisers were pulled undergauge, ream all the new hole drilled
with that bit otherwise ream the section below the lowest unworn full-gauge
stabiliser.
• Be particularly careful when running a PDC or diamond bit after a tricone bit.
The more rigid PDC/Diamond bit may become stuck if the tricone was
slightly undergauge.
Stuck Pipe
1.5 Casing and Cementing

• Ensure the hole is clean and mud properties are within specification prior to pulling
out to run casing.
• Calculate running speeds from swab/surge pressures (mud loggers). Do not exceed
the maximum safe casing running speed.
• Centralising the casing reduces the chances of becoming differentially stuck in
addition to improving cement placement.
• Wash the casing through problem formations rather than slacking off weight.
Always wash the last joint to bottom.
• Know the theoretical setting time of the cement and the theoretical top of cement.
Before attempting to drill out, run very carefully to tag the cement to see if it will take
weight. Only drill out if the cement can take weight.
• When drilling out establish circulation above the top of cement. Drill out with low
weight on bit and high circulation rate. Observe the returns for green cement.
2 Specific Stuck Pipe Causes and Avoidance Measures

• Hole cleaning
• Wellbore instability
• Differential sticking
• Other causes of stuck pipe
2.1 Hole Cleaning
Occurrence
Poor hole cleaning results in trapped cuttings downhole, and is a major contributor to
stuck pipe. It is usually caused by insufficient attention being given to pump rate, mud
rheology, tripping/wiping procedures, monitoring cuttings/cavings at the shakers, hole
size (especially washouts) and hole inclination.
Symptoms/Warning Signs
• Torque and drag increases especially while tripping out, making connections and
when reaming out
• Decrease in ROP
• Increase in pump pressure
• Reduced overpull while pumping
• Large returns of cuttings with viscous/heavy pills
• Fill on bottom
Stuck Pipe
Preventative Measures and Remedial Actions

• Clean the hole as fast as it is being drilled. Match the hole cleaning parameters to the
instantaneous penetration rate. Refer to hole cleaning charts available in the rig-site
stuck pipe handbook or run the DEAP hydraulics and hole cleaning model.
• Ensure the mud is in specification. Rheology is very important for hole cleaning.
Re-define the mud rheology specification if the mud properties are inadequate for hole.
• Circulate clean prior to tripping. Bottoms-up does not ensure a clean hole. Use the
circulation guidelines in the rig-site stuck pipe handbook. Always check that the
shakers are clean before tripping.
• Reciprocate and rotate the pipe continuously while circulating. Motion disturbs
cuttings beds downhole. Only rotate very slowly unless it is possible to reciprocate,
otherwise keyseats and doglegs may form.
• Plan and perform wiper trips as hole conditions dictate. Wiper trips help to disturb
cuttings beds further up the hole.
• Monitor the shakers. Both volume and type of cutting are important indicators of hole
condition. Know what to look for.
• Keep all circulating and solids control equipment in good working order. Subject to
hole condition stop, pull back inside the casing shoe and repair vital equipment
(especially pumps) rather than drilling ahead with insufficient hole cleaning capability.
• Semi-submersibles and Drill ships:
Check hole cleaning efficiency in the riser, especially when drilling small diameter
holes with their associated low flow rates. Boost the riser if needed. If a riser booster
pump is not available consider using hi-vis pills.
2.2 Wellbore Instability

Wellbore instability occurs in many different forms:
• Unconsolidated formation
• Mobile (plastic) formations
• Fractured/faulted formations
• Geopressured formations
• Reactive formations
Stuck Pipe
2.2.1 Unconsolidated Formation
Occurrence
Normally associated with top hole. These formations are loose sands, gravels, silts
which can flow into the wellbore.
• Increased drag, torque and pump pressure during drilling and tripping.
• Increased ROP
• Fill on bottom
• Some material on shakers does not look like cuttings

• Mud weight does not solve the problem directly but may work because the mud
builds a better filter cake. The best answer is to design the mud to have a low
permeability filter cake. Seek the mud engineer's or a fluid specialist's advice.
• Do not exceed the required flow rate to clean the hole since additional velocity can
erode the filter cake and disturb the formation.
• Consider running a mud with a high low shear rheology so that the required pump
rate for effective hole cleaning can be reduced.
• Where possible avoid rotating bits or stabilisers adjacent to unconsolidated
formations. This may cause filter cake removal and induce instability.
• Trip past trouble formations carefully to minimise mechanical removal of the filter
cake. Keep the BHA to a minimum.
• Wash/ream through any hole fill prior to drilling ahead – but it is not necessary to wait
for bottoms up.
• Consider soaking viscous pills into the formation prior to drilling ahead. This can give
the formation some cohesion. For WBM, XC pills are suitable, allowing 10 minutes
soaking time. Make up the pill as follows: acidify fresh water with SAPP or citric acid
to pH 5; Add and disperse 3-4ppb XC polymer; Raise pH to 9 using caustic soda;
pump when Viscosified.
Stuck Pipe
2.2.2 Mobile Formation
Occurrence
The most common formations are halite (rock salt) and plastic shales. These formations
deform plastically and creep into the wellbore.
• Increased drag torque and pump pressure, especially when tripping out and making a
connection
• ROP normally decreases but can increase if drilling halite
• Possibly no fill

• Consider drilling with an eccentric PDC bit to drill a slightly overgauge hole. Drill with
low WOB and high RPM. Consider using a roller reamer in the BHA.
• Ream when running in. Ream each single or stand when drilling.
• Keep the pipe moving in open hole. Perform regular wiper trips. Set a maximum time
rather than distance between trips (say 12-18 hours).
• Increase the mud weight before entering a known mobile formation. The greatest risk
of becoming stuck is in the first few metres.
- To free the pipe in halite, pump freshwater pills around the BHA to dissolve the
salt and pull/jar on the string. Once free, ream and condition the hole.
- To free the pipe in shale, pump base oil and detergents or lubricants. Pull/jar on the
string. Ream and condition the hole when free.
2.2.3 Fractured/Faulted Formation
Occurrence
Almost anywhere, but more common in limestone/chalk.
• Increased drag, torque and ROP
• Possible losses
• Irregular fragments on shakers
Stuck Pipe

• Refer to Section 7 Lost Circulation if losses are experienced.
• Check hole condition constantly when drilling. Be prepared to stop and circulate
before drilling though potential heavy loss zones (e.g. a fault or a coal seam). A clean
annulus will prevent packing off in the event of big losses.
• Wash and ream when running in and clean the hole fill prior to drilling ahead. Limit the
rotary speed when reaming to minimise disturbance of the formation. Bottoms up is
not necessary prior to drilling ahead.
• Restrict tripping speeds across fractured formations to minimise disturbance.
• Limit circulating pressures when drilling to avoid inducing losses.
• If stuck in limestone/chalk consider pumping inhibited hydrochloric acid if the
fractured section is small.
2.2.4 Geopressured Formation
Occurrence
Where the strength of the rock is exceeded by the borehole stresses, fragments of rock
can fall into the hole. More common in overpressured shales.
• Drag, torque, ROP, pump pressure all increase
• Greater returns on shakers
• Pressure cavings on shakers
• Borehole enlargement (leads to hole cleaning problems)

• Keep the hole clean. Increased circulation rate will improve hole cleaning and help
stabilise the hole by increasing the ECD.
• Monitor pore pressure; higher pore pressure increases the potential for instability and
the need to increase the mud weight.
• Increase the mud weight as soon as problems are seen.
Notes: (1) A higher mud weight may be needed to stabilise the hole than would
have been required initially to prevent the instability.
(2) Mud weight increase can vary with wellbore inclination and azimuth.
As a rule of thumb increase the density by 0.5ppg per 30deg increase
in inclination above the density required for a vertical well in the same
location.
• Refer also to Section 3 Hole Cleaning and also to Section 1 Paragraph 3 Problems in
Hard/Brittle Shales.
Stuck Pipe
2.2.5 Reactive Formation
Occurrence
Water sensitive shales and clays e.g. gumbo shales. Much more likely with WBM than
OBM. These formations can cause stuck pipe through shale swelling (tight hole) or fill
due to cavings and collapse.
• Increased drag, torque, pump pressure and returns
• Reduced ROP
• Sticky cuttings

• Drill and case off reactive formations as quickly as possible. Minimise the time spent
in open hole.
• Keep mud properties within specification, especially encapsulating polymer
(e.g. PHPA) and potassium ion (K+) concentration in polymer muds. If this proves
inadequate increase the inhibition level of the mud (typical KCl range 10-35ppb).
• For WBM, monitor MBT value closely. Increasing MBT means clay formation is
reacting with the mud system.
• Be prepared to dump and dilute the mud. In severe cases consider changing to OBM.
• Minimise BHA length.
• Wipe hole regularly while drilling.
• Refer to Section 1 Paragraph 2 Problems in Soft/Firm Shales.
2.3 Differential Sticking
Occurrence
Occurs when the pipe is stationary in a porous formation, especially when making
connections. Mostly when in sandstone but also in limestone and chalk.
• Increased drag and torque
• Circulation unaffected (no pressure change)
• High overbalance in a porous formation
Stuck Pipe

Plan ahead. Be aware of potential problem formations- particularly permeable formations
like sandstones and limestones. Remember that a problem formation will remain a
differential-sticking problem until it is cased off.
Contingency planning: pre-select mud treatments and freeing methods. Ensure there is
always an adequate supply of lubricants, spotting fluids and lost circulation treatments at
the wellsite. Select BHAs with minimum wall contact. Use undergauge stabilisers higher
up the BHA. This should not affect directional control.
Keep to the minimum mud weight necessary to drill the section. Monitor and maintain all
other properties especially fluid loss, low gravity solids and gels. Stay within the
recommended range of low gravity solids (LGS):
Hole Size (in) Recommended LGS (%)

17 1/2 10-15
12 1/4 8-10
8 1/2 5-8
6 5-8
Have sufficient pit space available to allow for rapid mixing of treatments if sticking
does occur.
Keep the pipe moving and circulate whenever possible. Select survey
methods/equipment that requires the pipe to be static for the shortest time i.e. MWD.
In critical sections rotate the pipe slowly in the slips on connections and surveys to
reduce the risk of differential sticking.
Continuously monitor pore pressure. Increased overbalance increases the chance of
becoming stuck. Above 500psi overbalance the risk of sticking increases significantly as
hole angle increases.
Consider running lubricants in the mud system. Consult your local fluids specialist for
recommendations. Beware of any environmental impacts of lubricants.
For OBM, rheology modifiers may produce a less sticky filter cake. Recommended
treatment is at 1ppb but pilot test first.
Stuck Pipe
2.4 Other Causes of Stuck Pipe

• Undergauge hole
• Wellbore geometry
• Junk
• Green cement
• Cement blocks
• Collapsed casing
2.4.1 Undergauge Hole

• Most likely in an abrasive sandstone. If a bit wears while drilling, an undergauge hole
may result. When the new bit is run it may become jammed in the undergauge hole.
Always gauge bits, stabilisers etc.
• If an undergauge bit is pulled, ream carefully below the first unworn stabiliser in the
last BHA. Consider pulling the new bit if lots of reaming required (may have gauge
wear/bearing damage. Run gauge protected bits. Consider roller reamers behind
the bit.
• Take care running PDC/diamond bits after a tricone.
• If stuck, jar upwards with maximum force.
2.4.2 Wellbore Geometry

• Stiff/packed BHAs can get stuck in holes drilled with flexible or bent assemblies.
BHAs can also stand up on ledges in interbedded hard/soft formation.
2.4.3 Minimise Doglegs

• Trip in slowly with packed BHAs after using a flexible or bent assembly.
• Be prepared to ream but be careful not to sidetrack with a packed assembly.
• Consider using more flexible BHA if problems running in since may not be able to
trip out.
• If stuck, jar with maximum force in the opposite direction of the trip.
2.4.4 Junk
• More common when tripping out and inside casing.
• Only use inspected equipment. Check all tools for loose connections/stray metal etc.
• Inspect handling tools regularly especially tongs and slips.
• Keep the hole covered when possible.
• Install drillpipe wipers if possible when tripping out.
Stuck Pipe
2.4.5 Green Cement

• Occurs when running into cement that has not quite set.
• Know where the top of cement (TOC) is.
• Wait until cement has set hard. Check the setting time.
• Start circulation several stands above TOC and run in slowly. Do not rely on weight
indicator to find TOC.
• Drill cement with low WOB and high flowrate. If in doubt circulate bottoms up and
check the condition of the cement returns before continuing.
• Treat WBM with 0.25-0.5ppb sodium bicarbonate to minimise mud contamination.
• If stuck, jar and work pipe upwards immediately. Circulate while doing this.
2.4.6 Cement Blocks

• Blocks of cement falling from the casing rathole or from cement plugs can jam
the BHA.
• Minimise rathole (3-5ft) is optimum.
• Ensure good quality cement is placed around the casing shoe.
• Ream the rathole before drilling ahead.
• Trip carefully through the rathole and past cement plugs.
2.4.7 Collapsed Casing

• Collapsed casing occurs when the differential pressure between external forces on
the casing and internal forces exceed collapse pressure. This could occur during a
drawdown test or because of formation stresses. Common causes are inadequate
casing design, corrosion, casing wear.
• A correct casing design is vital – double check it.
• Minimise casing wear. Use only smooth, polished hardbanding.
• Ensure a good cement job. A full cement sheath increases the casing collapse
resistance.
• Review inflow and production testing requirements. Modify if casing wear is evident
during drilling.
• If stuck, specialist tools are required – cannot be dealt with by rig personnel:
call town.
Stuck Pipe
3 Freeing Stuck Pipe

• Mechanical
• Differential
• Packed off hole
• Salt
• Cement/chalk/limestone
Table 6.1 should be used to determine the appropriate primary and secondary methods
to free the stuck pipe. Following Table 6.1 are details of the recommended methods to
free the pipe.
In all instances work quickly to free the pipe. The probability of freeing the pipe
diminishes with time.
3.1 Mechanical Freeing (All Stuck Pipe)

• Always apply the freeing force in the opposite direction to the direction of movement
immediately before sticking i.e.:
- Trip in: overpull/jar upwards
- Trip out: slack-off/jar downwards
• Establish circulation if possible. Know the effect of circulation on the jars.
• Working pipe downwards: Work torque into the string down to the stuck point.
Normally 0.75 turns/1000ft. Know the effect of torque on the jars. Slack-off and let
the jars fire down.
• Working pipe upwards: Check whether force should be increased gradually or
maximum force applied from the start, then follow the appropriate action:-
Either
• Start working the pipe. Initially jar with 40-50,000lbs over the force required to trip the
jar. Increase the force gradually over an hour. Do not exceed agreed overpull.
Or
• Start working the pipe to its limits. Remember: work the pipe, allow the jar to fire,
then work the pipe to its limit with the jar uncocked.
Stuck Pipe
3.1.1 Overpull Calculations

Initial Overpull = 1/2 x BHA weight in air below jars OR 0.85 x tensile strength of
weakest component (whichever is less).
3.1.2 Maximum Overpull

(1) Estimate weak point of string (usually drillpipe at surface, but check if running a
mixed string e.g. 6 5/8' – 5' drillpipe.
Max overpull at weak point (Tm) = 0.85 x tensile strength of weak point.
(2) Calculate weight of drillstring in air above weak point (WSW). WSW = 0 if weak point
is at surface.
(3) Maximum overpull on weight indicator (Wim):
Wim = Wb + Tm + WSW
(4) Calculation of overpull at stuck point (To):
To = Wi – Wb – Ws
Where:
Wb = block weight
Wi = weight indicator reading
Ws = weight of drillstringin air above stuck point
Note: Wi must never exceed Wim
Stuck Pipe
METHOD OF FREEING STUCK PIPE

