An Intuitive Guide To Linear Algebra

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Despite two linear algebra classes, my knowledge consisted of “Matrices,

determinants, eigen something something”.
Why? Well, let’s try this course format:
Name the course Linear Algebra but focus on things called matrices and
vectors
Teach concepts like Row/Column order with mnemonics instead of
explaining the reasoning
Favor abstract examples (2d vectors! 3d vectors!) and avoid real-world topics
until the nal week
The survivors are physicists, graphics programmers and other masochists. We

missed the key insight:
Linear algebra gives you mini-spreadsheets for your math equations.
We can take a table of data (a matrix) and create updated tables from the original.
It’s the power of a spreadsheet written as an equation.
Here’s the linear algebra introduction I wish I had, with a real-world stock market
example.
What’s In A Name?
“Algebra” means, roughly, “relationships”. Grade-school algebra explores the
relationship between unknown numbers. Without knowing x and y, we can still
work out that (x + y) = x + 2xy + y .2 2 2
https://betterexplained.com/articles/linear-algebra-guide/ 1/25
“Linear Algebra” means, roughly, “line-like relationships”. Let’s clarify a bit.
Straight lines are predictable. Imagine a rooftop: move forward 3 horizontal feet Join 450k Monthly
(relative to the ground) and you might rise 1 foot in elevation (The slope! Rise/run Readers
= 1/3). Move forward 6 feet, and you’d expect a rise of 2 feet. Contrast this with
climbing a dome: each horizontal foot forward raises
Enjoy theyou a different
article? Keep amount.
reading to
gain an intuitive understanding of
Lines are nice and predictable: math.
If 3 feet forward has a 1-foot rise, then going 10x as far should give a 10x rise
(30 feet forward is a 10-foot rise) Email Address
If 3 feet forward has a 1-foot rise, and 6 feet has a 2-foot rise, then (3 + 6) feet
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should have a (1 + 2) foot rise
In math terms, an operation F is linear if scaling inputs scales the output, and
adding inputs adds the outputs:
In our example, F (x) calculates the rise when moving forward x feet, and the
properties hold:
Linear Operations
An operation is a calculation based on some inputs. Which operations are linear
and predictable? Multiplication, it seems.
Exponents (F (x) = x ) aren’t predictable: 10 is 100, but 20 is 400. We doubled

2 2 2
the input but quadrupled the output.
Surprisingly, regular addition isn’t linear either. Consider the “add three”
function F (x) = x + 3:
We doubled the input and did not double the output. (Yes, F (x) = x + 3 happens
to be the equation for an offset line, but it’s still not “linear” because
F (10) ≠ 10 ⋅ F (1) . Fun.)
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So, what types of functions are actually linear? Plain-old scaling by a constant, or
functions that look like: F (x) = ax. In our roof example, a = 1/3. Readers
But life isn’t too boring. We can still combine multiple
Enjoy thelinear functions
article? (A, B, Cto)
Keep reading
into a larger one, G: gain an intuitive understanding of
math.
G is still linear, since doubling the input continues to double the output:
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We have “mini arithmetic”: multiply inputs by a constant, and add the results. It’s
actually useful because we can split inputs apart, analyze them individually, and
combine the results:
If we allowed non-linear operations (like x ) we couldn’t split our work: 2
(a + b) ≠ a + b . Limiting ourselves to linear operations has its advantages.

2 2 2
Organizing Inputs And Operations

Most courses hit you in the face with the details of a matrix. “Ok kids, let’s learn to
speak. Select a subject, verb and object. Next, conjugate the verb. Then, add the
prepositions…”
No! Grammar is not the focus. What’s the key idea?
We have a bunch of inputs to track

We have predictable, linear operations to perform (our “mini-arithmetic”)
We generate a result, perhaps transforming it again
Ok. First, how should we track a bunch of inputs? How about a list:
x
y
z
Not bad. We could write it (x, y, z) too — hang onto that thought.
Next, how should we track our operations? Remember, we only have “mini
arithmetic”: multiplications by a constant, with a nal addition. If our operation
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F behaves like this:
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We could abbreviate the entire function as (3,Enjoy

4, 5). the article?
We know to Keep reading
multiply the to
rst
input by the rst value, the second input by the second value, etc., and add the
math.
result.
Only need the rst input? Email Address
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Let’s spice it up: how should we handle multiple sets of inputs? Let’s say we want
to run operation F on both (a, b, c) and (x, y, z). We could try this:
But it won’t work: F expects 3 inputs, not 6. We should separate the inputs into
groups:
1st Input 2nd Input

