MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space

1. Cartesian coordinate system

In order to use calculus in real-world situations, we often need a mathematical description of the
“three-dimensional” space. In MATH1013–1024, we have used the rectangular coordinate system
to describe the “two-dimensional” plane. Let’s review some facts about this coordinate system.

Remark 1.1 The rectangular coordinate system in the plane consists of 𝑦

two axes which are perpendicular to each other. The horizontal axis is
𝑃 = (𝑎, 𝑏)
called the 𝒙-axis and the vertical axis is called the 𝒚-axis. 𝑏

 Every point 𝑃 in the plane can be labelled by an ordered pair of real

numbers (𝑎, 𝑏), called the coordinates of 𝑃 . 𝑎 is called the 𝑥
𝑎
𝒙-coordinate of 𝑃 and 𝑏 is called the 𝒚-coordinate of 𝑃.
 A line perpendicular to the 𝑥-axis (a vertical line) is a set of points in the plane all having the
same 𝑥-coordinate. We may present such a line using
(i) the set notation {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 = 𝑎}, or simply using
(ii) the equation 𝑥 = 𝑎,
where 𝑎 is the real number such that the line intersects the 𝑥-axis at the point (𝑎, 0).
Similarly, a line perpendicular to the 𝑦-axis (a horizontal line) is a set of points in the plane all
having the same 𝑦-coordinate. We may present such a line using 𝑦 First quadrant
(i) the set notation {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑦 = 𝑏}, or simply using
𝑏 𝑦=𝑏
(ii) the equation 𝑦 = 𝑏,
if the line intersects the 𝑦-axis at the point (0, 𝑏). 𝑥=𝑎
 The lines 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑦 = 0 divide the plane into four quadrants.
𝑎 𝑥
0
The quadrant {(𝑥, 𝑦): 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑦 > 0} is called the first quadrant.
 Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be points in the plane having coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) respectively.
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2
Then the mid-point of the line segment joining 𝑃 and 𝑄 has coordinates ( , ); and
2 2

by Pythagoras’ theorem, the distance between 𝑃 and 𝑄 is

𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 .
 A circle is a set of points in the plane all having the same distance (the radius) to a common
point (the center). We may present a circle centered at the point (𝑎, 𝑏) with radius 𝑟 using
(i) the set notation {(𝑥, 𝑦): (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 }, or simply 𝑦
circle
(ii) the equation (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 = 𝑟 2 .
disk
The interior of such a circle is called a disk, and can be presented using
𝑟
(i) the set notation {(𝑥, 𝑦): (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝑟 2 }, or simply
(𝑎, 𝑏)
(ii) the inequality (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 < 𝑟 2 . 0
𝑥

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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To describe the space, we introduce another coordinate axis called the 𝑧 -axis, which is
perpendicular to both the 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes, so as to form the Cartesian coordinate system.
𝑧
Remark 1.2 The Cartesian coordinate system in the
𝑐
(three-dimensional) space consists of three axes as illustrated in
the figure on the right. This coordinate system is right-handed
𝑃 = (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)
by convention.
𝑏
 Every point 𝑃 in the space can be labelled by an ordered 𝑦
𝑎
triple of real numbers (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐), called the coordinates of 𝑃.
If you point your right hand toward +𝑥
The numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are called the 𝒙-coordinate, and bend your fingers toward +𝑦, then
𝑥
𝒚-coordinate and 𝒛-coordinate of 𝑃 respectively. your thumb will point toward +𝑧.

 A plane perpendicular to the 𝑥-axis is a set of points in the space all having the same
𝑥-coordinate, and can be presented by {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): 𝑥 = 𝑎} or simply by 𝑥 = 𝑎, where 𝑎 is the
real number such that the plane intersects the 𝑥-axis at the point (𝑎, 0, 0).
Similarly, a plane perpendicular to the 𝑦-axis (resp.
𝑧
𝑧-axis) can be presented using the equation 𝑦 = 𝑏
(resp. 𝑧 = 𝑐) if the plane intersects the 𝑦-axis (resp.
𝑧-axis) at the point (0, 𝑏, 0) (resp. (0, 0, 𝑐)). 𝑥𝑦-plane
 The plane 𝑧 = 0 is called the 𝒙𝒚-plane as it contains
both the 𝑥- and 𝑦-axes. Similarly, the plane 𝑦 = 0 0
𝑦
is called the 𝒙𝒛-plane and the plane 𝑥 = 0 is called
the 𝒚𝒛-plane. The three planes 𝑥 = 0, 𝑦 = 0 and
𝑥 𝑦𝑧-plane
𝑧 = 0 divide the whole space into eight octants. 𝑥𝑧-plane
The octant {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): 𝑥 > 0 and 𝑦 > 0 and 𝑧 > 0} is
called the first octant.
 Let 𝑃 and 𝑄 be points in the space having coordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 , 𝑧2 )
respectively. Then the mid-point of the line segment joining 𝑃 and 𝑄 has coordinates
𝑥1 +𝑥2 𝑦1 +𝑦2 𝑧1 +𝑧2
( , , ); and by Pythagoras’ theorem, the distance between 𝑃 and 𝑄 is
2 2 2

𝑑(𝑃, 𝑄) = √(𝑥1 − 𝑥2 )2 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 )2 + (𝑧1 − 𝑧2 )2 .

 A sphere is a set of points in the space all having the same distance (called the radius) to a
common point (called the center). A sphere centered at the point (𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐) with radius 𝑟
can be presented using
(i) the set notation {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑐)2 = 𝑟 2 }, or sphere

(ii) the equation (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑐)2 = 𝑟 2. ball

𝑟
The interior of such a sphere is called a ball, and can be presented using
(𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐)
(i) the set notation {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧): (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑐)2 < 𝑟 2 }, or
(ii) the inequality (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑏)2 + (𝑧 − 𝑐)2 < 𝑟 2 .

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Definition 1.3 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be sets. The Cartesian product of 𝐴 and 𝐵, denoted by 𝐴 × 𝐵, is
the set of all ordered pairs
𝐴 × 𝐵 ≔ {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 and 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵}.
With ℝ denoting the set of all real numbers, we also write ℝ2 ≔ ℝ × ℝ and ℝ3 ≔ ℝ × ℝ × ℝ
and so on. So ℝ2 is the set of all points in the plane and ℝ3 is the set of all points in the
(three-dimensional) space. ℝ𝑛 is called the 𝒏-dimensional real Euclidean space.

Example 1.4 The following are some examples on Cartesian products.

(a) The set [0, 1] × [0, 1] represents a square in ℝ2 including its interior. Such a square has
vertices (0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1) and (0, 1).
(b) The set [0, 1] × {0, 1} represents a pair of horizontal line segments in ℝ2 including their
end-points. One of these line segments joins the points (0, 0) and (1, 0), and the other one
joins the points (0, 1) and (1, 1).

Remark 1.5 The same expression (equation or inequality) may represent different geometric
objects under different contexts. For instance, the equation 𝑥 = 𝑎 may represent both
 a vertical line passing through (𝑎, 0) in the plane ℝ2 , and
 a plane perpendicular to the 𝑥-axis passing through (𝑎, 0, 0) in the space ℝ3 .
Using the set notation helps clarifying the context, as the former is written as {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝑥 = 𝑎}
and the latter is written as {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∈ ℝ3 : 𝑥 = 𝑎}.

Example 1.6 What geometric objects do the following expressions represent (i) in ℝ2 and (ii) in
ℝ3 respectively?
(a) 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1
(b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5
(c) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 and 𝑥 = 2

Solution:
(a) (i) In ℝ2 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 represents a straight line passing though (1, 0) and (0, 1).
(ii) The equation 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1 gives no restriction to the 𝑧 -coordinate. So in ℝ3 , it
represents a plane generated by translating the same straight line on the 𝑥𝑦-plane along
the 𝑧-axis. 𝑧 𝑥+𝑦=1
𝑦

1
𝑥+𝑦=1 1
𝑦
𝑥 1
1

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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(b) (i) In ℝ2 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 represents a circle with radius √5 centered at the origin.

(ii) The equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 gives no restriction to the 𝑧-coordinate. So in ℝ3 , it
represents a cylinder generated by translating the same circle on the 𝑥𝑦-plane along the
𝑧-axis. 𝑧
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 5
𝑦
√5 𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 5
−√5
𝑥 −√5
−√5 √5 𝑦
√5
√5
−√5
𝑥

(c) (i) In ℝ2 , 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 and 𝑥 = 2 represents the intersection of a

The word “and”
circle with radius √5 centered at the origin and the vertical line indicates intersection.
passing through (2, 0), i.e. the two points (2, 1) and (2, −1).
(ii) The equations 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 5 and 𝑥 = 2 give no restriction to the 𝑧-coordinate. So in
ℝ3 , they represent a pair of straight lines generated by translating the two points (2, 1)
and (2, −1) along the 𝑧-axis.
𝑧
𝑦
𝑦
𝑥=2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 5
(2, 1)
𝑥 (2, 1, 0)
(2, −1) (2, −1, 0) 𝑥

2 2
൜𝑥 + 𝑦 = 5
𝑥=2

Example 1.7 Sketch the geometric objects represented by the following expressions in ℝ3 .
(a) 𝑥 + 𝑧 = 1 and 𝑦 = 2
(b) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ≤ 5 and 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 0
(c) 1 ≤ 𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 + 𝑧 2 ≤ 4 and 𝑦 ≤ 3
𝑧
Solution:
𝑥+𝑧 = 1
(a)
1

0
1 2
𝑦

𝑥
𝑦=2

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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𝑧
(b) 𝑧 (c)
𝑥 2 + 𝑦2 = 5
𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 + 𝑧 2 = 4

−√5
−√5 0
𝑦 3 𝑦
√5
𝑦+𝑧 =0 √5
𝑥
𝑥 2 + (𝑦 − 3)2 + 𝑧 2 = 1

𝑥
𝑦=3

Example 1.8 Describe each of the following geometric objects in ℝ3 using expressions that only
involve the Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) of the points it consists of.
(a) The circle centered at (2, 0, 0) on the 𝑥𝑧-plane with radius 2
(b) The solid upper hemisphere of radius 2 centered at the origin

Solution:
(a) The equation (𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑧 2 = 4 represents the whole circular cylinder generated by
translating the required circle on the 𝑥𝑧-plane along the 𝑦-axis. To describe only the
required circle, we need to intersect the cylinder with the 𝒙𝒛-plane whose equation is 𝑦 = 0.
Therefore the required expression is
The word “and”
(𝑥 − 2)2 + 𝑧 2 = 4 and 𝑦 = 0. indicates intersection.

