ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING

IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

Environmental pollution – any alteration in the physical, chemical or biological properties of the
environment (air, water and land) which adversely affect its aesthetic quality or beneficial use
Water quality management:
A. Water classification
--- Depends on the uses of water, namely for domestic water supply, industrial purposes,
irrigation, transportation, habitat for marine life and fish, and recreation and on how the
standards may contribute to the environment making the community more pleasant to
live in
--- Streams are classified according to the highest beneficial use that can be obtained
from them
Water usage and classifications:
A. Fresh surface waters
(a) Class AA – Public Water Supply Class I
--- This class is intended primarily for waters having watersheds which are
uninhibited and otherwise protected and which require only approved disinfection in
order to meet the National Standards for Drinking Water (NSDW) of the Philippines
(b) Class A – Public Water Supply Class II
--- For sources of water supply that requires completely treatment (coagulation,
sedimentation, filtration and disinfection) in order to meet the NSDW
(c) Class B – Recreation Water Class I
--- For primary contact recreation such as bathing, swimming, diving, etc.
(particularly those designated for tourism purposes)
(d) Class C
a. Fishery water – for propagation and growth of fish and other aquatic
resources
b. Recreation water class II – boating and etc.
c. Industrial water supply class I – for manufacturing process after treatment
(e) Class D
a. For agriculture, irrigation, livestock watering and etc.
b. Industrial water supply class II – cooling and etc.
c. Other in land waters, by their quality belong to this classification
B. Coastal marine waters
(a) Class SA
--- Water suitable for the propagation, survival, and harvesting of shellfish for
commercial purpose
--- Tourist zones and national marine parks and reserves established under
Presidential Proclamation No. 1801; existing laws and/or declared as such by
appropriate government agencies
--- Coral reef parks and reserves designated by law and concerned authorities
(b) Class SB
a. Recreation water class I – areas regularly used by the public for bathing,
swimming, diving and etc.
b. Fishery class II – for commercial and sustenance fishing
(c) Class SC
a. Recreation water class II – boating and etc.
b. Fishery water class II – commercial and sustenance fishing
c. Marshy and/or mangrove areas – declared as fish and wildlife sanctuaries
(d) Class SD
a. Industrial water supply class II – for cooling and etc.
b. Other coastal and marine waters

B. Characteristic of Wastewater
a. Physical characteristics
1. Color – generally an indication of the age of sewage (ex. fresh, grayish or septic;
black)
Measurement:
(a) Visual comparison method
--- Nessler tubes – color comparison tubes containing water of different colors and
assigned a color unit ranging from 1 to 70 where
1
Pt = mg/l Co
2
--- Photoelectric Colorimeters
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IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

2. Odor – comes from septic decomposition at organic wastes and is due to the
presence of gases such as
Compound Odor Structure
Amines Fishy CH3NH2(CH3)3N
Ammonia Ammoniacal NH3
Diamines Decayed fish NH2(CH2)4NH2
NH2(CH2)5NH2
Hydrogen Sulfide Rotten eggs H2S
Mercaptans Skunk CH3SH
CH3(CH2)3SH
Organic Sulfides Rotten cabbage (CH3)2S
CH3SSCH3
Skatole Fecal C8N5NHCH3
Measurement:
--- Olfactory
--- Sensory method
--- Panels of human subjects are initially exposed to odor free air and then
sampled air which has been diluted with odor free air to give the MDTOC. The
number of dilution give TON
MDTOC
Number of Dilutions =
TON
Where: MDTOC = Minimum detectable threshold odor concentration
TON = Threshold odor number
Volume of sample air + Volume of fresh air
TON =
Volume of sample air
3. Turbidity – the amount of suspended matter in water and wastewater and is obtained
by measuring its light scattering ability. It is also a measure of the ability of sunlight to
pass through water and the ability of water to disperse different materials disposed into
it.
--- A typical clear lake has a turbidity of about 25 units while muddy water exceeds 100
units
Measurement:
--- Jackson turbidimeter – JTU (Jackson Turbidity Unit)
--- 1 unit = 1 mg/L silica in H2O
--- Secchi disk depth – depth in which a secchi disk may still be visible to the naked eye
when submerged in water
4. Temperature – lowers the solubility of oxygen in water and increases the rate at which
oxygen – consuming microbes attack organic waste
5. Total solids – solid residue when water is evaporated at 103 – 105 0C

