13-203

Grade 11-Semester 1-
2017/2018

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Table of Contents

o Egypt Grand Challenge(s)

o Problem to be Solved
o Research
o Other Solutions Already Tried
o Design Requirements
o Selection of Solution
o Selection Prototype
 Constructing and Testing a Prototype
o Materials and Methods
o Test Plan
o Data Collection
 Evaluation, Reflection, Recommendations
o Discussion
o Recommendations
o Learning Outcomes

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 Egypt Grand Challenges
1. Improve the use of alternative energies
 Egypt is among the most energy using economies in the Middle
East and North Africa region as well as in the world.
 The Egyptian energy usage is almost twice as high as in some
neighboring countries like Morocco and Tunisia and four times
as high as industrialized countries like Japan and Germany.
What is the problem?
 Figure (1) shows that about
53% of Egypt's electricity is
fueled by natural gas, with
the remainder being fueled
by oil and renewable
energy; mostly
hydroelectricity.
 Oil is mostly used in the
transportation sector, while
natural gas is used in the
power sector and
transportation sector in the
form of compressed natural FIGURE 2
gas (CNG) in vehicles. FIGURE 1
 While Egypt produces its
own oil and gas, the
country is a net importer
of both products because
the country’s
consumption of oil has
been increasing by
approximately 3 percent
per year over the past
decade due to economic
and population growth.
FIGURE 2
Figure (2)

70 FIGURE 2
 Less than 2% of Egypt’s current energy comes from wind and
solar generation
 Approximately only 11.2% of Egypt's energy comes from
hydro-power due to the high dam built in 1960.

How to solve the problem?

 Building codes regulating the overall energy use per unit of
residential or office floor space
 Energy audits to identify available energy saving potential
 construction of energy efficient buildings and purchase of
energy efficient equipment and materials
 Information on best practices in building design and
construction.

2.Recycling garbage and waste for economic and

environmental
purposes

In 2002,
international waste
management
companies started
operations in Egypt,
particularly Cairo,
Alexandria and Giza
governorates, and the
Zabbaleen were
sidelined. However,
after ten years of
participation in solid
FIGURE 3
waste management in Cairo, their performance has been dismal.
In fact, in 2009 Egyptian government acknowledged that solid
waste management has deteriorated alarmingly after the entry of
foreign companies.

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 The waste management situation in Greater Cairo has assumed
critical proportions because of high population, increased waste
generation and lack of waste collection infrastructure and disposal
facilities. Garbage accumulation on streets, along highways and in
waterways is a common sight. As a result of the bad performance
of multinational private sector companies in SWM in Egypt during
the last decade, the level of street cleanliness deteriorated and
the pollution resulting from open-burning of trash increased
significantly.
Moreover, the clean workers suffered loss of livelihood after the
entry of foreign solid waste management companies due to
restricted access to their main asset. The mass slaughtering of
pigs in 2009, after fears of swine flu epidemic, has led to
accumulation of organic wastes in many parts of the city.
The waste management situation in Cairo is at a serious juncture
and concerted efforts are required to improve waste collection
and disposal services across the city. The involvement of
Zabbaleen is essential to the success of any waste management
plan and the Egyptian government must involve all stake-holders
is putting together a sustainable waste management for Cairo.

 Solid waste is one of the residuals generated by economic

activities.
 The recycling of solid wastes is a major ecological goal in
Egypt. Human activities create waste, and it is the way these
wastes are handled, stored, collected and disposed of, which
can pose risks to the environment and to public health.
Where intense human activities concentrate, such as in urban
centers, appropriate and safe solid waste management are of
utmost importance to allow healthy living conditions for the
population
10 million tonnes of municipal solid waste arise annually in Egypt,
of which 60% arises in urban areas. Industry generates 3-5 million
tonnes/annum of solid waste of which around 50,000 tonnes are
classified as being hazardous. As the population grows and
affluence increases the quantity of solid waste also is increasing.
This is a logical relationship and is in accord with experience
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internationally. In any country the amount of solid waste
generated varies with the standard of living of its people. For
Egypt it is estimated that the rate of waste generation ranges
from 0.03kg per capita per day in truly rural areas to 0.8kg per
capita per day in Cairo, but it can be as high as 1.5kg per capita
per day for hotels and tourist resorts. This range is low but is
typical of many developing countries. The amount of waste
generated by different sources (e.g. households and commercial
establishments) is necessary to define the number and capacity
of waste storage and collection facilities required. 10 million
tonnes of municipal solid waste arise annually in Egypt, of which
60% arises in urban areas. Industry generates 3-5 million
tonnes/annum of solid waste of which around 50,000 tonnes are
classified as being hazardous. As the population grows and
affluence increases the quantity of solid waste also is increasing.
This is a logical relationship and is in accord with experience
internationally. In any country the amount of solid waste
generated varies with the standard of living of its people. For
Egypt it is estimated that the rate of waste generation ranges
from 0.03kg per capita per day in truly rural areas to 0.8kg per
capita per day in Cairo, but it can be as high as 1.5kg per capita
per day for hotels and tourist resorts. This range is low but is
typical of many developing countries. The amount of waste
generated by different sources (e.g. households and commercial
establishments) is necessary to define the number and capacity
of waste storage and collection facilities required.
3. Deal with urban congestion and its
consequences
The current population
of Egypt is 94,581,210 a

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FIGURE 4
s of Monday, February 27, 2017, based on the latest United
Nations estimates.
One of the important issues in the future is to organize the
population over a larger area.
Approximately 95% of the population is concentrated in the Nile
Valley and Delta, which represent less than 4% of the total land
area.
The Great Cairo Metropolitan Area has more than one-fifth of the
Egyptian population.
Cairo increasingly resembles a huge car park. In a city designed
to carry half of its current population, urban planning has become
a critical concern for a variety of reasons

Why addressing this problem: -

Because rising urban congestion is an inescapable problem in all
large and growing metropolitan areas across the world.
It affects Egypt as it is a serious problem in Egypt with large
effects on the quality of life and the economy. In addition to the
time wasted standing still in traffic, time that could be put to
more productive uses.

4. Work to eradicate public health issues/disease

Nowadays Egypt faces a
challenge of having many
health issues which
affects the people, public

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health is concerned with protecting the health of entire
populations.
There are many factors affecting the Egyptians’ health: -
1-overpopulation: There are about 16 million people living In
Egypt’s slum areas. The availability of utilities, health and social
services are severely limited in the slum areas.
2- Poverty: Health care seriously lagging in capacities not only
quantitatively but also in quality due to the poverty
3-Air Pollution: Air pollution in Egypt, especially in Cairo and
Alexandria, has been of concern for a number of years. Which
affects the Health badly.
4- Egypt is a low health care spender compared to countries
image ()
5- Education
6- Nutrition and food security:
A further issue related to
nutrition and food security
has been the spread of a
highly pathogenic avian
influenza which moved across
Asia and into the Middle East
in early 2006.
7- Drinking-water: sometimes
supply water less than a few
hours per week; the water
quality in a number of
systems also needs
improvement.
Water pollution causes many
diseases such as; virus C
FIGURE 6

8- Tobacco use: figure (1)

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Top 10 causes of death in the next figure.
Ignoring the public health
issues and diseases can destroy
a whole country and decrease
the population and the
industrial economy.

Solutions: -
1- Supporting programs for
elimination of some tropical
and communicable diseases.
2- Fostering healthy lifestyles
by enhancing positive
dimensions of health
promoting environments
3- Raising awareness of health
issues for young people
among the general public
and special groups. FIGURE 7
4- Monitoring the health
situation and assessing health trends.
5- Strengthening health sector cooperation and partnerships

5. Increase the industrial and agricultural bases of Egypt

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The world’s population is increasing. Today’s population of around
8 billion is expected to increase to about 9 billion. By this time,
another one billion tons of cereals and 200 million extra tons of
livestock products will need to be produced every year. The
imperative for such agricultural growth is strongest in developing
countries, where the challenge is
not just to produce food but to
ensure that families have access
that will bring them food security.
Today almost 1 billion people are
undernourished, even if
agricultural production doubles by
2050, one from every twenty
people still risks being
undernourished which means 370
million hungry people all over the
world, most of them will be in FIGURE 8
Africa and Asia. Such growth
would imply agriculture remaining an engine of growth, vital to
economic development, environmental services and central to
rural poverty reduction. . Agriculture currently uses 11 percent of
the world’s land surface for crop production, and for 70 percent of
water brought from
aquifers, streams and lakes.
Only a few areas of Egypt
have been grown and this
area is near the Delta and
the river Nile. Even if the
food is not enough there is
still the problem of the
lacking of jobs. This causes
unemployment and
poverty. FIGURE 9

Solution

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The policies, practices and technologies needed to boost
production and strengthen the security of food have been
discussed from all governments. Institutional mechanisms, the
development of trade and markets and the financial facilities
needed to raise productivity in a sustainable way have been
negotiated at the international level. At national level, measures
to raise output and strengthen food security are being put in
place, including investment in pro-poor, market-friendly policies
and the services needed to improve productivity and even after
all this yet the challenge remains. We should increase the
agricultural land to have enough food and build more industrial
areas to decrease the unemployment and the poverty.

6. Address and reduce pollution fouling our air,

water and soil

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 One of the biggest environmental
issues in Egypt is pollution.
Egyptians are faced with
excessive garbage, sewage,
unclean streets, polluted air,
undrinkable water, and noise
pollution. The first pollution is
water pollution. Water pollution
considerably affects people’s
ability to obtain and use water, as
well as maintain healthy living
standards. . Egypt is one of the FIGURE 8
developing countries which are likely to be a drain on the Earth’s
dwindling resources and contribute to environmental degradation
and has been listed among the ten countries that are threatened
by lack of water by 2025 due to the rapidly increasing population.
Air pollution decreases health and causes many other issues, such
as physiological disorders, skin cancer, eye cataracts, respiratory
ailments, heat-related illnesses, and even deaths, which
ultimately weaken the public health infrastructure. In the first I
will talk about water pollution in Egypt.
Water pollution: water in Egypt is reuse of sewage water, rain,
floods, desalination, and reuse of agricultural water, grand water
in delta and valley and share of Nile. Water pollution occurs when
water is contaminated with chemicals and foreign substances that
are harmful to humans, plants and animals. Water pollutants
include chemical contamination from waste sites, chemical
wastes from industrial discharges, heavy metals such as mercury
and lead, sewage waste, food processing waste, fertilizers and
pesticides sources of. The government in Egypt must interest
about this pollution because Egyptians can't live without fresh
water. Industrial cause water pollution in many ways such as
factories throws its wastes which leads to spreading disease to
the Egyptians such as kidney failure, cancer, lever inflammation
and bilharzia. At recent days we found the River Nile exposed too
much pollution because of direct and indirect exchange from

70
factories and sewage from towns and villages. Amount of
pollutions that thrown in the Nile 4.5 million tons of pollution
formed of 50 thousand tons very harmful materials and 35000
tons from factories and 270 tons from of organic contaminates.