--------------------
a x
b y
c z
Much neater.
And how could we run the same input through several operations? Have a row for
each operation:
F: 3 4 5
G: 3 0 0
Neat. We’re getting organized: inputs in vertical columns, operations in

horizontal rows.
Visualizing The Matrix

Words aren’t enough. Here’s how I visualize inputs, operations, and outputs:
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math.
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Imagine “pouring” each input through each operation:Join Newsletter!
As an input passes an operation, it creates an output item. In our example, the

input (a, b, c) goes against operation F and outputs 3a + 4b + 5c. It goes against
operation G and outputs 3a + 0 + 0.
Time for the red pill. A matrix is a shorthand for our diagrams:
A matrix is a single variable representing a spreadsheet of inputs or operations.
Trickiness #1: The reading order Join 450k Monthly

Readers
Instead of an input => matrix => output ow, we use function notation, like y =
f(x) or f(x) = y. We usually write a matrix with a capital letter (F), and a single
input column with lowercase (x). Because we gain havean
several inputs
intuitive (A) and outputs
understanding of
(B), they’re considered matrices too: math.
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Trickiness #2: The numbering
Matrix size is measured as RxC: row count, then column count, and abbreviated
“m x n” (I hear ya, “r x c” would be easier to remember). Items in the matrix are
referenced the same way: aij is the ith row and jth column (I hear ya, “i” and “j”
are easily confused on a chalkboard). Mnemonics are ok with context, and here’s
what I use:
RC, like Roman Centurion or RC Cola

Use an “L” shape. Count down the L, then across
Why does RC ordering make sense? Our operations matrix is 2×3 and our input
matrix is 3×2. Writing them together:
[Operation Matrix] [Input Matrix]

[operation count x operation size] [input size x input count]
[m x n] [p x q] = [m x q]
[2 x 3] [3 x 2] = [2 x 2]
Notice the matrices touch at the “size of operation” and “size of input” (n = p).
They should match! If our inputs have 3 components, our operations should
expect 3 items. In fact, we can only multiply matrices when n = p.
The output matrix has m operation rows for each input, and q inputs, giving a “m
x q” matrix.
Fancier Operations
Let’s get comfortable with operations. Assuming 3 inputs, we can whip up a few
1-operation matrices:
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Adder: [1 1 1] Readers
Averager: [1/3 1/3 1/3]
The “Adder” is just a + b + c. The “Averager” isgain
similar: (a + b +understanding
an intuitive c)/3 = a/3 + b/3of+
c/3. math.
Try these 1-liners:

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First-input only: [1 0 0]
Second-input only: [0 1 0] Join Newsletter!
Third-input only: [0 0 1]
And if we merge them into a single matrix:
[1 0 0]
[0 1 0]
[0 0 1]
Whoa — it’s the “identity matrix”, which copies 3 inputs to 3 outputs, unchanged.
How about this guy?
[1 0 0]
[0 0 1]
[0 1 0]
He reorders the inputs: (x, y, z) becomes (x, z, y).
And this one?
[2 0 0]
[0 2 0]
[0 0 2]
He’s an input doubler. We could rewrite him to 2*I (the identity matrix) if we were
so inclined.
And yes, when we decide to treat inputs as vector coordinates, the operations
matrix will transform our vectors. Here’s a few examples:
Scale: make all inputs bigger/smaller

Skew: make certain inputs bigger/smaller Join 450k Monthly
Flip: make inputs negative Readers
Rotate: make new coordinates based on old ones (East becomes North,
North becomes West, etc.) Enjoy the article? Keep reading to
These are geometric interpretations of multiplication, and how to warp a vector
math.
space. Just remember that vectors are examples of data to modify.
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A Non-Vector Example: Stock Market Portfolios
Let’s practice linear algebra in the real world: Join Newsletter!
Input data: stock portfolios with dollars in Apple, Google and Microsoft stock
Operations: the changes in company values after a news event
Output: updated portfolios
And a bonus output: let’s make a new portfolio listing the net pro t/loss from the
event.
Normally, we’d track this in a spreadsheet. Let’s learn to think with linear
algebra:
The input vector could be ($Apple, $Google, $Microsoft), showing the dollars
in each stock. (Oh! These dollar values could come from another matrix that
multiplied the number of shares by their price. Fancy that!)
The 4 output operations should be: Update Apple value, Update Google
value, Update Microsoft value, Compute Pro t
Visualize the problem. Imagine running through each operation:
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The key is understanding why we’re setting up the matrix like this, not blindly
crunching numbers.
Got it? Let’s introduce the scenario.
Suppose a secret iDevice is launched: Apple jumps 20%, Google drops 5%, and
Microsoft stays the same. We want to adjust each stock value, using something
similar to the identity matrix:
New Apple [1.2 0 0]