STUCK PIPE PRIMARY SECONDARY ADDITIONAL
MECHANISM INFORMATION
DIFFERENTIAL Slump string and rotate. U-tube or pipe Check well
STICKING Maximum force from release agent. control/stability before
start. deciding to U-tube.
KEY SEATING Work string down and Formation- Look at formation. Treat
rotate. Increase force specific for formation (salt, I/st,
gradually. (if possible). clay).
UNDERGAUGE Work string up. Maximum Formation- Look at formation. Treat
HOLE force from start. specific for formation (salt, I/st,
(if possible). clay).
WELLBORE Work pipe in opposite Formation- Look at formation. Treat
GEOMETRY direction to trip. Increase specific for formation (salt, I/st,
force gradually. (if possible). clay).
HOLE CLEANING Work string down and Packed-off hole Concentrate on
increase circulation. procedure. downwards pipe
movement and full
circulation.
JUNK Work string up and down. RIH to overgauge
Increase force gradually. section to lose
junk.
GREEN CEMENT Jar/pull up. Maximum Pump acid pill.
force from the start.
CEMENT BLOCKS Work string up and down. Pump acid pill.
COLLAPSED Work string down. Specialist job –
CASING Increase forces gradually. refer to town.
UNCONSOLIDATED Work string up and down. Packed-off hole Concentrate on
FORMATION Circulation increase force procedure. downwards pipe
gradual. movement and full
circulation.
SALT Work pipe in opposite Pump freshwater
direction to trip. Max force pill.
from start.
PLASTIC CLAY Work string up and down.
Increase force gradually.
FRACTURED/ Work string up and down. Pump acid pill if If hole packed-off,
FAULTED FORM Max force from start. in limestone or increase forces
chalk. gradually.
GEOPRESSURED Work string up and down. Packed-off hole Concentrate on
FORMATION Increase forces gradually. procedure. downwards pipe
movement and full
circulation.
REACTIVE Work string up and down. Packed-off hole Concentrate on
FORMATION Increase forces gradually. procedure. downwards pipe
movement and full
circulation.
Table 6.1 Stuck Pipe Freeing Table
Stuck Pipe
3.1.3 Jarring Calculations

Load required to trip jar upwards:
Ls = Wi – Wj + Lj + Dh – Pf
Load required to trip jar downwards:
Ls = Wi – Wj – Lj – Dh – Pf
Where:
Ls = surface load to operate jar
Wi = weight indicator reading
Li= desired jar load
Dh = hole drag
Wj = weight of BHA in air below jar
Pf = pump open force
Note: All above in lbs.
Remember
• Ensure jar is uncocked before working pipe to the limit.
• Tripping out – jar up tripping in – jar down.
• Pump open force only applies while circulating.
Jar Type Jar Up Jar Down

Hydraulic Harder to cock. Larger impact & Easier to cock. Smaller impact &
impulse forces impulse forces
Mechanical Harder to cock. Easier to trip Easier to cock. Harder to trip
Forces unaffected Forces unaffected
Table 6.2 Effect of Circulation and Jar Type
Stuck Pipe
3.2 Differential Sticking

The first response should be to mechanically free the pipe. The second response should
be the u-tubing method (subject to certain conditions) and the third response should be
the use of a pipe release agent (spotting pill).
3.2.1 U-Tubing Method

This method has restricted application. It should never be used if there is any danger of
inducing a well control incident. It is not generally used in potentially mechanically
unstable formations as it can induce wellbore failure. However, once u-tubing has been
used once it can be used many times afterwards with no danger of further damage to
the formation.
If u-tubing is an option, an exact procedure should be agreed with the local drilling office.
If the string does not release immediately, the well can be left in a draw-down state for
up to 2 hours while working the pipe. After 2 hours circulate back top mud and attempt
to u-tube free again- maybe to a lower hydrostatic pressure. After 2 attempts consider
fishing of side-tracking.
Procedure
Note: There cannot be a solid float valve in the string for this procedure.
(1) Install a full-opening kelly cock valve into the pipe at working height on the
rig floor below the top drive, circulating head or kelly.
(2) Perform all calculations as per Paragraph 3.2.2. These calculations are for
u-tubing at formation pressure. If a different pressure is required (either
above or below formation pressure) calculate an equivalent formation
pressure and use this in Paragraph 3.2.2.
(3) Close the annular preventer with the minimum closing pressure.
(4) Reverse circulate the required volume of light fluid into the annulus via the
choke and using the cement pump (for accuracy). CLOSE THE CHOKE.
(5) Work right hand torque into the string (0.75 turns/1000ft) and slack off.
Vent the drillpipe above the kelly cock through the standpipe to allow air to
be sucked in.
(6) Bleed off the back pressure on the choke in stages. Monitor return of light
fluid accurately via the trip or strip tank (while working pipe).
(7) Work the pipe vigorously at each bleed off stage. Once it is moving keep it
moving. Open the annular preventer and circulate back to mud. (If there is
danger of gas, circulate through the choke before opening the annular).
Stuck Pipe
3.2.2 U-Tubing Calculations
PP Formation pressure at zone of interest (SG) or max formation pressure

PP2 Formation pressure at second zone of interest
TVD True vertical depth of zone of interest (m)
TVD2 True vertical depth of second zone of interest (m)
MDX Actual length of light fluid column (m)
MDA Actual length of air column inside pipe after u-tubing (m)
MW Mud density in hole (SG)
WW Density of light fluid to be pumped (SG)
CH Height of choke line (m)
CC Capacity of choke line (bbl/m)
Ann Capacity of drillpipe/casing annulus (bbl/m)
DP Capacity of drillpipe (bbl/m)
PCH Choke pressure (psi)
Table 6.3 Variables
Calculation Procedure
(1) Plot a graph of choke pressure (PCH) on the y-axis against Volume bled back (VA)
on the x-axis.
(a) Calculate VA using Equation 6.3 and Equation 6.4.
(b) Mark VA on the x-axis.
(c) Calculate PCH using Equation 6.1 and Equation 6.7. Mark PCH on the y-axis.
(d) Join VA and PCH to show how pressure should fall during bleed-off.
(e) Mark PCH above VA. This is the max drawdown on the formation.
If the observed pressure reduction does not follow the chart when bleeding off then a
well control or lost circulation situation should be inferred.
Equation 6.1
True vertical height of light fluid in choke/annulus after u-tubing = Xm
X = TVD x (MW - PP)/(MW - WW)
True vertical height of mud in annulus after u-tubing (m) Y = TVD – X
Equation 6.2
Volume of light fluid in annulus/choke after u-tubing = V bbls
V = Ann x (MDX - CH) + (CH + CC)
Stuck Pipe
Equation 6.3
True vertical height of air in drillpipe after u-tubing = Am
Am = TVD x (MW - PP)/MW
Equation 6.4
Volume of air in drillpipe after u-tubing = Va bbls
Va= MDA x DP
Equation 6.5
Total volume of light fluid to be pumped = Vo bbls
Vo = V + Va
Equation 6.6
Max drawdown on second zone of interest = DR psi
DR = TVD2 x 1.421 x (Pm - PP2)
Pm = (X x WW + ([TVD2 - X ] x MW)) / TVD2
If TVD2 < X then Pm = WW
Equation 6.7
Initial pressure on choke after pumping but before bleed-off =P
Pch = X1 x (MW - WW) x 1.421
If PP>MW then PCH =[( X1 x (MW-WW)) + (TVD x (PP-MW))]x1.421
X1 = True Vertical height of light fluid after pumping
3.2.3 Spotting Fluids (or Pipe Release Agents)

• No hydrostatic restrictions apply.
• For environmental compliance, check with your mud engineer or local fluids group to
recommend which Pipe Release Agents (PRAs) can be used.
• Any pill should be spotted within 4 hours of sticking for best results. Do not use after
being stuck for 16 hours since there is little chance of success.
Stuck Pipe
Procedure
(1) Mix a PRA pill 1.5 times larger than the annulus volume adjacent to the uppermost
permeable section in which the pipe may be stuck. The pill should be 1-2ppg
heavier than the mud.
(2) Prepare a 50-100bbls low YP spacer (base oil, water, brine) for pumping ahead of
the pill. Check the spacer is compatible with both mud and PRA pill. Check well
control considerations also.
(3) Spot the spacer and pill at maximum flow rate.
(4) Leave the pill to soak until the pipe is free or the decision is made to give up.
Do not circulate out and replace the pill if the pipe does not come free.
(5) Work the pipe while the pill is soaking: slack-off 20,000lbs, work right hand torque
into the string (0.75 turns/1000ft, release torque and pick up. This will work the
stuck point down the hole a few inches or feet each time until the pipe 'suddenly'
pulls free.
3.3 Packed-Off Hole (Wellbore Instability and Hole Cleaning)

This method tries to establish circulation.
• Hang string at free point weight
• Apply right hand torque
• Apply a low pressure to the drill string
• Apply low up/down working forces to string
• Continue to work the string.
If there is evidence of movement or circulation continue to work pipe and gradually
increase the pull and the pump pressure until full circulation is gained.
If no success, perform the following actions one at a time until there is evidence of
circulation or movement:-
• Increase torque in steps; work pipe at same level.
• Increase torque; work string at same level
• Increase pump pressure; work string at same level
• Increase pull and set down weights.
Stuck Pipe
3.4 Salt: Freshwater Pill

Check effect on well control before deciding to pump a freshwater pill.
• Pill volume should be enough to cover the stuck zone and leave 20bbls inside the
pipe. Detergent may be added to the pill to remove the mud film from the wellbore.
• If OBM is in the hole pump a viscous weighted spacer ahead of the pill (e.g. XC
polymer plus barite). Get the mud engineer to advise.
• Work the pipe while the pill/spacer are being prepared and pumped. Maintain
maximum overpull on the pipe while the pill is soaking.
• If the pipe is not free after two hours circulate the pill out and repeat the procedure.
3.5 Cement/Limestone Chalk: Inhibited HCl Pill

• Check effect on well control before deciding to pump a freshwater pill. Pill volume
should cover the stuck zone. Service company will advise on formulation. Typical acid
concentration is 7.5-10% HCl.
• Pump the acid pill quickly and with large water spacers ahead and behind to minimise
mud contamination.
• Work the pipe while the pill is soaking. The drill string should be free within a few
minutes as the acid works quickly. Circulate the pill out after about 5 minutes.
Note: HCl can weaken tool joints and hi-strength (S135) pipe so consider inspecting
tubulars once recovered.
Stuck Pipe
November 2002 Issue 2 6-21/22
Section 7
Lost Circulation
Paragraph Page
1 Causes of Lost Circulation 7-1

1.1 Natural Losses 7-1
1.2 Induced Losses 7-2
2 Prevention of Lost Circulation 7-2
3 Assessing and Reporting Events 7-3

3.1 Non Formation Losses 7-3
3.2 Formation Losses 7-4
4 Procedures for Curing Lost Circulation 7-5

4.1 Reducing Mud Weight 7-5
4.2 Use of Lost Circulation Material 7-5
5 LCM Formulations for Non-Reservoir Sections 7-6

5.1 Common Formulations 7-6
5.2 High Fluid Loss Slurry 7-8
6 LCM Formulations for Reservoir Sections 7-9

6.1 Option 1: Liquid Casing 7-9
6.2 Option 2: Marble 7-10
7 Specialised Formulations 7-10

7.1 Oil/Bentonite Plug 7-10
7.2 Base Oil/Bentonite/Cement 7-11
7.3 Water/Organophilic Clay Plug 7-11
8 Lost Circulation Whilst Diverter Drilling 7-12

8.1 Internal Blowout 7-12
Lost Circulation
Section 7
Lost Circulation (cont’d)
Table Page
7.1 Slurry Density 7-8
7.2 Formulation (for 1 bbl mix) 7-11
Figure
7.1 Breakdown of Lost Circulation Types from Recent BPX Wells 7-1
7.2 Determining the Type of Loss Zone from Mud Logging Charts 7-3
Lost Circulation
1 Causes of Lost Circulation

Mud loss or circulation loss is the loss of mud or cement to the formation during
operations. Losses can result from either natural or self induced causes.
1.1 Natural Losses
1.1.1 Coarse Sands and Gravel Beds

For significant mud to be lost to porous formations, the pore size must be about three
times larger than the size of particles in the mud. Thus, a formation must typically have a
permeability in excess of 10-25 Darcys for mud to be lost. Therefore, this type of loss is
practically confined to gravels and coarse sands near surface.
1.1.2 Natural Fissures or Fractures

These can be very permeable under normal conditions and are the source of production
in some fields. In BPX's world-wide operations, they are the main cause of lost
circulation. Losses can occur at very low overbalance pressure.
1.1.3 Cavernous Formations

Caverns are normally found in limestone and dolomite. Depending upon its size, drilling
through a cavern can lead to major mud losses.
Figure 7.1 Breakdown of Lost Circulation Types from Recent BPX Wells
Lost Circulation
1.2 Induced Losses

Excessive mud overbalance may induce fractures, leading to losses. In highly porous
formations, high overbalance can also lead to increased losses through the pores.
In formations where the difference between pore pressure and fracture pressure is
small, losses may occur via formation fractures induced by drilling ECD, or by
surge/swab pressures.
2 Prevention of Lost Circulation

For all drilling operations, lost circulation prevention procedures should be considered.
Listed below are measures which can be taken to prevent losses occurring.
• Increase in annular mud weight due to drilled cuttings can result in formation
breakdown, particularly in surface holes. The effective increase in annular mud weight
must be calculated and taken into account.
Example:
ROP 30 metres/hour
Circulation Rate 1200 gpm
Hole Size 17 1/2 inches
Input Mud Weight 1.08 sg
Formation Density 2.30 sg
Resultant mud weight (MW) = 1.10 sg

• Viscosity and gel strengths of the mud should be maintained within the programme
specification. If the yield point is too high, breaking circulation may induce losses.
On breaking circulation, always start circulation slowly and speed up the pump only
after returns are obtained.
If viscosities are very high, circulation should be broken at stages whilst running
through the open hole.
High viscosity can increase the ECD to a level which will break down the formation
whilst circulating. When calculating ECD values in critical situations, account should
be taken of the OD of pipe connections. The effect of drill pipe rubbers should also be
considered in such situations.
• Excessive surge pressure whilst running in the pipe can fracture the formation. In
areas of potential lost circulation, surge pressure calculations should be performed
and the driller instructed as to the maximum allowable speed for running pipe.
Note: Surge pressure is placed on the formation the moment the string is run in the
hole. In areas of potential lost circulation, tripping speeds must be controlled
all the way to/from surface.
• In areas of hole instability sloughing or swelling shales can pack off around the pipe
reducing or preventing circulation. If the pump is not slowed or stopped at this point,
the formation can be broken down. The driller should be made aware of areas of
potential hole instability.
Lost Circulation
3 Assessing and Reporting Events

When reporting instances of lost circulation, the following is to be included:
(1) Static loss rate bbl/hr.
(2) Dynamic loss rate bbl/hr @ gpm.
(3) Depth.
(4) Note if the losses build to the loss rate gradually or suddenly. This is helpful for
distinguishing losses through pores which require only fine LCM and losses into
fractures which can require coarser grades.
3.1 Non Formation Losses

When lost circulation occurs the following procedure should be followed:
(1) Establish loss rate.
(2) Check all surface equipment to ensure no losses.
(3) Check with mud logger/mud engineer that no mud has been dumped/transferred
or no solids control equipment has been switched on.
(4) Check that the riser slip joint packing is not leaking.
Other non formation possibilities are:
(1) Leaking casing. A packer should be run to determine the loss depth in this
instance.
(2) Riser leaks.
Figure 7.2 Determining the Type of Loss Zone from Mud Logging Charts
Lost Circulation
3.2 Formation Losses

If losses are experienced whilst drilling, it is likely that the losses are on bottom. If losses
are experienced whilst tripping or whilst increasing mud weight, it is likely that the loss
zone is not on bottom. Methods for establishing the loss zone are:
Temperature Survey
Normally requires two runs. However, a variation of the technique can be used by
stopping the sonde at a certain depth and pumping for a short period. This will give a
temperature change. The instrument is lowered to successive levels in the hole until no
temperature change is recorded (i.e. no flow to formation past this point).
Spinner Survey
Flowrate is indicated on film according to the speed of a varied rotor on the instrument.
Tracer Survey
Using a gamma ray log and radioactive material.
Conventional
Run a base log through the drill pipe. Then pump a slug of mud with radioactive material
down the drill pipe and repeat the log. Where the sonde encounters a high radioactivity it
indicates the loss point.
Variation
If point of loss is suspected near last casing shoe, a small quantity of radioactive iodine
can be pumped down the annulus. The sonde is run inside the drill pipe, following the
tracer, while it is being pumped. The loss point has been reached when radioactive
contact is lost.
Lost Circulation
4 Procedures for Curing Lost Circulation