Air pollution: Air pollution is a problem because it can cause

damage to animals, trees, plants, crops and water sources in the
environment. Pollution in the air causes problems for aviation
because it reduces visibility, while also being responsible for
damaging buildings and other structures. Pollutants in the air can
end up in natural water supplies that humans use for drinking,
which can result in water that is toxic and unhealthy for humans
to consume. Most air pollution caused by human activities is the
result, whether directly or indirectly, of burning fuels for
generating electricity. Some of the main causes of pollution
include industrial emissions, poor disposal of wastes, mining,
deforestation, use of fossil fuels and agricultural activities. All of
these pollutions lead to many diseases such as cancer,
pneumonia and many dangerous diseases. If the government
want to nurse the infected with diseases from air pollution will pay
10000 pound for a person this is very expensive. And harmful
gases like CO2 in urban and industries areas.
Soil pollution: There are many causes of soil pollution in Egypt:
Industrial waste on the soil resulting from mining, using chemical
fertilizers enormously, leaking of petroleum during transport
chemical materials and Admixture air pollutants with the rain
which lead to the acid rain. All of these reasons lead to make soil
invalid to use, severe pollution of the soil, making ground water
invalid to drink and the effects of human health .

7. Improve uses of arid areas

One of the most problems which Egypt faces it is arid areas. Arid
areas don't have any ingredients for agricultural because there
isn't water, soil for agricultural and no rain fall. These areas
expose to sand encroachment, aerobic storms, soil salinity and

70
bad weather. These areas are empty from pollution because there
has no water for drinking or agricultural, transporting, services,
interests of governmental and safety. Egypt is an arid country,
which covers an area of about 1,000,000 km2 of which only 5% is
occupied by its population. About 99%from people in Egypt live in
the Nile Valley and Delta. People in Egypt live in these areas
because of many reasons: The Nile Valley and Delta cover an area
of 35,000 Km², mostly in the Delta and have fertile soils, formed
of deposits carried down by the River Nile. The Nile Delta is
associated with the northern lakes (Maryut, Idku, Burullus, and
Manzala) .In the Nile Valley, the cultivated area mostly consists of
a narrow strip of land surrounded by desert on both sides. But
there are many areas which people in Egypt don't live in it
because of many reasons like: Sinai Peninsula which is located in
the northeastern portion of Egypt, and occupies a very small
portion of the extremely SW part of Asian continent. The total
area of Sinai is 61,000 km2; the southern part of it is formed of a
complex of igneous and metamorphic rocks.
The Eastern Desert covers an
area of about 223,000 km ².It is
bordered by the Nile Valley on
the West and by the Suez
Canal, the Gulf of Suez and the
Red Sea on the East. The
backbone of this desert is a
series of mountain chains (Red
Sea Mountains), running
parallel to the Red Sea and FIGURE 9
separated from it by a narrow
coastal plain.

8. Manage and increase the sources of clean water

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Deeper structural problems have become apparent in the natural
resource base. Water scarcity is
growing. Pollution of water courses
and bodies, and degradation of
water related eco-systems are
rising. In many larger rivers only, 5
percent of former water volumes
remain in-stream. There are many
resources of water resources like
oceans, seas, lakes and river but
even though of this many
resources the water is not enough FIGURE 10
for all people. 70 percent of earth surface is water but only 2.5 of
the water is sweet and can be used by human and most of it is
frozen in glaciers and ice caps.
causes
The factors affecting the decreasing of water resources are population
growth, movement of large numbers of people
from the countryside to towns and cities,
demands for greater food security and higher
living standards and pollution from factories,
cities, and farmlands.

Solutions
We can use many resources like collecting
FIGURE 11
rain water in dams and even using this
water to produce electricity, use
underground water, desalination of water but most countries
cannot afford to do it because it cost much money. When
managing water resources, more attention should be paid to
increasing existing natural resources and reducing demand and
losses. Diverting surface water into the ground can help reduce
losses from evaporation, compensate for variations in flow, and
improve quality. Transferring water between river basins can also
help alleviate shortages

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9. Deal with urban congestion and its
consequences
One of the biggest challenges
that face Egypt is population
growth, from 1994 to 2014, the
population grew by 46%, from 60
million to nearly 88 million. For
the human development ranks
report Egypt is 110th among 185
countries. The report shows that
only about half of the population FIGURE 12
in Egypt is ages 25.
Reasons of the growth of population:
1. High illiteracy rate: Many habits spread in Egypt because of
high illiteracy rate like: giving birth to 7 or 8 children
2. Low rate of contribution to the work of the female: The females
get married and be busy with giving birth to children so they
don’t have high contribution.
Results of the growth of population:
1. The human development ranks report shows that the older
ones than 25 was employed in 2012, and among those who were
employed, 14% were still living below the international poverty
level of less than 2$ per day.
2. The inability of the state to educate all the children:
Because of the population growth and huge number of children,
the education system in Egypt can’t absorbs all these numbers of
children.
Ways to solve the problem of population growth:
1. Make people aware of the bad habits of giving birth for 7 or 8
children
2. Egypt face the problem by adequate housing, sanitation, health
care, education and jobs.
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10. Improve the scientific and technological
environment for all
The world around us show how they depend on the new
technological, we must improve our disposition to not destroy the
society. The modern technological depend on how the science
improve and the applications very quickly make every day is
different.
Egypt at the time of the 1952 revolution was much further
advanced industrially than any other Arab country.
Now, Egypt lacks a good industrial base. We export raw materials
outside Egypt then reimport it with prices many times more
expensive. Difficulties in transporting raw materials from ports or
manufactured products to distribution centers, movement of
workers to and from factories.
Status of technological environment of technology:
1. Establishment of technological and research institute
2. Positive technical policy
3. High growth rate of information technology
4. Incentive for promoting technology

11. Reduce and adapt to the effect of climatic

change
Climate change is a great challenge that faces Egypt now as it
affects many fields like; tourism, agricultural bases, arid areas,
health, and many others
Causes: -
In Egypt it is majorly because of the scarce of the Nile river water
and It is caused by the rise of the Greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere mannerly.

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Because of Egypt’s almost complete reliance on the Nile for
freshwater it is essential for any analysis of climate change and
Egypt to consider the possibility of climatically-induced changes
in Nile flows
The greenhouse gases emission is increased in Egypt due to the
increasing usage fossil fuels Figure shows the emissions of
greenhouse gases in Egypt through the past 20 years.
The Gases trap the heat in the atmosphere which can have a
range of effects
Egypt’s Nile delta with its coastal front on the Mediterranean is
considered vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. In
addition to expected rise in sea-level, shoreline erosion, stresses
on fisheries and saltwater intrusion in groundwater create major
challenges.
We can solve the climate change by:
1. Limit our usage of the fossil fuels and start to use Alternative
energy, increase the green area, because plants absorb the CO2
2. Stopping CFCs products carbon footprint and help reduce
greenhouse gas emissions

What will happen if this problem is not solved?

 Health, some vector-borne diseases just like malaria can be
more common due to climate change
 Food: Because the heat affects the ecosystems which can
change the productivity of
the food
 Water areas: it Causes
Rising sea levels, droughts
 Biodiversity: it Has a
Negative impact on the coral
reef

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FIGURE 13
 Coastal areas: the risk of Flooding especially on the north
coast.

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Problem to be solved:
Water Challenges:
The main challenge facing Egyptian national development is
water resources. Water is the main factor, which determines
the type, size and location of any economic activity

 Egypt currently relies on the Nile for 95 - 97% of its water

needs, and global news is that the river is under threat,
protecting this supply has long been regarded as a matter of
national security
 In Egypt, about 85% of the water resources are consumed in
the agriculture sector, so water management techniques must
occur in order to fix the challenges that face the water
sources in Egypt like, lack of clean sources, bad consumption
distribution, and the increase of water supply to face the
population growth.
 There are still many people, especially in rural areas, that lack
a proper water supply. Low consumption rates in many areas
are also related to the lack of a sewer system.
 Water management is more than getting the water there now;
we want to be sure an appropriate quality and quantity of flow
can be sustained
 Water resources management refers to the conception,
planning, design, construction, and operation of facilities to
control and use water.
 In conclusion, Egypt faces various challenges to its water
resources.

1- population growth and the increase of water

demands:
 The populations of Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia have grown
steadily since 1960. Egypt’s population has increased by 41
percent since the early 1990s. Recent reports future
projections say that the population will grow from its current
total of 92 million to 110 million by the year 2025. The rapid
population increase multiplies the stress on Egypt’s water
supply due to more water requirements for domestic

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 consumption and increased use of irrigation water to meet
higher food demands.
 The increased demand for food will require more irrigation
water. The demand for food could be met by increasing
imports.
 Growth of population creates a related water demand for
public water supply and industrial activities, and also for
irrigation water for increased agricultural production.
 The continued growth of societies places great pressure on
water supply and this has resulted in a rapid deterioration of
the quality of the water resources, in particular, in the Nile
Delta. This low water quality threatens public health, reduces
its value for economic activities and damages the natural
ecology of the water systems.
 the growing and competing demands of water users in
different economic sectors lead to inefficient allocation and
lower economic growth; human suffering; and local, national,
and international conflicts

2- Water Scarcity and Rapid Climate change:

 With climate conditions expected to get drier and heat waves
expected to become more frequent in the MENA region, Egypt
cannot afford to neglect the importance of water conservation
anymore and must act immediately to augment its natural
water reserves.
 The prolonged 1979-1987 drought forced Egypt to reduce its
water use despite the inter-annual storage in Lake Nasser
behind the High Aswan Dam, which clearly shows the
vulnerability of Egypt to changes in river flows that climate
change may produce. A climate change prediction model
identified water resources as one of the three most vulnerable
sectors to climate change in Egypt; the others being coastal
zones and agricultural resources.
 Egypt is a very arid country, where the average annual rainfall
seldom exceeds 200 mm along the northern coast. The

TABLE 1

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 rainfall declines very
rapidly from the
coastline to the inland
areas, and becomes
almost nil south of
Cairo. This meager
rainfall occurs in the
winter in the form of
scattered showers, and
cannot be depended upon for extensive agricultural
production
 Any International river like the Nile is a common resource
shared by the basin countries. For water used in river basins,
both positive and negative externalities usually exert an
effect in only one direction, downstream (table 1). An
upstream country affects the volume or quality of a
downstream country's water by diverting or polluting it, but
the downstream country cannot do the same, because it has
no access to the water until it has left the upstream country
 In speaking of the Nile Basin, Egypt is a downstream country
while Ethiopia, Sudan and South Sudan are upstream to Egypt
 A big challenge is tackling the issue of Ethiopia building a dam
and hydroelectric plant upstream that may cut into Egypt’s
share of the Nile. In the Blue Nile watershed, which is a main
source of water for the Nile River.
 Construction of the Renaissance Dam started in December
2010, and has the capacity to store 74 to 79 billion cubic
meters of water and generate 6,000 megawatts of electricity
for Ethiopia a year.
 This dam would decrease the amount of water it receives
(55.5 billion cubic meters) from the Nile River
 . Egypt is concerned that during dry months, not enough
water will be released from the GERD thus decreasing the
water received downstream
 United Nations is already warning that Egypt could run out of
water by the year 2025.

3- Water Pollution

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Pollution
The pollution of river Nile is an issue that has been regularly
underestimated. With so many people relying on the Nile for
drinking, agricultural, and municipal use, the quality of that water
should be of pivotal importance. The reality is that water of Nile is
being polluted by municipal and industrial waste, with many
recorded incidents of leakage of
wastewater, the dumping of dead
animal carcasses, and the release of
chemical and hazardous industrial
waste into the river.