New Google [0 0.95 0]
New Microsoft [0 0 1]
The new Apple value is the original, increased by 20% (Google = 5% decrease,
Microsoft = no change).
Oh wait! We need the overall pro t:
Total change = (.20 * Apple) + (-.05 * Google) + (0 * Microsoft)
Our nal operations matrix:
New Apple [1.2 0 0]

New Google [0 0.95 0]
New Microsoft [0 0 1]
Total Profit [.20 -.05 0]
Making sense? Three inputs enter, four outputs leave. The rst three operations
are a “modi ed copy” and the last brings the changes together.
Now let’s feed in the portfolios for Alice $1000, $1000, $1000) and Bob $500,
$2000, $500). We can crunch the numbers by hand, or use a Wolfram Alpha
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(calculation):
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math.
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(Note: Inputs should be in columns, but it’s easier to type rows. The Transpose
operation, indicated by t (tau), converts rows to columns.)
The nal numbers: Alice has $1200 in AAPL, $950 in GOOG, $1000 in MSFT, with
a net pro t of $150. Bob has $600 in AAPL, $1900 in GOOG, and $500 in MSFT,
with a net pro t of $0.
What’s happening? We’re doing math with our own spreadsheet. Linear
algebra emerged in the 1800s yet spreadsheets were invented in the 1980s. I
blame the gap on poor linear algebra education.
Historical Notes: Solving Simultaneous Equations

An early use of tables of numbers (not yet a “matrix”) was bookkeeping for linear
systems:
becomes
We can avoid hand cramps by adding/subtracting rows in the matrix and output,
vs. rewriting the full equations. As the matrix evolves into the identity matrix, the
values of x, y and z are revealed on the output side.
This process, called Gauss-Jordan elimination, saves time. However, linear Join 450k Monthly
algebra is mainly about matrix transformations, not solving large sets of Readers
equations (it’d be like using Excel for your shopping list).
Terminology, Determinants, And Eigenstuff math.
Words have technical categories to describe their use (nouns, verbs, adjectives).
Matrices can be similarly subdivided.
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Descriptions like “upper-triangular”, “symmetric”, “diagonal” are the shape of
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the matrix, and in uence their transformations.
The determinant is the “size” of the output transformation. If the input was a
unit vector (representing area or volume of 1), the determinant is the size of the
transformed area or volume. A determinant of 0 means matrix is “destructive”
and cannot be reversed (similar to multiplying by zero: information was lost).
The eigenvector and eigenvalue represent the “axes” of the transformation.
Consider spinning a globe: every location faces a new direction, except the poles.
An “eigenvector” is an input that doesn’t change direction when it’s run through
the matrix (it points “along the axis”). And although the direction doesn’t change,
the size might. The eigenvalue is the amount the eigenvector is scaled up or down
when going through the matrix.
(My intuition here is weak, and I’d like to explore more. Here’s a nice diagram and
video.)
Matrices As Inputs
A funky thought: we can treat the operations matrix as inputs!
Think of a recipe as a list of commands (Add 2 cups of sugar, 3 cups of our…).
What if we want the metric version? Take the instructions, treat them like text,
and convert the units. The recipe is “input” to modify. When we’re done, we can
follow the instructions again.
An operations matrix is similar: commands to modify. Applying one operations

matrix to another gives a new operations matrix that applies both
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transformations, in order.
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If N is “adjust for portfolio for news” and T is “adjust portfolio for taxes” then
applying both: Enjoy the article? Keep reading to
TN = X math.
means “Create matrix X, which rst adjusts for news, and then adjusts for taxes”.
Whoa! We didn’t need an input portfolio, we Email
applied one matrix directly to the
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The beauty of linear algebra is representing an entire spreadsheet calculation
with a single letter. Want to apply the same transformation a few times? Use N2 or
N3.
Can We Use Regular Addition, Please?