(b) The closed ball of radius 2 centered at the origin is represented by the inequality
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 ≤ 4.
To describe only the solid upper hemisphere, we need to intersect the closed ball with the
upper half-space which can be represented by the inequality 𝑧 ≥ 0. Therefore the required
expression is
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 ≤ 4 and 𝑧 ≥ 0.

Example 1.9 What geometric object does the expression

𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
represent in ℝ3 ?

Solution:
The expression 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 indeed involves each of the variables 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧, so we cannot
obtain the required geometric object simply by translating a cross section along the coordinate axes.
This time we try to analyze the object by computing its cross sections on various simple planes.

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 The equation of the cross section of the unknown object with the 𝑦𝑧-plane is given by
𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and 𝑥 = 0.
2
On solving this we obtain 𝑧 = √𝑦 , or simply 𝑧 = |𝑦|.
 The equation of the cross section of the unknown object with the 𝑥𝑧-plane is given by
𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and 𝑦 = 0.
On solving this we obtain 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 , or simply 𝑧 = |𝑥|.
 For each 𝑟 ≥ 0, the equation of the cross section of the unknown object with the plane 𝑧 = 𝑟
is given by
𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 and 𝑧 = 𝑟.
2 2 2
On solving this we obtain 𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑟 , which is the equation of a circle with radius 𝑟.
𝑧 𝑧
𝑧 = |𝑥|
൜
𝑦=0
𝑧 = |𝑦|
ቄ
𝑥=0 2 2 2
𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
൜𝑥 + 𝑦 = 2
𝑧=2

2 2 2
൜𝑥 + 𝑦 = 1
𝑧=1
𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

The equation 𝑧 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 therefore represents an inverted circular cone (of infinite height) in
the upper half-space.

In MATH1014/1024 we have learnt the polar coordinate system, which is another coordinate
system that describes the plane ℝ2 . Later in this chapter we will introduce some other coordinate
systems apart from the Cartesian coordinate system, which also describe the space ℝ3 .

The word “vector” in this course always refers

2. Euclidean vectors to Euclidean vectors, although you may come
across other kinds of vectors in other contexts.

Definition 1.10 An 𝒏-dimensional (Euclidean) vector is an ordered 𝑛-tuple of real numbers. A

vector can be denoted using the following notations
 a bold-face upright letter, e.g. 𝐯 (in print),
 a letter with an arrow above it, e.g. 𝑣⃗ (in written), or
 an underlined letter, e.g. 𝑣 (in written). The components of a vector are often
For example, if 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 are real numbers, then written inside angled parentheses, so as
to be distinguished from a point in ℝ𝑛 .
𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉
is an 𝑛-dimensional vector.

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Definition 1.11 Let 𝑃 be a point in ℝ𝑛 and (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) be its coordinates. Then the
𝑛-dimensional vector
〈𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 〉
is called the position vector of 𝑃. Because of the one-to-one correspondence between each point
and its position vector, the 𝑛-dimensional real Euclidean space ℝ𝑛 in Definition 1.3 can also be
regarded as the set of all 𝑛-dimensional real vectors, for instance
ℝ2 = {〈𝑥, 𝑦〉: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and 𝑦 ∈ ℝ},
ℝ3 = {〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉: 𝑥 ∈ ℝ and 𝑦 ∈ ℝ and 𝑧 ∈ ℝ}
and so on. Real numbers are also called scalars when we are dealing with vectors in ℝ𝑛 .

The following are operations on two vectors which produce new vectors of the same dimension.

Definition 1.12 Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 , 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 and 𝑎 be real numbers. Then

(i) (Addition) The sum of the two vectors 𝐮 = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 〉 and 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉 is
defined to be the vector
𝐮 + 𝐯 ≔ 〈𝑢1 + 𝑣1 , 𝑢2 + 𝑣2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑣𝑛 〉;
(ii) (Scalar multiplication) The multiple of the vector 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉 by the scalar 𝑎 is
defined to be the vector
𝑎𝐯 ≔ 〈𝑎𝑣1 , 𝑎𝑣2 , … , 𝑎𝑣𝑛 〉.

Definition 1.13 The (𝑛-dimensional) zero vector is the vector

𝟎≔〈⏟
0, 0, … , 0 〉.
𝑛 components

Given a vector 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉, the negative of 𝐯 is the vector

−𝐯 ≔ 〈−𝑣1 , −𝑣2 , … , −𝑣𝑛 〉.

Theorem 1.14 (Vector space properties) Let 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 be vectors of the same dimension, let
𝟎 denote the zero vector, also of the same dimension, and let 𝑎 and 𝑏 be scalars. Then
(i) 𝐮+𝐯=𝐯+𝐮
(ii) (𝐮 + 𝐯) + 𝐰 = 𝐮 + (𝐯 + 𝐰)
(iii) 𝐮+𝟎=𝐮
All these are equalities of vectors,
(iv) 𝐮 + (−𝐮) = 𝟎
i.e. each corresponding component
(v) (𝑎𝑏)𝐮 = 𝑎(𝑏𝐮) on both sides are equal.
(vi) 1𝐮 = 𝐮
(vii) 𝑎(𝐮 + 𝐯) = 𝑎𝐮 + 𝑎𝐯
(viii) (𝑎 + 𝑏)𝐮 = 𝑎𝐮 + 𝑏𝐮

Proof. All of these can be checked directly using Definition 1.12, and are left as exercises. ∎

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Remark 1.15 Euclidean vectors and their addition and scalar multiplication can also be interpreted
geometrically:
(i) Geometrically, a vector can be represented by a directed line segment (i.e. an arrow) with an
initial point and a terminal point. A vector with initial point 𝐴 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 ) and
terminal point 𝐵 = (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 ) is also denoted by 𝐵
𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 〈𝑏1 − 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 − 𝑎2 , … , 𝑏𝑛 − 𝑎𝑛 〉.
Given any point 𝑃 = (𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 ) in the space, the position vector of 𝑃 is the vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 〈𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 〉,
where 𝑂 = (0, 0, … , 0) denotes the origin.
(ii) Two vectors are equal if and only if they are represented by arrows
𝐷
having the same length and the same direction, regardless of their 𝐶
𝐯
initial points. In other words, if 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and 𝐷 are distinct points
𝐯
in the space, then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐶𝐷 if and only if 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶 is a parallelogram. 𝐵
𝐴
(iii) The zero vector 𝟎 is represented by any arrow whose initial point
and terminal point are the same.
𝐶
(iv) Given any vector 𝐯 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 , the negative of 𝐯 is −𝐯 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐴.
(v) (Vector addition) Given two vectors 𝐮 and 𝐯 of the same 𝐮+𝐯 𝐯

dimension, if 𝐮 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 , then there is a unique point 𝐶 in the space 𝐮 𝐵
𝐴
such that 𝐯 = 𝐵𝐶 . In this case 𝐮 + 𝐯 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶 .
(vi) (Vector addition) Given two vectors 𝐮 and 𝐯 of the same 𝐷
𝐶
dimension, if 𝐮 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and 𝐯 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 , then 𝐮 + 𝐯 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐷 where 𝐷 is
𝐯 𝐮+𝐯
the unique point in the space such that 𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶 is a parallellogram.
𝐮 𝐵
(vii) (Scalar multiplication) Given a nonzero scalar 𝑎 ≠ 0 , the 𝐴
multiplication by 𝑎 is represented by
 stretching or compressing the arrow representing a vector by the 𝐮
magnification factor |𝑎|,
2𝐮
 keeping its direction unchanged in case 𝑎 > 0, and
1
 reversing its direction in case 𝑎 < 0. 2
𝐮

(viii) Two vectors are parallel if they are scalar multiples of each other. −𝐮

Example 1.16 Are the three points 𝐴(0, 1, 0), 𝐵(2, −1, 3) and 𝐶(−4, 5, −6) collinear?

Solution:
The three points 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear when they lie on the same line, i.e. when the vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 are parallel. Now
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = 〈2 − 0, −1 − 1, 3 − 0〉 = 〈2, −2, 3〉,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = 〈−4 − 0, 5 − 1, −6 − 0〉 = 〈−4, 4, −6〉.
Since ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, it follows that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 = −2𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶 are parallel, and so 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 are collinear.