4.1 Reducing Mud Weight
When lost circulation is experienced, if possible, the mud weight should be reduced.
An estimate of the maximum mud weight the formation can stand can be obtained by
the method described below.
(1) If there are returns, fill the annulus with a measured volume of water or base oil,
depending upon mud system, and calculate the new gradient.
(2) If there are no returns when pumping:
Pressure A – Pressure B ÷ Mud Weight (psi/metre) = height of empty hold
(a) Same as Step 1
(b) Compare the circulating pressure prior to the losses occurring (Pressure A)
with the pressure at the same circulating rate after the losses have occurred
(Pressure B). If the position of the loss zone is known a new mud gradient
can be calculated to balance the weak formation.
Reduction of the ECD may be necessary in some instances.
4.2 Use of Lost Circulation Material

There are many types of lost circulation material available which have applications
according to the type of losses experienced. Typical materials used are:
4.2.1 Conventional LCM
Flake Mica
Cellophane
Granular Nutshells
Calcium Carbonate
Salt
Fibrous Glass Fibre
Wood Fibre
Animal Fibre
Note: In oil based muds, the listed fibrous materials cannot be used as the materials
can severely weaken the emulsion stability. 'Ven-Fyber', a cellulosic fibre treated
to render it oil wettable is used.
Lost Circulation
4.2.2 High Fluid Loss Slurry

• Diaseal M
• Seelit
• Sureseal
4.2.3 Reinforcing Plugs and Cement

Oil/bentonite plug (water based muds). Water/organophilic clay plug (oil based muds).
As stated, the choice of pill depends on the type of lost circulation experienced.
In general, the reinforcing plugs and cement formulations are considered to be
specialised formulations for severe lost circulation circumstances and should not be
used as a matter of routine.
5 LCM Formulations for Non-Reservoir Sections

5.1 Common Formulations
For each of the following circumstances, two alternative LCM formulations are given.
Each is considered to be acceptable.
Notes: (1) It is considered that LCM concentrations in excess of 30 to 45 ppb are
unlikely to have increased benefit.
(2) When considering concentrations, the density of the LCM must be
considered. For example, liquid casing and OM Seal have densities of 1.1
sg compared to 2.7 sg for calcium carbonate. Thus higher concentrations
of the more dense material are required to obtain the same volume
of LCM.
5.1.1 Seepage Losses (Losses less than 10 bbl/hour)
Option 1
Add mica fine to the circulating system at 4 to 5 x 25 kg per hour for several hours.
Option 2
Add liquid casing to the circulating system at 4 to 5 x 25 lbs per hour for several hours.
Lost Circulation
5.1.2 Loss Rate 10 to 20 bbl/hour
Option 1
Mica Fine +/- 15 ppb
Mica medium +/- 15 ppb
Option 2
Liquid casing 15 ppb
5.1.3 Loss Rate Greater Than 20 bbl/hour
Option 1
Mica fine 15 ppb
Mica medium 15 ppb
Kwikseal medium 15 ppb
or for OBM Venfyber at 8 ppb instead of Kwikseal.

Note: Kwikseal medium can result in excessive filter cake build-up. Care must therefore
be exercised when tripping past the lost circulation zone.
Option 2
Liquid casing 15 ppb
OM Seal 15 ppb
Marble (50 micron median) 10 ppb
Note: If these formulations are unsuccessful, an alternative formulation is:
Liquid casing or mica fine 15 ppb
Kwikseal coarse 25 ppb
For OBM, replace Kwikseal coarse by Venfyber at 15 ppb.
Kwikseal coarse may result in nozzle plugging.
5.1.4 Precautions
• When an MWD tool is the drill string, coarse grade LCM should not be pumped. For
materials such as Kwikseal and Venfyber, recommendations of the MWD supplier
should be sought.
• Liquid casing and OM seal should not be used above 250°F.
• The pill should be displaced at approximately 200 gpm.
• When lost circulation is expected the minimum nozzle size should be 16/32nd.
If smaller sizes are required, a circulating sub should be incorporated into the string.
• A rule of 'thumb' for successful bridging is that the LCM will block an opening three
times its diameter. Whilst this may apply for granular materials, it is doubtful if it
applies to fibrous materials. For these materials, the figure may be in excess of 5
times its size.
Lost Circulation
5.2 High Fluid Loss Slurry

These slurries are good for induced fractures where bridging is not paramount but a high
pressure drop along the fracture is. Mud solids should provide the fines to bridge with
this material.
Slurry formulations for 1 finished bbl are given in Table 7.2.
Slurry Density Diatomaceous Barytes lbs Barytes lbs

SS Earth lbs
1.08 50.0 0 0.93
1.20 42.6 60.0 0.90
1.30 38.9 120.0 0.86
1.45 35.8 180.0 0.83
1.55 32.7 230.0 0.80
1.70 29.3 290.0 0.76
1.80 26.5 350.0 0.73
Table 7.1 Slurry Density
(1) A slurry volume of 50-100 bbl is used.

(2) Pull off bottom to just above the loss zone.
(3) Displace slurry with mud out of the drill string.
(4) If returns are obtained and the hole is full, close the annular preventer and squeeze
with a maximum of 500 psi squeeze pressure. The hesitation technique is
preferred. If all the slurry is squeezed to the formation, hold pressure for
30 minutes.
(5) If no returns are obtained and the hole cannot be filled after displacing the slurry
out of the drill string a second LCM slurry should be pumped.
Notes: (1) In zones of low porosity but containing fractures, the slurry will only filter
once the fracture width reaches that of the maximum particle size in the
slurry. Therefore, there is a need to add additional bridging LCM.
A concentration of 10 ppb of fibrous LCM is usually added such as
Kwikseal fine. Nothing coarser should be used or it may prevent the
ingress of the DE.
(2) Hydrostatic pressure is often enough to seal the loss zone. A squeeze
pressure is applied, however to open up and then seal fractures which
would otherwise cause problems later.
(3) The basic slurry or slurry containing low concentrations of fibre can be
pumped through bit jets.
Lost Circulation
(4) In oil base muds, the same procedure with some modifications can
be used.
• The mixing pit and mixing lines should be cleaned and washed with
water.
• Formulate the slurry as previously described.
• Pump a 20bbl oil spacer in front of the slurry and balance behind.
• The displacement and squeeze procedure is as previously.
(5) Extreme caution should be exercised during the surface mixing of the
slurry to prevent contamination of the mud.
6 LCM Formulations for Reservoir Sections

If losses occur in the reservoir interval, the first step should be to reduce the mud
weight. If this is not possible and after prior approval from the onshore drilling
superintendent, the following LCMs can be used. However, specific permission of the
relevant field or exploration groups may be required.
6.1 Option 1: Liquid Casing
Loss rate < 20 bbl/hour

Liquid Casing 15 ppb
Loss rate > 20 bbl/hour

Liquid Casing 15 ppb
OM Seal 15 ppb
Marble (5 micron) 10 ppb
Notes: (1) This LCM system should not be used with temperature above 250°F.
(2) Liquid casing/OM seal are only 40% soluble in HCl. They are however
almost totally soluble in 2% hypochlorite solution.
(3) Although this material is only partially acid soluble, it has been approved
for reservoir applications. This is due to the fact that the material is very
easily back-flowed.
Lost Circulation
6.2 Option 2: Marble
Seepage (Less than 10 bbl/hour)

Add (50 micron median size) to the circulating system at 4/5 x 25 kg sacks per hour for
several hours.
Loss Rate 10 to 20 bbl/hour

50 micron median size 15 ppb
Loss Rate 20 to 40 bbl/hour

Notes: (1) Nozzle size must be 3 times larger than the largest particle size to be
pumped.
(2) The material is acid (HCl) soluble.
(3) Marble is preferred to the normal calcium carbonate. This is because the
material retains its grind size unlike calcium carbonate which is easily
ground down.
7 Specialised Formulations
As noted in Paragraph 4.2, there are specialised formulations for severe cases of lost
circulation. These are discussed below:
7.1 Oil/Bentonite Plug

The plug uses the fact that bentonite will not hydrate in oil but when water contacts the
oil/bentonite mixtures, a solid strong material is formed. In seawater based muds, a
fresh water spacer is pumped in front of and behind oil spacers to promote the hydration
of the bentonite which would be poor in a saline environment.
7.1.1 Procedure (Displacement)

(1) The slurry is preferably pumped through open ended pipe. It can however, be
pumped through nozzles if it is not possible to trip out of the hole.
(2) Flush cement unit, slug pit and all surface lines with base oil – either base oil or
diesel.
(3) Mix 300 ppb bentonite into the base oil: a viscous slurry will result.
(4) Pump 30 bbl of fresh water.
(5) Pump 10 bbl of base oil.
Lost Circulation
(6) Pump the plug.

(8) Pump 30 bbl of fresh water.
(9) Displace the plug to the bottom of the drill string.
7.1.2 Squeeze Operation

(1) If the hole is full, close the annular and squeeze at 300 – 500 psi into the formation.
(2) If the hole is not full, close the annular and pump at the same rate down the
annulus and drill pipe.
(3) Allow four hours for the plug to set.
Note: A cement squeeze can be used on top of the base oil/bentonite plug, the latter
providing a backing for the cement to prevent its loss into the formation.
7.2 Base Oil/Bentonite/Cement

If the base oil/bentonite plug does not work, a base oil/bentonite/cement plug is
recommended. A concentration of 300 – 500 lbs of bentonite and cement in a 1:1
mixture is mixed into the base oil. The displacement and squeeze procedure is as for the
oil/bentonite plug.
7.3 Water/Organophilic Clay Plug

In oil based muds, the reverse of an oil/bentonite plug is used, the water/organophilic
clay plug. In oil muds, a clay which has been chemically treated to render it oil
dispersible is used to provide viscosity. This organophilic clay will not yield in water but
will yield in oil in the presence of water.
Thus if a high concentration of clay dispersed in water is pumped to the loss zone, on
contact with oil mud, it will form a strong solid material.
Unweighted
Water 0.72 bbl
Caustic 1.5 lbs
Dispersant 3.5 lbs
Organophilic Clay 250.0 lbs
Table 7.2 Formulation (for 1 bbl mix)
Lost Circulation
7.3.1 Mixing/Displacement Procedure

(1) The slurry is preferably pumped through open ended pipe. It can, however, be
pumped through nozzles if it is not possible to trip out of the hole.
(2) Flush cement unit, slug pit and all surface lines with a water rig wash mixture to
clean the lines. When the lines are deemed to be clean, flush again with water.
(3) Mix the slurry as previously outlined.
(5) Pump 10 bbl of water.
(6) Pump the slurry.
(7) Pump 10 bbl of water.
(9) Displace the plug to the bottom of the drill string.
Note: The function of the base oil spacer is to separate the oil mud and water to
prevent gelling in the drill string.
7.3.2 Squeeze Operation

The squeeze operation is carried out as per the procedures outlined for the
oil/bentonite plug.
Note: Cement cannot be used in water organophilic clay plug.
8 Lost Circulation Whilst Diverter Drilling

For drilling top hole sections (26") where it is believed that mud will help to stabilise the
hole the use of the riser/diverter may be programmed. If losses occur in this situation
which cannot be cured by reducing the ROP, it is likely that the only effective course of
action to take will be to pull the riser and to drill the section with seawater and viscous
pills in the usual way.
8.1 Internal Blowout

Excessive wellbore pressure, with a closed-in well after a 'kick', can cause a formation
breakdown and an internal blow-out.
This type of lost circulation is difficult to cure. Prepare heavy mud if possible 3 times the
volume of drill pipe contents and open hole volume from bottom to the casing shoe.
Also prepare 100 bbls pills with a high concentration of LCM to be pumped down the
annulus with light weight mud that the hole could stand before the kick.
Pump heavy mud down the drill pipe and up the annulus to the shoe (or point of losses)
and simultaneously pump the 100 bbls of LCM pill down the annulus. Calculate the time
and pump speeds in annulus and drill pipe in such a manner that both columns arrive at
the point of loss at the same time.
Lost Circulation
Fast pumping of the heavy mud and if necessary of the light weight mud initially, whilst
slowing down to half speed or less as the plugging material is allowed time to seal off
the formation.
Note that the pressure of the column should be in balance or slightly over balanced to kill
the well.
Lost Circulation
Section 8
Mud Contaminants
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 8-1
2 Solids 8-1
2.1 Source 8-1
2.2 Symptoms 8-1
2.3 Preventative Measures and Remedial Action 8-2
3 Calcium and Magnesium 8-3

3.1 Source 8-3
3.2 Symptoms 8-3
4 Carbonates and Bicarbonates 8-5

4.1 Source 8-5
4.2 Symptoms 8-6
5 Salts Formations and Brine Flows 8-7

5.1 Source 8-7
5.2 Symptoms 8-7
6 Preventative Measures and Remedial Action 8-8

6.1 Water Based Muds 8-8
6.2 Oil Based (and Synthetic Oil Based) Muds 8-8
Table
8.1 Alkalinity Concentration mg/lt 8-6
8.2 Alkalinity Concentration mg/lt 8-6
Figure
8.1 Equilibrium Levels 8-5
Mud Contaminants
1 Introduction
In general a drilling fluid is in its best condition after its initial formulation prior to being
displaced to the hole (although it is true that some muds benefit from downhole shear).
As soon as drilling commences, the mud is exposed to a range of contaminants who's
type and extent depend upon the formation being drilled and the fluids within the
formations. This section details the effects of the major contaminants and how these
effects can be minimised.
2 Solids
In oilfield terminology solids are classified by their density, or specific gravity, into two
basic categories:
High Gravity (HGS) SG > 4.2 usually a weighting agent such as barite and haematite
Low Gravity (LGS) SG 1.6 – 2.9 usually commercial bentonite and drilled solids with an
assumed SG of 2.5
These figures are used to calculate the relative percentage of each solids type in the
mud. Variations in the relative concentrations give valuable indications of the condition of
the mud and of the efficiency of the solids removal equipment.
2.1 Source
High gravity solids are added to the mud to increase fluid density. Even though they
are added deliberately and are essentially unreactive solids they still adversely affect fluid
rheology, particularly when they degrade by attrition to ultra fine particles.
Low Gravity Solids are often referred to as drilled solids and are derived from the
drilled formation.
2.2 Symptoms
Drilled solids are the most common contaminant in drilling muds. Any particle of rock
that is not removed by the solids removal equipment is recirculated and reduced in size
by attrition. This process increases the exposed surface area, more mud is required to
wet the surfaces and increased product is required to maintain the desired fluid
parameters. The increase in the number of particles in the mud results in an increase in
inter particle action and hence an increase in rheology, particularly plastic viscosity.
The irregular shape and size of drilled solids produces poor filter cake quality which in
turn tends to result in an increase in filtrate volume and cake thickness.
Mud Contaminants
2.3 Preventative Measures and Remedial Action

The efficient use of the best available solids removal equipment is essential in
preventing a build up of undesirable drilled solids. Primary separation equipment (ie shale
shakers) is by far the most important tool in the control of drilled solids in the mud.
Efficiently operated and correctly screened shale shakers will remove the vast majority
of drilled solids before they have the opportunity to degrade to a size that will produce
the symptoms discussed above. Modern linear motion shakers will allow the use of
screens as fine as 230 mesh, particularly when drilling with an oil mud. The implications
of barite removal must be considered if the use of screens finer than this
is contemplated.
Hydrocyclones (desanders and desilters) should be used with caution. The action of the
centrifugal feed pump can aid in the attrition process and compound any existing
problem. Hydrocyclones should not be used when drilling with an oil mud as the large
volumes of liquid discarded will have adverse effects on the environment and on
mud costs.
Correctly set up centrifuges are effective at removing fine solids however, they are not
capable of treating large volumes (typically 1 – 1.5 bbl/min) and as such are really only of
benefit when using an oil mud where dilution rates are low or when drilling small
diameter hole.
Eventually solids will degrade to so small a diameter that they cannot be removed even
with the use of a high speed centrifuge. In such circumstances some dilution method
must be employed. The addition of base fluid (water or oil) may help in the short term by
increasing the liquid phase of the mud, hence increasing the separation and therefore
inter-particle action of the solids. However this approach does not actually remove any
solids from the system and the solids attrition process and mud property degradation
continues. The ultra fine solids can only be removed from the system by removing a
portion of the mud from the circulating system. In the case of water based muds 'whole
mud dilution' should be used. This process involves dumping of large volumes of solids
laden mud (less than 500 bbls will have little effect on an average circulating system) and
replacing it with newly formulated clean mud. This process is not viable with oil muds or
synthetic oil muds. When this type of mud becomes laden with ultra fine solids it must
be returned to the shore based mud plant for treatment. Fortunately as oil muds tend to
maintain the integrity of cuttings, thus allowing effective removal by the shale shakers,
this requirement for this action is rare.
When using a dispersed mud, the addition of chemical thinners (eg lignosulphonate,
Drill-Thin etc) can be used to treat the symptoms of increasing solids content. However
the cause is still present and dilution will ultimately be required.
Mud Contaminants
3 Calcium and Magnesium