b. Chemical characteristics
1. pH – a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of water
2. Calcium and magnesium salts – cause hardness in water and the formation of scales
and deposits on pipelines and fitting if used in industry
3. Nitrogen and Phosphorus – basic components of fertilizer, serves as nutrients for
microbial growth in an particular alga. Excessive amounts can lead to algae blooms
which causes eutrophication or the overabundance in the growth of algae giving water a
pea soup appearance.
4. Trace metals – refers to heavy metals which are toxic even in small concentration
--- Biomagnification – involves the accumulation of trace metals through each species of
the food chain
--- Mercury – easily converted into the toxic methyl mercury which causes minamata
disease which is a neurological disease characterized by trembling, inability to walk and
speak and even serious convulsion that can lead to death
--- Cadmium – responsible for the itai-itai or ouch-ouch disease which is an extremely
painful disease which causes the disintegration of bones
--- Silver – cause argyria, the blue gray discoloration of the skin and mucous membrane
--- Arsenic – a recognized poison and carcinogen
--- Chromium – causes neurological disease
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--- Lead – leads to fetal malformation, mental disability irritability, loss of appetite and
reduction of sex drive
5. Proteins – principal constituent of animal organisms and in large quantity causes foul
odors
6. Carbohydrates – includes sugar, starches, cellulose and wood fibers
7. Oils, Fats and Greases – prevent natural aeration reducing the use of the stream for
fishing
8. Surfactants – substance that causes foaming in water
9. Phenol – causes taste problems in water particularly when the water is chlorinated
10. Pesticides and Agricultural Chemicals – have the capacity to biomagnify, and at
certain concentration are carcinogenic

c. Biological Characteristics
MPN
Measurement:
100 ml
Where: MPN = Most Probable Number
Uses: Escherichia Coli
1. Measurement of Organic Content
--- Dissolved Oxygen (DO) – actual quantity of free O2 present in water
--- Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) – a measure of the amount of O 2 in needed to
oxidize completely an organic matter whose chemical formula is known
--- Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) – a measure of the amount of O 2 needed by
microorganism to decompose biodegradable organics at a specific time which is 5 days,
200C and ph = 7
--- Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) – a measure of the amount of O 2 needed to oxidize
organics using strong oxidizing agents (KMnO4 or K2Cr2O7) in acid media
--- Total Oxygen Demand (TOD) – organics are converted in stable end products in a Pt
– catalyzed combustion chamber and is determined by monitoring the O 2 content
present in the products
--- Total Organic Carbon (TOC) – organic matter is oxidized in a high – temperature
furnace to convert C to CO2
2. Kinetics of BOD
BODt = L0 (1-e -kt )
Where: L = Amount of O2 present in H2O at anytime
L0 = Amount of O2 present in H2O at time 0
BODt = BOD at any time t
K = Deoxygenation constant, time-1
Constants: For polluted and wastewater k20C = 0.10/day
For sewage k20C = 0.23/day
At different temperatures: kt = k20Cθ(T-20)
θ = 1.056, if T = 20 to 30 C
θ = 1.135, if T < 20 C
θ = 1.047, if T > 30 C

C. Wastewater Treatment Methods

--- Wastewater treatment – defined as the separation of solid and liquid impurities, suspended
or dissolved in the water carrier
A. Physical Treatment Methods
1. Screening – treatment used for the removal of coarse and settleable solids by
interception
Types of Screens
1. Racks or bar screens – composed of parallel bars or rods which maybe hand cleaned
or mechanically cleaned
2. Fine screens – wire or cloth mesh or perforated plate
Purpose of screening:
To remove material which could:
(a) Damage equipment
(b) Interfere with the satisfactory operation of a process
(c) Cause objectional shore line conditions
2. Comminutors – devices that cut-up solids into smaller and more uniform sizers
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IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