 Industrial waste has led to FIGURE 16

the presence of metals in the
water which pose a significant
risk not only on human health,
but also on animal health and
agricultural production. Fish die
in large numbers from
poisoning because of the high
levels of ammonia and lead.
Agricultural production quality
and quantity has been affected
by using untreated water for
irrigation as the bacteria and the metals in the water affect
the growth of the plant produce, especially in the Nile Delta
where pollution is highest.
 The supply of high-quality water available at low cost as a
result of increased pollution, as is already the case in
Alexandria, Egypt.
 At recent days we found the River Nile exposed too much
pollution because of direct and indirect exchange from
factories and sewage from towns and villages. Amount of
pollutions that thrown in the Nile 4.5 million tons of pollution
formed of 50 thousand tons very harmful materials and 35000
tons from factories and 270 tons from of organic
contaminates.

Irrigation

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The crop type can make a major difference as the amount of
water demand can really vary between different crop types, so
the technique followed is to grow plants which requires less water
like sugar beet instead of Sugar cane.
There’s Water loss in irrigation agricultural systems through
inefficient irrigation techniques
Because the irrigation techniques are basic such as flooding
irrigation that leads to about 80% of the water loss.

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Research
Because our project concern on water problems in Egypt focusing
on quantity, quality, systems, we have researched the following
topics: -

1-Problem
A-Sources and uses:
The Nile water system:
 Water is
released from
Lake Nasser on
the basis of
downstream
demands.
Downstream of
FIGURE 18 High Aswan Dam
(HAD), water is
diverted by pumping stations along the river and by canals
at the river barrages. Nile water that is used in the Nile
Valley and Delta for various purposes, partly recharges the
groundwater, from where it is drained by the drainage

70
 system or pumped for municipal and industrial (M&I) use and
irrigation. In the Nile Delta and Fayoum much drainage water
is pumped and reused for irrigation. In addition, some of the
M&I effluent flows are reused, after treatment or mixing with
Nile water.
 With regard to the water balance, the Nile system can be
considered as almost closed, with negligible in- or outflow
from or to the deeper aquifers and surrounding desert areas.
Therefore, all water in the system (groundwater in the Valley
and Delta, drainage water from agriculture, and M&I
effluents) originates from water released at Aswan. (e.g.
Jonglei 1 and 2 and Machar Marshes projects and others).
 The Nile aquifer system has an estimated total storage
capacity of about 500 BCM (200 BCM in the Valley and 300
BCM in the Delta). Only a small fraction of this storage can
actually be used due to constraints in pumping heights,
Reuse of water:
 Drainage water from Cairo and other cities flows to the river
water and mixes with it, as a result, it is available for usage
as an upstream source.
 In Fayoum and Nile Delta, the drainage water is either used
by farmers or pumped to irrigation canals through big
stations for reuse for irrigation.
 In 1997 it was estimated that the official use of reuse water
in Nile Delta and Fayoum about 3.5BCM/year.
 It was estimated that in 2017 the total water reuse would
reach 7.4BCM/year
 Also, the reuse of treated wastewater from the New
Industrial Cities in the desert, and the Canal Cities will be
considered in the future.

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Groundwater in the desert areas
 The contribution of deep groundwater to the total water
supply in Egypt is very moderate. However, groundwater is
the only source of water for people living in the desert areas.
Rainfall and flash floods in wadis.
 In places where the population density is relatively low,
groundwater potential limited and where there is no access
to Nile water, Rain and Runoff harvesting is practiced to
collect water.
 In these areas rainfall has for centuries been the principal
water resource and consequently.
 The total effective rainfall used for drinking water and
agriculture is about 1.3 BCM/year.
Desalination of sea water or brackish water
 In coastal areas seawater is mostly available than any other
resources.
 It is mostly used in many tourist areas along Red Sea coast
and Sinai Peninsula.

 Although it is not commonly used or applied in Egypt, it is

expected that desalination plants for drinking water and
industrial use will be developed as the demands grow.
 Brackish Water is sometimes a preferred source for
desalination rather than seawater if it is nearby.
 Total amount of desalinated water in Egypt is about 50 MCM
per year

70
Water usage and distribution:
Agriculture
 The agricultural sector is the largest user, and consumer, of
water in Egypt, with its share exceeding 80% of the total
gross demand for water.
 In case the actual consumption of water is water supply
minus the amount of water returned to the system, the
share of agricultural demands is even higher than 95%.
 The area of cultivated land increased from 5.8 Mfeddan in
1980 to about 8 Mfeddan in 1997. Related to the expansion
of agricultural land the consumptive use of water in
agriculture has been steadily increasing from an estimated
29.4 BCM/yr in 1980 to 38.5 BCM/yr during the same period.
 Due to the increasing of cultivated land the consumption of
reused and abstraction of ground water increased and
decreasing of the fresh water flow to the sea. The amount of
used water in irrigation in 1997 was 57.8 BCM/yr.
 The future increase in overall irrigation supply will depend on
changes in the priorities for the municipal and industrial
sectors, the development of new groundwater resources,
and measures to reduce the outflow from the Nile system.
Any water becoming additionally available will primarily be
used to irrigate new development areas and not to increase
the supply to existing lands. Based on water inflow of 55.5
BCM/year, it is expected that by the year 2017 agricultural
lands will cover about 11 Mfeddan, and 63.6 BCM of water
will be used for agriculture. The total agricultural water
consumption in 2017 is estimated at 38.7 BCM.

70
Domestic water
 In the year 2000, public water supply systems covered
almost 100% of the population in urban areas and 38% of
the population in rural areas.
 Drinking water production in 2000 was 5.31 BCM of which an
estimated volume of 0.62 BCM was used for industrial
purposes.
 The high-water use in the urban areas seems related to
wastage induced by the weakness of metering systems, low
water charges, society unawareness of water scarcity and
leakage from the water supply network.
Industrial Water
 During the last decades the demands of water in the
industrial sector have been dramatically increasing.
 Excluding cooling water for power plants, the total industrial
water use in the year 2000 was estimated at 2.2 bcm
 Water used for industry was approximately 53% abstracted
from the Nile and irrigation canals, 28% from the public
network and 19% from groundwater.
 Water consumptive use in industry is about 0.75 BCM.
Navigation
The river Nile and part of the irrigation network are used for
navigation. The present policy is that there is no exclusive release
for navigation. There is, however, a guaranteed minimum release
from the HAD, which is also required for some drinking water
intakes along the Nile.

70
Hydropower.
 Hydropower is producing about 24% of the national
electricity demand.
 Water has not been released from the High Aswan Dam
exclusively for the generation of hydropower since 1990.
 Hydropower generation, depends fully on releases for
irrigation, supply and the small release for navigation.
 This means that the generated hydropower varies strongly
during the seasons.
Ecology and fisheries
 Living organisms in waterways and lakes require water of a
certain quality as habitats.
 It is essential for keeping ecology in balance to accomplish
the conditions of:
the preservation of water levels, velocities, depth profiles, and
natural bank conditions.
 With respect to water quality, natural conditions should be
preserved or restored as much as possible in the Nile River,
the irrigation canals, and the Coastal Lakes.
Recreation and health
 Part of the population is using surface water for hygiene
purposes (e.g. washing and bathing) and recreation (e.g.
swimming and boating) as well as for drinking water.
 The direct contact with open water bodies near settlements
also influences the health of the population. These uses
therefore also require good water quality.

70
Water Resources Management in Egypt
Egypt is faced with three major challenges in the management of
its water resources. 
The first and most important challenge is that posed by Egypt’s
population growth.
the growth of population creates a related water demand for
public water supply and industrial activities, and also for irrigation
water for increased agricultural production.

The second challenge is environmental. The increase in

population and industrial and agricultural activities has not been
accompanied by an adequate growth in fully operating municipal
or industrial sewage treatment systems, and this has resulted in a
rapid deterioration of the quality of the water resources, in
particular, in the Nile Delta. This low water quality threatens
public health, reduces its value for economic activities and
damages the natural ecology of the water systems.
The third challenge is institutional: it has become clear that the
first two challenges can only be solved if the institutional setting
of water management is improved. This includes aspects of co-
operation, decentralization and privatization. Major elements in
this respect are a participatory approach in planning,
development and management and the application of the
principles of cost-recovery and polluter pays.
The growing population and related socio-economic activities
require an increasing amount of water. The Nile River is an
abundant and constant source of water which cannot be easily
augmented in the face of a similar growth in populations and
economic activity in the upper riparian countries. Over many

70
years, potential demand has exceeded the available supply, and
the deficit has been borne by the agricultural sector, which has
been unable to produce enough food not only for the increasing
population, but also the increasing per capita demands that are
now over 3,300 kilocalories per person per day. This deficit has
been made up though the import of food and the country now
imports some 45% of its calorie requirements. The growth of the
economy has more than matched this growth, and the cost of
food imports is a declining proportion of the Gross National
Product (GDP). Nevertheless, the spike in food prices in 2008,
when wheat prices (the bulk of Egypt’s food imports) doubled
from $200 per ton to $400 per ton before returning to the original
figure, showed that excessive dependency on imports can make
the country vulnerable to such events.

B-Water development
WATER SUPPLY and WATER DEMAND are the VERTICAL DOMAINS,
or fields of action, consisting in the development of technological
and non-technological solutions to reduce water vulnerability and
the impact of water scarcity in agriculture by increasing the
amount of available irrigation-quality water (SUPPLY) and
reducing the amount of water consumed in agriculture (DEMAND).

ADAPTATION and INTEGRATION are the HORIZONTAL DOMAINS,

or transversal actions, through which the project valorizes the
“vertical” interventions, by ensuring that their outcomes will be
technically and culturally suitable for the environmental and
socio-economic context of the target countries (ADAPTATION).
Furthermore, the outcomes are amplified and maximized through
the integration of the technological solutions with economic and
regulatory instruments within each vertical domain and through
the combined application of the two vertical domain solutions
(INTEGRATION). Through a comprehensive set of research and
innovation actions,

70
2-Solution:
A-Irrigation Systems:
Irrigation: is the application of water to soil or land, it’s used to
assist growing plants.
Traditional Method: 
In this method, irrigation is done manually. Here, a farmer pulls
out water from wells or canals by himself or using cattle and
carries to farming fields. This method can vary in different
regions. The main advantage of this method is that it is cheap but
efficiency is poor because the even distribution of water is not
always possible. Also, chances of water loss while carrying is high.
Some examples of traditional system are pulley system, lever
system, chain pump and dhekli. Among these, the pump system
is most common and used widely.