Yes, because you asked nicely. Our “mini arithmetic” seems limiting:
multiplications, but no addition? Time to expand our brains.
Imagine adding a dummy entry of 1 to our input: (x, y, z) becomes (x, y, z, 1).
Now our operations matrix has an extra, known value to play with! If we want
x + 1 we can write:
[1 0 0 1]
And x + y - 3 would be:
[1 1 0 -3]
Huzzah!
Want the geeky explanation? We’re pretending our input exists in a 1-higher
dimension, and put a “1” in that dimension. We skew that higher dimension,
which looks like a slide in the current one. For example: take input (x, y, z, 1) and
run it through:
[1 0 0 1]
[0 1 0 1]
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[0
[0
0
0
1
0
1]
1]
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Enjoy
The result is (x + 1, y + 1, z + 1, 1). Ignoring the the article? every
4th dimension, Keep reading
input gottoa
+1. We keep the dummy entry, and can do more gain an intuitive
slides later. understanding of
math.
Mini-arithmetic isn’t so limited after all.
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Onward
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I’ve overlooked some linear algebra subtleties, and I’m not too concerned. Why?
These metaphors are helping me think with matrices, more than the classes I
“aced”. I can nally respond to “Why is linear algebra useful?” with “Why are
spreadsheets useful?”
They’re not, unless you want a tool used to attack nearly every real-world
problem. Ask a businessman if they’d rather donate a kidney or be banned from
Excel forever. That’s the impact of linear algebra we’ve overlooked: ef cient
notation to bring spreadsheets into our math equations.
Happy math.
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Bart • 2 years ago
You lost me at "Exponents...aren't predictable."
2△ ▽ • Reply • Share ›
ben > Bart • 7 months ago

By predictable, he means there is a consistent linear growth with simple multiplication.
For example if your function is x/2 (or x * 1/2), there is a .5 growth for each unit
increase in x. f(x) - this will give you a straight line on the xy plane. However, if your
function is x^2, then each unit increase in x will not give you consistent linear growth,
but a curve that looks like the right half of a 'U' (exponential growth) which is not a
straight line.
Tl • 5 years ago
I like to think of Eigenvectors and eigenvalues from the perspective of a pitcher standing on
the mound on a windy day. In the space between the pitcher and home plate there are many
lines of force going in different directions created by the swirling winds. Some of these happen
to line up perfectly with the direction the pitcher is throwing the ball. These are Eigenvectors.
When the ball is thrown along this perfectly lined up vector it will gain speed in addition to the
initial speed it was thrown with. This additional speed is the eigenvalue. The lines of force are
contours in the space that influence the way the ball moves through that space.
Derek • 4 years ago

A few more ideas, mostly for those who code:
Not only are square matrices useful for storing directed graphs, the relationship between
matrix vector multiplication and Breadth First Search on a graph is a very powerful one. Put
simply, for any given state on your graph, you can iterate each 'marker' one step forward via a
matrix vector multiplication. In this sense, your matrix quite literally is a map from one
allowed point to the next.
With respect to eigenvalues and eigenvectors: High levlel, I wouldn't worry about nits like
Jordan blocks. The gist is: if you want to, you can diagonalize a matrix. You can always do so
when you have unique eigenvalues. If eigenvalues are not unique, you still can sometimes --
but even then if you have linearly dependent eigenvectors associated with a matrix A, you can
still diagonalize an approximation of A if you perturb the diagonal of A slightly. In such a case
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you have an approximation of A (of course some care is needed here in how/why you
approximate A) in a very interpretable form and that can be very useful. Readers
One of the things Linear Algebra really hits home on is how a change in representation (via
factorization) can make certain problem a lot easier to understand. Indeed if you have
diagonalized A such that $A = PDP^{-1}$ you now can easily see what is going on under the
see more
math.
AndalusOpenSource • 4 years ago

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Kalman Filter
http://www.bzarg.com/p/how-... Join Newsletter!
why don't you make a tutorial about this topic

i'm looking forward to see you talking about Kalman Filter
i gave you a good tutorial about Kalman filter
but i'm sure you will do some thing with more insight and betterunderstanding
as you always do
best of luck
and many thanks for your great effort
G > AndalusOpenSource • a year ago