3. Grit chamber – an enlarged channel where the velocity of wastewater flow is

controlled to allow the heavier solids to settle out
4. Skimming – method of removing impurities that float on the surface of the wastewater
5. Pre-aeration – introduction of air into a tank in order to remove grease, odor, improve
the treatability of wastewater and promote uniform distribution of suspended and floating
solid and to increase BOD removals
6. Physical Flocculation – aggregation of finely divided solids to a size large enough to
settle out using agitation or stirring
7. Equalization Basin – maintain a constant volumetric flow of wastewater from
pretreatment to other downstream operations
8. Sedimentation Tank – consists of cylindrical or rectangular tanks where settleable
solids are removed by gravity
9. Flotation – removal of finely divided solids and grease by floating them to the surface
Steps in Flotation
1. Addition of conditioners
--- Promoters and activators – form a film and the solids to be floated
--- Frothers – stabilize air bubbles
2. Introduction of air bubbles
--- Direct diffusion
--- Pressurizing wastewater
3. Lifting of solid pollutants to surface due to buoyant force provided by air bubbles
4. Skimming of solids which have risen to surface

B. Chemical Treatment Methods

1. Neutralization – a chemical treatment method whereby either acids or bases are
added to the influent wastewater in order to neutralize any acids or bases present and
thus control the pH
2. Chemical Precipitation – involves the addition of chemicals for the express purpose of
improving plant performance and removing specific components contained in the
wastewater
Common precipitants
1. Lime – Ca(OH)2
2. Ferric Chloride – FeCl3
3. Soda Ash – Na2CO3
4. Ferric Sulfate – Fe2(SO4)3
5. Alum – Al2(SO4)3 14H2O
6. H2SO4 and SO2

3. Coagulation – an electrochemical process used in the removal of colloidal matter in

wastewater through the addition of coagulating agents which reduce the electrostatic
charges surrounding colloidal matter, thereby allowing natural Van der Waals forces of
attraction to predominate and allowing solids to cluster
Common coagulants
1. Alum – Al2(SO4)3 – 14H2O
2. Copperas – FeSO4 – 7H2O

4. Chemical Flocculation – a physio-chemical process used in the removal of finely

divided solids, a polyelectrolyte is added to wastewater which can from bridges that will
join the solids together
5. Disinfection – refers to the destruction of water forms pathogen (bacteria, viruses,
amoebic cysts) for the sole purpose of preventing transmission of disease through water
6. Ozonization – Ozone (O3) comes from the Greek word “ozein” which means to smell.
It is a very unstable gas and a very powerful oxidant capable of oxiding 200 to 300 times
more than chlorine. It can reduce complex taste, odor and color; it has no lasting effect
and quite expensive and found to be toxic to fishes
7. Chlorination – addition of Cl2 and its compounds (Cl- or HClO-)
--- Chlorine when added to wastewater is broken down into:
---- chlorine demand of water – amount of Cl2 that will oxidize organic matter
---- residual chlorine – amount of Cl2 that will disinfect water

C. Biological Treatment Methods

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

--- Duplication of nature’s self-purification process under contained and controlled

conditions
--- Use microorganisms to reduce the biodegradable organic content of the wastewater
by using them as food for metabolism converting the organics into harmless stable
products
General Biochemical Reaction:
Organic Matter (CHONSP)+ Cells + O 2 → Simple Compounds + More Cells
1. Activated Sludge Process – a continuous re-circulating aerobic biochemical process
that keeps the cells in suspended growth
2. Trickling Filters – a fixed bed where wastewater is intermittently discharged and
contacted with biological slimes that have grown in the filter media
3. Stabilization Ponds – a large shallow lagoon divided by thermal stratification into an
aerobic surface and anaerobic bottom
4. Aerated Lagoon – stabilization ponds provided with surface aerators
5. Anaerobic Digestion or Decomposition – generally employed for treatment of organic
sludges and concentrated organic industrial wastes

Solid waste management

Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)
--- The selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies and management
programs to achieve specific waste management objectives
--- Includes factors like: frequency of collection, types of waste collected, location of disposal
site and environmental acceptability of disposal system and level of satisfaction of customers
Hierarchy of solid waste management:
1. Waste prevention and management
2. Recycling and reuse
3. Transformation
4. Landfill
Solid waste management techniques
1. Route balancing – process of determining the optimum number of services that constitute a
fair day’s work and dividing the collection task among the crews so that all have equal loads
2. Heuristic routing – process of determining the path or route for the collection vehicle to follow
as it collects waste from each service in a specific area