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

The following is another operation on two vectors which produces a scalar.

Definition 1.17 Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 , 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 be real numbers. Then the dot product of the
two vectors 𝐮 = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , … , 𝑢𝑛 〉 and 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉 is defined to be the real number
𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 ≔ 𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + ⋯ + 𝑢𝑛 𝑣𝑛 .

Theorem 1.18 (Properties of the dot product) Let 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 be vectors of the same
dimension, and let 𝑎 be a scalar. Then
(i) 𝐮⋅𝐯=𝐯⋅𝐮
All these are equalities
(ii) (𝐮 + 𝐯) ⋅ 𝐰 = 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐰 + 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐰
of scalars.
(iii) (𝑎𝐮) ⋅ 𝐯 = 𝑎(𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)
(iv) 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯 ≥ 0, and 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯 = 0 only when 𝐯 = 𝟎.

Proof. All of these can be checked directly using Definition 1.17 and Definition 1.12, and are left as
exercises. ∎

Theorem 1.18 (iv) enables us to make the following definition.

Definition 1.19 The length (or magnitude, or norm) of a vector 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , … , 𝑣𝑛 〉 is defined by
the non-negative real number
‖𝐯‖ ≔ √𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯 = √𝑣1 2 + 𝑣2 2 + ⋯ + 𝑣𝑛 2 .
A unit vector is a vector whose length equals to 1.

Remark 1.20 Geometrically, the length of a vector is the same as the length of each directed line
segment representing it. This follows from Pythagoras’ theorem.

Remark 1.21 With 𝐢 ≔ 〈1, 0〉 and 𝐣 ≔ 〈0, 1〉, the vector 〈𝑥, 𝑦〉 ∈ ℝ2 is sometimes written as
〈𝑥, 𝑦〉 = 𝑥𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣.
With 𝐢 ≔ 〈1, 0, 0〉, 𝐣 ≔ 〈0, 1, 0〉 and 𝐤 ≔ 〈0, 0, 1〉, the vector 〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 ∈ ℝ3 is also written as
〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 = 𝑥𝐢 + 𝑦𝐣 + 𝑧𝐤.
These vectors 𝐢, 𝐣 ∈ ℝ2 and 𝐢, 𝐣, 𝐤 ∈ ℝ3 are called standard basis vectors. They are unit vectors
that point in the directions of the positive coordinate axes. In general, the standard basis vectors
in ℝ𝑛 are usually denoted by
〈0, … , 0, 1, 0, … ,0〉
𝐞𝑖 ≔ ⏟
only the 𝑖 th component is 1

for each 𝑖 ∈ {1, 2, … , 𝑛}.

Page 9 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Remark 1.22 For each non-zero vector 𝐯, the unit vector along the direction of 𝐯, denoted by 𝐯̂,
1
is defined by 𝐯̂ ≔ ‖𝐯‖ 𝐯. Every non-zero vector 𝐯 can be expressed as the scalar multiple

1
𝐯 = ‖𝐯‖ ( 𝐯) = ‖𝐯‖𝐯̂,
‖𝐯‖
in which ‖𝐯‖ represents the length of 𝐯 and the unit vector 𝐯̂ represents the direction of 𝐯.

Example 1.23 The vector 𝐯 = 9𝐢 − 2𝐣 + 6𝐤 has length ‖𝐯‖ = √92 + (−2)2 + 62 = 11, so we
may express it as a product of its length and its direction by
9 2 6 A unit vector 𝐯̂ indicating
𝐯 = 11 ( 𝐢 − 𝐣 + 𝐤).
11 11 11 the direction of 𝐯
Length of 𝐯

Example 1.24 Consider the points 𝑃(6, 4) and 𝑄(−6, 9) in ℝ2 . Find the component forms of
(a) the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 ,
(b) two unit vectors that are parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 , and
(c) two vectors of length 3 that are parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 .

Solution:
(a) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 〈−6 − 6, 9 − 4〉 = 〈−12, 5〉.

(b) The length of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √(−12)2 + 52 = 13, so the unit vectors parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 is ‖𝑃𝑄 𝑃𝑄 are

1 1 12 5 1 1 12 5
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑃𝑄 〈−12, 5〉 = 〈− , 〉 and − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = − 〈−12, 5〉 = 〈 , − 〉.
𝑃𝑄
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
‖𝑃𝑄 13 13 13 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
‖𝑃𝑄 13 13 13
(c) The two vectors of length 3 parallel to ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 are given by 3 times the two unit vectors found
in (ii). They are
12 5 36 15 12 5 36 15
3 〈− , 〉 = 〈− , 〉 and 3〈 , − 〉 = 〈 , − 〉.
13 13 13 13 13 13 13 13

Let’s consider two non-zero vectors 𝐮 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗. Then the angle 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] between
𝑂𝑃 and 𝐯 = 𝑂𝑄
the directed line segments ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is 𝜃 = ∠𝑃𝑂𝑄. According to the Cosine Law, it satisfies
𝑂𝑃 and 𝑂𝑄
2 2 2
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗‖ + ‖𝑂𝑄
‖𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ − ‖𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗‖‖𝑂𝑄
2‖𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ 𝑄

𝐮 ⋅ 𝐮 + 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯 − (𝐯 − 𝐮) ⋅ (𝐯 − 𝐮) 𝐯−𝐮
= 𝐯
2‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖
𝐮⋅𝐯 𝜃 𝑃
= . 𝐮
‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ 𝑂

This motivates us to make the following definition.

Page 10 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Definition 1.25 Let 𝐮 and 𝐯 be non-zero vectors of the same dimension. Then the angle
between 𝐮 and 𝐯 is the number 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] defined by
𝐮⋅𝐯
𝜃 = arccos .
‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖

Remark 1.26 Geometrically, the dot product 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 is the product of the lengths of
the arrows representing 𝐮 and 𝐯 with the cosine of the angle between these two
𝐯
arrows, i.e. 𝜃
𝐮
𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ cos 𝜃.

Theorem 1.27 (Properties of the length) Let 𝐮 and 𝐯 be vectors of the same dimension, let 𝟎
denote the zero vector, also of the same dimension, and let 𝑎 be a scalar. Then
(i) ‖𝐮‖ ≥ 0, and 𝟎 is the only vector having zero length.
(ii) ‖𝑎𝐮‖ = |𝑎|‖𝐮‖
(iii) (Triangle inequality) ‖𝐮 + 𝐯‖ ≤ ‖𝐮‖ + ‖𝐯‖

Proof. (i) and (ii) follow directly from Definition 1.19 and Definition 1.12 (ii). To prove (iii), we
note that cos 𝜃 ≤ 1 for any 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋], so Remark 1.26 implies that
𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 ≤ ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖
(note that this inequality still holds even when 𝐮 = 𝟎 or 𝐯 = 𝟎). Therefore
‖𝐮 + 𝐯‖2 = (𝐮 + 𝐯) ⋅ (𝐮 + 𝐯)
= 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐮 + 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯 + 2(𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)
= ‖𝐮‖2 + ‖𝐯‖2 + 2(𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)
≤ ‖𝐮‖2 + ‖𝐯‖2 + 2‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖
= (‖𝐮‖ + ‖𝐯‖)2 ,
which proves (iii). ∎

Example 1.28 Let 𝐮 = 4𝐣 − 3𝐤 and 𝐯 = 2𝐢 + 2𝐣 + 𝐤.

(a) Find 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯.
(b) Find the angle between 𝐮 and 𝐯.

Solution:
(a) 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 = (0)(2) + (4)(2) + (−3)(1) = 5
(b) Let 𝜃 be the angle between 𝐮 and 𝐯. Then since
‖𝐮‖ = √02 + 42 + 32 = 5 and ‖𝐯‖ = √22 + 22 + 12 = 3,
we have
𝐮⋅𝐯 5 1
𝜃 = arccos = arccos = arccos ≈ 70.53°.
‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ (5)(3) 3

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Definition 1.29 Two vectors 𝐮 and 𝐯 of the same dimension are orthogonal if 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 = 0. (For
Euclidean vectors 𝐮 and 𝐯, this is the same as saying that the arrows representing 𝐮 and 𝐯 are
𝜋
perpendicular to each other, i.e. the angle between them is 2 .)

Example 1.30 The vectors 𝐮 = 〈3, 2, −1〉 and 𝐯 = 〈0, −2, −4〉 are orthogonal because
𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 = (3)(0) + (2)(−2) + (−1)(−4) = 0.
The zero vector 𝟎 is orthogonal to every vector of the same dimension.

Example 1.31 Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 be the end-points of a diameter of a circle,

𝐴
and 𝐶 be a point different from 𝐴 and 𝐵, also lying on the circumference
𝑂
of the circle. Show that the line segments 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 are perpendicular
to each other. 𝐵

𝐶
Proof:
Let 𝑂 denote the center of the circle, let 𝐮 = 𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and let 𝐯 = 𝑂𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . Then ‖𝐮‖ = ‖𝐯‖ as they
are radii of the same circle and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐶
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐯 − 𝐮 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐶
𝐵𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐯 + 𝐮.
Thus
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⋅ 𝐵𝐶
𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = (𝐯 − 𝐮) ⋅ (𝐯 + 𝐮)
=𝐯⋅𝐯−𝐮⋅𝐯+𝐯⋅𝐮−𝐮⋅𝐮
= ‖𝐯‖2 − ‖𝐮‖2
= 0,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵𝐶
and so 𝐴𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are orthogonal vectors. In other words, the line segments 𝐴𝐶 and 𝐵𝐶 are
perpendicular to each other. ∎

Example 1.32 Find the equation of the line in ℝ2 which passes through the point 𝑃0 (2, 1) and
is perpendicular to the vector 𝐯 = 𝐢 + 2𝐣.