I agree, I would also really like a tutorial on the Kalman filter. I think I need to
understand it for a dynamical systems model that I'm currently struggling with and this
might be helpful!
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Prashant • 5 years ago

I am getting a headache on tensors. Please post a lesson about it.
Fation • 5 years ago

Can you come up with a real world problem using matrices, like you have a real world problem
that actually happens out there in the world and then you take this problem you write it in
terms of equations with x and y and z and then you make matrices and you solve the problem,
most importantly find the inverse of that matrix and tell us what does that inverse matrix
mean in terms of real world problems, what does it tell us about the real world problem we just
broke down into equations, what does the inverse matrix mean in that sense.
I know how to find the inverse matrix and all that stuff but in the end I dont have any idea
what the hell it means in the real world, it just looks like arbitrary made up nonsense number
trick game.
Anthony Clohesy • 5 years ago
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Thank you so much for this - having read and used your imaginary numbers post in my recent
Readers
introduction for year 12, I thought 'I wonder if he's done anything on matrices?' Watched
Derek Holt's lectures on Linear Algebra over the summer (they're very good), but for a really
intuitive introduction I can't ask for better than this page. Granted, it won't be a full
description, but what I really need is an intuitive hook to get started with, and this was
definitely it! My year 12 Further Maths group thank Enjoy
you!the article? Keep reading to
1△ ▽ • Reply • Share › gain an intuitive understanding of
math.
kalid > Anthony Clohesy • 5 years ago
Awesome, really glad to hear it helped :). Linear algebra befuddled me for a while
Email
because I always associated with "advanced" Addresslike rotating a robotic arm in
operations,
3d or solving a giant system of equations. No -- we can just take an everyday example,
like having a stock portfolio and updating it based onJoin
someNewsletter!
event. Seeing it as a 'mini
spreadsheet' helped me wrap my mind around the use cases, which can of course
expand into to the fancy vector operation stuff.
Mauricio • 5 years ago

@Determinator
I'm also confused about what he says with he determinants and the unit vector!
First of all a unit vector is not a vector that has an area of one: http://en.wikipedia.org/wik...
And multiplying a matrix A by a unit vector does not result in a vector of area = det(A), as you
can see by simple examples.
So, I'm still confused about what a determinant means.

But wikipedia helps a little:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wik...
Also, look at
http://www.wolframalpha.com...
The area of the paralelogram represented by the matrix is 2, which is the determinant of the
matrix.
1△ ▽ 1 • Reply • Share ›
sigmaalgebra • 25 days ago

For eigen values and eigen vectors, it seems that he omitted the result that with n x n matrix A
and d >= 0,
S = { Ax | length of x = d}
that is, all the values of x are distance d from the origin, then S is an ellipsoid and has n
orthogonal axes each of which is an eigenvector of A. Moreover k <= n of the input vectors
span the vector subspace of the n output vectors.
That result is the polar decomposition, central to principle components important for
applications and analysis of the accuracy of numerical matrix operations and the finite
dimensional version of the spectral theorem used in quantum mechanics. In addition, Fourier
transforms and Fourier theory are linear, and the eigenvectors are the sine/cosine waves.
Closely related is the Gram-Schmidt process where we take n linearly independent vectors and
generate n nonzero orthogonal vectors.

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ben • 7 months ago • edited
Readers
'G is still linear, since doubling the input continues to double the output:
G(2x, 2y, 2z) = a(2x) + b(2y) + c(2z) = 2(ax + by + cz) = 2 * G(x, y, z)'
Should you not show also that adding an input isgain equalan intuitive
to adding themunderstanding
individually beforeofyou
can say that it is linear? I thought it has to satisfy both: math.
'In math terms, an operation F is linear if scaling inputs scales the output, and adding inputs
adds the outputs:'
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Or do you only have to satisfy one?
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Mukesh KG • a year ago

Matrix ? Got that!
Where does VECTOR fit in ?
ミハイ • a year ago

I can solve all of this when coding but the style in which it gets represented on the blackboard
is really bad at underlining the operations that take place, maybe it is the syntax or I'm just not
used to this. Your way of explaining was a bit closer, but also fell short for me.
Jeff Connors • 2 years ago