Irrigation in the past was more focused on subsistence dependent

on intensive labor to irrigate – often – a relatively small land

Traditional Methods includes: -

 Surface irrigation
 Traditional Rain harvesting

Modern Method:
The modern method compensates disadvantages of traditional
methods and thus helps in the proper way of water usage. The
modern method involves two systems: Sprinkler system and Drip
system. A sprinkler system as its name suggests sprinkles water
over the crop and helps in an even distribution of water. This
method is much advisable in areas facing water scarcity. Here a
pump is connected to pipes which generate a pressure and water
is sprinkled through nozzles of pipes. In Drip system, water supply
is done drop by drop exactly at roots using a hose or pipe. This
method can also be used in regions where water availability is
less.
Modern Irrigation is now about selling products mainly or the
satisfaction of populations’ demands, so the land is relatively big,

70
the irrigation system is machine or labor dependent and is not
affected by climate change.
Irrigation should be optimum because even over-irrigation can
spoil the crop productivity. Excess water leads to water logging,
hinder germination, increased salt concentration and uprooting
because roots can’t withstand standing water. Thus, the proper
method is to be used for best cultivation.
Modern Methods contain:
 Spray irrigation system
 Dripping irrigation system
 Micro-irrigation
 Solar irrigation

Surface irrigation is the

application of water by
gravity flow to the surface of
the field. It consists of a
broad class of irrigation
methods in which water is
distributed over the soil
surface by gravity flow. The
irrigation water is introduced
into level or graded furrows FIGURE 19 SURFACE IRRIGATION
or basins, using siphons,
gated pipe, or turnout
structures, and is allowed to
advance across the field.
Surface irrigation is best
suited to flat land slopes,
and medium to fine textured
soil types which promote the
lateral spread of water down
the furrow row or across the
basin. FIGURE 20 BASIN IRRIGATION

70
Either the entire field is
flooded (basin irrigation) or
the water is fed into small
channels (furrows) or strips
of land (borders).
a-Basin Irrigation:
The basin irrigation depends
on basins which are flat
areas of land, surrounded by
bunds which prevent the
water from flowing to the FIGURE 21 FURROW IRRIGATION
adjacent fields. Basin
irrigation is commonly used
for rice
Suitable soils
Which soils are suitable for
basin irrigation depends on
the crop grown. A distinction
has to be made between rice
and non-rice or other crops.
Loamy soils are preferred for
basin irrigation so that
waterlogging (permanent
saturation of the soil) can be
avoided. Coarse sands are
not recommended for basin
irrigation as, due to the high
FIGURE 22 FURROW IRRIGATION
infiltration rate, percolation USING SIPHONS
losses can be high.
Also soils which form a hard
crust when dry (capping) are
not suitable.
B-Furrow Irrigation:

70
The furrow irrigation
systems depends on furrows
are small channels, which
carry water down the land
slope between the crop
rows. Water infiltrates into
the soil as it moves along
the slope. The crop is usually FIGURE 24
grown on the ridges
between the furrows .

In summary, the following

crops can be Irrigated by
furrow irrigation:

- row crops such as maize,

sunflower, sugarcane,
soybean;
- crops that would be
damaged by inundation,
such as tomatoes,
FIGURE 23 BORDER IRRIGATION
vegetables, potatoes, beans; SYSTEM; BORDERS ARE STRIPS
- fruit trees such as citrus, SEPARATED BY EARTH BUNDS.
grape
- broadcast crops such as
wheat.

c-Borders Irrigation
disadvantages of surface
irrigation:
1-Loss of water
2-Soil erosion
3-can cause loss of minerals
4-the Uncontrolled irrigation
can lead a flood to the crops
5-The recession and

70
advancement of water can
be at a very slow or a very
fast rate; that can have
undesirable consequences
like water loss and the
unsaturation of the soil.
6- some problems can occur
like the water quality loss,
Lack of water management,
over irrigation and erosion
These problems can be met
by: -
1-profitable conservation
2-replacing the surface
irrigation with sprinkle or
drip irrigation
3-Using PAMS if surface
irrigation is required.

70
 Sprinkler irrigation is a more
modern way of irrigating, but
it also requires machinery. in
which Water is pumped
through a pipe system and
then sprayed onto the crops
through rotating sprinkler
heads
The spray and sprinkling
devices can be:-
FIGURE 25
1- Permanently set in place
Sprinkler irrigation
(solid set)
2- Temporarily set and then
moved after a given amount
of water has been applied
3- They can be mounted on
booms and pipelines that
continuously travel across the
land surface (wheel roll, linear
move, center pivot).
Sprinklers are mostly installed
FIGURE 26 on permanent risers.
The sprinklers works based on
the pressure provided by
pumps and nozzles , as a
result , the waters are sprayed
in a rainfall-like system
a Sprinkler that rotates is
called a rotor
Suitable soil:
Shallow lands and best suited
FIGURE 27
to coarse sandy terrain.

70
 Disadvantages of sprinkler
irrigation: -
1- They are expensive,
average cost for a
sprinkler irrigation system
on a large scale is 2,000
Dollars
2- Many sprinklers have to
FIGURE 28
be installed because a
single one doesn’t cover
much area.
3- when operating under
high temperatures, water
can evaporate at a fast
rate reducing the
effectiveness of the
irrigation. 
4- Although sprinkler
irrigation can help farmers
to use water resources
more efficiently, this
technology relies on a
clean source of water and
therefore may not be
suited to areas where
rainfall is becoming less
predictable

70
Drip/trickle FIGURE 29
irrigation systems are DRIP/TRICKLE IRRIGATION
methods of microirrigation
where water is applied
through emitters to the soil
surface transporting water,
drop by drop or as small
streams. The discharge rate
of the emitters is low so this
irrigation method can be
used on all soil types.
Drip irrigation is based on
the constant application of a
specific and focused
quantity of water to soil FIGURE 30, BEST SOIL FOR PLANT GROWTH SHOULDN’T
crops.  EXCEED 25% WATER COMPOSITION [SOURCE: NC STATE
UNIVERSITY]
The system should maintain
adequate levels of soil
moisture in the rooting
areas, fostering the best use
of available nutrients and a
suitable environment for
healthy plant roots systems.
Managing the exact
moisture requirement for
each plant, the system
significantly reduces water
wastage and promotes
efficient use. Compared to
surface irrigation, which can
provide 60 per cent water-
use efficiency and sprinklers
systems which can provide
75 per cent efficiency, drip
irrigation can provide as

70
much as 90 per cent water-
use efficiency.
Suitable Soil:
Drip irrigation is suitable for
most soils. On clay soils
water must be applied
slowly to avoid surface water
ponding and runoff. On
sandy soils higher emitter
discharge rates will be
needed to ensure adequate
lateral wetting of the soil.
Drip irrigation
disadvantages: -
 Initial cost can be more
than overhead systems.
 The sun can affect the
tubes used for drip
irrigation,
 Drip irrigation might be
unsatisfactory if
herbicides or top-dressed
fertilizers need sprinkler
irrigation for activation.
 Most drip systems are
designed for high
efficiency, meaning little
or no leaching fraction.
Without sufficient
leaching, salts applied
with the irrigation water
may build up in the root
zone, usually at the edge

70
 of the wetting pattern

Subsurface irrigation consists
of methods whereby irrigation
water is applied below the soil
surface. When the water table
is well below the surface, drip
or trickle irrigation emission
devices can be buried below
the soil surface (usually within
the plant root zone).

FIGURE 31
Subsurface irrigation

Common Irrigation Methods in Egypt and Alike countries: -

Chain pump: A chain pump consists of two large wheels,
connected by an endless chain. The bottom wheel is half
immersed in the water source. As the wheel is turned, the
connected buckets dip into the pool and pick up water. The chain
then lifts them to the upper wheel, where the water from the
buckets is transferred to the pool. The chain then carries the
empty buckets back down to be refilled and the process
continues.
Moat or pulley-system: It is a manual irrigation method. By this
method water is directly taken out of wells with the help of pulley
and is used to irrigate fields.
Rahat: In this method water is drawn out of wells by animals.
Animals like cow, buffalo, oxen etc. are connected to wheel.
Animals move and rotate the wheel lead to draw the water from
the well.
Dhekli: In this system a rope and bucket connected to pole to
obtain water from well. They connect rope and bucket on one end
of a heavy stick and a heavy counter weight at the other end.
70
Filtration Methods
Filtration is the process of removing suspended solids from water
by passing the water through a permeable fabric or porous bed of
materials.
Groundwater is naturally filtered as it flows through porous layers
of soil. However, surface water and groundwater under the
influence of surface water is subject to contamination from many
sources.
Some contaminants pose a threat to human health, and filtration
is one of the oldest and simplest methods of removing them.
Filtration methods include slow and rapid sand filtration,
diatomaceous earth filtration, direct filtration, packaged
filtration, membrane filtration, and cartridge filtration
 Because the groundwater passes through porous layers of
soil into aquifers it is naturally filtrated. On the other hand,
surface water is directly subjected to several pollutants like;
human, animal and industrial contamination. The surface
water is, as a result, can cause disease or illness in humans.
So, they must be filtered by a constructed treatment system.

 Almost all municipal water sources undergo a disinfection

process using chlorine or chloramine to kill bacteria and
parasites.

 Other contaminants commonly found in tap water include

lead, copper, sulfate, nitrates, pesticides, herbicides, arsenic,
industrial solvents and trihalomethanes, a chemical known
to cause colon and bladder cancer in large concentrations.
Contrary to popular belief, municipal water treatment
facilities were not designed to take out contaminants such as
synthetic organic chemicals and toxic heavy metals like lead.

70
Filtration processes
 Flocculation: The chemically treated water is sent into a
basin where the suspended particles can collide and form
heavier particles called floc.

 Sedimentation: The velocity of water is decreased so that

suspended material (including flocculated particles) can
settle out of the water stream by gravity. Once settled, the
particles combine to form a sludge that is later removed
from the clarified supernatant (the liquid removed from
settled sludge) water
Conventional filtration processes are normally preceded by
 Coagulation
 Flocculation
 sedimentation.
Direct filtration processes are preceded by only:
 coagulation
 flocculation
Filtration processes may include one or more pretreatment
procedures such as:
 Chemical feed and rapid mix:
Where chemicals may be added to the water to improve the
treatment that will occur later. These may include pH
adjusters and coagulants.
A variety of devices, such as baffles, and static mixers can
be used to mix the water and distribute the chemicals
evenly.

Making the Right Choice:

70
Understanding what is in the water and what will remain in the
water is essential for selecting the best filtration method. It also
has a significant importance in healthier lifestyles and efficient
water reuse solutions.

70
Sustainable filters:
1. Silver impregnated ceramic filter
 The Massachusetts Institute of Technology has tested and
praised the ceramic filter as “a valid tool to decrease the
contamination level of water consumed by households in
rural areas”
 The ceramic filter has been 99.9% successful at removing
bacteria under laboratory testing conditions.
 Although it is simple it has impressive testing results.