Solution:
Let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) be an arbitrary point on the required line. Then the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 is parallel to the
required line, so to require that the line is perpendicular to 𝐯 means to require that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 and 𝐯
are orthogonal. In other words,
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃 0 𝑃 ⋅ 𝐯 = 0.
Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 = (𝑥 − 2)𝐢 + (𝑦 − 1)𝐣 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 ⋅ 𝐯 = (𝑥 − 2)(1) + (𝑦 − 1)(2), so the equation of the
required line is given by
(𝑥 − 2)(1) + (𝑦 − 1)(2) = 0,
i.e. 𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 4 = 0.

Page 12 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Lemma 1.33 Let 𝐯 be a non-zero vector. Then every vector 𝐮 of the same dimension can be
decomposed as a sum of a vector parallel to 𝐯 and a vector orthogonal to 𝐯.

𝐮⋅𝐯
Proof. Let 𝐮1 ≔ 𝐯⋅𝐯 𝐯 and let 𝐮2 ≔ 𝐮 − 𝐮1 . Then 𝐮 is decomposed as a sum
𝐮
𝐮 = 𝐮1 + 𝐮2 𝐮2

𝐮⋅𝐯
𝐮1
in which 𝐮1 is parallel to 𝐯 (because is just a scalar). Finally since
𝐯⋅𝐯 𝐯

𝐮2 ⋅ 𝐯 = (𝐮 − 𝐮1 ) ⋅ 𝐯 = 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 − 𝐮1 ⋅ 𝐯
𝐮⋅𝐯 𝐮⋅𝐯
=𝐮⋅𝐯−( 𝐯) ⋅ 𝐯 = 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 − (𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯)
𝐯⋅𝐯 𝐯⋅𝐯
= 0,
it follows that 𝐮2 is orthogonal to 𝐯. ∎

We give a special name to the portion of 𝐮 that is parallel to 𝐯.

Definition 1.34 Let 𝐯 be a non-zero vector. Then the orthogonal (vector) projection of a vector
𝐮 onto 𝐯 is the vector defined by
𝐮⋅𝐯 𝐮⋅𝐯
proj𝐯 𝐮 ≔ 𝐯= 𝐯̂.
𝐯⋅𝐯 ‖𝐯‖
𝐮⋅𝐯
The “signed magnitude” ‖𝐯‖
of proj𝐯 𝐮 is a real number called the scalar projection of 𝐮 onto 𝐯.

It is also the dot product of 𝐮 and 𝐯̂, i.e.

𝐮⋅𝐯
= 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯̂ = ‖𝐮‖ cos 𝜃 ,
‖𝐯‖
where 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] is the angle between 𝐮 and 𝐯 in case 𝐮 ≠ 𝟎.

Example 1.35 Let 𝐮 = 4𝐣 − 3𝐤 and 𝐯 = 2𝐢 + 2𝐣 + 𝐤. Find the vectors proj𝐯 𝐮 and proj𝐮 𝐯.

Solution:
Since 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐮 = 02 + 42 + (−3)2 = 25 , 𝐯 ⋅ 𝐯 = 22 + 22 + 12 = 9 and 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 = (0)(2) + (4)(2) +
(−3)(1) = 5, we have
𝐮⋅𝐯 5 10 10 5
proj𝐯 𝐮 = 𝐯 = (2𝐢 + 2𝐣 + 𝐤) = 𝐢+ 𝐣 + 𝐤,
𝐯⋅𝐯 9 9 9 9
𝐯⋅𝐮 5 4 3
proj𝐮 𝐯 = 𝐮= (4𝐣 − 3𝐤) = 𝐣 − 𝐤.
𝐮⋅𝐮 25 5 5

Page 13 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 1.36 Let 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) be a point in ℝ2 and 𝐿 be the line in ℝ2 whose equation is
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0,
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are not both zero. Find the distance between 𝑃0 and 𝐿 by expressing it in
terms of the numbers 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑥0 , 𝑦0 .

Solution:
Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and 𝑃2 (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) be two distinct points on 𝐿, so that
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐 = 0 and 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 + 𝑐 = 0. 𝐿
Then the vector
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 = 〈𝑥2 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 〉
is parallel to 𝐿, and 𝑃2 𝐮
〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃2 = 𝑎(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑏(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) 𝑃1
= (𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑦2 + 𝑐) − (𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐) 𝑃0

= 0,
proj𝐮 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0
so the non-zero vector 𝐮 ≔ 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 is perpendicular to 𝐿.

Now the distance between 𝑃0 and 𝐿 is equal to the length of the orthogonal projection of the
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0 = 〈𝑥0 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦0 − 𝑦1 〉 onto 𝐮, which is given by
𝑑(𝑃0 , 𝐿) = ‖proj𝐮 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0 ‖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0 ⋅ 𝐮
=‖ 𝐮‖
𝐮⋅𝐮
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑃 1 𝑃0 ⋅ 𝐮|
=
‖𝐮‖
|𝑎(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑏(𝑦0 − 𝑦1 )|
=
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
|𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐|
= .
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2

Remark 1.37 In the first paragraph of the above solution, we have proved an important fact that
the vector 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 is always perpendicular to the line in ℝ2 whose equation is 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0.
This fact (and the corresponding concept of “normal vector” for planes in ℝ3 ) will be frequently
used throughout this course. We will study more about this in section 4 of this chapter.

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To conclude, let’s look at some applications of Euclidean vectors in physics and engineering.

Remark 1.38 In physics and engineering, we often encounter physical quantities that have both a
magnitude and a direction, e.g. force, displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc. Such kind of
physical quantities can be described by Euclidean vectors (cf. Remark 1.22). In mechanics, if we
represent a force by a Euclidean vector, then the resultant force when several forces are exerted on
the same object is represented by the sum of the vectors representing these forces.

Example 1.39 A load with weight 100 N is suspended from the ceiling
60° 30°
with two wires as shown in the figure on the right. If the load is at rest, 𝐅1
𝐅2
find the magnitudes of the tensions (i.e. forces) 𝐅1 and 𝐅2 in the two
wires respectively. 𝐖

Solution:
Our goal is to find the magnitudes ‖𝐅1 ‖ and ‖𝐅2 ‖. Now the only forces exerted on the load are
the tensions 𝐅1 and 𝐅2 , as well as the weight 𝐖 of the load. Since the load is at rest, the
resultant force acting on it is zero according to Newton’s first law, i.e.
𝐅1 + 𝐅2 + 𝐖 = 𝟎.
Writing in component forms we have
𝐖 = 〈0, −100〉, 𝐅1
𝐅1 = 〈−‖𝐅1 ‖ cos 60° , ‖𝐅1 ‖ sin 60°〉, 𝐅2
𝐅2 = 〈‖𝐅2 ‖ cos 30° , ‖𝐅2 ‖ sin 30°〉. 60° 30°
Therefore the vector equation 𝐅1 + 𝐅2 + 𝐖 = 𝟎 becomes
〈−‖𝐅1 ‖ cos 60° + ‖𝐅2 ‖ cos 30° + 0, ‖𝐅1 ‖ sin 60° + ‖𝐅2 ‖ sin 30° − 100〉 = 〈0, 0〉,
i.e.
−‖𝐅1 ‖ cos 60° + ‖𝐅2 ‖ cos 30° + 0 = 0
൜ .
‖𝐅1 ‖ sin 60° + ‖𝐅2 ‖ sin 30° − 100 = 0
On solving this system we get ‖𝐅1 ‖ = 50√3 and ‖𝐅2 ‖ = 50, so the magnitudes of the tensions
are 50√3 N in the left wire and 50 N in the right wire.

Remark 1.40 In mechanics, if 𝐅 represents a force, then proj𝐝 𝐅

represents the effective force provided by 𝐅 in the direction of 𝐝.
In MATH1014/1024, the work 𝑊 done by a constant force 𝐹 in 𝐅

moving an object through a distance 𝑑 along the same direction of proj𝐝 𝐅 𝐝

the force was defined by
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑.
So in the situation now, 𝐹 should be replaced by the signed magnitude of the effective force, i.e.
the scalar projection ‖𝐅‖ cos 𝜃; and 𝑑 is simply the length ‖𝐝‖ of the displacement vector 𝐝.

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Definition 1.41 In mechanics, the work done by a constant force 𝐅 acting on an object through a
displacement 𝐝 is defined by
𝑊 ≔ 𝐅 ⋅ 𝐝 = ‖𝐅‖‖𝐝‖ cos 𝜃 ,
where 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] is the angle between 𝐅 and 𝐝 in case 𝐅 ≠ 𝟎 and 𝐝 ≠ 𝟎.

Example 1.42 Find the work done by a force 𝐅 = 〈5, 0, 0〉 in moving an object in ℝ3 along the
line from the origin to the point 𝑃(1, 1, 1).