Either of these divalent ions may, even at low concentrations, have adverse effects on
some water based muds particularly when these muds have a high solids content. Very
high concentrations of either of these ions may have adverse effects on the
performance of polymers in water based muds and on the emulsification packages of
some oil based muds.
3.1 Source
Both calcium and magnesium can be present in make up water (particularly seawater),
formation water and mixed salt evaporite formations. Calcium is encountered in greatest
quantity when drilling cement or anhydrite. Magnesium often accumulates in the mud
when drilling in magnesium rich shales (eg North and Central North Sea) or mixed salt
formations (eg the Zechstein evaporites of the southern North Sea).
3.2 Symptoms
The major effect of magnesium is to react with hydroxyls in the mud system thus
depleting mud alkalinity and pH. This can in turn allow the undesirable carbonate and
bicarbonate components of alkalinity to become dominant.
Calcium ions flocculate bentonite based muds and other water based muds containing
reactive clays giving rise to changes in rheology (decrease in plastic viscosity and
increase in yield point and gels) and loss of filtration control. The presence of increased
calcium levels can be verified from chemical analysis of the filtrate. The combination of
high calcium levels and high pH will precipitate most common polymers used in water
based muds – loss of rheology and filtrate control will result.
3.3.1 Magnesium
Small quantities of magnesium such as those present in seawater can be readily
removed with additions of caustic soda. Magnesium hydroxide is precipitated at a pH of
approximately 10.5. When large quantities of magnesium are encountered (magnesium
shales, evaporites (bishofite), brine flows) it is not practical to treat out the contaminant.
Large scale gelatinous precipitation of magnesium hydroxide will adversely effect
rheology, increasing gel strengths in particular. The large surface area of this precipitate
consumes huge quantities of mud chemicals. This is particularly problematic in oil muds
where surfactants are effectively stripped from the mud and can cause the whole
system to “flip”. In these cases no attempt should be made to adjust the alkalinity until
clear of the source of magnesium. Modern surfactant packages do not generally require
a big excess of lime so oil mud performance should not be compromised. A low pH in a
water based mud could promote corrosion of drill pipe so consider the application of
oxygen scavengers and filming amines until the pH can be restored.
Mud Contaminants
3.3.2 Calcium
Small quantities of calcium (< 400 mg/lt) are acceptable, even desirable, in most water
based muds. A background level of calcium acts as a buffer against the presence of
undesirable carbonate alkalinity. High concentrations of calcium can, however, have
major adverse effects on water based muds. The major sources of large quantities of
calcium are discussed below:
Cement
The chemistry of cement is complex, however, from the mud contamination point of
view, it can be considered to be lime, Ca(OH)2. The major contaminant is calcium but in
some circumstances the hydroxide ion will compound the problem. At high
temperatures (> 250°F) severely contaminated bentonite based muds can solidify.
When it is planned to drill cement, particularly when it is not completely hard, some
precautions can be made to minimise the potential effects of the contamination.
• If viable drill out as much cement as possible with seawater before displacing to mud.
• Minimise caustic soda additions during operations, including the mixing of new mud,
preceding the drilling of cement.
• Pretreat with small amounts of sodium bicarbonate – 0.25 lb/bbl is usually sufficient,
perhaps twice this if green cement is anticipated Avoid over treatment, as an excess
of bicarbonate in the mud system can flocculate mud solids and adversely affect
rheology and filtration control.
• Closely monitor the shale shakers and dump any green cement or badly contaminated
water based mud.
• Closely monitor pH and Pf while drilling the cement and adjust treatments as required
to prevent polymer precipitation (keep pH below 11.0) and clay flocculation. Sodium
bicarbonate will reduce calcium and pH. Any acid, conventionally citric acid, will
reduce pH as will SAPP, lignosulphonate and lignite.
• When it is known that large amounts of green or soft cement are to be drilled
consideration should be given to converting the mud to a lime system which is
tolerant of cement contamination. Large amounts of a suitable dispersant (eg Lignox)
must be available to successfully accomplish this conversion.
Oil based and synthetic oil based muds are largely unaffected by cement.
However, the water fraction of green cement may reduce oil water ratios. Whenever
possible drill out cement with seawater or water based mud prior to displacing to oil
based mud.
Mud Contaminants
Anhydrite
Anhydrite (CaSO4) is the anhydrous form of gypsum and is sufficiently soluble to provide
calcium ion for clay flocculation The calcium effects will be as for cement, but gypsum
contamination generally has no direct effect on the pH of the mud.
When only small stringers are anticipated the excess calcium can be treated out with
soda ash (sodium carbonate). Care should be taken to avoid over treatment as the
adverse effects of carbonate contamination are equally as bad as those of calcium. Small
additions of a deflocculant such as lignosulphonate will smooth out the rheology during
treatment. If massive anhydrite is prognosed and a water based mud is being used,
consideration should be given to converting the mud to a gypsum system which is
tolerant to calcium contamination.
Oil based muds are unaffected by anhydrite contamination.
4 Carbonates and Bicarbonates

There are three species of contaminant in the “carbonate system” – carbonic acid
(H2CO3), bicarbonate (HCO3) and Carbonate (CO3). Figure 8.1 shows the equilibrium
levels of these species at varying pH levels.
Figure 8.1 Equilibrium Levels
4.1 Source
There are four common sources of carbonate system contaminants:
• Carbon dioxide from formation gases
• Over treatment when removing calcium from the mud ie excess use of soda ash and
sodium bicarbonate
• Thermal degradation of organic mud products (eg FCL, lignite and starch)
• Contaminated barite, particularly when drilling HTHP wells with water based muds. It
is essential that QA/QC procedures are applied to all batches of barite prior to
shipment to such wells.
• Contaminated bentonite
Mud Contaminants
4.2 Symptoms
Characterised by general increases in rheology, particularly yield point and gel strengths,
and increases in filtrate. Typically these effects are worse in high solids muds and in high
temperature applications. The symptoms will not respond to chemical deflocculation
such as lignosulphonate treatment.

Prior to treatment the situation should be assessed with all available data – over
treatment with the calcium ion must be avoided. Several mud testing options are
available to the mud engineer none of which render definitive information in the field.
• pH, Pf and Mf are determined by pH meter and by titration The ratio and relationship
between these values will, in theory, allow carbonate species to be determined.
OH- CO3-2 HCO3-

Pf = 0 0 0 1220 Mf
2Pf < Mf 0 1200 Pf 1220 (Mf – 2Pf)
2Pf = Mf 0 1200 Pf 0
2Pf < Mf 340 (2Pf – Mf) 1200 (Pf – Mf) 0
Pf = Mf 340 Mf 0 0
Table 8.1 Alkalinity Concentration mg/lt
• P1 and P2 is another titration method which generally gives more reliable results than
the Pf, Mf method.
OH- CO3-2 HCO3-

P1 > P2 340 (P1 – P2) 1200{Pf – (P1 – P2)} 0
P1 = P2 0 1200 Pf 0
P1 < P2 0 1200 Pf 1220 (P2 – P1)
Table 8.2 Alkalinity Concentration mg/lt
• The Garrett Gas Train uses weak acid to convert all carbonate species to CO2 which
is then measured in a Drager Tube. A conversion factor is then used to determine the
carbonate concentration.
Experienced mud engineers place little faith in the results of these tests when
determining the required treatment. there are a number of reasons for this. Primarily the
titration methods and end points are notoriously subject to error and secondly, by the
time the analysis has been completed, changes in mud chemistry will have already
occurred. A combination of judgement and pilot testing usually corrects the problem.
Mud Contaminants
In cases where the system does not respond to treatment or where continuous CO2
influxes occur, consideration should be given to converting the mud to a lime system.
The basic treatment for carbonate contamination is to precipitate the carbonate with the
calcium ion derived from either lime (Ca (OH)2 or gypsum (CaSO4). The addition of
calcium will however have no effect on bicarbonates. These must first be converted to
carbonates by the addition of hydroxyls. Conventionally this would be achieved either
with caustic soda or with lime. Bicarbonate cannot exist in the presence of hydroxyls.
Under normal conditions bicarbonates begin to convert to carbonates at a pH above 9.5.
The basic reactions that take place during the treatment are:
Lime
CO3-2 + HCO3- + 2Ca(OH)2 -----> 2CaCO3 + H2O +3OH-
Gypsum + Lime or Gypsum + Caustic Soda

CO3-2 + HCO3- + 2Ca2 + OH- -----> 2CaCO3 + H2O
A gypsum / caustic combination tends to be the preferred treatment in polymer muds as
good control of pH is possible. The combination of calcium and high pH in lime can be
detrimental to polymer performance. The use of large amounts of gypsum should
be avoided in clay based fluids as the sulphate ion can itself cause severe flocculation.
5 Salts Formations and Brine Flows

By far the most commonly encountered salt in the drilling industry is sodium chloride.
Potassium chloride, calcium chloride and magnesium chloride are however, sometimes
drilled in complex evaporite sequences.
5.1 Source
Various chlorides are found in seawater, brine flows, salt domes, salt stringers and
massive complex evaporite formations.
5.2 Symptoms
5.2.1 Water Based Muds

The extent of the effects of contamination depends largely upon the mud type and the
concentration and type of contaminating salt. Divalent salts (calcium and magnesium)
will have a greater contaminating effect on water based muds than monovalent salts
(sodium and potassium). Freshwater Bentonite mud or low salinity mud with active
drilled solids will be flocculated by high chlorides or from divalent ions in the salt.
Viscosity will initially increase but at very high chloride levels may decrease due to
collapse of the clay structure. Low solids polymer muds exhibit good resistance to
salt contamination.
Mud Contaminants
5.2.2 Oil Based (and Synthetic Oil Based) Muds

Oil based muds are largely unaffected by drilled salts although the water phase of the
mud will increase in salinity and may well reach saturation if massive salt is drilled. Large
brine flows can adversely affect oil muds. The mud tends to take on a grainy
appearance, rheology tends to increase as oil / water ratio decreases due to the water
content of the brine flow. Chloride content can show marked changes depending upon
the salt content of the brine flow. In extreme cases saturated brine flows can result in re
crystallisation of the brine phase of the mud. This can result in removal of crystals at the
shakers and a corresponding loss of surfactant. If rapid remedial action is not taken
(ie replacement of surfactants ) water wetting of solids will occur and phase separation
will result. This can be disastrous in terms of borehole stability and well control. Similar
problems can occur if the brine flow contains magnesium chloride – this reacts with lime
in the mud and the resulting precipitation of magnesium hydroxide will strip surfactants
from the system.
6 Preventative Measures and Remedial Action

The use of the correct mud weight will minimise brine flows into the system and
adjustment of mud weight must be the initial step in the prevention of further influx.
Early detection of a brine flow will minimise the volume and hence the effects of
brine influxes.
6.1 Water Based Muds

Chloride levels cannot practically be reduced by chemical precipitation. Dilution with
freshwater may reduce chlorides to tolerable levels but this is only feasible in low
density muds – the additions of barite required to maintain mud weight in a high weight
mud would be prohibitive in terms of time and cost. When using a bentonite system
prehydration of the clay in drillwater prior to addition to the active system will provide
some short term viscosity and filtration control. For longer term stability it will
be necessary to substitute salt resistant polymers (eg PAC, XC and Starch) for
the bentonite.
6.2 Oil Based (and Synthetic Oil Based) Muds

The symptoms detailed above must be addressed as soon as they are recognised.
• When magnesium salts are present from drilled formation or from brine flows,
addition of lime to the mud should cease.
• When a brine flow is encountered oil wetting surfactants must be added steadily until
any hint of water wetting is removed. There is an API test for water wetting but an
experienced mud engineer will be aware of the problem and begin treatment before
the test is underway.
• Any trace of water or emulsion in the HTHP filtrate must be eradicated by the addition
of an appropriate combination of primary and secondary emulsifiers.
Mud Contaminants
Section 9
High Temperature High Pressure Fluids
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 9-1
2 Definitions 9-1
3 Mechanisms of Thermal Degradation 9-1

3.1 Bentonite Muds 9-2
3.2 Polymer Muds 9-3
3.3 Oil Based Muds 9-3
4 Temperature Limits 9-4

4.1 Extending Temperature Limits 9-5
5 Mud Properties 9-5

5.1 Density 9-5
5.2 Rheology and Gel Strength 9-5
5.3 Filtrate 9-6
5.4 Alkalinity 9-6
5.5 Methylene Blue Test 9-6
5.6 Flash Point 9-6
6 Symptoms and Remedial Action 9-7

6.1 Symptoms 9-7
6.2 Remedial Action – Water Based Mud 9-7
6.3 Remedial Action – Oil Based Mud 9-8
7 Planning 9-8
7.1 Mud Selection 9-8
7.2 Barite Sag 9-9
7.3 Solids Removal Equipment 9-9
7.4 Mud Engineers 9-10
7.5 QA/QC 9-10
8 Operational Considerations 9-11

Section 9
High Temperature High Pressure Fluids (cont’d)
Table Page
9.1 Approximate Decomposition Temperatures 9-4
Figure
9.1 Effect of Temperature on Gelling Characteristics 9-2

1 Introduction
Mud selection and maintenance are absolutely essential to the successful drilling of a
High Temperature High Pressure (HTHP) well. The harsh environment presented to the
mud has the potential to radically alter its behaviour relative to that on a conventional
well. The effects of any contaminants will be greatly increased as the thermal energy
pushes reaction faster and further.
2 Definitions
HTHP wells are generally considered to be those which encounter bottom hole
temperatures in excess of 300°F (150°C) and pressures which require a mud weight of
16.0 ppg (1.92 SG) or more to maintain well control.
However, from the drilling fluid standpoint, high temperatures can be considered as
those above which conventional drilling fluid additives begin to thermally degrade at an
appreciable rate. This degradation leads to loss of product function, and system
maintenance becomes difficult and expensive. The majority of mud treatment chemicals
derived from natural products begin to degrade at temperatures between 250 and 275°F.
However most systems designed for hot wells would be based on clay and contain
lignosulphonates and lignites and would exhibit temperature stability up to 350°F.
However management of these muds above 300°F can be difficult and expensive.
3 Mechanisms of Thermal Degradation

Thermal degradation can be simplistically thought of as the result of putting so much
energy into a chemical substance that some portion of its structure can break off or
change form. Similar results can be effected at lower temperatures by the presence of
certain chemicals. Oxygen (from air) can promote oxidation, water (present in the mud)
can promote hydrolysis.
Whatever the cause, or particular chemical reaction involved, the end result is that at
higher temperatures formerly stable drilling muds become difficult to control.
Unfortunately elevated temperatures are usually not the only stresses experienced by
drilling fluids in high BHT wells. Often chemical contaminants such as the acid gases
hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide are also present. Very frequently high mud
weights and considerable drilling depths are part of the overall picture. Long trip times,
which leave static, solids laden mud exposed to high levels of contaminants, put many
high temperature muds in exceptionally challenging and stressful environments.

3.1 Bentonite Muds

High temperatures both disperse and flocculate bentonite suspensions. Hydration of
Montmorillonite (the major constituent of commercial bentonite) increases with
temperature and pressure and an increased number of clay platelets are split from
aggregated stacks. A greater number of particles are then present in the suspension and
the viscosity of the suspension increases. The split of aggregated stacks presents fresh
surfaces for the adsorption of hydroxyl ions producing a consequential drop in pH. This
combination of increased surface area and drop in pH will tend to increase the
flocculation within the suspension. Under downhole conditions this creates a demand for
alkali and deflocculant additions. If sufficient deflocculant is not present, or the
deflocculant itself is thermally degrading, sever flocculation or gelation can occur. This
condition is most commonly reached on a trip and problems re-establishing circulation
can be created.
Figure 9.1 shows the effects of temperature on the gelling characteristics of a simple
bentonite suspension (18 ppb) in fresh water. This shows that excessive gelation can
occur as temperatures approach 120°C (250°F).
Figure 9.1 Effect of Temperature on Gelling Characteristics
In practice the actual temperature that triggers thermal flocculation depends on the
fluid's composition The type of bentonite, the type and concentration of drilled solids,
the type and concentration of deflocculant and the ionic composition of the liquid phase,
all have an effect on the flocculation process. The reaction of calcium ions with colloidal
clays in a high alkalinity environment can result in the formation of cement-like calcium
alumino silicates. In these situations extremely high gels can develop and, in the worst
cases, the mud may actually solidify.