Manufacturing process:
 The process of creating a ceramic filter begins by
uniformly mixing exact proportions of clay and finely
ground burnout materials.
 The choice of burnout material depends on the
materials in the area of production. The most ideal
burnout material is sawdust produced by the
processing of hardwoods.
 Once the burnout material and clay are mixed, they can
be formed into the desired filter shape. The most
common shapes are the pot or candle.
 There is no specific shape requirement for the filter,
however it is necessary that the clay is uniform and
does not contain air bubbles or other imperfections.
 once the shape is formed it is fired in a flattop updraft
kiln. The filters are usually fired at cone O12 (~1600 F)
After the pot is fired,
 the burnout materials dissipate and the clay hardens

70
 FIGURE 32
How it works? [Figure]
The ceramic filter is usually soaked for 24 hours in water
to enhance the curing process. Once cured and
completely dried, the filter is tested to ensure the proper
flow rate.
 A flow rate of 1.5-2 liters per hour is required. Less or
more flow rate is not acceptable and will result in the
filter not working properly.
 Once a filter passes the flow rate test it is then painted
on the inside with colloidal silver.
 Colloidal silver is a common disinfectant, Passing the
current through the silver creates the silver “colloid”
with one less electron. silver binds to the cell
membrane of bacteria. As a result, abnormalities will
occur. These abnormalities result in cell lysis and death.
 Adding the silvers antibacterial properties to the filter
ensures the 99.9% removal of most common types of
water borne bacteria. This added effect is positive

70
Advantages
1- The silver impregnated ceramic filter can be made almost
anywhere in the world.
2- The only requirements to make the filter are that clay,
sawdust, and colloidal silver are available along with the
ability to fire a kiln.
3- With the addition of colloidal silver, ceramic filters are 99.9%
effective at removing bacteria.
4- The ceramic filter is also point-of-use and can be distributed
to remote communities, making it one of the most effective
and culturally acceptable sustainable filters on the market.
Disadvantages
1- The fuel consumption and pollution of the involved with the
production of the ceramic filter.
2- It does not sufficiently filter out viruses, harmful chemicals,
or hard metals.
3- the efficiency of the filter is reduced to removing only 60-
70% of bacteria when actually used by rural families. This is
a direct result of improper use and/or cleaning of the filter.
4- ingestion of too much silver can cause severe health risks
related to silver poisoning.
Recommendations
 To address and reduce the fuel consumption in
manufacturing by replacing the fuel burnt with
renewable energy sources to fire kilns when producing
this filter.
 Another solution is fuel briquetting.
Using the briquettes instead of wood or coal decreases
deforestation and makes this filter more sustainable.
However, the kiln will still produce smoke.
2.Sediment filter with iron oxide

70
  Sediment filters are quite common and have been
around for centuries.
 A sediment filter takes advantage of multiple layers of
sediment to naturally filter contaminants from water.
Manufacturing process:
 The top sediment layer consists of larger sized rocks,
followed by smaller rocks, then sand and very finely
ground sediment

How it works?
 Contaminants are trapped in the tiny pores between

the sediment and clean water exits the bottom of the

filter.
 By traveling through layers of sediment on the earth’s
surface.
And just as a deeper well will yield cleaner water, a
larger sediment filter will produce purer water.
FIGURE 33
 The application of iron nails throughout a sediment filter
makes it very effective at removing substances such as
arsenic and efficient in treating hard water.
 When iron nails are added, iron oxide (rust) is eventually
formed.
the creation of iron oxide is 4Fe + 3O2 = 2Fe2O3, and
the ionic half equation is Fe (s) = Fe2+ (aq) + 2e-.

70
  Because this is an oxidizing process, the iron losing electrons
makes it more attractive to other hard metals.
Harmful hard metals such as arsenic bond to the
negatively charged iron, and the water exiting the
system is free of hard metals.
Advantages
1- it uses natural filtration and readily available materials.
2- removing both hard metals and bacteria

Disadvantages
1- Low degree of scientific control.
2- Sediment can form pockets or large pores.
3- The use of higher capacity sediment filters reduces the
scientific error, but the increased size also makes
manufacturing much more difficult.
4- A commonly encountered problem with this process is
evenly distributing the nails.
5- If a community is centralized, distribution is usually not
difficult, but if a community is spread out it is more difficult
to distribute water from a centralized location
Recommendations
The sediment filter removes hard metals and bacteria using
somewhat primitive technology. With the advancement of
nanotechnology, it is possible that the same scientific principles
used in the sediment filter could be applied to many different
applications and with greater efficiency.
3. Plastic mesh micro-filters
 The plastic-mesh micro-filter is currently used in many
industrial filter applications including the production of
carbonated beverages or other liquid food products.
Manufacturing process:
 They can be produced from many common polymers. Pore
sizes as small as 0.5 microns can be consistently produced
70
 using tiny needles or lasers to perforate hundreds of
individual layers of this fabric like material. Unlike the
ceramic filter, which also has ~1-micron pores, the plastic
mesh micro-filter has flow rates up to 10 times faster (15-50
liters/hour). and has a relatively lower degree of scientific
error.
How it works?
 The plastic mesh micro-filter is particularly applicable to
communities dealing with natural disaster. These
communities do not have time to set up a ceramic filter
making operation or build a sediment filter. The filters are
extremely lightweight and much cheaper than shipping in
bottles of purified water.
 These filters would help save money and empower
individuals to obtain their own water without relying on the
next shipment to arrive in relief situations.
 The final development concerning the plastic mesh micro-
filter is the surge in use of bioplastics. Bioplastics are created
from agricultural crops instead of from petroleum. These
biodegradable plastics are more sustainable, and have
potential to fit in the filter market. The only problem with
bioplastics is that they decompose over time, which causes
pores to enlarge and water to become contaminated
Advantages
 The plastic mesh micro filter is cheap, recyclable, and the
pore sizes are easily controlled.
 Having a such a controlled product creates higher reliability
and allows for 99.9% elimination of contaminants larger than
the manufactured pore size.
 The filter is a recyclable solution that can be mass produced
and the positive global effect would outweigh the negative
aspects concerning the products sustainability.
Disadvantages

70
  The plastic mesh micro-filter is currently not sustainable, nor
can it be manufactured in most unindustrialized nations.
 It is also important to keep in mind that much of this data is
based on current research or industrial applications, and flow
rates will change drastically when they are not used in
combination with a pumping system
 The problems with the filter are that it requires advanced
processing techniques, uses petroleum based plastic
material, and is not very sustainable.
Recommendations
 If the filter can be made more recyclable and easier to
manufacture, it will be much more suitable as a sustainable
technology.
 Being able to locally produce such a filter would have
extremely positive results.
 It is recommended that the mesh filter be used only in
emergency situations.

 If the decomposition of bioplastics can be reduced in filtering

applications, this will make the plastic mesh micro-filter a
much more sustainable option.
4. Activated carbon filter
 Activated carbon filter media is relatively common, and is
found in Brita or PUR filters. The activation of carbon occurs
when charcoal or matter rich in carbon is treated with
oxygen.
Manufacturing process:
 As water is forced through an activated carbon filter certain
compounds adhere to the gaps. Eventually the gaps become
full and the filter will need to be replaced.
 Substances that adhere to the gaps include chlorine, organic
arsenic.
How it works?

70
  According to a search it was found that an activation can be
achieved by passing water vapor (C +H2O CO+H2), air (C
+0.5O2 CO) or carbon dioxide-bearing gases (C +CO2 2CO)
through a carbon substance at 700-900˚C.
 This opens up the pores between carbon atoms that are
highly attractive to many organic and some inorganic
compounds.

Advantages
 The activated carbon filter makes water taste good and
eliminates chlorine and various organic compounds.
Disadvantages
 This filter does not filter out nearly enough contaminants,
and cannot be considered as primary filter.
 AC [activated carbon] filtration should only be used on water
that has been tested and found to be free of bacteria or
effectively treated for pathogenic bacteria

5. Solar Pasteurizer
 The solar pasteurizer is technically not a filter. The solar
pasteurizer is a device proven to eliminate bacteria from
water.
 The pasteurizer is a combination of reflective materials that
focus sunlight, a dark container that absorbs sunlight, and
insulating materials to prevent heat loss.
Manufacturing process:
 There are many ways to construct a solar pasteurizer such
as conical shape and box shape but no matter how it is
constructed it is essential that there is must be tight seals
and appropriate materials selected to work with.
How it works?

70
 The device is placed in the sunlight until the water reached
65˚C. At this temperature bacteria will die, and the water
will be purified.
 Users of solar pasteurizers will need a thermometer or wax
indicator to determine when water is ready for
consumptions. When a wax indicator reaches 65˚C it
shrinks, becomes unbalanced, and flips over in the water.
 This signals the completion of the pasteurization process.
 The wax filter re-expands when it cools and can be used
over indefinitely. Advantages
 Once constructed a solar pasteurizer requires nothing more
than a sunny day in order to eliminate bacteria.
 The wax indicator is preferred over a thermometer because
it is cheaper, more sustainable, and does not contain
mercury.
Disadvantages
 If there is no sunlight, it is impossible to heat the water to
65˚C.
 The solar pasteurizer also does not remove chemicals, hard
metals, or very many viruses.

70
 TABLE 2

As a conclusion the most efficient filters must contain:

 Bacteria Removal
 Hard Metal Removal
 Virus Removal
 Chemical Removal

Soil sensors types:

With all the different types of Soil Moisture Sensors and

measurement techniques and the different technologies that they
employ, choosing the right one can be a confusing and time-
consuming process.

Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) Sensors

70
Soil Moisture Sensors that use the Time Domain Reflectometry
(TDR) function in a somewhat similar way to FDR probes, but the
mechanics behind the measurement system are
different. TDR sensors propagate a pulse down a line into the soil,
which is terminated at the end by a probe with wave guides. TDR
systems measure the determine the water content of the soil by
measuring how long it takes the pulse to come back.
TDR soil moisture measurement devices require a device to
generate the electronic pulse and need to be carefully calibrated
in order to precisely measure the amount of time it takes for the
pulse to propagate down the line and back again. They are also
sensitive to the saline content of salt and relatively expensive
compared to some measurement methods.
However, TDR devices do respond quickly to varying soil
moisture.
Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR) Sensors
There are many soil moisture probes on the market today that
use the Frequency Domain Reflectometry method (FDR) of soil
measurement. This method of measurement also uses an
oscillator to propagate an electromagnetic signal through a metal
tine or other wave guide, but with this method, the difference
between the output wave and the return wave frequency is
measured to determine soil moisture.
Frequency Domain Reflectometry (FDR) probes are considered
accurate but must be calibrated for the type of soil they will be
buried in. They offer a faster response time compared to Time
Domain Reflectometer (TDR) probes and can be connected to a
standard data logger to collect readings.
Coaxial Impedance Dielectric Reflectometry Sensors
Soil Misture Probes that use the Coaxial Impedance Dielectric
Reflectometry method of soil moisture measurement employ an
oscillator to generate an electromagnetic signal that is

70
propagated through the unit (usually by metal tines or other wave
guide) and into the soil.
Part of this signal will be reflected back to the unit by the soil, and
the sensor will measure the amplitude of this reflected signal and
the incident signal in volts . The ratio of these raw voltages is
used in a mathematical numerical solution to Maxwell’s
equations to first calculate the impedance, then
both real and imaginary dielectric permittivities which in turn is
used to accurately estimate soil water content.
The Stevens Hydra Probe is the only commercially available
sensor to use the Coaxial Impedance Dielectric Reflectometry
methodalong with complex computations in soil measurement,
resulting in the Hydra Probe’s high measurement accuracy. The
soil measurement computations are performed by
a microcontroller inside the Hydra Probe, making it easy to use as
the probe can output results in standard engineering units.
Gypsum Blocks
Gypsum blocks Soil Moisture probes use two electrodes placed
into a small block of gypsum to measure soil water tension. Wires
connected to the electrodes are connected to either a portable
hand-held reader or a data logger. The amount of water in the soil
is determined by the electrical resistance between the two
electrodes within the gypsum block. More water present in the
soil will reduce the resistance, while less water will increase it.
While gypsum blocks can be relatively inexpensive and easy to
install compared to other types of soil sensors, they have to be
replaced periodically as the gypsum disintegrates. Gypsum blocks
are also more sensitive to having readings throwing off by soil
with high salinity (salt content).
Neutron Probes
Neutron probes are another way to measure soil
moisture content. A probe inserted in the ground emits low-level
radiation in the form of neutrons. These collide with the hydrogen

70
atoms contained in water, which is detected by the probe. The
more water content in the soil, the more neutrons are scattered
back at the device.
Neutron Soil Moisture probes are very accurate measurement
devices when used properly but are expensive compared to most
other measurement methods and generally have to be registered
with the federal government due to radioactive elements used to
emit the neutrons.
Gravimetric Probes
Gravimetric soil moisture measurement involves taking a sample
of the soil from the site, weighing the sample, drying it in an oven
for 24 hours and then re-weighing it to determine how much
water was lost.
This soil measurement technique is inexpensive and easy to
execute, but the long wait time from sample to result and the
process cannot be automated. It is also difficult to obtain data
from moderate soil depths as digging a new sample each time is
necessary.
When using a soil moisture sensor, it’s important to know what
type of soil you’re dealing with in order to ensure the most
accurate results possible. The following video will help you to
understand what type of soil you have.