Solution:
The displacement vector from 𝑂(0, 0, 0) to 𝑃(1, 1, 1) is
𝐝 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 = 〈1 − 0, 1 − 0, 1 − 0〉 = 〈1, 1, 1〉.
The work 𝑊 done by the force 𝐅 through such a displacement is therefore
𝑊 = 𝐅 ⋅ 𝐝 = 〈5, 0, 0〉 ⋅ 〈1, 1, 1〉 = (5)(1) + (0)(1) + (0)(1) = 5.

3. Cross product of vectors in ℝ𝟑 The cross product is defined ONLY

for three-dimensional vectors.

Definition 1.43 Let 𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 , 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 be real numbers. Then the cross product of the
three-dimensional vectors 𝐮 = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 〉 and 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 〉 is the three-dimensional vector
given by
𝐮 × 𝐯 ≔ 〈𝑢2 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 , 𝑢3 𝑣1 − 𝑢1 𝑣3 , 𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 〉.

Remark 1.44 In linear algebra, the determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix of numbers is defined by the
number
𝑎 𝑏
| | ≔ 𝑎𝑑 − 𝑏𝑐,
𝑐 𝑑
while the determinant of a 3 × 3 matrix of numbers is defined by the number
𝑎1 𝑎2 𝑎3
|𝑏1 𝑏2 𝑏3 | ≔ 𝑎1 𝑏2 𝑐3 + 𝑎2 𝑏3 𝑐1 + 𝑎3 𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑎1 𝑏3 𝑐2 − 𝑎2 𝑏1 𝑐3 − 𝑎3 𝑏2 𝑐1
𝑐1 𝑐2 𝑐3
= 𝑎1 (𝑏2 𝑐3 − 𝑏3 𝑐2 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑏3 𝑐1 − 𝑏1 𝑐3 ) + 𝑎3 (𝑏1 𝑐2 − 𝑏2 𝑐1 )
𝑏2 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏3 𝑏 𝑏2
= 𝑎1 | | − 𝑎2 | 1 | + 𝑎3 | 1 |. Minus sign for the second term!
𝑐2 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐3 𝑐1 𝑐2
Because of the above computation rule, some people prefer to remember the definition of the
cross product using the notation of a formal determinant as follows:
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 Components of the first vector
𝐮 × 𝐯 ≔ |𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 | .
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 Components of the second vector

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If we apply a similar computation rule to this formal determinant, then we will recover the original
definition, as
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤 𝑢 𝑢3 𝑢1 𝑢3 𝑢1 𝑢2 Minus sign for the second term!
|𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 | = |𝑣2 𝑣3 | 𝐢 − | 𝑣1 𝑣3 | 𝐣 + | 𝑣1 𝑣2 | 𝐤
2
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
= (𝑢2 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 )𝐢 − (𝑢1 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣1 )𝐣 + (𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 )𝐤
= 𝐮 × 𝐯.
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
Note that |𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3 | is not really a determinant (the first row does not consist of numbers!),
𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3
but is just a formal way to remember the definition of 𝐮 × 𝐯. 𝐮 × 𝐯 is a vector, not a scalar.

Theorem 1.45 Let 𝐮 and 𝐯 be three-dimensional vectors. Then 𝐮 × 𝐯 is orthogonal to both 𝐮

and 𝐯.

Proof. Let 𝐮 = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 〉 and 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 〉. Then

𝐮 ⋅ (𝐮 × 𝐯) = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 〉 ⋅ 〈𝑢2 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 , 𝑢3 𝑣1 − 𝑢1 𝑣3 , 𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 〉
= 𝑢1 (𝑢2 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 ) + 𝑢2 (𝑢3 𝑣1 − 𝑢1 𝑣3 ) + 𝑢3 (𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 )
= 0,
and the proof of that 𝐯 ⋅ (𝐮 × 𝐯) = 0 is also similar. ∎

Example 1.46 Find a unit vector in ℝ3 which is orthogonal to both the vectors 𝐮 = 4𝐣 − 3𝐤 and
𝐯 = 2𝐢 + 2𝐣 + 𝐤.

Solution:
We know that the cross product 𝐮 × 𝐯 is orthogonal to both 𝐮 and 𝐯. Now
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
4 −3 0 −3 0 4
𝐮 × 𝐯 = |0 4 −3| = | |𝐢 − | |𝐣 + | |𝐤
2 1 2 1 2 2
2 2 1
= [(4)(1) − (−3)(2)]𝐢 − [(0)(1) − (−3)(2)]𝐣 + [(0)(2) − (4)(2)]𝐤
= 10𝐢 − 6𝐣 − 8𝐤.
Any scalar multiple of this vector is also orthogonal to both 𝐮 and 𝐯. Among all such vectors, a
unit vector orthogonal to both 𝐮 and 𝐯 is given by either
1 1 1 3 4
(𝐮 × 𝐯) = (10𝐢 − 6𝐣 − 8𝐤) = 𝐢− 𝐣− 𝐤
‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖ √102 + (−6)2 + 82 √2 5√2 5√2
or
1 1 3 4
− (𝐮 × 𝐯) = − 𝐢+ 𝐣+ 𝐤.
‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖ √2 5√2 5√2

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Remark 1.47 If 𝐮 and 𝐯 are represented by directed line segments with 𝐮×𝐯
the same initial point, then the vector 𝐮 × 𝐯 points in a direction
perpendicular to the plane containing both 𝐮 and 𝐯. The direction of
𝐮 × 𝐯 is indicated by the right-hand rule.

𝐮
From this remark, we observe that 𝐮 × 𝐯 and 𝐯 × 𝐮 should be vectors 𝐯
that point in opposite directions, so in general
𝐮 × 𝐯 ≠ 𝐯 × 𝐮,
and also
𝐮 × (𝐯 × 𝐰) ≠ (𝐮 × 𝐯) × 𝐰.

Theorem 1.48 (Properties of the cross product) Let 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 be three-dimensional vectors
and 𝑐 be a scalar. Then
(i) 𝐮 × 𝐯 = −(𝐯 × 𝐮)
(ii) (𝑐𝐮) × 𝐯 = 𝑐(𝐮 × 𝐯) = 𝐮 × (𝑐𝐯)
(iii) 𝐮 × (𝐯 + 𝐰) = 𝐮 × 𝐯 + 𝐮 × 𝐰
(iv) (𝐮 + 𝐯) × 𝐰 = 𝐮 × 𝐰 + 𝐯 × 𝐰
(v) 𝐮 × 𝐮 = 𝟎

Proof. All of these can be checked directly using Definition 1.43, and are left as exercises. ∎

Theorem 1.49 𝐢 × 𝐣 = 𝐤, 𝐣 × 𝐤 = 𝐢 and 𝐤 × 𝐢 = 𝐣.

Proof. Trivial. ∎

Theorem 1.50 Let 𝐮 and 𝐯 be three-dimensional non-zero vectors and let 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] be the
angle between 𝐮 and 𝐯. Then the cross product 𝐮 × 𝐯 has length
‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖ = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ sin 𝜃.

Proof. Let 𝐮 = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 〉 and 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 〉, and recall that 𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯 = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ cos 𝜃. Now
‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖2 = (𝑢2 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 )2 + (𝑢3 𝑣1 − 𝑢1 𝑣3 )2 + (𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 )2
= (𝑢1 2 + 𝑢2 2 + 𝑢3 2 )(𝑣1 2 + 𝑣2 2 + 𝑣3 2 ) − (𝑢1 𝑣1 + 𝑢2 𝑣2 + 𝑢3 𝑣3 )2
= ‖𝐮‖2 ‖𝐯‖2 − (𝐮 ⋅ 𝐯)2
= ‖𝐮‖2 ‖𝐯‖2 − (‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ cos 𝜃)2
= ‖𝐮‖2 ‖𝐯‖2 (1 − cos2 𝜃)
= ‖𝐮‖2 ‖𝐯‖2 sin2 𝜃 .
We always have sin 𝜃 ≥ 0 as 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋], so taking square roots on both sides of the above, we
obtain ‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖ = ‖𝐮‖‖𝐯‖ sin 𝜃. ∎

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Corollary 1.51 Let 𝐮 and 𝐯 be three-dimensional vectors. Then 𝐮 × 𝐯 = 𝟎 if and only if 𝐮

and 𝐯 are parallel.

Proof. The statement is trivial if 𝐮 = 𝟎 or 𝐯 = 𝟎. If 𝐮 ≠ 𝟎 and 𝐯 ≠ 𝟎, then from Theorem

1.50, we know that 𝐮 × 𝐯 = 𝟎 if and only if the angle 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] between 𝐮 and 𝐯 satisfies
sin 𝜃 = 0, i.e. either 𝜃 = 0 or 𝜃 = 𝜋, which happens exactly when 𝐮 and 𝐯 are parallel. ∎

Corollary 1.52 Let 𝐮 and 𝐯 be three-dimensional vectors. Then the parallelogram determined
by 𝐮 and 𝐯 has area equal to ‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖.

𝐯
𝜃
𝐮

Proof. Let 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] be the angle between 𝐮 and 𝐯 (what if one or both of them are 𝟎?).
Then the parallelogram determined by 𝐮 and 𝐯 has a base of length ‖𝐮‖ and the corresponding
altitude of length ‖𝐯‖ sin 𝜃. So its area is
𝐴 = (‖𝐮‖)(‖𝐯‖ sin 𝜃) = ‖𝐮 × 𝐯‖
by Theorem 1.50. ∎

Example 1.53 Find the area of the parallelogram with vertices 𝑃(1, 0, 2), 𝑄(3, 3, 3), 𝑅(7, 5, 8)
and 𝑆(9, 8, 9).