3.2 Polymer Muds

Temperature effects on polymer muds are mainly due to the effects of temperature on
the constituent polymers. In most cases polymer muds are low solids fluids and all have
a degree of inhibition to clay hydration. The problems of increased clay hydration, seen in
bentonite muds, is rarely a problem in polymer systems.
The polymers are, however, susceptible to thermal degradation. Cleavage of the polymer
chain may be accompanied by chemical modification of the attached groups. The two
primary reactions responsible for polymer breakdown are oxidation and hydrolysis. Both
of these processes can be controlled, to some degree, by the maintenance of a pH in
the range 9.5 – 10.5 and by the use of oxygen scavengers.
3.3 Oil Based Muds

The polar interactions between charged clays and polymers that take place in a water
based fluid do not occur in the non polar continuous phase of an oil mud. Only relatively
weak hydrogen bonding can occur. These weak forces are readily broken by increases in
temperature so thermal gelation of oil based muds is not common.

4 Temperature Limits
Table 9.1 gives approximate decomposition temperatures, or practical thermal
application limits, for water based mud products and systems. Correctly formulated oil
based muds can perform effectively on wells with bottom hole temperatures as high as
450°F (230°C).
MUD PRODUCTS
Generic Type Temp Limit °F Temp Limit °C
Guar Gum 225 107
Starch 250 120
Biopolymers 250 – 275 120 – 135
HT Starch 275 135
CMC and PAC 275 135
Lignosulphonate 250 – 325 120 – 160
Standard Lignite 300 – 350 150 – 175
Modified Lignite 350 – 450 175 – 230
Synthetic polymers 400 – 500 205 – 260
MUD SYSTEMS
Generic Type Temp Limit °F Temp Limit °C
Non Dispersed Polymer 275 135
NDP – High Temperature Formulation 350 175
Bentonite/FCL 300 150
Bentonite/FCL/Lignite 350 175
Bentonite/ Modified Lignite/Polymer Blends 400 205
Synthetic Polymers (PHPA, PA, SSMA, VSA etc) 400 – 500 205 – 260
Table 9.1 Approximate Decomposition Temperatures

4.1 Extending Temperature Limits

To increase the thermal stability of mud products and systems it is necessary to inhibit
the mechanisms that cause product failure and/or to substitute the constituent parts of a
system that are the first to lose product function.
The life of polymers can be extended by minimising the reactions that cause severing of
the polymer chains. Primarily these reactions are hydrolysis and oxidation. Hydrolysis can
be minimised by maintaining a pH in the range 9.5 – 10.5 and oxidation can be avoided
by the use of an oxygen scavenger. This approach alone will extend the thermal stability
of most systems by approximately 25°F. Some heavy metals are believed to catalyse the
breakdown reactions and products are available that “mop up” these elements.
Recent work has shown that when polymers are used in formate brines their thermal
stability is increased by as much as 50°F. This is largely due to the formate brines being
powerful antioxidants.
5 Mud Properties
Both temperature and pressure can have significant effects on mud properties.
5.1 Density
It is important to recognise that mud weight can vary significantly with temperature. This
variation is represented by a decrease in density with increasing temperature and is due
to the volumetric thermal expansion of the fluid phase. This is particularly true of oil
muds as the oil continuous phase has a greater coefficient of expansion then
does water.
5.2 Rheology and Gel Strength

In commonly utilised oilfield drilling fluids all rheological properties decrease with
increasing temperature. However under downhole conditions this effect may be reduced
by increased pressures and may be completely reversed (ie viscosity will increase) by
the increased hydration and flocculation of commercial clays and drilled solids. The
presence in the wellbore of contaminants such as calcium, magnesium and carbon
dioxide can, under high temperature conditions, cause the rheology of a water based
mud to increase to such an extent that it becomes unpumpable. The viscosity of oil
based and synthetic fluids also increase well applied pressure.

5.3 Filtrate
Both API and HTHP filtrate increase with increasing temperature. This is largely due to
loss of product function, and to changes in filter cake compressibility with changing
temperatures.
Above differential pressures of 100psi pressure increases alone have little effect on clay
based mud filtrate indicating the effects of compressible filter cakes. In general,
polymers maintain there filtration control function well beyond the temperature at which
they lose any viscosifying capabilities. This is due to the fact that even short, broken
polymer chains are capable of functioning as filtrate control agents but not
as viscosifiers.
5.4 Alkalinity
Temperature increases the rate and extent of most chemical reactions. The increased
yield of clays results in more sites being available for reaction with ions, particularly
hydroxyl ions. The end result of this is a reduction in alkalinity and an increase in
flocculation. In oil muds the increased reaction of lime with surfactants greatly increases
with temperature and reductions in mud alkalinity are common, particularly after lengthy
trips. Often the performance of the mud will be hindered by the lack of a good excess
of lime.
5.5 Methylene Blue Test

When using a water based mud the Methylene Blue Test (MBT) is one of the most
meaningful tests available to indicate the general condition of the mud. The results of
this test give an indication of the amount and size of active clays in the mud. In normal
wells a non dispersed polymer mud should, for example, have an MBT no greater than
20 lb/bbl. In high weight muds 15 should be considered the upper limit. High
temperatures can rapidly increase the yield of commercial bentonite and reactive solids,
this in turn will produce a rapid increase in values obtained from the Methylene Blue
Test. Muds with high MBTs are susceptible to contaminants that would not normally
cause problems in low solids muds (eg calcium carbonates etc.).
5.6 Flash Point

When using an oil based mud on HTHP wells, the flowline temperature can approach the
flash point of the base oil particularly when drilling deep 12 1/4 intervals. Usually bottom
hole temperatures are too low to cause a problem in 17 1/2 hole and circulation rates in
smaller hole diameters allow the mud time to cool as it comes up the annulus. High
return mud temperatures can have adverse effects on elastomers, can produce
undesirable volumes of fumes and present a fire risk. Careful management of surface
pits can facilitate cooling of the mud but the overall effect is usually minimal. Some
operators advocate the use of mud coolers (heat exchangers) and there is some
evidence that, in the right application, this approach can prove effective.

6 Symptoms and Remedial Action

6.1 Symptoms
Typical symptoms of problems associated with high temperatures are:
• High viscosity and gel strengths
• Increased fluid loss
• Decreased alkalinity
These problems may manifest themselves as:
• Difficulty in breaking circulation
• Difficulty running tools to bottom
• Difficulty in degassing circulated mud
• Differential sticking tendency
The first indications of thermal deterioration of the mud system will be seen in bottoms
up samples after trips. Trips tend to be lengthy on HTHP wells and the mud will have
been exposed to near bottom hole temperature for long periods. It is important that
bottoms up mud is tested and the results used as an indicator of future problems should
remedial treatment not be made.
6.2 Remedial Action – Water Based Mud
6.2.1 Increased Rheology and Gels

• Add water – Due to increased surface area of clays, increased downhole filtration
and surface evaporation muds at high temperature rapidly become dehydrated.
• Decrease solids content – reducing the percentage of low gravity solids in the mud
will facilitate the control of rheology and improve product performance.
• Add deflocculants – If bottoms up samples indicate that the mud is becoming
excessively viscous it may be beneficial to increase the concentration of
deflocculant/dispersant. Alternatively substitute the existing product with one better
suited to the bottom hole temperature. Care must be exercised when increasing
product concentration. Most chemicals will take up free water and this can negate
any beneficial affects of deflocculation.
• Adjust pH – maintenance of adequate alkalinity will decrease flocculation of clays,
ensure that deflocculants function effectively and minimise hydrolysis of polymers.
For most water based muds a pH in the range 9.5 – 10.5 should be targeted.

6.2.2 Increased Filtrate

• Add HT filtrate reducer – if it is apparent that the filtrate cannot be controlled
economically with existing products a more thermally stable product should be used.
Often this appears an expensive option but usually proves cost effective.
6.3 Remedial Action – Oil Based Mud
6.3.1 Increased Rheology and Gels

• Add Base Oil – Increased filtrate and surface evaporation reduces the total oil content
of the mud and, if not replaced, will in effect, 'dehydrate' the system.
• Add Oil Wetting Agents – by ensuring that all solids are oil wet the inter particle
reactions between them are reduced. This results in reductions in viscosity and gel
strengths. Care must be taken when adding wetting agents. They are usually
concentrated products that prove very effective thinners for clay based rheology in oil
muds. Over treatment can reduce suspension characteristics to levels that will
promote inefficient hole cleaning and may allow barite sag to occur.
6.3.2 Increased HTHP Filtrate

• Often increases in HTHP filtrate can be readily, and economically, remedied by the
addition of sufficient lime to restore a good (2 – 3lb/bbl) excess in the mud. If this is
not effective, increased levels of emulsifiers may be required. Ultimately the addition
of a dry powder filtrate reducer (eg amine lignite, Soltex, gilsonite) may be required.
Prior to the addition of this type of product their compatibility with the producing
formation must be established.
7 Planning
The successful application of a fluid in an HTHP environment is greatly influenced by pre
job planning. Prior to drilling an HTHP interval contingencies must be in place to ensure
that the potential fluid problems, common on HTHP wells, can be anticipated and
corrected.
7.1 Mud Selection

The type of mud that will be chosen for a particular application will depend very much on
factors other than just the ultimate bottom hole temperature.
The location of the well may have an influence on selection. If the well is to be drilled in
a particularly remote or environmentally sensitive area the use of an oil mud, the
commonly preferred option for high temperature applications, may be restricted.

The anticipated formations and contaminants are important factors in mud selection.
Highly dispersed water based muds may not, for example, be appropriate to drill reactive
shales or formations where CO2 or brine flows are predicted. CO2 can have dramatic
negative effects on water based muds that do not contain lime. However water based
muds, heavily treated with lime can be particularly difficult to stabilise at high
temperatures.
Polymer based muds are subject to degradation by various means at high temperature.
It can be seen that neither clay or polymer based muds are ideal for high temperature
environments. However, by careful choice of materials, relative to the anticipated
environment, water based muds can be run, with some difficulty, on wells with BHT up
to 450°F
It is, therefore, essential that an appropriate mud system is selected for HTHP
applications and that, as part of the planning process, the formulation of the chosen
system is optimised for anticipated downhole environment and contaminants.
7.2 Barite Sag

If the well to be drilled is of high deviation (> 30°) part of the fluid formulation
optimisation must include testing for barite sag potential. The prevention of barite sag
represents a major challenge on high angle HTHP wells. The risk can be minimised by
laboratory testing and by the selection of the most appropriate blend of viscosifying
agents.
7.3 Solids Removal Equipment

Drilled solids are the major contaminant for all drilling fluids. The adverse effects of high
solids content are amplified in HTHP muds. This type of mud already has a high solids
content made up, largely, of weighting agent. There is little free liquid phase available to
wet the solids and interparticle action is high. This produces high levels of attrition that
reduce particle size and rapidly compounds the problem. Any contamination from, for
example, carbon dioxide or calcium, will be exacerbated by the presence of large
quantities of fine drilled solids. It can be seen that effective solids removal is essential to
the performance of high density muds, particularly under high temperature conditions.
Primary separation by shale shakers is usually effective. The highest mud weights are
usually encountered in small hole diameters where low flow rates are prevalent. This
allows the use of fine shaker screens, although a loss of significant amounts of barite
must be anticipated if screens finer than 200 mesh (74u) are utilised. Hydrocyclones are
rarely effective when dealing with very high solids muds as they tend to rapidly become
blocked. Centrifuges can be effective, when correctly set up.

7.4 Mud Engineers

It is absolutely essential that the mud engineers supplied to HTHP wells are familiar with
the mud system to be run. They must also be familiar with all the engineering
techniques and contingencies that are required to successfully drill such a well. In
particular they must be aware of and be familiar with:
• The necessity to keep all relevant personnel aware of all mud transfers and mixing
operations.
• When using water based muds, the techniques required to treat the affects of all
possible contaminants and thermal gelation.
• The use of hot rolling ovens and Fann 70 rheometer.
• H2S detection, analysis and treatment.
• The formulation and placement procedures for barite plugs.
• General lost circulation techniques and those specific to induced fractures.
7.5 QA/QC
It is important that a quality control programme is established for barite and, when
applicable bentonite. This is particularly important if water based mud is to be used.
Contaminants in barite, particularly carbonates, can cause huge problems by flocculating
bentonite and drilled solids. If bentonite is to be required endeavour to use only sacked
Wyoming grade material. Most bulk bentonite has been peptised to meet specification.
The chemicals added during this process can have disastrous effects on a high solids
water based mud.

8 Operational Considerations
When running a water based mud, bottoms up from trips must be carefully observed by
the mud engineer. As discussed above, this mud will usually be the worst part of the
circulating system. It may well be extremely viscous due to clay hydration and loss of
product function of deflocculants. If environmental constraints allow, this mud should be
dumped. If allowed into the main body of the circulating system it will do untold damage
in respect of increased MBT, rheology and gels.
Drilling fluids in HT applications generally benefit from frequent additions of base fluid be
it water or oil. Loss of base fluid occurs as downhole filtration and as surface evaporation
resulting from high flowline temperatures.
Notes: (1) When in HTHP intervals any additions to the mud system should normally
be made when circulating but not when drilling. Close monitoring of mud
levels for losses or gains is essential while drilling and the addition, even
closely controlled addition, of fluid to the active pit can cause confusion
and doubt.
(2) When running a dispersed water based mud it is vital that the low gravity
solids content be kept under control. There is a tendency among many
mud engineers to control increasing gel strengths with chemical thinners
thus allowing solids to increase to a point where the mud becomes
unmanageable.
(3) The availability of a hot rolling oven and or a Fann 70 rheometer at the rig
site will allow “look ahead” rheologies and gels to be run. The reaction of
the current mud to anticipated temperatures can be studied and
pre-emptive treatments made.
(4) Particularly in water based muds, be sure to monitor closely for hydrogen
sulphide which may come from the formation or from the breakdown of
mud products. Suitable treatment products must be on hand at the rig
site to render H2S harmless to rig personnel and equipment.
Suitable lost circulation products must be on hand to cure losses particularly losses to
induced fractures.