Such a great explanation,, can't tell you how thankful I am :-) THANK YOU so much for the
beautiful explanation,,
Jae Duk Seo • 2 years ago

amazing and very veyr good
Aleix • 3 years ago

Hello
Im a begginer learning algebra. Excuse my is my question is absurd.
When you present the operation displaystyle{F(x, y, z) = 3x + 4y + 5z}
Why do we sum their results?
I mean.. we did summed in the cases you presented earlier because the opration was the same
for all inputs, like in
displaystyle{G(x, y, z) = F(x + y + z) = F(x) + F(y) + F(z)}
But {F(x y z) = 3x + 4y + 5z} is composed of three different operations could be like {F(x y
But {F(x, y, z) = 3x + 4y + 5z} is composed of three different operations, could be like {F(x, y,
z) = A(x) +B(y)+ C(z)}
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I understand that we combine linear operations (A(x), B(y), C(z)) to create F(x), but how this
one respect the rule "adding inputs adds the outputs"? Readers
Thanks a lot!
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Dr CL Verma • 3 years ago
math.
I want to know how linear algebra is used in Applies Statistics. I did only normal classical
algebra.
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Dorothy • 3 years ago
wow, I like it Join Newsletter!
Ben • 4 years ago

Is there a book on this intuitive linear algebra and where can i buy it?
Tushar_Kadam > Ben • 8 months ago

You can watch the videos related to Linear Algebra on Youtube channel named
3Blue1Brown. There you will get the best intuition.
JJJ • 4 years ago

I LOVE you! You're amazing! I didn't know that reading about linear algebra could be so
entertaining! <3333 Many thanks ^^
Arwa • 4 years ago

‫ﺧﺎﻟﺪ‬
Some how when I am progressing in the 'learning scheme', I find your words describe exactly
!my thoughts
Along the way you ans question I have had on my mind & couldn't visualise it, like det of
matrix = 0
!thanks a lot and keep doing what U do

Ramesh • 4 years ago

Beautifully explained . Having always been baffled by matrices and determinants , I have to
say that this is the best lesson that I have had
Tl • 5 years ago
@Fation
Economists use linear algebra and specifically matrix inversion all of the time. One classic
example would be input - output analysis. The form would be something like Q = AQ + B. Q
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would be the overall quantity demanded of a good that is both an input in making other goods
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(The AQ portion) and is also sold to an end user on its own (the B portion). A is a matrix of
"technical coefficients" that describes how much Q goes in to make the other goods. In linear
algebra because of the nature of matrices you can't simply divide one by the other. Inversion
takes the place of division (it is even denoted A^-1 which is another way of saying it's a
divisor). Multiplying by an inverse is = to division. So in this example Q-AQ=B --> (I-A)Q = B -
-> Q = (I-A)^-1 * B. "I" being the identity matrix. By multiplying the inverse of (I-A) by B we
get Q. So through inversion we discovered an independent expression math.for Q which is very
useful for figuring out some stuff. This is just a simple example but it is used in practice for
modeling in the real world. This link provides more detail if you're interested
http://www.math.unt.edu/~tu... Email Address
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kalid • 5 years ago
@TI: Great analogy, thank you!
Mauricio • 5 years ago

yes, I understand. Thanks for the clarification.

@Determinator, @Mauricio: Whoops, I wasn't clear enough. Let me clarify. Imagine an x-y
axis. A unit square would be determined by two vectors, one on the x-axis (1, 0) and one along
the y-axis (0, 1). In a matrix this is {{1 0}, {0 1}} which indeed has unit area:
Take another matrix, such as {{2,1},{0,1}}. The determinant is 2. Before doing the math, I
know my original unit area will be transformed to some set of vectors that sweep out an area of
2.
Wolfram alpha shows the result:
which has area 2:
We can see that one vector is unchanged, but the other has been skewed, increasing the area of
the total to 2. If my original vector was something like {{5,0},{0,1}}, with area 5, I know the
result would be 10 after being transformed:
Hope this helps.