Solution:
We only need the coordinates of three of the vertices as the fourth vertex is determined by the
other three. Now
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈3 − 1, 3 − 0, 3 − 2〉 = 〈2, 3, 1〉
𝑃𝑄
and
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈7 − 1, 5 − 0, 8 − 2〉 = 〈6, 5, 6〉,
𝑃𝑅
so
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑃𝑅
𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |2 3 1| = 〈13, −6, −8〉.
6 5 6
The area of the parallelogram is given by the length of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅, which is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑃𝑅
‖𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ‖ = √132 + (−6)2 + (−8)2 = √269.

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Theorem 1.54 Let 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 be three-dimensional vectors. Then

𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰) = 𝐯 ⋅ (𝐰 × 𝐮) = 𝐰 ⋅ (𝐮 × 𝐯).

Proof. Let 𝐮 = 〈𝑢1 , 𝑢2 , 𝑢3 〉, 𝐯 = 〈𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 〉 and 𝐰 = 〈𝑤1 , 𝑤2 , 𝑤3 〉. Then

𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰) = 𝑢1 (𝑣2 𝑤3 − 𝑣3 𝑤2 ) + 𝑢2 (𝑣3 𝑤1 − 𝑣1 𝑤3 ) + 𝑢3 (𝑣1 𝑤2 − 𝑣2 𝑤1 )
𝐯 ⋅ (𝐰 × 𝐮) = 𝑣1 (𝑤2 𝑢3 − 𝑤3 𝑢2 ) + 𝑣2 (𝑤3 𝑢1 − 𝑤1 𝑢3 ) + 𝑣3 (𝑤1 𝑢2 − 𝑤2 𝑢1 )
𝐰 ⋅ (𝐮 × 𝐯) = 𝑤1 (𝑢2 𝑣3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 ) + 𝑤2 (𝑢3 𝑣1 − 𝑢1 𝑣3 ) + 𝑤3 (𝑢1 𝑣2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 ).
The right-hand sides are all equal to the same number
𝑢1 𝑣2 𝑤3 + 𝑢2 𝑣3 𝑤1 + 𝑢3 𝑣1 𝑤2 − 𝑢1 𝑣3 𝑤2 − 𝑢2 𝑣1 𝑤3 − 𝑢3 𝑣2 𝑤1 ,
and so they are all equal.

Remark 1.55 Each of the expressions 𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰), 𝐯 ⋅ (𝐰 × 𝐮) and 𝐰 ⋅ (𝐮 × 𝐯) is called the

scalar triple product of the vectors 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰, and are all equal to the determinant
𝑢1 𝑢2 𝑢3
| 𝑣1 𝑣2 𝑣3 |.
𝑤1 𝑤2 𝑤3

Proposition 1.56 Let 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 be three-dimensional vectors. Then the parallelepiped

determined by 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 has volume equal to the absolute value of their scalar triple product,
i.e. |𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰)|.

𝐯×𝐰
𝐮
𝜃
𝐰
𝐯

Proof. Regard the base of the parallelepiped as the parallelogram determined by 𝐯 and 𝐰. We
knew from Corollary 1.52 that this base has area
𝐴 = ‖𝐯 × 𝐰‖.
Now let 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] be the angle between the vectors 𝐮 and 𝐯 × 𝐰. Then the corresponding
height of the parallelepiped is ℎ = ‖𝐮‖|cos 𝜃| (we need the absolute value of cos 𝜃 because
𝜋
cos 𝜃 < 0 if 𝜃 ∈ (2 , 𝜋]). Therefore its volume is the product of its base area and its height,

𝑉 = 𝐴ℎ = ‖𝐯 × 𝐰‖(‖𝐮‖|cos 𝜃|) = |𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰)|.

∎

Corollary 1.57 Let 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 be three-dimensional vectors. Then 𝐮 ⋅ (𝐯 × 𝐰) = 0 if and

only if 𝐮, 𝐯 and 𝐰 are coplanar (i.e. they lie in the same plane).

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4. Lines and planes in ℝ𝟑

We have seen before that a line 𝐿 in ℝ2 is a set of points whose coordinates satisfy a certain
linear equation, and can be written as
𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0}.
To appropriately generalize this notion to the Euclidean space ℝ𝑛 , we should first note that a line
can be determined by a point lying on it together with a non-zero vector indicating its direction.

Definition 1.58 Let 𝑃0 be a point with position vector 𝐫0 ≔ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃0 and let 𝐯 be a non-zero
vector. The line passing through 𝑃0 and parallel to 𝐯 is the set of all points 𝑃 whose position
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ satisfies the equation
vector 𝐫 ≔ 𝑂𝑃
𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯
for some real number 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞).

𝐯
𝑃 𝐿
𝑃0

Remark 1.59 Some facts regarding Definition 1.58:

(i) We may regard the definition as requiring that the vector 𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
0 𝑃 is parallel to 𝐯, or in other
words, 𝐫 − 𝐫0 is a scalar multiple of 𝐯, for every point 𝑃 on the line.
(ii) It does not matter if we replace 𝑃0 by any other point lying on the line in the definition.
(iii) It does not matter if we replace 𝐯 by 𝑘𝐯 in the definition where 𝑘 is a non-zero real number.
The vector 𝐯 indicates only the direction of the line, and its length does not matter.
(iv) Rewriting the equation as
𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯
1
= 𝐫0 + 𝑡‖𝐯‖ ( 𝐯) ,
‖𝐯‖
Initial Time
Direction
position Speed
we see that a line passing through 𝑃0 and parallel to 𝐯 may be thought of as the path (or
locus) of a moving particle which starts at 𝑃0 and moves with a non-zero constant speed ‖𝐯‖
in the direction indicated by the unit vector 𝐯̂. The particle arrives at 𝑃 at time 𝑡.

Page 21 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Theorem 1.60 The line in ℝ2 passing through (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 ) and parallel to 〈𝑎, 𝑏〉 is the set of all
points (𝑥, 𝑦) which satisfies
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
൜
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡
for some real number 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞). The line in ℝ3 passing through (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and parallel
to 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is the set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) which satisfies
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
{𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡
for some real number 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞).

Proof. Let’s focus only on the ℝ3 case. Expressing all the vectors in Definition 1.58 in
component form, we have 𝐫0 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉, 𝐯 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 and 𝐫 = 〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉. So the equation
𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯
becomes 〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉 + 𝑡〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉, i.e.
〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 = 〈𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡, 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡, 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡〉.
Equating each corresponding component gives us the required system of equations. ∎

Remark 1.61 Eliminating 𝑡 from the equations

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
൜
𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡
of a line in ℝ2 given in Theorem 1.60, we get
𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦0 − 𝑏𝑥0 = 0.
This recovers our previous definition of a line in ℝ2 because we may now write the line as
𝐿 = {(𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ ℝ2 : 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐶 = 0}
if we take 𝐴 = 𝑏, 𝐵 = −𝑎 and 𝐶 = 𝑎𝑦0 − 𝑏𝑥0 .

Remark 1.62 The equation

𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯
with the variable vector 𝐫 is sometimes called the vector equation of a line, while the system of
equations
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑎𝑡
{𝑦 = 𝑦0 + 𝑏𝑡
𝑧 = 𝑧0 + 𝑐𝑡
with variables 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 is called the parametric equations of a line (in ℝ3 ). In both forms of
the equations, 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞) is called the parameter.

Page 22 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 1.63 Find the parametric equations of the line in ℝ3 that passes through the points
𝑃(2, 0, 0) and 𝑄(1, 1, 1).

Solution:
The required line passes though 𝑃(2, 0, 0) and is parallel to the vector
𝐯 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 〈1 − 2, 1 − 0, 1 − 0〉 = 〈−1, 1, 1〉,
so its parametric equations are given by
𝑥 = 2 + (−1)𝑡 To find the equation of a
{𝑦 = 0 + 1𝑡 , line, we just need a point
and a direction vector.
𝑧 = 0 + 1𝑡
i.e. 𝑥 = 2 − 𝑡 and 𝑦 = 𝑡 and 𝑧 = 𝑡, where 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞).

Remark 1.64 A line extends infinitely in both directions, although we are only able to draw a part
of it with finite length. A line segment can be obtained by requiring that in the equation
𝐫 = 𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐯,
𝑡 belongs to some bounded closed interval instead of (−∞, +∞), e.g. 𝑡 ∈ [𝑡0 , 𝑡1 ] where 𝑡 = 𝑡0
and 𝑡 = 𝑡1 corresponds to the end-points of the line segment. In particular, the line segment
joining two distinct points with position vectors 𝐫0 and 𝐫1 has a direction vector 𝐯 = 𝐫1 − 𝐫0 , and
has equation
𝐫 = (1 − 𝑡)𝐫0 + 𝑡𝐫1
where 𝑡 ∈ [0, 1]. 𝑡 = 0 corresponds to the end-point with position vector 𝐫0 , while 𝑡 = 1
corresponds to the end-point with position vector 𝐫1.

Example 1.65 Find the parametric equations of the line segment in ℝ3 joining the points
𝑃(2, 0, 0) and 𝑄(1, 1, 1).