Air quality management

Air pollution – presence in the atmosphere of substance whose concentration, quality and
duration affect the usefulness of air resources
A. Air pollutant classification
a. Primary pollutant – emitted by an identifiable source
b. Secondary pollutant – formed by chemical reactions
c. Criteria pollutant – likely to exist in all urban areas
d. Non-criteria pollutant – industry specific
B. Major air pollutants
1. CO2
--- Main product of fossil fuel combustion
--- Major greenhouse gas when it displaces O2 causes suffocation due to binomial
2. CO
--- Product of incomplete combustion (low temperature) of fossil fuels
--- Reacts with hemoglobin forming carboxyhemoglobin
--- Strong affinity of hemoglobin for CO cause O2 to leave the tissue resulting in anoxicity
3. SOX
--- SOX compounds are acid rain precursors produced when they combine with water droplets in
air to form sulfuric acid
SO2 + O2 → SO 3
SO3 + H2 O → H 2 SO4
4. NOX
--- NOX stands for an indeterminate mixture of nitric oxide, NO and nitrogen dioxide, NO2
--- Nitrogen oxides, NOX are formed mainly from N2 and O2 during high-temperature combustion
of fuel in cars
--- They causes the reddish-brown haze in the city air, which contributes to heart and lung
problems and may be carcinogenic
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IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

--- Nitrogen oxides are major contributors to the formation of ground level bad ozone
5. Tropospheric ozone
--- Major constituent of photochemical smog
--- Ozone is formed from the ozone precursors, VOCs, and nitrogen oxides
--- Alters vision which prevents the eyes from focusing properly and increases the calcification
of bones resulting in premature aging and depletes body fat
6. Chlorofluorocarbons, CFCs
--- Artificial gases, used as coolants in refrigerators and air-conditioners
--- The most abundant CFCs are CFC-11 or CFCl3 and CFC-12 or CF2Cl2
--- Non-toxic, non-flammable and non-biodegradable
--- CFCs are not water soluble, therefore are not washed from the atmosphere by rain
--- Stable and can reach stratosphere
7. Particulates
--- PM10, PM, or Total suspended particulates (TSP)
--- PM (10) are particles with diameter less than 10 µm
--- Causes diverse health effects
--- Contribute to urban haze, causes visibility reduction
--- Play a key role in the earth’s radioactive budget and global change
C. Air pollution control equipment
1. Settling Chamber – device where particulate removal is by gravity, recommended for
particulate sizes in the range of 50 microns or higher
2. Cyclone Chamber – dirty gas is fed peripherally into the device. Particulate removal is by
centrifugation impaction on the cyclone wall from where it falls to the bottom. Recommended for
particulate sizes of 20 to 45 microns in size
3. Scrubber – uses water to effect particulate separation from the gas stream. It may also use a
counter-current flow of gas in spray tower. Recommended for particulates of 5 to 20 microns in
size
4. Filter – separates the particulates from the main stream by direct interception, filter medium is
cloth, canvass or silicon-coated cloth – 1 to 10 µm or acetate membrane filters – 0.1 µm in size
5. Electrostatic Precipitators – most efficient method, and recommended for all sizes of
particulates especially those bellow 1 to 10 microns, gas is given an electrical charge as it
enters the device, the gas stream that passes between the charged plates which electrically
attracts the particulates

Environmental Engineering Review Questions and Problems:

Synergism – the interaction or cooperation of two or more substances to produce a combined
effect greater than the sum of their separate effects
Eutrophication – excessive richness of nutrient in a lake or body of water, which causes a dense
growth of plant life and animal death due to lack of oxygen
Biomagnification – the concentration of toxins in an organism as a result of its ingestion of other
plants or animals in which the toxins are more widely disbursed
Thermal stratification – refers to the change in the temperature at different depths of the body of
water and is due to the change in water’s density with temperature
Earth’s atmosphere:
Exosphere – the outermost layer, mainly composed of extremely low densities of hydrogen,
helium and several heavier molecules, and located far above earth for any meteorological
phenomena to be possible
Thermosphere – second highest layer of earth’s atmosphere, completely cloudless and free of
water vapor, non-meteorological phenomena are occasionally seen here
Mesosphere – third layer of earth atmosphere, just below the menopause, the air is so cold that
even water vapor at this altitude can be sublimated into polar mesospheric clouds
Stratosphere – second lowest later of earth’s atmosphere, it contains the ozone layer
Troposphere – lowest layer of earth’s atmosphere, nearly all atmospheric water vapor or
moisture is found here, it has basically the weather associated cloud genus types generated by
active wind circulation
Ozone layer – the ozone concentration is about 2 to 8 parts per million which is much higher in
the lower atmosphere
Ionosphere – region of the atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation, responsible for auroras
and where photochemical reaction takes place
Biotic factor – is any living component that affects the population of another organism
Biotic components – are living things that shape an ecosystem
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IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