Section 10
Reservoir Muds
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 10-1
2 Minimising Damage Whilst Drilling 10-1

2.1 To Minimise Filtrate Invasion 10-3
2.2 To Minimise Filtrate Incompatibility 10-4
3 General Guidelines 10-6
4 Drill-in Fluids (DIF) 10-7
5 Minimising Damage During Well Completion/Workover 10-8
Table
10.1 Typical N. Sea Formation Water Analysis 10-4
Figure
10.1 Relative Merits and Damage Potential of Drilling Fluids 10-2
10.2 Examples of Clays in Sandstones 10-5
Reservoir Muds
1 Introduction
From the time that the drill bit enters the pay zone, until the well is put on production,
a formation is exposed to a series of operations and fluids that can impair its productive
capacity. This reduction in productivity is termed formation damage. This section
attempts to identify some practices which, although derived mainly with appraisal and
development wells in mind, are almost universally applicable. This means that they can
be used to control formation damage in any well, even those in remote locations.
In most situations, adopting the practices set out in this section will not significantly alter
operational costs.
It should be appreciated that, because of their general nature, it may not always be
necessary to follow every guideline on every well. An in-depth knowledge of formation
damage would, however, be required before any practices which were not applicable in
a particular situation could be identified. Likewise adherence to every guideline will not
guarantee that damage does not occur although, in such cases, any damage will almost
certainly be less than would have been the case had these recommended practices not
been followed. Detailed discussion of these 'exceptions' is beyond the scope of this
document. In specific 'problem' cases (e.g. where significant damage remains despite
adhering to the guidelines, or where experience or lithology suggests a particularly
sensitive formation), further advice should be sought. Sometimes this may be available
from a local drilling fluids expert; a specialist formation damage group, however, exists
with BPX at Sunbury.
2 Minimising Damage Whilst Drilling

Drilling mud is the first fluid which comes into contact with the reservoir zone.
The selection of an appropriate mud type for a given reservoir may be critical.
Figure 10.1 gives a generalised ranking of the potential damaging characteristics of
various mud types.
Four basic formation damage mechanisms are relevant to the mud system.
• Damage caused by incompatibility of the drilling fluids with the reservoir rock.
• Damage resulting from incompatibility of the drilling fluid with the formation fluids.
• Damage due to the mud filter cake which is not lifted off or bypassed in
non-perforated completions.
• Damage caused by invasion of the pores by fine solids in the mud.
Reservoir Muds
Figure 10.1 Relative Merits and Damage Potential of Drilling Fluids
The two principal factors which govern the magnitude of productivity impairment caused
by a mud are:
• The depth of invasion of its filtrate into the reservoir.
• The amount of damage (permeability loss) that it causes.
Reservoir Muds
Hence, in order to minimise damage when drilling, the depth of filtrate invasion should
be minimised as should the damaging nature of the filtrate. Based on these criteria, the
following measures can be taken to minimise formation damage when drilling:
2.1 To Minimise Filtrate Invasion

• Limit the open hole exposure time
Mud filtrate invasion increases with time. Therefore, the penetration rate should be
maximised, whilst not adversely affecting hole cleaning. Tripping time should also be
minimised, without causing excessive surge and swab pressures.
• Control the fluid loss of the mud system
The amount of mud filtrate lost is also dependent on the filtration characteristics of
the fluid – usually assessed by measuring the static fluid loss of the fluid.
Two parameters should be considered. Firstly, do not allow excessive spurt loss and
secondly, ensure that the filter cake remains thin (so that it is less susceptible to
erosion). The addition of specifically sized bridging solids may be required to reduce
spurt loss to acceptable levels.
• Control the mud system hydraulics
Excessive circulation rates will erode the filter cake, thus increasing the rate of filtrate
loss. It may not always be advisable therefore to use the maximum pump rate.
The circulation rate must, however, be sufficient to adequately clean the hole.
• Use a low static overbalance
In order to minimise invasion of filtrate into the reservoir formation it is important to
use the minimum overbalance commensurate with safe well control. Thus the mud
weight should be kept as low as is safely possible. In development and production
wells, where the pressure profile is well known, it should be possible to maintain a
low, but safe, overbalance. In most BP areas, a safe overbalance is considered to be
between 200 and 300 psi.
• Use a low dynamic overbalance
In addition to controlling the static overbalance the equivalent circulating density of
the fluid should also be considered. The mud rheology and flow rate should be
controlled so that ECD is kept within acceptable limits.
Reservoir Muds
2.2 To Minimise Filtrate Incompatibility

• Use a compatible drilling fluid
Ensure that no adverse reactions can occur between the mud filtrate and formation
fluids. See Table 10.1. Evaluate the potential for the mud filtrate to cause formation
damage. Assess the incompatibility between the filtrate and formation fluid/rock
(by fluid compatibility and core flood tests). This testing can be carried out by XTP
Sunbury and, in some cases, by the drilling fluid contractor. If significant
incompatibilities are observed or anticipated then re-design the drilling fluid. Avoid the
use of fresh water based muds when clay is present in the matrix of the reservoir –
fresh water filtrate will cause any water sensitive interstitial clays to swell and
mobilise, possibly blocking pore throats. Some inhibition is always beneficial. See
Figure 10.2. Potassium ions (from KCl or KAc) are particularly effective for this
purpose.
Concentration Seawater Miller Ula Bruce

in mg/L North Sea Formation Formation Formation
Water Water Water
Sodium 10890 28100 52582 24570
Calcium 428 615 34676 1410
Magnesium 1366 113 2248 200
Potassium 462 1630 3509 345
Strontium 8 65 1157 610
Barium 0 770 91 400
Chloride 19699 46050 153030 41660
Sulphate 2962 4 44 13
Bicarbonate 123 1655 134 525
pH 6.5 7.0 6.6 6.3
Table 10.1 Typical N. Sea Formation Water Analysis
Reservoir Muds
Figure 10.2 Examples of Clays in Sandstones
• Avoid the use of dispersants in water based muds

As a general rule non-dispersed water based muds are less damaging than dispersed
water based muds. This is because the dispersants added to muds are also effective
at dispersing formation clays, thus there is a greater tendency for chemically induced
fines migration to occur. Typically dispersants would be lignosulphonates but caustic
soda (specifically the hydroxyl ion) will also act as a dispersant for clays. The use of
dispersants should, therefore, be avoided as should the use of high pH muds.
• Control the use of surfactants in oil based muds
Excess surfactant in oil based filtrates can change the wettability of water wet
reservoirs and also cause water blocks due to the release of residual water. This can
be minimised by reducing the excess surfactant level. Generally this can be achieved
by only making additions to the mud system in response to changes in mud
properties. Daily additions, regardless of the properties, should not be made. Indeed
the addition of new surfactant to the mud should be avoided when drilling in the
reservoir. Unsheared surfactants are freely available for loss as mud filtrate. It is
however equally important that the desired mud parameters, particularly filtrate
control, are maintained. The inclusion of free water or emulsion in the HTHP filtrate of
an oil mud could severely threaten the productivity of the reservoir. While this
appears to be a fine line to walk, with preplanning a good mud engineer will be able to
keep his mud 'in shape' without the addition of surfactants through all but the longest
reservoir sections. Where some addition is unavoidable (e.g. long reservoir intervals
on horizontal wells) it should be possible to shear the treatment into mud in a reserve
pit prior to addition to the active system.
In sensitive reservoirs, the level of surfactant in the mud filtrate should be monitored
at the rigsite.
Reservoir Muds
3 General Guidelines
• Use bridging materials to minimise solids invasion
In low density muds, bridging solids should be added to minimise spurt loss and to
aid the build up of a low permeability filter cake on the bore hole wall. A wide
distribution of particle size is preferable, although the median particle size should be
similar to the mean pore size of the formation. For field implementation of this
guide-line the pore size distribution of the reservoir rock must be measured. Even
correctly sized bridging materials cannot prevent some impairment in open hole
completions.
• Identify the presence of natural fractures
Productivity can be impaired by filling natural fractures with mud solids. If the
presence of natural fractures is not recorded then the ultimate potential of the well
may be overlooked. The presence of natural fractures can usually be identified by
recording all sub-surface losses. These losses can normally be distinguished from
losses due to other mechanisms. When losses are anticipated in sandstones, use lost
circulation material which is either acid, water or oil soluble, the choice being
dependent on the type of reservoir (oil or gas) and the type of mud. It is also
recommended that a sample of the mud is taken if losses are anticipated, so that the
merits of stimulation treatments can be assessed if losses do occur.
• Do not exceed the fracture pressure gradient
Do not exceed the fracture pressure gradient as this will induce fracturing, or open
natural fractures, and can result in significant mud losses to the formation. It is
incorrect to assume that the fracture gradient is the same in the reservoir as the
result of the leak-off test at the last casing shoe. Changes in lithology will alter the
fracture gradient. It is common for the fracture gradient of a sandstone reservoir to be
lower than the leak-off test in a shale. Fracture pressures will also be reduced in
depleted formations – care must be taken to avoid accidental fracturing during drilling.
In highly depleted formations it is difficult to control losses once the formation has
been broken down – the fracture propagation pressure may be less than the
hydrostatic head of water.
Reservoir Muds
4 Drill-in Fluids (DIF)

It is common practice, particularly in sensitive reservoirs, to set pipe above the reservoir
and change out the mud to a system specifically designed to have low damage potential.
Cores of the reservoir rock must be available to fine tune these muds but the general
principle behind their use (i.e. that they have a low drilled solids content) will afford
protection to most reservoirs. The most common drill – in fluids are:
• Oil Based and Synthetic Oil Based Mud
Under most conditions oil based muds make excellent low damage fluids. Indeed this
was the reason for their initial development. They possess low spurt loss which
minimises particle invasion and their all oil filtrate does not cause water block and
does not mobilise water sensitive clays. As discussed above an excess of surfactant
in the filtrate can cause changes in wettability and oil muds should be used with
caution (i.e. only after laboratory testing) particularly in dry gas reservoirs. Good
bridging is also essential when drilling a reservoir with an oil mud as the loss of whole
mud, including the water phase, deep into a reservoir could cause emulsion blocking.
• Brine Based
By using a brine to achieve the required fluid density, the potential for solids invasion
of the formation is greatly reduced. However without any solids, massive loss of fluid
to the reservoir would be likely during drilling operations – some bridging solids are
therefore required. Most commonly graded calcium carbonate (acid soluble), graded
sodium chloride (water soluble) or resins and waxes (oil soluble) would be used. The
use of sodium chloride is limited to fluid with densities in excess of 1.2 SG as the
carrier fluid must be salt saturated. Perhaps the most frequently used drill in fluid
uses a combination of potassium chloride brine and graded calcium carbonate to
achieve the required density and bridging characteristics. The potassium ion proves
effective in 'fixing' potentially mobile interstitial clays. Calcium brines are not entirely
suitable for use as a drill in fluid as the divalent ion can precipitate with formation
water carbonates or sulphates thus impairing the formation. The recent introduction
of monovalent formate brines to the drilling industry has extend the range of densities
that can be achieved with low damage potential brine from 1.0 to 2.2 SG.
Reservoir Muds
5 Minimising Damage During Well Completion/Workover

Having successfully drilled the reservoir without causing significant damage it is
essential that damage is not incurred in the completion phase of the well. Some basics
must be adhered to:
• Use quality controlled chemicals to mix completion/workover fluids
It is important that the quality of chemicals used to mix completion or workover fluids
is sufficient for the intended operation and consistent from batch to batch.
For example, a laboratory recommendation may be to use a pure sodium chloride
brine in order to prevent precipitation of scale. If a low grade salt solution is used,
however, it may well contain significant impurities which will themselves cause scale.
• Do not use seawater to mix completion/workover brines
Although seawater is often readily available, it is not always the most suitable for the
mixing of brines. For example, many formation waters precipitate inorganic sulphate
scales when mixed with seawater. Mixing of calcium chloride brine with seawater
causes the precipitation of calcium sulphate – negating the benefit of using a clear
fluid. In the latter case the cost of filtering the brine to remove the solids is far in
excess of the cost of preparing the brine correctly with fresh water.
• Ensure adequate mixing of viscosifiers
Typical viscosifiers used in completion and workover fluids are organic polymers.
They can sometimes be difficult to disperse, especially into high salinity brines. The
pH of the fluid can also affect the ease of polymer dispersion. High shear rate mixing
may be required to avoid the formation of small lumps of undispersed polymer gel
('fisheyes'). To mix high salinity viscosified brine it can be beneficial to pre-hydrate the
polymer in a lower salinity, lower pH, brine first.
• Take time to clean the flowlines, mixing lines and tanks if a solids/contaminant
– free completion or workover fluid is used
Tanks should be cleaned prior to receiving or mixing brines. It is pointless to go to the
expense of filtering brine if the filtered fluid is stored or transported in contaminated
tanks. All surface equipment and the wellbore tubulars should be cleaned prior to
using such fluids. The final cleaning fluid should be compatible with the clean brine.
The rigour with which cleaning and filtering is undertaken should be based on
operational considerations. For example, if a well is to be perforated underbalanced
then significant losses to the formation would not be anticipated and the brine
specification could perhaps be relaxed.
• Avoid the use of painted tools during completions or workovers
It has been reported that paint on wellbore tools can blister and flake-off when in the
wellbore, as a result of exposure to wellbore fluids and/or high temperatures. Flakes
of paint are effective at plugging perforations but are insoluble in most fluids. Thus,
once present around a wellbore, they are difficult to remove.
Reservoir Muds
• Ensure that brine density is measured at a fixed temperature

Brine density is sensitive to temperature. Thus it is important for it to be measured at
a fixed temperature, normally ambient. (Be sure to note the temperature at which the
density is recorded by the suppliers.) This is especially important when mixing brines
due to the dramatic changes in temperature when dissolving some salts. For
example, the dissolution of calcium chloride is an exothermic reaction (the brine can
often increase to 50°C) and with potassium chloride the reaction is endothermic (the
brine temperature can often be reduced to below 5°C).
• Do not use fresh water as a completion or workover fluid
When densities close to that of freshwater are required, it is still beneficial to add an
inhibitor to prevent the hydration or dispersion of clays. It is recommended that
potassium chloride is used at a minimum concentration of 3% by weight.
• Use clean workover fluids in perforated completions
Cleanliness of solids-free, workover fluids is particularly critical when treating or killing
perforated completions. This is because only a relatively small amount of particulate
solid is needed to block perforation tunnels. Even pipe dope, or dirt and rust from
inside of the tubing can plug perforations if the material is entrained in the fluid and
lost or pumped into the formation. Once a set of perforations is blocked by solids,
major problems can occur when the well is flowed, due to preferential clean-up. If an
adequate sump has not been drilled then debris can accumulate and fill the
perforations, restricting production.
• Whenever possible, circulate to kill
Whenever possible, the tubing contents should not be bullheaded into the formation
in order to kill a well. The bullheading of tubing contents can cause plugging of
perforations from suspended solids and is especially true in areas which are
susceptible to wax or asphaltene drop-out or scaling in the tubing. The preferable kill
method is to circulate the tubing to kill fluid and only bullhead fluid below the packer.
In particularly sensitive cases, consideration should be given to killing from bottom up
with coiled tubing, this avoids all bull heading.
• Minimise the use of pipe dope for tubing connections
Pipe dope is a grease which is not soluble in typical wellbore fluids. The use of an
excessive quantity of pipe dope for tubing connections can result in the excess being
swept into perforation tunnels if fluid is lost or injected into the reservoir. Pipe dope is
difficult to remove from perforation tunnels and may significantly affect productivity.
Ensure that correct pipe doping procedures are followed – only dope the pins. After
having cleaned out the well and displaced to brine consider, where appropriate,
pumping an extra wash pill through the completion tubing before stinging into the
PBR to wash off excess/residual pipe dope.
Reservoir Muds
Section 11
Corrosion in Drilling Fluids
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 11-1
2 Basic Mechanisms 11-1
3 Types of Corrosive Damage 11-2
4 Corrosive Agents and Remedial Action 11-3

4.1 Dissolved Oxygen 11-3
4.2 Carbon Dioxide 11-5
4.3 Hydrogen Sulphide 11-5
4.4 Soluble Salts 11-7
4.5 Scaling 11-7
4.6 Mud Additive Films 11-7
5 Corrosion in Oil Based Muds 11-8
6 Measurement of Corrosion Rate 11-8

6.1 Corrosion Coupon (Corrosion Ring) 11-9
6.2 Interpreting Corrosion Coupon Analysis 11-10
Figure
11.1 Electrical Circuit 11-1

1 Introduction
Corrosion is the destruction of a metal by a electrochemical reaction with its
environment. Corrosion cannot normally be stopped, only controlled. Safety and
economics are the main considerations when implementing a corrosion control
programme.
Corrosion of downhole tubulars is essentially controlled when a non polar oil based (or
synthetic oil based) mud is used.
When a water based mud is used, particularly a low solids polymer system, the use of a
specifically designed corrosion inhibitor may be required.
2 Basic Mechanisms
Before considering the corrosion aspects of the drilling operation it is worthwhile
describing the mechanism of corrosion and the various types of corrosion that can occur.
On of the prerequisites for corrosion to occur is the presence of an aqueous phase,
although even a trace of water can lead to corrosion.
Corrosion is an electrochemical process ie an electric current flows during the corrosion
process. For an electrical current to flow there must be a driving force (ie a voltage
source), and a complete electric circuit.
The voltage source is the metal itself. All metals contained stored energy as a result of
the refining process. This means that the metal will adopt an electric potential
(the equilibrium potential) when it is put into an aqueous solution.
The electrical circuit consists of three parts. These are shown diagramatically in
Figure 11.1 and consist of:
Figure 11.1 Electrical Circuit

• The Anode – which is the portion of the metal surface which is dissolving or
“corroding”. For iron this can be represented by the chemical reaction:
Fe ---> Fe2+ + 2 electrons
• The Cathode – which is the portion of the metal surface at which the electrons
formed by the anodic reaction are “consumed.” There are many cathodic reactions
that can occur, depending on the composition of the solution. For an acid the cathodic
reaction would typically be:
2H+ + 2 electrons ---> H2 (gas)
• The Electrolyte – which is the electrically conductive solution on the metal's surface
through which the electrical current (or electrons) necessary to support the corrosion
process flows.
In the case where there is no externally applied electrical current, the anodic and
cathodic reactions are balanced, ie there will be no “total” current flow measured.
The reason why some areas of the metal surface act as anodes whereas others act as
cathodes are complex. A major factor is inhomogeneities in the metal surface and/or
electrolyte. I general (uniform) corrosion the anodes and cathodes will be randomly
distributed over the surface and will 'move' during the corrosion process. In localised
corrosion (eg pitting) the anodes will be restricted to certain, small areas.
3 Types of Corrosive Damage

Many different types of corrosion damage can occur. Those likely to occur in drilling
operations are:
• General (Uniform) Corrosion
This results in fairly uniform loss of material across the complete surface of the
component, leading to a loss of load capacity (eg the ability to contain a pressure)
• Localised Corrosion
This results in an uneven wastage of the component. This can take the form of
localised attack on open surfaces (ie pitting). This is a particularly damaging from of
corrosion, components can fail by perforation with only a small percentage weight
loss. In addition, pits will act as stress concentrations, reducing the load carrying
capacity of the components. Alternatively, localised corrosion may occur at particular
locations, eg crevices, mixed metal sites (galvanic attack), areas of high turbulence
(erosion-corrosion)
• Environment Sensitive Cracking (ESC)
These mechanisms can lead to catastrophic, apparently brittle, failures. Cracking can
occur rapidly and without the accompaniment of significant wastage. In addition, the
cracks can be very fine, making them difficult to detect using conventional inspection
techniques. Examples of ESC are sulphide stress cracking, chloride stress cracking,
corrosion fatigue.