Solutions Already tried:

1. Sewage Wastewater Treatment Plant
Untreated or undertreated sewage is a major source of water
pollution. So nationwide measurement should be taken to
build new sewage treatment plants and upgrade the existing
ones to meet the acceptable sewage-effluent disposal limit.
Sewage effluent disposal outlets to nearby creek and water
bodies that do not have sufficient self-cleansing capacity
need to be replaced. Either stringent treatment technologies
need to be adopted or a longer effluent disposal structure

70
 need to be rebuilt to find a larger suitable water body,
Wastewater treatment plants, also called sewage treatment
plants or water pollution control plants, remove most
pollutants from wastewater before it is released to local
waterways. At the plants, physical and biological processes
closely duplicate how wetlands, rivers, streams and lakes
naturally purify water. Treatment at these plants is quick,
taking only about seven hours to remove most of the
pollutants from the wastewater.
We will show an example of this system in Egypt,

2. Cairo's Wastewater Treatment

Wastewater Treatment Process :
Every day, wastewater goes down toilets and drains in
homes, schools, businesses and factories and then flows into
Egypt sewer system. Runoff from rain, street and sidewalk
washing, and other outdoor activities flows into catch basins
in the streets and from there into the sewers. In some Cairo
City neighborhoods, runoff from the streets is carried by
separate storm sewers directly to local streams, rivers and
bays. In most areas of the City, sanitary and industrial
wastewater, rainwater and street runoff are collected in the
same sewers and then conveyed together to the City's
treatment plants. This is known as a combined sewer
system. Sometimes, during heavy rains or snow, combined
sewers fill to capacity and are unable to carry the combined
sanitary and storm sewage to the plants. When this occurs
the mix of excess storm water and untreated sewage flows
directly into the City's waterways. This is called combined
sewer overflow (CSO). Approximately 70 percent of the City
sewers are combined.
Advantages:
1. Capable of removing 97% of suspended solids

70
2. Biological nitrification without adding chemicals
3. Oxidation and nitration
achieved
4. Biological phosphorous removal
5. Solids and liquids separation
6. Removes organics
7. Cost effective
8. Easily maintained mechanical
work
9. Self-sustaining system
Disadvantages:
1. Cleaning is a hassle FIGURE 34

2. Most plants need at least three

tanks
4. Temperature changes affect the tank greatly

2. Harvesting Fog:
This is one water harvesting technique that is not new to
mankind. In the Andes for example, the Inca Empire generated
water from harvesting fog from the cloud forests in the Andes by
building fog fences above the rain line. The Inca’s then condensed
the fog into usable water. The practice is still alive and well in
Chile and has received a technology boost from the Mechanical
Engineering Department of MIT. There are now modern fog fences
which collect water for agricultural and drinking water use.
Advantages:
Level of investment is very low in this technology, as the method
is highly inexpensive in terms of installation, operation and
maintenance. It is also environmentally friendly, having no
significant impact on the environmental resources.

Disadvantages:

70
The method is not suitable for large-scale applications
The method also calls for a specific combination of climatic and
topographical conditions for best results
The availability of installation sites for fog harvesting is somewhat
limited
Harvesting structures are massive and hence may be visually
invasive at times.
3.The Jonglei Phase I was to have been the first, crucial step in the
development of upper Nile projects.
Advantages:
The project would have increased the mean flow at Aswan by
an estimated 3.8 billion cubic meters, to be shared equally by
Egypt and Sudan. Construction began in 1978, but was halted
in 1983 because of civil war in southern Sudan. It is difficult to
foresee when, if ever, the Jonglei Canal might be complete.
4. Usaid

USAID invested more than $3.5 billion to help bring potable water
and sanitation services to over 25 million Egyptians to improve
Egyptian health and environment

a- 1980s
USAID initially targeted construction and rehabilitation of
wastewater systems in Cairo, Alexandria, and the three Suez
Canal Cities.

In Cairo, USAID funded a $727 million project from 1984-2006 to

improve wastewater collection, treatment, and disposal on the
West Bank of Cairo.

A high level of saline and contaminated groundwater, due to

leaking sewers and the regional influence of irrigation practices
on the water table, threatened the structural integrity of several
buildings and historic momunents in this area.

70
 After lowering the groundwater table to safe levels, USAID
installed new and improved sewerage services that benefit
hundreds of thousands of citizens in some of the poorest and
most densely populated areas of central Cairo – and allowed
commerce to grow.

USAID funded the installation of an entire piped sewage collection

network in Alexandria that eliminated untreated sewage from
Alexandria’s streets and Mediterranean Sea beaches. As a result,
infant mortality rates and waterborne diseases dropped by 80
percent. Built in the late 1980s, the construction and
rehabilitation of seven pump stations and the two major
wastewater treatment plants in Alexandria anticipated projected
population growth until 2010 – these plants continue to function,
but increased population has put a strain on these facilities. 

1990s
In the early 1990s, USAID focused on smaller cities in the Delta,
South Sinai, and Upper Egypt. Construction of over 30 water
treatment and wastewater facilities in Fayoum, Beni Suef, and
Minya governorates were constructed to benefit more than three
million people. However, given the downward trend in fertility
rates at the time, the systems did not anticipate such rapid
population growth – there are now nearly 11 million people living
in those three governorates.    

USAID shifted focus in the late 1990s from water construction

activities to institutional and policy reforms, with cost recovery
efforts as the centerpiece. In 2004, USAID helped the Government
of Egypt establish the Holding Company for Water and
Wastewater (HCWW), a national umbrella organization to
standardize and govern local water utilitity companies, as well as
the Egyptian Water Regulatory Authority. USAID also launched a
program to strengthen the policy, legal, and regulatory framework
for water distribution and access. By 2011, eleven of HCWW’s 24
subsidiaries have been able to achieve cost recovery for
operations and maintenance and the others have made great

70
strides toward sustainability and self-sufficiency – as well as
improving operating efficiencies, billing, and collection systems.
Recently, in a major breakthrough supported by USAID, Egypt’s
Cabinet approved a tariff structure for the water sector that will
allow HCWW to achieve operations and maintenance cost
recovery in less than five years, and full cost recovery and
sustainability in ten.

2000s
With reforms in place, USAID is focusing again on increasing
access to clean water and sanitation services in underserved rural
areas. These residents suffer from unreliable and sometimes low-
quality potable water service and lack of wastewater connections
and treatment. Water pollution in canals and drains still
represents the greatest threat to public health in these villages,
as wastewater is discharged without treatment to agricultural
drains and canals and carries the risk of waterborne disease.
Further, population growth has led to an expansion of settlements
over the heavily polluted, unsanitary waterways, putting villagers
further at risk.

USAID efforts will improve access to services for 650,000

residents in these areas – services that are essential to the health
of the residents and the economy of Upper Egypt. Not only do
better water and wastewater services and facilities contribute to
improvements in tourism, trade, and investment, but they also
create thousands of job opportunities for day laborers to construct
facilities. For instance, in the Baheeg community in Assiut
Governorate, USAID worked directly with the local municipal
water and wastewater holding company to construct a $2.6
million slow sand filter treatment plant with the capacity to supply
10,000 households (50,000 persons) with potable water.  An
additional $150,000 was used to fund the installation of a
distribution pipeline to tie the Baheeg community to the plant
using local unskilled labor and provided 1,700-person days of
local employment.  

70
Source[USAID]

Advantages:

1-the USAID projects regarded different aspects of water

development

2-They covered different places all over the country and wasn’t
concentrated on Cairo and Alexandria only like most of
development projects

3-they are long-term

projects were designed
to function for a long
time.

5. Cloud seeding in
Egypt

Egypt may use cloud

seeding (a technique
that involves infusing
cloud with chemicals to FIGURE 35
increase water
condensation) to provide a new source of water

List of Pros of Cloud Seeding

a. It creates rain. 
One big benefit of cloud seeding is being able to create
rain in regions that are most affected by droughts,
lessening the impact of the harsh climate. By using the
technique, farms can yield more crops due to the fact
that farmers will be able to grow plants in areas that
might not have supported them in the past. This means
cloud seeding can get rid of famine in the future.
b. It makes all areas more hospitable. 
There are dry regions of the world that are not

70
 habitable or even unsuitable for a visit due to drought.
However, cloud seeding can allow for increased rainfall
in these areas, making them more hospitable.
c. It could regulate the weather. 
Many of the best areas to grow crops face severe
weather, which can bring about damage to the
produce.
d. It would allow for economic improvement. 
If farmers can grow and sell more crops, then the
overall economy of a region would be greatly improved.
e. It can provide relief to those drought-stricken areas. 
Cloud seeding promotes the formation of raindrop,
which is essential for drought-stricken regions or places
that are suffering from water scarcity.
f. It can reduce crop damage because of precipitation. 
This technology has been effectively used to suppress
undesirable forms of precipitation

List of disadvantages
a. It uses potentially harmful chemicals.
b. It is not really proven to be effective. 
c. It may affect the weather in a negative way.
d. It can pose a negative risk for living organisms. 
e. It requires huge amounts of investments. 
f. It can lead to flooding and undesirable weather
problems.

6. Nanotechnology in filtration:
According to the World Health Organisation, 1.6 million people
die each year from diarrhoeal diseases attributable to lack of safe
drinking water as well as basic sanitation. Researchers in India
have come up with a solution to this perennial problem with a
water purification system using nanotechnology.

advantages:

70
  The technology removes microbes, bacteria and other
matter from water using composite nanoparticles, which
emit silver ions that destroy contaminants. "Our work can
start saving lives

 For just $2.50 a year you can deliver safe water for a family.

 It demonstrates the principle of low-cost water purification.

 Lower discharge volumes, lower retentate concentrations

than RO for low value salts;

 Reduction salt content and dissolved matter content (TDS) in

brackish water;

 Reduction in heavy metals and nitrates

 Reduction in color, tannins and turbidity;

 Softens hard water when specific softening membranes are

used;

 “chemical-free”, e.g. needs no salt or chemicals during

operation;

 pH of water after Nano-filtration is normally non-aggressive;

 Disinfection.