Solution:
We have found in Example 1.63 that the line passing though 𝑃 and 𝑄 has parametric equations
𝑥 = 2−𝑡
{𝑦 = 𝑡 ,
𝑧=𝑡
where 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞). Since 𝑡 = 0 corresponds to the point 𝑃(2, 0, 0) and 𝑡 = 1 corresponds
to the point 𝑄(1, 1, 1), the line segment joining 𝑃 and 𝑄 has the same parametric equations,
but with the restriction 𝑡 ∈ [0, 1] instead:
𝑥 = 2−𝑡
{𝑦 = 𝑡 ,
𝑧=𝑡
where 𝑡 ∈ [0, 1].

Page 23 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 1.66 Find the distance between the point 𝑃1 (1, 0, 1) and the line 𝐿 passing through
𝑃0 (0, 1, 0) and parallel to 𝐯 = 〈1, 1, 1〉.

Solution:
The line 𝐿 has parametric equations given by
𝑥 = 0 + 1𝑡
{𝑦 = 1 + 1𝑡
𝑧 = 0 + 1𝑡
where 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞). The distance between 𝑃1 and a point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) lying on 𝐿 is given by

1 2 8
√(𝑡 − 1)2 + (1 + 𝑡 − 0)2 + (𝑡 − 1)2 √ 2 √
= 3𝑡 − 2𝑡 + 3 = 3 (𝑡 − ) + .
3 3 𝐿

The distance between 𝑃1 and 𝐿 is the shortest distance among the above,
8
which is √ . 1 4 1
This is just the distance between 𝑃1 and the point ( , , )
1 4 1
( , , )
3 3 3 3 3 3 3
1
lying on 𝐿, which corresponds to 𝑡 = .
3

Alternative Solution: 𝑃1
The orthogonal projection of the vector
𝐿
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 = 〈1 − 0, 0 − 1, 1 − 0〉 = 〈1, −1, 1〉.
onto the direction 𝐯 = 〈1, 1, 1〉 is 𝐯
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 ⋅ 𝐯 (1)(1) + (−1)(1) + (1)(1) 1 1 1
proj𝐯 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 = 𝐯= 2 2 2
〈1, 1, 1〉 = 〈 , , 〉 .
𝐯⋅𝐯 1 +1 +1 3 3 3
Now proj𝐯 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1
0 𝑃
1 1 1 2 4 2 𝑃1
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 − proj𝐯 𝑃0 𝑃1 = 〈1, −1, 1〉 − 〈 , , 〉 = 〈 , − , 〉,
3 3 3 3 3 3
and the distance between 𝑃1 and 𝐿 is given by the length of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 − proj𝐯 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 , which is

2 2 4 2 2 2 8
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑑(𝑃1 , 𝐿) = ‖𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ √
0 𝑃1 − proj𝐯 𝑃0 𝑃1 ‖ = ( ) + (− ) + ( ) = √ .
3 3 3 3

Alternative Solution:
Let 𝜃 ∈ [0, 𝜋] be the angle between 𝐿 and the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 = 〈1 − 0, 0 − 1, 1 − 0〉 = 〈1, −1, 1〉.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
‖𝑃 0 𝑃1 ×𝐯‖
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Then the distance between 𝑃1 and 𝐿 is 𝑑(𝑃1 , 𝐿) = ‖𝑃 0 𝑃1 ‖ sin 𝜃 = . Now 𝐿
‖𝐯‖

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃1 × 𝐯 = 〈(−1)(1) − (1)(1), (1)(1) − (1)(1), (1)(1) − (−1)(1)〉 = 〈−2, 0, 2〉, 𝐯

so

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
‖𝑃 0 𝑃1 × 𝐯‖ √(−2)2 + 02 + 22 8
𝑑(𝑃1 , 𝐿) = = =√ . 𝜃
‖𝐯‖ √12 + 12 + 12 3 𝑃0
𝑃1

Page 24 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 1.67 Let 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 be lines in ℝ3 with parametric equations

𝑥 =1+𝑡 𝑥 = 2𝑡
{𝑦 = −2 + 3𝑡 and {𝑦 = 3 + 𝑡
𝑧 = 4−𝑡 𝑧 = −3 + 4𝑡
respectively. Are 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 parallel? Do 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect?

Solution:
 𝐿1 has a direction vector 〈1, 3, −1〉 and 𝐿2 has a direction vector 〈2, 1, 4〉. These two
vectors are not scalar multiples of each other, so they are not parallel. Therefore the lines 𝐿1
and 𝐿2 are not parallel either.
 If 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 intersect at some point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), then
we would have The two parameters in the parametric
equations of the two lines are different.
1 + 𝑡 = 2𝑢 When we use both of them, we use
{−2 + 3𝑡 = 3 + 𝑢 different symbols for different parameters
4 − 𝑡 = −3 + 4𝑢 so as to avoid confusion.

for some pair of real numbers 𝑡, 𝑢 ∈ (−∞, +∞).

Now solving the first two equations, we get the only possible solution
11 8
𝑡= and 𝑢= ,
5 5
but these values do not satisfy the third equation. Therefore 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 do not intersect.

A plane in ℝ3 is determined by a point lying on it and a non-zero vector orthogonal to it. A

non-zero vector orthogonal to a plane is called a normal vector of the plane.

Definition 1.68 Let 𝑃0 be a point with position vector 𝐫0 ≔ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃0 and let 𝐧 be a non-zero
vector. The plane passing through 𝑃0 with normal vector 𝐧 is the set of all points 𝑃 whose
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ satisfies the equation
position vector 𝐫 ≔ 𝑂𝑃
(𝐫 − 𝐫0 ) ⋅ 𝐧 = 0.

𝐧
𝑃0

Page 25 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Remark 1.69 Some facts regarding Definition 1.68:

(i) We may regard the definition as requiring that the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃 is orthogonal to 𝐧 for every
point 𝑃 in the plane.
(ii) It does not matter if we replace 𝑃0 by any other point lying on the plane in the definition.
(iii) It does not matter if we replace 𝐧 by 𝑘𝐧 in the definition where 𝑘 is a non-zero real
number. The vector 𝐧 indicates only the normal direction of the plane, and its length does
not matter.

Theorem 1.70 The plane in ℝ3 passing through (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) with normal vector 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 is the
set of all points (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) which satisfies the equation
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0,
where 𝑑 = −(𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 ).

Proof. Expressing all the vectors in Definition 1.68 in component form, we have 𝐫0 = 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉,
𝐧 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 and 𝐫 = 〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉. So the equation
(𝐫 − 𝐫0 ) ⋅ 𝐧 = 0
becomes (〈𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧〉 − 〈𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 〉) ⋅ 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 = 0, i.e.
𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑏(𝑦 − 𝑦0 ) + 𝑐(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) = 0.
With 𝑑 ≔ −(𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 ), we obtain
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0
as desired. ∎

Example 1.71 Find the equation of the plane in ℝ3 passing through the points 𝑃(0, 0, 1),
𝑄(2, 0, 0) and 𝑅(0, 3, 0).

Solution:
The vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑄 = 〈2, 0, −1〉 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃𝑅 = 〈0, 3, −1〉 both lie on the required plane, so a normal
vector of the plane is given by
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ × 𝑃𝑅
𝐧 = 𝑃𝑄 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = |2 0 −1| = 〈3, 2, 6〉.
0 3 −1
Using this normal vector together with the point 𝑃(0, 0, 1) lying on the required plane, the
equation of the required plane is given by
3(𝑥 − 0) + 2(𝑦 − 0) + 6(𝑧 − 1) = 0, To find the equation of a
plane, we just need a point
i.e. and a normal vector.
3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 6𝑧 − 6 = 0.

Page 26 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 1.63 We have found that the parametric equations of the line in ℝ3 that passes
through the points (2, 0, 0) and (1, 1, 1) are
𝑥 =2−𝑡
{𝑦 = 𝑡
𝑧=𝑡
where 𝑡 ∈ (−∞, +∞). At which point does this line intersect the 𝑦𝑧-plane? At which point
does this line intersect the plane with equation
4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 + 8 = 0?

Solution:
At the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) where the line intersects the 𝑦𝑧-plane, we must have 𝑥 = 0. This means
2−𝑡 =0
and so 𝑡 = 2. Therefore the point of intersection has coordinates (0, 2, 2).
At the point (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) where the line intersects the plane with equation 4𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 𝑧 + 8 = 0, we
must have
4(2 − 𝑡) − 3(𝑡) − (𝑡) + 8 = 0
and so 𝑡 = 2 again. Therefore the point of intersection is again the point (0, 2, 2).

A normal vector of the plane completely determines its direction. So we can make the following
definition.

Definition 1.72 The angle between two planes is the angle between their normal vectors. Two
planes are parallel (resp. perpendicular) if their normal vectors are parallel (resp. orthogonal).

Remark 1.73 If two planes in ℝ3 are not parallel, then they intersect in a line. Any line in ℝ3
can be regarded as the intersection of two planes in ℝ3 .

Example 1.74 Find the angle between the two planes in ℝ3 defined by the equations
3𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 15 and 2𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5
respectively.
There are perhaps two possible angles between
a pair of planes. To get the acute angle we use
Solution: |𝐧1 ⋅ 𝐧2 |
𝜃 = arccos .
‖𝐧1 ‖‖𝐧2 ‖
The two planes have normal vectors
𝐧1 = 〈3, −6, −2〉 and 𝐧2 = 〈2, 1, −2〉
respectively. The angle 𝜃 between the two planes is just the angle between 𝐧1 and 𝐧2 , i.e.
𝐧1 ⋅ 𝐧2 (3)(2) + (−6)(1) + (−2)(−2) 4
𝜃 = arccos = arccos = arccos
‖𝐧1 ‖‖𝐧2 ‖ √32 + (−6)2 + (−2)2 √22 + 12 + (−2)2 21
≈ 79.02° or 1.38 radians.