4 Corrosive Agents and Remedial Action

The main contributors to corrosion in water based muds are:
4.1 Dissolved Oxygen

Dissolved oxygen is one of the main corrodents in modern water based muds.
Historically dissolved oxygen has been less of a problem for two major reasons:
• Traditional water based muds contained components such as lignosulphonates,
lignins and tannins that acted as effective oxygen scavengers.
• Most currently used water based muds are formulated with water soluble polymers.
Polymers based drilling muds tend to entrap air more readily than dispersed bentonite
muds. As the mud is circulated down the hole pressure increases and oxygen goes
into solution.. For example air saturated mud at surface pressure has been seen to
have a dissolved oxygen content of 4ppm compared with 300ppm under down hole
conditions. This greatly increases the corrosivity of the fluid.
Oxygen corrosion will affect all metal drilling components with which the mud or brine
comes into contact eg drillpipe, casing, pumps and surface equipment. The level of
attack will be greater in regions where “occluded cells” can occur (ie in shielded areas
below mud cake, drill pipe protectors etc) Oxygen depletion can occur in this shielded
region, resulting in a galvanic cell being established with regions with better access
to oxygen.
It is worth noting that oxygen related corrosion problems can often be more severe in
winter as oxygen solubility increases with decreasing temperature.
Preventative Action
A number of actions can be taken to prevent excessive corrosion due to
dissolved oxygen.
• Use a proprietary oxygen scavenger. Most commonly these are simple chemical
compounds such as sodium sulphite or ammonium bisulphite containing a catalyst to
increase the reaction rate. The sulphite reacts with the dissolved oxygen to produce
sulphate. It is necessary to monitor the level of residual bisulphite in the return mud
and to maintain an excess of between 50 – 100 ppm (note excessive over treatment
can increase corrosivity) Bisulphite is continuously consumed in the drilling process,
as air has access to the fluid at a number of locations in the circulating system. The
preferred method of application is via a chemical injection pump into the mud pump
suction line. This minimises the contact of the fluid with the air and hence minimises
scavenger consumption.
• Prevent entrapped air being pumped down hole.. Even when the mud is treated
with an oxygen scavenger it cannot cope with unexpected increases in dissolved
oxygen resulting from entrapped air being pumped down hole. There will be
insufficient scavenger and the rate of reaction will be to slow to all the dissolved
oxygen to be scavenged. Therefore it is important to ensure that air entrapment is
minimised. This can be achieve in a number of ways: Reduce the foaming tendency
of the fluid, minimise the use of surface mud guns, keep fluid level close to the
mixing line discharge and repair any leaks in the low pressure nixing system.

• Control the pH.. Although oxygen corrosion can occur over the full range of pH the
rate of attack will increase with decreasing pH. The pH should, therefore,
be maintained at as high a level as possible within the constraints of the mud system
in use. A minimum pH value of 10 is usually targeted.
• Use a corrosion inhibitor.. Inorganic corrosion inhibitors (eg chrome based) have
been applied with some success in the past. However increased environmental
awareness has reduced the acceptability of these highly toxic chemicals. Another
drawback of the chromates is that they are Anodic Inhibitors. That is to say they
inhibit corrosion by reducing the anodic reaction but do not affect the cathodic
reaction. Such inhibitors can cause severe localised corrosion and actually accelerate
the corrosion, if present in insufficient quantities to provide complete filming.
• As a result of these concerns, the use of inorganic corrosion inhibitors has greatly
reduced. In addition it should be noted that chromates are ineffective as inhibitors in
the presence of oxygen scavengers.
The main alternative to the inorganic corrosion inhibitors is the film – forming organic
inhibitors (eg filming amines).
Advantages
• They are combine anodic/cathodic inhibitors. Therefore there is less danger of
enhanced corrosion if the chemical is underdosed.
• The chemicals are effective at low dosage rates, as little as 10 ppm can afford good
protection.
Disadvantages
• Much of the inhibitor will adsorb to surfaces other than the desired sites on the metal
surfaces (eg drilled solids). Maintenance of even the small concentrations required for
corrosion protection can be difficult
• The fact that most film-forming amines are not soluble in water means they must be
applied as a solution in oil or some other organic chemical as a carrier.
The environmental acceptability of this carrier must be determined prior to use. Large
treatments can have an adverse effect on drilling fluid rheology. The inhibitor is thus
best applied directly to the pipe at surface either by spraying or with inhibitor soaked
cloth. Application by solids free sweep is preferable to uniform dosage of the mud.
• At high fluid velocities, or in the presence of abrasive solids, the inhibitor film may be
removed and its efficiency be significantly reduced.
• There is a question mark over the thermal stability, and hence effectiveness,
of organic inhibitors above 120°C.
Note: For the reasons highlighted above, the use of corrosion inhibitors in drilling muds
is not a preferred option within BP.

It is worth noting, however, that there are several developments on the horizon that may
be able to make organic inhibitors a viable option for corrosion control in water based
muds. Non-ionic inhibitors are an one example of this development. They still have a
preference to adsorb onto metal surfaces, thus providing the protective film, but have a
greatly reduced affinity for other solid surfaces. They are designed to spread evenly on
the metal surface, thus preventing the setting up of localised corrosion cells. These
products are chemically modified amines which have been reacted with functional
groups to give the molecules surfactant, as well as filming properties. This ensures that
the build up of molecules on metal surfaces occurs evenly, one layer at a time, thus
preventing partial or incomplete coverage. At concentrations below those required to
achieve a uniform mono-molecular layer, the product does not function as a corrosion
inhibitor.
4.2 Carbon Dioxide

The source of carbon dioxide is predominantly from formations but may be as a result of
the thermal decomposition of mud additives such as organic polymers.
If the pH of the mud is allowed to fall as the result of carbon dioxide intrusion, carbonic
acid will be produced which will directly attack metal surfaces. The type of corrosion
occurring will be predominantly pitting a particularly damaging form of corrosion as pits
can act as stress raisers resulting in the initiation of fatigue.
Preventative Action
Every effort should be made to prevent or redress a pH drop. In addition, corrosion
inhibitors can be used to reduce the effects of carbon dioxide corrosion. However
reference should be made to the comments above on the use of corrosion inhibitors.
4.3 Hydrogen Sulphide

The source of H2S is often the formation itself but may be caused by thermal
degradation of drilling fluid additives containing sulphur such as lignosulphonates, or by
the action of sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB) on sulphate scales under anaerobic
conditions.
Hydrogen sulphide dissolved in water can react with a steel surface, producing an iron
sulphide scale. H2S corrosion often results in deep pits in regions where the iron
sulphide scale is breached. In practice this type of corrosion has little significance unless
the H2S level is high (ie several mole %) However there may be some pitting in the
presence of dissolved oxygen. This can be minimised by use of oxygen scavenger and
pH control.
Of greater importance is the relatively low H2S levels likely to occur in drilling fluids is the
mechanism known as sulphide stress cracking (SSC). SSC occurs as a result of the entry
of atomic hydrogen into the metal. Aqueous corrosion will produce atomic hydrogen,
which would normally tend to combine via the reaction:
2H+ + 2e --> H = H --> H2 (gas)

These hydrogen bubbles are too large to enter the metal and thus are not harmful to it.
However, hydrogen sulphide is thought to discourage this combination, making more
atomic hydrogen available that can enter the metal. Once in the metal, the atomic
hydrogen will diffuse to “trap” sites, where it will combine to give hydrogen molecules.
This results in an increase in stress and/or a reduction in the strength of the metal lattice
and hence possible premature failure. This type of cracking can lead to a brittle-like
fracture, which can occur quite quickly and without warning. Drillstring materials that are
not inherently resistant to SSC are often used under potentially sour conditions. Under
these circumstances it is necessary to take a number of precautions to ensure that SSC
failures do not result.
Preventative Action
• Minimise gas influx by maintenance of fluid density at required levels.
• Use broad-spectrum biocides to remove the threat of sulphate reducing bacteria.
A single treatment is effective against all likely species. Drawbacks of biocides are
that they tend to be expensive and many are adversely affected by temperature, salt
concentration and other treatment chemicals. Compatibility tests with the other mud
chemicals should be conducted for all biocides prior to use. Care must be taken not
to employ thiocarbamate biocides which can thermally decay to produce
hydrogen sulphide.
• Maintain fluid pH at a minimum value of 10; 11 is preferable in sour conditions.
• Use chemical sulphide scavengers. These are usually compounds of zinc. They work
by releasing zinc ions into the mud which then react with sulphide ions, removing
them from the system as insoluble zinc sulphide. Some iron compounds have been
used but these can promote abrasion due to their hardness and their high density
makes them difficult to suspend. Typical zinc-containing products are zinc carbonate,
zinc oxide and zinc chelates. The carbonate and oxide are relatively insoluble and this
leads to a fairly slow reaction rate. Zinc chelates are the most efficient scavengers in
terms of reaction rate as they are supplied as solutions and the dissolved zinc ion is
immediately available for reaction with any sulphides present. They offer an effective
if expensive option.
• Use the lowest strength of drill pipe suitable for the specific drilling operation
• Use quench and tempered materials wherever possible, especially where the
specified minimum yield strength of the material is above 95 ksi.
• Minimise stresses where possible by using thicker walled components, avoiding
stress risers such as slip/tong marks, maintaining straight hole conditions etc.
• Take care when tripping to avoid sudden shock loads and high loads.
• Allow adsorbed hydrogen to diffuse out of the steel before reuse eg by laying the
pipe out for a few weeks or by baking at elevated temperatures (about 200°C) for a
few hours
• Extra care should be taken when drill stem testing, especially if this is not carried out
in a controlled drilling environment. Under such circumstances NACE MR0175 states
that materials should have adequate sour resistance. Reference should be made to
the NACE MR0175 standard section 11.6.

4.4 Soluble Salts

Soluble salts (eg sodium, calcium and potassium chloride) will increase corrosion rates
due to increased conductivity of the fluid phase up to a limiting point. Above this point an
increase in salinity may reduce corrosion rates due to lower oxygen solubilities.
For example the most corrosive concentration of sodium chloride occurs when the
chlorides reach approximately 20,000 mg/lt (roughly equivalent to seawater !).
Preventative Action
• Maintain pH at a minimum of 10.0
• Minimise mechanical aeration of the system
• Maintain an excess of oxygen scavenger in the system
If corrosion ring testing indicates that, despite implementing the above techniques,
corrosion rates are still unacceptable consideration should be given to the use of a
suitable filming type inhibitor.
4.5 Scaling
The precipitation of scales such as calcium carbonate, calcium sulphate etc can occur on
the drillstring surface during drilling operations. Although these scales are not
themselves corrosive, they can create 'local crevices' such that localised corrosion and
pitting can develop beneath the scale.
Preventative Action
Scale inhibitors (eg phosphonates) can be added to muds to prevent these scales from
forming. Compatibility with the other components of the mud must first be established.
4.6 Mud Additive Films

Muds often contain surfactants that can produce films on the drillstring surface.
One example of this is the polymer used in cationic mud systems. There are concerns
that incomplete filming of the cationic polymers onto the drillstring surface can lead to
localised corrosion problems.

5 Corrosion in Oil Based Muds

All oil based, and synthetic oil based, muds contain some water. Oil is, however, usually
the continuous phase, The result of this non polar continuous phase is that corrosion is
less of a problem with oil based muds than with water based muds. In addition oil based
muds contain surfactants (emulsifiers and wetting agents) that ensure that metal
surfaces are 'oil-wet' thus limiting the risk of corrosion. However, this does not mean
that there is never a requirement for corrosion control; in oil based muds. In addition to
the water added intentionally to the mud, contamination from the surface system or the
formation may well occur. If this is present as free water corrosion may occur.
Therefore, it is necessary to take a number of precautions to minimise the danger of
corrosion during drilling operations. These are:
• Minimise the formation fluid in-flow by maintaining the drilling fluid hydrostatic head.
• Maintain a tight emulsion in the mud system. A reducing trend of lowering electrical
stability and/or the presence of water in the HTHP filtrate are indicators of a reducing
stability and must be corrected.
• Monitor and control the alkalinity of the mud. A reduction in alkalinity may be an
indication of the presence of acid gases (H2S, CO2)
• If H2S is identified maintain alkalinity and treat with a suitable scavenger, usually
zinc oxide.
• Monitor the corrosivity of the mud using corrosion rings. Corrective action can be
taken if any corrosion is observed.
Of particular concern when drilling in the presence of hydrogen sulphide is the danger of
sulphide stress cracking (SSC). NACE MR0175 states “that as long as a drilling fluid is
used where oil is the continuous phase there will be no problems with SSC”. However,
for the reasons given in Paragraph 4.3, the use of an oil based mud is not always
sufficient in itself to ensure that corrosion will not occur. Therefore, in sour conditions, it
is important to ensure that the control measures outlined above are adhered to.
6 Measurement of Corrosion Rate

Methods of monitoring corrosion fall into the following basic categories:
• Direct measurement of corrosion taking place can be achieved by the use of corrosion
coupons (refer to Paragraph 6.1 for detailed discussion).
• Levels of corrosion inhibitors/corrosive species in the drilling fluid can be monitored
by chemical means.
• Meters for measuring the concentration of dissolved oxygen are now available
although their suitability for use directly in solids-laden drilling fluids is still not fully
proven.

• Corrosive components in the mud can be measured by Garrett Gas Train (hydrogen
sulphide, carbon dioxide).
• Bacteriological test-kits (bacteria) to gain an indirect indication of likely corrosion
potential.
• The rate of consumption of sulphite-based oxygen scavengers can be measured in
muds using a sulphite test-kit.
6.1 Corrosion Coupon (Corrosion Ring)

The placement of corrosion rings in the drill string yields critical information about the
corrosive nature of drilling muds. This is particularly valid since the entire mud system
circulates through the ring in the drill string. Examination of scales, pits or general attack
aids in the choice of corrective action. The drawback of this test method is that long
term exposure (at least 40 hours) is required and accurate analysis is not usually feasible
at the well site. Data obtained is extremely useful in devising long term corrosion control
programmes but does not provide data for daily scavenger / inhibitor requirements.
The corrosion ring is machined to fit in the tool joint box recess. The inside diameter
should be the same as that of the tool joint to minimise turbulence. Unless clearly noted
to the contrary the ring will be made from AISI 4130 grade steel. The ring will be clearly
marked with an identification number.
An important information record accompanies each corrosion ring. This takes the form of
a packaging envelope which comes marked with the ring identification number, the initial
weight of the ring and the calibration 'K Factor' number.
Note: This information record should remain associated with each individual ring. If it is
lost any quantitative data on the ring becomes useless.
For best results the corrosion ring should be exposed to a minimum of 40 hours of mud
circulation. If at all possible more than one ring should be placed in the drill string.
One ring is usually placed in the tool joint at the top of the first stand above the drill
collars. An additional ring should be placed in the kelly saver sub. Care should be taken
to insure that the box recess is clean to prevent interference with proper make up of the
joint and to avoid damage to the ring. During installation the ring should be handled with
clean,
dry gloves.
The corrosion ring information record must be filled out with the conditions prevalent
when the ring was placed in the drill string. This should include drilling fluid composition,
location of the ring in the drill string, hole depth in, date in, time in, well location,
operator and any other required information.
When the corrosion ring is removed from the drill string, drilling fluid residue should be
removed from the coupon by wiping with a cloth. The ring should be visually examined
for severity of corrosion or mechanical damage. If severe corrosion is evident the cause
of the corrosion should be determined promptly so corrective action can be taken.
Following the visual observations, immediately coat the coupon with oil or grease (do not
use pipe thread compound). Place the ring in a plastic bag then in the envelope, and
return to the laboratory (usually the mud company's) for evaluation.