Disadvantages:

1) sensitivity to free chlorine

2) more expensive than reverse osmosis filters

3) High energy consumption

7. Membrane chemistry:

70
  Filtration Membranes, through which water passes to be
filtered and purified, are integral to modern water treatment
processing. The pores of membranes used in ultrafiltration
can be just 10 or 20 nanometers

 Recent breakthroughs have been credited with forcing down

the cost of desalinated water from $1 per cubic meter to
between $0.80 and $0.50 over five years. New ceramic
membranes are helping to make treatment more affordable.

Advantages:

a. Membrane filtration can be an alluring alternative for little

frameworks because of its little size and computerized
operation.
b. Layer forms are progressively utilized for expulsion of
microbes and different microorganisms, particulate material,
and characteristic natural material, which can bestow
shading, tastes, and scents to water.

Disadvantages:

 Fouling of the layers is the significant issue forestalling

boundless use of this innovation.

8. Smart monitoring:
In developing countries alone, it is estimated that 45m cubic
meters are lost every day in distribution networks. Leaks are not
only costly for companies, but increase pressure on stretched
water resources and raise the likelihood of pollutants infiltrating
supplies.

Advantages:

a) enable organizations to guarantee the integrity of their

water to supply systems. Electronic instruments, for
example, pressure and acoustic sensors, associated
remotely continuously in the process of smart monitoring.

70
 b) New monitoring technologies monitoring systems will allow
companies to detect and pinpoint leaks much quicker.

Disadvantages:

 Sometimes inaccuracy and lack of self-sustainability

9.Intelligent irrigation:
Approximately 70% of the world's freshwater is used by the
agricultural industry. Applying a more intelligent approach to
water management by deploying precision irrigation systems and
computer algorithms and modelling is already beginning to bring
benefits to farmers in developed countries.

Advantages:

One of the most obvious advantages is the time savings afforded

by an automatic sprinkler or drip irrigation system.

can be positioned so that water is more effectively targeted

where it is needed.

Disadvantages:

 These systems can be quite costly depending on the size of the

property.

70
Sources APA:
Responding to rapid population growth in Egypt, retrieved feb.13th ,2017 from
http://www.prb.org/Publications/Reports/2014/egypt-rapid-population-growth.aspx
Abdel-Shafy, H., & Aly, R. (2002). Water issue in Egypt: Resources, pollution and
protection endeavors. Navigation, 49(3.1), 4-6. Retrieved march 25th 2017 from
http://www.omfi.hu/cejoem/Volume8/Vol8No1/CE02_1-01.html
Mengistu, A. (2006). Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles. Ethiopia View Article
PubMed/NCBI Google Scholar. Retrieved March 27th 2017 from
http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/counprof/egypt/egypt.html
C. (2015, August 19). 12 Important Pros and Cons of Cloud Seeding. Retrieved
November 11, 2017, from https://connectusfund.org/12-important-pros-and-cons-of-
cloud-seeding
U.S. Energy Information Administration - EIA - Independent Statistics and Analysis.
(n.d.). Retrieved November 10, 2017, from
https://www.eia.gov/beta/international/analysis.cfm?iso=EGY
Noaman, M. N. (2017). Country Profile. Irrigated Agriculture in Egypt,1-8.
doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30216-4_1

A. (n.d.). Water Challenges of Egypt IWRM. Retrieved December 20, 2017, from
http://www.nwrpeg.net/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=63%3Awater-challenges-of-egypt-
iwrm&catid=34%3Anews&Itemid=55

Perlman, U. H. (n.d.). Irrigation techniques. Retrieved December 2, 2017, from

https://water.usgs.gov/edu/irmethods.html
Soil Moisture Sensor: Types and technology. (2016, March 29). Retrieved December
9, 2017, from https://www.auroras.eu/soil-moisture-sensor-types-and-technology/
Explain the traditional methods such as Chain Pump,Moat,Ra hat,Dhekli. Explain the
traditional methods such as Chain Pump,Moat,Ra hat,Dhekli.
if(window.location.pathname.indexOf("/ask-question/answer")>0){ $
(".innerpage_hide_title_anchor").remove(); $(".innerpage_hide_title_span").show(); $
(".innerpage_hide").remove(); $(".innerpage_hide1").show(); console.log(1); }
else{ $(".innerpage_hide_title_span").remove(); $(".innerpage_hide1").remove();
console.log(2); }. (n.d.). Retrieved November 21, 2017, from
https://www.nextgurukul.in/nganswers/ask-question/answer/Explain-the-traditional-
methods-such-as-Chain-PumpMoatRa-hatDhekli/Crop-Production-and-
Management/7617.htm
Irrigation. (n.d.). Retrieved December 21, 2017, from
http://www.climatetechwiki.org/technology/irrigation

70
Northeast Region Certified Crop Adviser (NRCCA) Study Resources. (n.d.). Retrieved
December 21, 2017, from https://nrcca.cals.cornell.edu/soil/CA3/CA0324.php
Water and Sanitation | Egypt. (n.d.). Retrieved December 5, 2017, from
https://www.usaid.gov/egypt/water-and-sanitation
GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON (GAC) FACT SHEET(Rep.). (2016). Retrieved
December 1, 2017, from Water quality association website:
https://www.wqa.org/Portals/0/Technical/Technical%20Fact
%20Sheets/2016_GAC.pdf
ANALYSIS-Egypt spat fuels water tension in Nile Basin. (2010, April 27). Retrieved
November 06, 2017, from https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE62R09C
El-Sadek, A. Water Resour Manage (2010) 24: 2437. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-
009-9560-9 http://www.nwrpeg.net/index.php?
option=com_content&view=article&id=63:water-challenges-of-
egyptiwrm&catid=34:news&Itemid=55
Drinking water treatment plant residuals management technical reports (Rep.).
(2011, September). Retrieved December 3, 2017, from United states environmental
protection agency website:
https://www.epa.ie/pubs/advice/drinkingwater/EPA_water_treatment_manual_
%20filtration1.pdf

Design Requirements:
The effective solution for these problems must contain some
characteristics:
1. Efficiency, as it should demonstrate a proven water saving
technique
That at least saves 50% of the water usage.
2. Capable of producing neutral, usable water for drinking or
irrigation
So that it won’t harm the soil
3. Solids and liquids separation, because some solids associated
with water can be toxic for plant and can carry viruses, bacteria
and rust from pipes.
4. Cost effective
5. Self-sustaining system
6. environmentally friendly, having no significant impact on the
environmental resources.
70
7. suitable for large-scale applications
8. suitable for various climatic and topographical conditions, so
that it becomes a general solution and not restricted on some
conditions only.
9. Solves various problems such as; the sources scarcity, water
leakage problem by using technological devices and scientific
hypothesis
10. Can reduce crop damage, by controlling the amount of water
entering the plant
11. Doesn’t Use potentially harmful chemicals for treatment ,
transportation or other.

Selection of solution

In Order to accomplish our goal to make a successful solution

concerning the water problems in Egypt, we have worked on
some features that make our solution efficient when compared to
other solutions.
Our solution is a process that decreases the usage of water in
many fields and solve the problem in the largest consumption of
water field which is agriculture.
We based our solution on the research and the prior solutions
‘advantages and disadvantages, our solution is a process
including Domestic water management, Decentralized Reverse
osmosis filtration, Water storage, smart irrigation ( SDI –
Subsurface drip irrigation ) but regarding each’s disadvantages,
developing them and enhancing their efficiency.
Our solutions have some characteristics that already meet the
challenge's design requirements such as:
1: irrigation method high efficiency as it decreases the amount of
water entering a plant and as a result it reduces crop damage.
2: the system is simple to manufacture and can be applied to
small and large applications

70
3: the system can be manipulated to be self-sustaining
4: the system can reduce the crop damage as it won't give the
plant water more than it's need
5: it can be suitable for various climatic and topographical
condition

.
Our solution consists of 5 phases:

1-Indoors water conservation:

Pipes: Using of Pressure-reducing valves or PRVs due to its

advantages that it can be used to control the
pressure in the Incoming main or the
distribution system. They can result in
reduction of problems happening due to high
pressure, such as; excessive water
consumption and exacerbate leakage.
The valve can be preset or adjustable. PRVs
can typically accept delivery pressures of up to
25bar (2 500 kPa) and deliver FIGURE 36
a pressure of 1.5 - 6bar (150 -
600 kPa) under variable flow
conditions

Taps:
FIGURE 37
Using Nozzle sprays/Jets to
increase the flow rate using Bernoulli’s law Q (Flow rate) =A
(cross sectional area) *v (velocity)
We will manage domestic water by supporting the water taps with
nozzle jets in order to increase the velocity of the water and as a
result, the water flow rate so that it would be more efficient in
cleaning and will also serve in the next phases.

70
2-Waste water treatment:
Membrane Filtration: We will Treat the water Using Membrane
filtration, due to its advantages that it is suitable for small
systems because of its small size and automated operation.
Membrane processes are increasingly employed for removal of
bacteria and other microorganisms, and natural organic material.
Paper and other fibrous filter media retain waterborne particles,
including microbes, by straining them out based on size
exclusion, sediment them within the depth of the filter matrix or
by adsorbing them to the filter medium surface.

They have only one disadvantage, the accumulation of

contaminates on the membranes.
To solve this problem our solution will have adsorbent pipe that
will be connected to the membranes to adsorb particles
continuously

Reverse osmosis:
Reverse osmosis works by
using a high-pressure pump
to increase the pressure on
the salt side of the RO and
force the water across the
semi-permeable RO
membrane, leaving almost
FIGURE 38
all (around 95% to 99%)of
dissolved salts behind in the reject stream.
The amount of pressure required depends on the salt
concentration on the feed water. The more concentrated the feed
water, the more pressure required to overcome the osmotic
pressure.

The Reverse Osmosis Filter membrane consists mainly of three

layers that catch contaminants:
1-Polyamide: it is proved that it is resistant to acids of high pH like
nitric, sulfuric and carbolic acids
70
2-Polysulfone like the polyamide but with narrower pores that
blocks several materials.
3-Polyester: acid-resistance and excellent resistance against
elevated temperature up to 302℉.

Reverse osmosis is among one of the best membrane filters’

methods as it is not expensive nor hard to manufacture
comparative to other membranes like nanotechnology
membranes, and it is efficient in separating water and solids.

GAC:
In our solution the granular activated carbon (GAC) works as
second filtration phase.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and most state-
based departments of health consider adsorption by granular
activated carbon (GAC) to be the best available technology for the
removal of many organic materials as:
1-it removes and retains the negatively charged viruses and
bacteria effectively by electrostatic adsorption.
2-it can be used for de-chlorination. And the removal of
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) associated with chlorine and
alternative disinfectants too much chlorine in the soil can
cause scorched or burned
appearance. Leaf tissue may FIGURE 39
appear bleached, instead of
scorched. Leaves may be
smaller than usual. They
may yellow and drop early.
Chlorine toxicity can result
from air pollution, in the
form of chlorine gas, or from
excess chloride in the soil.
3-Algal toxins, such as
microcystin-LR and anatoxin-A
4-Bacteria, viruses and parasites such as cryptosporidium
and giardia

70
 5-Endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDC)
6-Pharmaceuticals and
personal care products EQUATION 1
(PPCP)
7-Taste and odor-causing compounds (T&O) 8-Organic
materials from decaying plants and other naturally occurring
matter (NOM) which serve as the precursors for DBPs

So, in our solution it will be only two filtration phases, coagulation

(by RO Membranes) and disinfection (by GAC) considering that
mostly the domestic waste water has a pre-filtration like a rapid
mixing.