Ignace Erauw • 5 years ago

g y g
I agree with the person linking linear algebra to far more advances spaces like Sobolev spaces,
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Hilbert spaces.
Problem as always in these tutotials is proofs.
Math is about proving theorems. So to in LA. Readers
In Belgium, 1st year at University LA class, the same.
Examination tests is on proving theorems.
So. Proofs (building) books are essential to maths. If you can't take that hurdle, forget it.
Analysis, heavy proofs, algebra the same.
math.
Try once to explain a proof theorem in LA.
It will help a lot of people. Math is not about calculating. Leave solving systems of linear
equations to the computer. Email Address
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Ashish Shukla > Ignace Erauw • 2 years ago
Hi,
I have heard this many times and I don't really get it. People say "Math is not about ....",
"Math isn't ....."! What really is MATH or ABOUT?! The answer to this question hasn't
happened to me yet...
Magnus > Ashish Shukla • a year ago • edited

Maths is at its purest a language used to organise, structure and transform
complex sets of data... Mathmaticians in general do 3 things. We explore,
generalise and "reduce". We explore the "world of maths" in hopes of finding
new data with interesting properties. If the data is unique we attempt to
generalize it's properties. If the properties/data seems familiar we
"reduce"/restructure the information into something that has been rigorosly
proven to be true.
On a more personal note, maths is coffee, frustration and every now and then an
unbelievable amount of satisfaction! :)
Determinator • 5 years ago

Corrigendum: I get (3, 1) and not (3, 2). The question remains though.
Determinator • 5 years ago

Hi,
I have a quick question about
"The determinant is the "size" of the output transformation. If the input was a unit vector
(representing area or volume of 1), the determinant is the size of the transformed area or
volume."
If I have
\[A = \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 1 \\

\[A \begin{pmatrix} 2 & 1 \\
0 & 1 \end{pmatrix}$ \]
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and then feed the column vector (1, 1) into this operation, I get (3, 2).
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The determinant of A is |A| = 2. So in what sense is the area of (3, 2) twice the area of (1, 1)?
devsjee • 6 years ago

Very beautiful ! Thank you ..
math.

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Hi B. Rich, when evaluating the function you need Address
to replace "x" with the value. So,
f(2*x) = (2*x) + 3 Join Newsletter!

f(1) = 1 + 3 = 4
f(2) = 2 + 3 = 5
B. Rich • 6 years ago

Hi Kalid,
I disagree with your analysis of the principle of homogeneity in your above example.
A function f(x) is homogeneous if f(n*x) = n*f(x). To use your example:
f(x) = x + 3
f(2*x) = 2*(x+3)
For x = 1, then:
f(1) = 4
f(2*1) = 8
This should be true for all x.

Eric V • 6 years ago

Love your flair Kalid!
This post had me laughing hysterically! Especially the part about "The survivors are..."
Widh I'd seen something like this when I was first exposed to matrices, maybe I wouldn't have
run the other way. Imagine my dismay when, in pursuit of my true love of physics, I
encountered the Riemanian metric tensor and had to go back and learn all that matrix stuff I'd
ignored for years. Oh yeah, and then there's moment of inertia. For so long I had been taught it
is a single number, but no it just had to be a matrix. It made sense though. Matrix transforms
one vector to another. Torque = I * alpha, moment of inertia transforms angular acceleration
(vector) to torque (vector). Now if those pesky eigenthingies would just leave me alone!
Kumar • 6 years ago

Thanks By the way thanks to your post I finally understood the reason behind the movie
Thanks. By the way, thanks to your post, I finally understood the reason behind the movie
name "Matrix". It is about, matrices, the "transformations" of "real space" into "virtual space".
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It just dawned on me a moment ago when watching the matrix reloaded! Granted it is a
Readers
science fiction movie, but still, for the movie producers or whoever, to have come up with that
very apt name is really amazing (because of the required mathematical insight).
kalid • 6 years ago Enjoy the article? Keep reading to

Hi Kumar, gain an intuitive understanding of
math.
Great question. The term "linear function" actually refers to two separate (but related)
concepts (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wik... for more detail).
1) A polynomial of degree 0 or 1, i.e. f(x) = ax + b

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2) a "linear map", meaning a function that has the propertiesJoin Newsletter!

that scaling the inputs scales the
outputs, f(c*a) = c*f(a), and adding the inputs adds the outputs, f(a + b) = f(a) + f(b).
The function f(x) = x + 3 meets the first definition (polynomial of degree 1), and it is a straight
line when drawn. But it doesn't have the linear input/output relationship. For example, f(1) =
4, but f(2) = 5. We doubled the input, but did not double the input.
The main reason a line is not "linear" (in the linear map sense) is because of that + b term,
which is +3 in our case. That +3 is the same amount, no matter how the input changes.
The two meanings are easily-confused, and did confuse me for a long time! Linear algebra
refers to deal with behavior of functions that are linear maps.