Abiotic components – are non-living components that affect population size and the
environment
Trophic level – is a group of organisms acquiring a considerable amount of its energy from the
adjacent nearer abiotic sources
Autotrophs (primary producers – are organisms that produce their own foods or production is
greater than respiration by photosynthesis or chemosynthesis
Heterotrophs (consumers) – can be further subdivided into different functional groups
1. Primary consumers – strict herbivores
2. Secondary consumers – carnivorous predators that feed exclusively on herbivores
Detritivores (decomposers)
Trophic levels:
Level 1: Plants and algae make their own food
Level 2: Herbivores
Level 3: Carnivores that eat herbivores
Level 4: Carnivores that eat carnivores
Level 5: Apex predators that have no predators at top of the food chain
Nitrogen cycle
Ammonification – when a plant or animal dies or animal expels waste, the initial for, of nitrogen
is organic, bacteria and or fungi convert to organic nitrogen within the remains back to
ammonium
Enzyme involved are:
1. GS – Gln Synthetase (Cytosolic and Plastic)
2. GOGAT – Glu 2-oxoglutarate aminotransferase (Ferreddoxin and NADH dependent)
3. GDH – Glu Dehydrogenase
Nitrogen fixation – is a process in which nitrogen in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia
(NH3), is essential for all forms of life because nitrogen is required to biosynthesize basic
building blocks of plans, animal and other life forms.
Biological nitrogen fixation – discovered by german agronomist Hermann Hellriegel and Dutch
microbiologist Martinus Beijerinck
--- Occurs when atmospheric nitrogen is converted to ammonia by an enzyme called a
nitrogenase the overall reaction is:
N 2 + 8H+ + 8e → 2NH 3 + H2
Denitrification – is a microbially facilitated process of nitrate reduction (perfomed by a large
group of heterotrophic facultative anaerobic bacteria) that may ultimately produce molecular
nitrogen (N2) through a series of intermediate gaseous nitrogen oxide products
Ammonolysis – any reaction with ammonia
Typhoid fever – is a bacterial infection due to Salmonella Typho that causes symptoms
Methemoglobinemia – is a disorder characterized by the presence of a higher than normal level
of methemoglobin in the blood
Lime soda process – is a process used in water treatment to remove hardness from water
Scurvy – is a disease resulting from deficiency of vitamin C
Minamata disease – is a neurological symptom caused by severe mercury poisoning
Stockholm convention – is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from
persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
Montreal protocol – is an international treaty designed to protect the ozone later by phasing out
the substances which cause ozone depletion
Kyoto protocol – is an international treaty that commits state parties to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions
Earth summit – was a major United Nations conference event on sustainable development
Agenda 21 – is a non-binding, voluntary implemented action plan of the United Nation with
regards to sustainable development
PM10 – is a mixture of materials that can include smoke, soot, dust, and metals which is the
most harmful of all air pollutants
Fly ash – is one of the coal combustion products, composed of fine particles that are driven out
of the boiler with flue gases
Peroxyacetyl Nitrate is a peroxyacyl nitrate, and a secondary pollutant present in photochemical
smog, it us a lachrymatory substance

Philippine Environmental Laws:

RA 3931 (July 10, 1967) – an act creating the national water and air pollution commission
PD 824 (November 7, 1985) – Created the metro manila commission
PD 984 (August 8, 1976) – provides policy for pollution control including land pollution
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IMPORTANT NOTES AND DETAILS

PD1151 (June 6, 1977) – Philippine environmental policy

PD1152 (June 6, 1977) – Philippine environmental code
PD 1181 – installation of pollution control device for all motors and vehicles
PD 1396 – created the human settlement ministry