3-Storage:
After the water is treated it is stored in a tank left underground;
so, it won’t be affected with the heat energy and will have less
evaporation rate.

4-Soil Moisture Sensor: The moisture sensor detects the amount

of water occurring in the soil, connecting a soil moisture sensor to
a simple irrigation system will convert it into a "smart" irrigation
controller that prevents irrigation cycles when the soil is already
wet.

In case the tank is empty we have enhanced the smart

application of sensor with LED lamps to notify the farmers when
the plants need water.
So if he observe the emptiness of the tank he can refill it.

5-SDI
(Subsurface drip irrigation) Subsurface drip irrigation is suitable
for our requirements as it reduces the consumption of water as it
is suitable for various soil types
a- Drip/trickle irrigation systems are methods of micro irrigation
where water is applied through emitters to the soil surface
transporting water, drop by drop or as small streams. The

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 discharge rate of the emitters is low. The system should
maintain adequate levels of soil moisture in the rooting
areas, fostering the best use of available nutrients and a
suitable environment for healthy plant roots systems.
Managing the exact moisture requirement for each plant, the
system significantly reduces water wastage and promotes
efficient use. Compared to surface irrigation, which can
provide 60 per cent water-use efficiency and sprinklers
systems which can provide 75 per cent efficiency, drip
irrigation can provide as much as 90 per cent water-use
efficiency.
b- Subsurface drip irrigation is a low-pressure, high efficiency
irrigation system that uses buried drip tubes or drip tape to
meet crop water needs. Subsurface water and improves
yields by eliminating surface water evaporation and reducing
the incidence of weeds and disease.

FIGURE 40

Selection of prototype:
The design requirements we chose to test the prototype are
 Solids and liquids separation
 Doesn’t Use potentially harmful chemicals
 Cost effective
 Solves various problems such as; the sources scarcity,
water leakage problem by using technological devices
and scientific hypothesis
 environmentally friendly, having no significant impact
on the environmental resources

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To be easy to manufacture we have replaced some characteristics
in the solution with other handy solutions that will also accomplish
the same target.
For example, we replaced the RO membranes with ordinary wax
membranes, that will as well remove particles and color from
water.
We used bottles and trunks to simulate pipes and channels, as
they both can serve water.

the prototype achieves our design requirements as

1: solid liquid separation as we put gauze to separate solids from
the liquid
2: Doesn’t Use potentially harmful chemicals as we use filter for
treatment which doesn't use chemicals
3: Doesn’t cause ecological disruption as the system doesn't
affect the soil, water and air
4: Solves various problems such as;
the sources scarcity, water leakage
problem by using technological
devices and scientific hypothesis
[Figure41] as we use a pump
connected to an Arduino to control FIGURE 41
the movement of water
5: environmentally friendly, having
no significant impact on the
environmental resources because
we made sure not to use chemicals
so that we won’t pollute the soil or
water and we want to use
alternative energy as source of
energy for the pump and Arduino

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Materials [TABLE 3&4] and methods
System Construction:
1-We brought the Arduino UNO board, soil moisture sensor, pump,
LEDs and relay and connected them to each other using the
breadboard and jumpers. We connected a resistance to the circuit
so that neither the lamp nor the pump is damaged due to
increase of current intensity.
2-After making sure that the connections are correct we wrote the
code for the moisture sensor to create our auto-watering system,
so that the pump works when the soil needs water and the LED
lamps work in contrast. (and vice versa).
Then we uploaded the code on the Arduino board.
3-We Made a filter using the bottle, the filter phase, and the
charcoal.
4- To store the water we made an acrylic box in the fab lab and
connected it to the pump and the filter using soaker hose which
we inserted the drippers in.
TABLE 3

Material Cost
Acrylic Box -
Arduino UNO 140L.E
Soil Moisture Sensor 90L.E
Jumpers 7L. E
Breadboard 24L.E
LEDs 8L. E
Relay Module 20L.E
Resistors -
Water Pump 75L. E
Filter Phase 10L. E
Empty bottles -
Hoses and Soaker Hoses 2L. E
Soil Sample -
Drippers -
Charcoal -
Total 376L.E

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Safety Precautions:
1- Making sure that the wires are covered so they won’t
discharge electricity

School
Lampa troniks
Future Electronics
Lampa Troniks
Lampa troniks
Lampa Troniks
Lampa troniks
School Fab lab
Pet shop
ElHayah filters
Home
Fac. of Agriculture
School
Fac. Of Agriculture

TABLE 4

2- Using the cutter and other tools carefully so that nobody

would cut his hands or get hurt somehow.
3- Having a medic kit with the group in case someone had an
injury, bruise, cut, or burn by accident during our work.
4- In the efficiency test, making sure that we are holding the
beaker properly so that it won’t break and cut our hands.
5- In the pH test, using pH scale carefully so that it
won’t get damaged Source

6- Making sure that there is no pores or gaps between

the acrylic sides so that it won’t leak any water

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Test Plan:
From the previous discussed requirements and characteristics
that a successful solution should obtain we have chosen specific
requirements to test in our prototype which are:
1. Efficiency, as it should demonstrate a proven water saving
technique
That at least saves 50% of the water.
2. Capable of producing neutral, usable water for drinking or
irrigation
3. Self-sustaining system
4. suitable for various climatic and topographical conditions

Test methods
Efficiency Test:
1. To test the efficiency, we used two 500ml beakers.
2. We filled the first one with 200ml of water and poured it
through the filter to observe the water loss. We did it thrice to
avoid the error in measurement.
The Ability to produce Neutralized Water:
To make sure that our system doesn’t affect the acidity of the
water we test the pH of the water
1. We tested the pH of the water by passing water by our system
and measuring the pH before and after passing by the filter
2. We used a pH Scale and two beakers to do this test

Sustainability:
To make sure that it is a self-sustaining system we have to be
sure that it requires less manual use to be activated
In order to test it we:
1. Put the water in the filter

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 2. Connect the device to electricity outlet
3. Put the soil moisture sensor in soil
4. Observe for a period of time
Suitability for various topographical and climatic
conditions:
1. Using various soil types to make sure that our management
process is universal and isn’t restricted on a specific soil type
2. Observing and Data collection
Data Collection:
Efficiency test:
We have repeated the test thrice to make sure it is accurate and reliable and
we have got a result of an average 93.2% application efficieny as our device
is capable of producing water of high quality and quantity with losses of
about 7% which is really efficient

  Amount of Amount of Efficiency

water(in) water(out) percentage
First trial 200ml 185ml 92.5%

Second trial 220ml 200ml 90.9%

Third trial 210ml 202.25 96.3%

Average     93.2%

Tabl
e5
TABLE
6

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 7TABLE

  Before the filter After the filter

First trial 7.59ph 7.60ph

Second trial 7.69ph 7.70ph

Third trial 7.65ph 7.66ph

Average 7.64ph 7.65ph

  Average Increase in pH 0.01PH+

pH test: [Table 7]
we had to make sure that the acidity is not affected by the
treatment nor the storage process so we had tested the pH of the
water before and after passing by our device and we have
founded that there’s a possible increase of 0.01Ph to water.
Sustainability:
To test the sustainability, we poured water into our system and
we kept it and observed for a time to see if it has a self-
sustainable system or not.
Using dry soil in first case, we observed that automatically the
water was flowing from the tank to the soil and after short time it
has stopped pumping water.
In the second case we used wet water in the same previous
conditions and found that the water in the tank wasn’t pumped
into the soil until 10 hours passed and the water was pumped
automatically ; as the plant have absorbed the water.
In conclusion, pump will not work nor pump the water unless the
soil needs water.

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Conclusions:
From the search and the tests’ results we observed that our
solution have obtained the successful solution design
requirements we have detected as:
1. The solution has high efficiency as the filter has efficiency of
93.2%.
2. The pH of the water before and after treatments have a
negligible change (from the test it was 0.01) which means that
the water remains valid for agriculture as agriculture water pH
level should range between 6 and 8.
3. Concluded form sustainability test, the system is self-sustaining
it doesn’t need any interference if people.
4. The drip irrigation method uses small amount of water
compared to other ways and systems and is considered an
efficient management application.
using subsurface technique enhance the technique efficiency and
overcomes the drip irrigation disadvantages like; being not
suitable for some types of soil, and having water not reaching the
root of some thick plants.
5. The filter have demonstrated a high efficiency and produced
neutral usable water without using or producing hazardous
chemicals or any other substances affecting the productivity of
the plants or the balance of the ecosystem.
6. This solution can be used as a small scale like in the prototype
made and still work efficiently.
7. it can be used in other fields besides agriculture like industrial
field.
8. The solution saves time and energy of the farmer or worker in
the farms or industries.

70
Recommendations:
1. We recommend using solar cell as a source of electricity for the
Arduino and for the water pump.
2. That the tank will be underground to prevent the evaporation.
3. To use modern drippers to decrease the amount of water used.
4. That the materials of the pipes and tanks should have low
cohesion with the liquids; such as PVC pipes.
5. Modify the plants to GMO (genetic modified organisms) to
increase the number of crops and decrease the amount of used
water.
6. To apply the system on fertilizers besides water.
7. Improve the soil moisture sensor to increase its range and
accuracy.
Learning transfer:

Chemistry l.o1 We knew we understood

different types of the properties of
water and different types of
outline the water and how
purification of to treat the
the water supply water and
according to it
we chose the
most efficient
and most
reliable filter to
us.
l.o2 Demonstrate we took
understanding colligative
that water from properties
different natural cohesion and
sources contains adhesion and
different determined the
varieties of material of the
dissolved tank and pipes
substances, according to it

70
 discuss the which has low
environmental cohesion so that
sources and the water will
effects of the not be stuck to
dissolved the surface of
substances and the materials
the properties of because if it has
water high cohesion it
would decrease
the efficiency.
Computer science l.o1 C+ language used it to make
and and insert the
programming data to the
Arduino.
Earth science l.o1 The unusual we took about
properties of the water cycle,
water contribute its phases, types
to its pathways and properties.
through earth's This helped us to
systems. know the type of
water we are
going to use in
our solution and
which phase
does the wasting
of water
happens.
l.o2 factors which we learnt about
affect water the different
reservoirs and types of
associated costs reservoirs and
chose the best
and most
reliable type for
us to work with.
l.o3 human and we learnt the
natural factors wasting of water
that control how it happens
water resources and in which
and options for field. We learnt
water about how to
conservation. conserve and
manage the
usage of water.
l.o4 Movement of we learnt about
pollutants into the filtration
water reservoirs processes and
and existing its types and
water treatment chose the type
methods to to work on.

70
 create
innovative
methods to
supply fresh
water to areas of
Egypt.
physics l.o3 Concepts of we learnt about
electric potential the circuits and
energy and how to calculate
voltage to volts, amperes
analyze the flow and ohms. We
of current knew how to
through connect the
conductors and circuits series
resistors and parallel and
we knew the
advantages and
disadvantages of
each type of
connections.
l.o4 Construct and we learnt about
analyze DC different types of
circuits with materials used in
simple resistive the circuit. We
elements knew that when
we increase the
cross-sectional
area of the wire
and decrease
the length of the
wire the
resistance
decreases and
vice versa. It
also helped us to
know that when
we increase the
resistance and
connect it in
series with
lamps the light
intensity will
increase.

70