Hi Kalid, I couldn't quite figure out why F(x) = x+3 is not linear. After all, y=x+3 is a straight
line meeting the y axis at (0,3), and with a slope of 1. This definition of a straight line (i.e.
linear) is different from the definition of 'linear' you gave. Am I missing something here. BTW,
I am not a math major :) but your explanations to complex math are quite intuitive. thanks

Thanks Dimitris, great feedback. Down the road I'd like to do a follow-up on linear algebra,
with independent vectors as the focus. I think the idea of a spreadsheet gets the
notational/mechanical elements out of the way, so we can then begin exploring the underlying
concepts (just what is an input, anyway?). Appreciate the thoughts!
Dimitris • 6 years ago

G(x , y , z) = F(x + y + z) = F(x) + F(y) + F(z)
Very good (as always), however I think you do not explain the crucial aspect of dimension
independence of a vector space. The "mini arithmetic" addition above can never actually
happen as each element represents an independent dimension. This is one of the most difficult
concepts to understand IMO, especially when you think of polynomial or function vector
spaces.
△ ▽ R l Sh

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Thanks Kumar, glad it clicked.
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Looking at matrices as "operations" that take "input" data and transform to "output" data, is
very intuitive.
math.
Sam • 6 years ago

This is not giving the correct intuition for linearEmail Address
algebra.
See gilbert strang's first couple of lectures. They give an intuitive feel and are presented by
someone who really understands linear algebra. Join Newsletter!
kalid > Sam • 6 years ago

Hi Sam! I think intuition clicks different -- if one analogy helps elucidate an aspect of
the subject, so much the better (it's not like you're limited to one metaphor). I like
Strang's work in general, but didn't have much intuition even after acing my university
class that used his book! There's more metaphors I need to find for myself.
Festus • 6 years ago

This is epic! Simply epic! Linear Algebra I got you now..
Sandals • 7 years ago

This has literally blown my mind multiple times, on multiple levels. This is exactly what I've
needed... so glad I found this before the final exam lol. Thank you so much for posting this,
keep up the good work!

Hi Abdul, great comment. Yes, a reflection is a good example -- we stay along the same line,
but are pointing the other way. Appreciate the clarification.
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Despite two linear algebra classes, my knowledge consisted of “Matrices,

Why? Well, let’s try this course format:

The survivors are physicists, graphics programmers and other masochists. We

Linear algebra gives you mini-spreadsheets for your math equations.

“Linear Algebra” means, roughly, “line-like relationships”. Let’s clarify a bit.

Exponents (F (x) = x ) aren’t predictable: 10 is 100, but 20 is 400. We doubled

the input but quadrupled the output.

F (10) ≠ 10 ⋅ F (1) . Fun.)

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If we allowed non-linear operations (like x ) we couldn’t split our work: 2

(a + b) ≠ a + b . Limiting ourselves to linear operations has its advantages.

Organizing Inputs And Operations

No! Grammar is not the focus. What’s the key idea?

We have a bunch of inputs to track

We could abbreviate the entire function as (3,Enjoy

Only need the rst input? Email Address

1st Input 2nd Input

Neat. We’re getting organized: inputs in vertical columns, operations in

Visualizing The Matrix

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Imagine “pouring” each input through each operation:Join Newsletter!

As an input passes an operation, it creates an output item. In our example, the

A matrix is a single variable representing a spreadsheet of inputs or operations.

Trickiness #1: The reading order Join 450k Monthly

Trickiness #2: The numbering

RC, like Roman Centurion or RC Cola

[Operation Matrix] [Input Matrix]

Try these 1-liners:

And if we merge them into a single matrix:

He reorders the inputs: (x, y, z) becomes (x, z, y).

And this one?

Scale: make all inputs bigger/smaller

Visualize the problem. Imagine running through each operation:

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Got it? Let’s introduce the scenario.

New Apple [1.2 0 0]

Oh wait! We need the overall pro t:

Total change = (.20 * Apple) + (-.05 * Google) + (0 * Microsoft)

Our nal operations matrix:

New Apple [1.2 0 0]

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Historical Notes: Solving Simultaneous Equations

values of x, y and z are revealed on the output side.

The eigenvector and eigenvalue represent the “axes” of the transformation.

Think of a recipe as a list of commands (Add 2 cups of sugar, 3 cups of our…).

An operations matrix is similar: commands to modify. Applying one operations

Can We Use Regular Addition, Please?

And x + y - 3 would be:

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