Complete filling out the information record for that numbered ring. This should include
the drilling fluid composition, hole depth out, date out, time out, visual observations and
total exposure time in the drill string.
6.2 Interpreting Corrosion Coupon Analysis

Upon receipt of the corrosion coupons in the laboratory they will:
• Be tested for the presence of sulphide / carbonate scale.
• Be cleaned and re weighed to determine the corrosion rate.
• Be microscopically inspected for the presence of pitting corrosion.
The results obtained will be reported back to the company representative onshore and
the mud engineer on location together with conclusions as to the severity of the
problem and recommendations as to remedial action.
The severity of uniform corrosion rates are characterised as follows:
CORROSION RATE CORROSION RATE CORROSION RATE

RANGE lb / ft2 / yr. RANGE mpy
LOW (ACCEPTABLE) 0-2 0 - 60
MODERATE 2-4 50 - 100
HIGH 4-6 100 - 150
SEVERE >6 > 150
The presence of pitting corrosion, regardless of the uniform corrosion rate, indicates a
severe problem which, having determining its cause, should be acted upon without
delay. Treatment chemicals should be on standby and used at their recommended
dosage levels.

Section 12
Gas Hydrates
Paragraph Page
1 Introduction 12-1
2 Definition 12-1
3 Causes 12-1
4 Symptoms 12-2
5 Laboratory Evaluation 12-2
6 Preventative Measures 12-4
7 Remedial Action 12-5
Figure
12.1 Typical Thermodynamic Run 12-2
12.2 Hydrate Stability 12-3
12.3 Hydrate Phase Equilibria 12-4
Gas Hydrates
1 Introduction
The increased frequency of deep water operations in the past few years has resulted in
a greater potential for natural gas hydrate problems while drilling. Since the formation of
natural gas hydrates is favoured by high pressures and low temperatures, the sea bed
provides a potential environment for the formation of hydrates in both water based and,
to a lesser extent, oil based drilling fluids.
2 Definition
Natural gas hydrates are solid inclusion compounds formed when natural gas comes into
contact with water at lower temperatures and elevated pressures. Effectively, a type of
ice is formed at temperatures much greater than the freezing point of water. Basically,
the hydrates have the appearance of dirty ice.
As the pressure is increased, the temperature at which hydrates can form also
increases. These compounds consist of a “guest” molecule within a crystal lattice of
“host” molecules (Clathrates). In the case of natural gas hydrates, a gas molecule
(guest) is encapsulated within a network of water molecules (host). Although the gas
and water molecules interact only through weak van der Waals forces, the combination
is thermodynamically stable and possess considerable mechanical strength.
The hydrocarbon gases C1 – C4, hydrogen sulphide and carbon dioxide are known to
produce hydrates with water.
3 Causes
For natural gas hydrates to form the following four ingredients must be present:
• Free water
• Natural gas
• Low temperature
• High pressure
Gas Hydrates
4 Symptoms
In water based drilling fluids, hydrates may cause problems in two ways.
• The hydrates may form a “plug” or solid mass in the wellbore. This plug can begin in
an area of little or no circulation, such as the choke or kill line, recesses within the
BOPs, etc. Once the formation has been initiated, growth may be quite rapid and
could then spread to other parts of the system. Due to their high compressive
strength, a large mass of hydrates may be able to completely plug the choke and kill
lines, jam the BOPs, and 'freeze up' or stick the drill pipe.
• The second way in which hydrates may cause problems is associated with their
physical makeup. The water needed during formation would come from the most
readily available source. In the case of drilling with a water based mud, it would come
from the aqueous portion of the fluid, leaving behind the solid content of the mud.
This solid portion of the mud could cause just as much blockage as the ice mass
itself. If the fluid is non aqueous based with a water content, the hydrate formation
will extract available water. This would cause an increase of the electrolyte content to
the point that the aqueous/non aqueous emulsion becomes unstable. This will lead to
settling of the weight material and drill solids.
5 Laboratory Evaluation
The formation and stability characteristics of the hydrates can be determined in the
laboratory by loading a high pressure cell with a drilling fluid and then pressuring up with
a natural gas. The cell is then immersed in a propylene glycol bath and chilled at a given
rate. The pressure and temperature are closely monitored and recorded by computer as
the bath is cooled (PT trace). A typical run is presented in Figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1 Typical Thermodynamic Run
Gas Hydrates
As the hydrates form, the pressure in the cell drops dramatically. This is the nucleation
point of the hydrates (point A in Figure 12.1). The hydrates are held at this nucleation
temperature for some hours and then slowly heated until the heat-up pressure-
temperature trace joins the cool down trace (point B in Figure 12.1). This is identified as
the dissociation (melting) point of the hydrates. The test is repeated a number of times
at different loading pressures with each dissociation pressure and temperature recorded
as a single point on the phase equilibrium diagram (Figure 12.2). The phase equilibrium
diagram represents the dissociation points of a number of PT traces. As with water ice,
the nucleation point and dissociation point are not always the same.
Figure 12.2 Hydrate Stability
This phase diagram is used to determine the hydrate formation potential for the drilling
fluid. If the operating pressure and temperature are known, the ability of the drilling fluid
to form stable hydrates can be determined by comparing the conditions to the phase
diagram. If the operating pressure-temperature conditions fall in the hydrate stable area,
the drilling fluid has the potential for forming hydrates.
This phase equilibrium diagram shown in Figure 12.2, represents the worst case
scenario. As mentioned earlier, the nucleation (freezing) point and the dissociation
(melting) of natural gas hydrates are not always the same temperature. Just like water,
hydrates can melt at a much higher temperature than they freeze. Another way of saying
this is; water can be a liquid below 0°C but cannot be a solid above 0°C. This
phenomenon is called metastability. In essence, the phase diagram will alert the user to
when hydrates cannot form or be stable, or when they may form and be stable. This
ambiguity is caused by metastability.
Gas Hydrates
6 Preventative Measures
An emphasis in past drilling fluids research has been to shift the phase line to the left or
give the deep water drilling groups a wider operating window. Removal of one of the
four ingredients necessary for hydrate nucleation has been the most successful.
Two methods currently used are:
(1) The addition of an electrolyte, such as salt (NaCl), to the mud forms an ionic bond
with the free water. This affects the free water criterion for stable hydrate
formation.
(2) The addition of polar compounds, such as alcohols, glycerols, and glycols,
compete, via hydrogen bonding, with the hydrates for the free water.
Figure 12.3 shows the common practice of determining the hydrate temperature
suppression (thermodynamic suppression). The phase diagram for pure water is
compared with the phase diagram of a fluid with an inhibitor. The difference in the two
phase lines is determined to be the thermodynamic suppression (delta °F).
Figure 12.3 Hydrate Phase Equilibria
• Current wisdom indicates a 20% (w/w) NaCl drilling fluid with the availability of a polar
compound on the rig offer an acceptable thermodynamic suppression. The 20%
(w/w) NaCl drilling fluid gives a 27°F thermodynamic suppression.
• The addition of 20% (v) glycerol to the NaCl fluid will add an additional 20°F inhibition
for an overall suppression of 47°F.
• Electrolytes such as NaBr and CaCl2may also be used, but economics generally make
the NaCl the preferred fluid.
• Oil based mud will inhibit hydrates. The low volume highly dispersed and high salinity
nature of the brine phase makes the formation of hydrates improbable if not
impossible.
Gas Hydrates
The drilling fluid needs to be carefully designed to fit the pressure-temperature

conditions that may occur in the drilling operation. This also includes fluids that are in the
choke and kill lines.
Other measures to inhibit the formation of the hydrates are to heat the system above
the hydrate stability temperature or to reduce the pressure below the hydrate stability
value. Both of these methods affect one or more of the four components necessary for
stable hydrates.
The dramatic pressure drop noted in Figure 12.1 indicates both an operational insight and
operational problem in dealing with hydrates. There are approximately 180 standard
cubic units of natural gas in one cubic unit of gas hydrates. The free gas is encapsulated
into the hydrate structure causing the pressure drop. The insight may present itself by
careful monitoring of the pressures on the rig. As the hydrates form, a change in the
affected pressure profile will occur, i.e. the pressure will drop. The operational problem
occurs when the gas hydrates decompose. A tremendous amount of natural gas may be
released rapidly. This can cause an evacuation of the riser or choke and kill lines and lead
to further problems or unsafe operating conditions. Careful planning for circulation of the
system is necessary if gas hydrates are suspected.
7 Remedial Action
If blockage with hydrates does occur, the main thrust for remediation is removing one or
more of the necessary ingredients from the compound. The following methods have
been used in past situations:
• Pulling the subsea BOPs to a given depth at which the hydrates would become
unstable. The depth necessary to decompose the hydrates can be calculated using
the thermal gradient of the seawater and the pressure gradient of the seawater.
These parameters, in conjunction with the thermal phase equilibrium diagram of
the mud, can provide the exact pressure-temperature at which the hydrates
will decompose.
• Drilling out the hydrates with coiled tubing using methanol, a concentrated brine, or a
CaCl2 fluid. The CaCl2 can give inhibition by its electrolyte content and its exothermic
nature when going into solution.
The exact formation parameters and configuration of the hydrate mass along with
current well conditions and the hydrate characteristics of the drilling fluid will determine
the best remediation protocol.
Gas Hydrates
Addendum 1
References
(1) Wellbore Stability Guidelines, a 20-point summary of good practice, by M.R. McLean,
M.A. Addis, and J.D.M. Roberts, BP Sunbury 1993; to be updated 1994.
(2) A Drilling Guide to Shales and Related Borehole Problems, by M.S. Aston and P.I. Reid,
BP Sunbury 1993.
(3) Standard texts, e.g. Composition and Properties of Drilling and Completion Fluids, H.C.H.
Darley and G.R. Gray, 5th edition, 1988, Gulf Publishing Company.
(4) Service company handbooks.
(5) Wellbore Stability Guidelines (updated version); M.Aston, J. Hagan and M. McLean.
Sunbury, dated 1994.
(6) Salt Diapir Drilling Stability Guidelines; M. Addis, J. Roberts and I. Searle. Sunbury manual
dated 1993.
(7) Barite Sag and Fluid Rheological Properties – T Hempill (Baroid TecNotes, Jan 1995).
(8) Review of Barite Sag in Deviated Wells – DCB/5/95 (March 1995).
(9) Barite Sag Final Report – MI (November 1995).
(10) Barite Sag – Summary of Test Results – P.A . Bern.
(11) IADC/SPE 27491 February 1994. Torque and Drag – Key Factors in Extended-Reach
Drilling; Thor Viggo Aarstad, SPE and Harold Blikra, SPE, Statoil A/S
(12) Journal of Petroleum Technology, September 1994. Extended reach or designer wells
stretch the limits of equipment and materials.
(13) BP Lost Circulations Manual (TS-D-010).
(14) Mud Company Handbooks.
References
November 2002 Issue 2 Add 1-1/2
Addendum 2
Contacts
Shale Problems
Mark Aston Fluids BP Sunbury 01932 76 4055
Joe Hagan Rock Mechanics BP Sunbury 01932 76 2109
Mike McLean Rock Mechanics BP Sunbury 01932 76 4135
Juan Carlos Rojas Fluids BP Sunbury 01932 76 3346
Wellbore Stability
Joe Hagan Geomechanics BP Sunbury 01932 76 2109
Nigel Last BP Colombia 571 618 4689
Mike McLean BP Sunbury 01932 76 4135
Dave Roberts BP Dyce 01224 832285
Mark Aston Mud Chemistry BP Sunbury 01932 76 4055
Bryan Chambers BP Dyce 01224 833635
Brad Smolen BP Houston 713 560 3876
Juan Carlos Rojas BP Sunbury 01932 76 3346
Allan Twynam BP Venezuela 920 211 9379
Steve Wilson BP Sunbury 01932 76 2542
Hole Cleaning
Peter Bern BP Sunbury 01932 763469
Yuejin Luo BP Sunbury 01932 762464
Barite Sag
Peter Bern BP Sunbury 01932 76 3469
Contacts
November 2002 Issue 2 Add 2-1
Torque and Drag

Chris Brown Torque and Drag Prediction BP Sunbury 01932 76 3042
Phil Hearn Torque and Drag Prediction and BP Sunbury 01932 76 3226
Monitoring
Mark Aston Mud Lubricity BP Sunbury 01932 76 4055
Colin Bowes Torque Reduction Subs BP Sunbury 01932 76 2049
Juan Carlos Rojas Mud Lubricity BP Sunbury 01932 76 3346
Stuck Pipe
Colin Bowes BP Sunbury 01932 76 2049
Lost Circulation
Chris Dyke BP Alaska 907 564 4304
Chris Greaves BP Colombia 571 618 2777
Contaminants
Mark Aston BP Sunbury 01932 76 4055
HTHP Fluids
Reg Minton BP Norway 47 51 80 3610
Allan Twynam BP Venezuela 920 211 9379
Reservoir Muds
Sarah Browne BP Sunbury 01932 76 2068
Corrosion
John Martin BP Sunbury 01932 76 2989
Bijan Kermani BP Sunbury 01932 76 3826
Hydrates
Contacts
Add 2-2 November 2002 Issue 2

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Authorisation for Issue

Section 1 Shale Problems

Section 5 Torque and Drag

Section 8 Mud Contaminants

November 2002 Issue 2 i/ii

Authorisation for Issue

Position: Senior Adviser, Fluids, SSD, BP Dyce

Position: Senior Drilling Engineer, Fluids, BP Sunbury

November 2002 Issue 2 iii/iv

For Audit Use

November 2002 Issue 2 v/vi

Issue No Date Description

Issue 1 April 1996 First Issue.

November 2002 Issue 2 vii/viii

Holders of Controlled Hard Copy

Copy Copyholder Location

01 Document Issue Authority (Bryan Chambers)

November 2002 Issue 2 ix/x

Controlled Hard Copyholders

Uncontrolled Hard Copyholders

November 2002 Issue 2 xi

Review and Update

xii November 2002 Issue 2

November 2002 Issue 2 xiii

List of Abbreviations (cont’d)

xiv November 2002 Issue 2

2 Problems in Soft/Firm Shales 1-3

3 Problems in Hard/Brittle Shales 1-8

Shale Typical Hole Problems MBT* Water Clay Wt % Density

Table 1.1 Classification of Shales According to Hardness

1.1 Mechanical Effects

1.2 Chemical Effects

2 Problems in Soft/Firm Shales

Figure 1.1 Balled Stabiliser, Reactive North Sea Shale

2.2 Mud Rings

2.3 Tight Hole

Figure 1.2 Hole Washout

3 Problems in Hard/Brittle Shales

3.2 Sloughing, Cavings and Packing-off

Figure 1.3 Wellbore Caving: Geopressured Formations

2 The Mechanisms of Wellbore Instability –

3 The Mechanisms of Wellbore Instability –

4 Special Cases 2-10

1.1 Common Misconceptions

2 The Mechanisms of Wellbore Instability –

2.1.1 Preventative and Remedial Action

2.2 Competent Formations

Figure 2.1 Mechanical Hole Instability

Figure 2.2 The Mud Weight Window

2.2.1 Preventative Action – Mechanical

Regional Stress State

2.2.2 Symptoms and Remedial Action

3 The Mechanisms of Wellbore Instability –

3.1 Preventative Action – Chemical

Oil Based Mud – Engineering Comments

Water based mud – Engineering Comments

3.2 Symptoms and Remedial Action

4.2 Coal Formations

2 General Factors Effecting Hole Cleaning 3-2

3 Rig Site Monitoring 3-4

4 Vertical and Near Vertical Wells 3-5

5 High Angle, Extended-reach Wells 3-6

6 Washed Out Hole 3-11