Page 27 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Example 1.75 Find the distance between the point 𝑃0 (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) and the plane in ℝ3 defined
by the equation
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0,
where 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are not all zero.

Solution:
In Example 1.36 we have found the distance between a point and a line in ℝ2 , and the idea here is
similar. We know that the plane 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 + 𝑑 = 0 has a normal vector 𝐧 = 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉.
Let 𝑃1 (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑧1 ) be a point on the plane, so that
𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐𝑧1 + 𝑑 = 0.
Then the distance between 𝑃0 and the plane is equal to the length of the
orthogonal projection of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0 = 〈𝑥0 − 𝑥1 , 𝑦0 − 𝑦1 , 𝑧0 − 𝑧1 〉 onto 𝐧, which is
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0 ⋅ 𝐧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑃 1 𝑃0 ⋅ 𝐧|
𝐷 = ‖proj𝐧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0 ‖ = ‖ 𝐧‖ = proj𝐧 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃1 𝑃0
𝐧⋅𝐧 ‖𝐧‖ 𝐧

|𝑎(𝑥0 − 𝑥1 ) + 𝑏(𝑦0 − 𝑦1 ) + 𝑐(𝑧0 − 𝑧1 )| 𝑃0

=
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 𝑃1
|𝑎𝑥0 + 𝑏𝑦0 + 𝑐𝑧0 + 𝑑|
= .
√𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2

Example 1.76 Show that the planes in ℝ3 defined respectively by

10𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5 and 5𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1
are parallel, and find the distance between these two planes.

Solution:
Note that it makes sense to talk about the distance between two planes in ℝ𝟑 only when they do
not intersect, i.e. when they are parallel. Now the two given planes are parallel because they
have normal vectors
𝐧1 = 〈10, 2, −2〉 and 𝐧2 = 〈5, 1, −1〉
which are parallel since 𝐧1 = 2𝐧2.

To find the distance between these two parallel planes, we pick one point in one plane, and then
find its distance from the other plane as in Example 1.75. In particular, if we set 𝑥 = 𝑧 = 0 in the
equation of the second plane, then we get 𝑦 = 1 and so 𝑃(0, 1, 0) is a point in the second plane.
Now the distance between the two planes is just the distance from 𝑃 to the first plane
10𝑥 + 2𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 5,
which is given by

|(10)(0) + (2)(1) + (−2)(0) + (−5)| √3

𝐷= = .
√102 + 22 + (−2)2 6

Page 28 of 37
MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
L2/L3 (Fall 2019)

Remark 1.77 It makes sense to talk about the distance between two lines in ℝ𝟑 again only when
they do not intersect.
 If the two lines in ℝ3 are parallel, then to find the distance between them, we simply pick
one point on one line, and then find its distance from the other line as in Example 1.66.
 We have seen in Example 1.67 that two lines in ℝ3 can be non-intersecting and non-parallel.
Such a pair of lines is called a pair of skew lines. If two lines are skew, then they are
respectively contained in a pair of distinct parallel planes, and the distance between the two
skew lines is just the distance between the two parallel planes containing them.

Example 1.67 We have seen that the lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 in ℝ3 with parametric equations
𝑥 =1+𝑡 𝑥 = 2𝑡
{𝑦 = −2 + 3𝑡 and {𝑦 = 3 + 𝑡
𝑧 = 4−𝑡 𝑧 = −3 + 4𝑡
are skew lines. Find the distance between 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 .

Solution:
We first find two parallel planes containing the skew lines 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 respectively.
𝐿1 has a direction vector 𝐯1 = 〈1, 3, −1〉 and 𝐿2 has a
direction vector 𝐯2 = 〈2, 1, 4〉. A (common) normal vector 𝐧 𝐿1
𝐧
to both planes should be orthogonal to both 𝐯1 and 𝐯2 , so we
may take 𝐯1
𝐯2 𝑃1
𝐢 𝐣 𝐤
𝐧 = 𝐯1 × 𝐯2 = |1 3 −1| = 〈13, −6, −5〉 𝑃2
2 1 4 𝐿2
for instance.

 To find a point on the plane containing 𝑳𝟏 , we simply pick a point on 𝐿1 by setting 𝑡 = 0 in

the parametric equations of 𝐿1 . We get the point 𝑃1 (1, −2, 4).
 To find the equation of the plane containing 𝑳𝟐 , we also need a point on this plane. Setting
𝑡 = 0 in the parametric equations of 𝐿2 we get the point 𝑃2 (0, 3, −3). Together with the
normal vector 𝐧, we find that the equation of the plane containing 𝐿2 is
13(𝑥 − 0) − 6(𝑦 − 3) − 5[𝑧 − (−3)] = 0,
i.e.
13𝑥 − 6𝑦 − 5𝑧 + 3 = 0.
Now the distance between the 𝐿1 and 𝐿2 is just the distance from 𝑃1 to the plane containing 𝐿2 ,
which is given by
|(13)(1) + (−6)(−2) + (−5)(4) + 3| 8
𝐷= = .
√132 + (−6)2 + (−5)2 √230

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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5. Cylinders and quadric surfaces

In the previous sections we have studied two special kinds of surfaces in ℝ3 , namely planes and
spheres. We enrich our inventory of surfaces in ℝ3 by studying cylinders and quadric surfaces in
this section. Before introducing these new objects, let’s briefly review some planar curves we
have studied before, which are collectively known as conic sections.

Definition 1.78 A conic section is a set of points in ℝ2 whose coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦) satisfy a
polynomial equation of degree two. The following are the three generic types of non-degenerate
conic sections, and in each defining equation 𝑎 and 𝑏 are non-zero real constants.
𝑦 𝑦 𝑦
𝑥2 𝑦
= 𝑥2 𝑦2
𝑎2 𝑏 − =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑥2 𝑦2
|𝑏| 𝑎 2 + 𝑏2
=1

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
−|𝑎| |𝑎| −|𝑎| |𝑎|

−|𝑏|
Asymptotes:
𝑏
𝑦=± 𝑥
𝑎
Ellipse: Parabola: Hyperbola:
Coefficients of 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 One of the coefficients Coefficients of 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2
have same signs of 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 is zero have opposite signs
Circle:
Special case when 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2

Remark 1.79 A conic section can also be thought of as a planar curve obtained by intersecting a
plane with the surface of a (double) right circular cone. This explains the terminology.

Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola

(Degenerate case: a point) (Degenerate case: a line) (Degenerate case: a pair of
intersecting lines)

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Definition 1.80 Let 𝐶 be a planar curve and 𝐿 be a line which is not parallel to the plane
containing 𝐶. A cylinder generated by 𝐶 with axis 𝐿 is a surface in ℝ3 consisting of all the
lines that intersect 𝐶 and are parallel to 𝐿.

Remark 1.81 In elementary or high school, the word “cylinder” refers only to circular cylinders,
whose generating curves are circles. Now we broaden this concept by allowing generating curves
of any kind. A plane is therefore a special kind of cylinder whose generating curve is a line.

Example 1.82 Describe and sketch the surface in ℝ3 defined by the equation
𝑥 = 𝑧2.

Solution:
The equation 𝑥 = 𝑧 2 gives no restriction to the 𝑦-coordinate. So in ℝ3 , it represents a cylinder
generated by translating the parabola 𝑥 = 𝑧 2 on the 𝑥𝑧-plane along the 𝑦-axis. Such a surface
is called a parabolic cylinder as the generating curve is a parabola.

𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑧2

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Definition 1.83 A quadric surface is a set of points in ℝ3 whose coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) satisfy a
polynomial equation of degree two. The following are the six generic types of non-degenerate
quadric surfaces, and in each defining equation 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are non-zero real constants.
𝑧 𝑧
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 + =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
+ + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
Ellipsoid:
Elliptic cone:
All cross sections are ellipses
𝑧-cross sections are ellipses;
Sphere:
𝑥- and 𝑦-cross sections are
Special case when 𝑎2 = 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 hyperbolas (or pairs of lines)

𝑧 𝑧
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧
+ = − =
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐 𝑦 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐

𝑥
Elliptic paraboloid: Hyperbolic paraboloid:
𝑧-cross sections are ellipses; 𝑧-cross sections are hyperbolas;
𝑥- and 𝑦-cross sections are parabolas 𝑥- and 𝑦-cross sections are parabolas

𝑧 𝑧

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
+ − =1 − − + =1
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2

𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥

Hyperboloid of one sheet: Hyperboloid of two sheets:

𝑧-cross sections are ellipses; 𝑧-cross sections are ellipses (or nothing);
𝑥- and 𝑦-cross sections are hyperbolas 𝑥- and 𝑦-cross sections are hyperbolas

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Remark 1.84 Suppose that we are given a standard equation defining a quadric surface. To
identify the type of quadric surface without too much memorization, we may first find the
equations of the cross-sectional curves of the surface in planes perpendicular to the coordinate
axes. We next identify which type of conic sections these curves are, and then sketch the surface
with the help of these curves so as to identify which type of quadric surface it is.

Example 1.85 Describe and sketch the surface in ℝ3 defined by the equation
𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 − 9𝑧 2 + 24𝑦 = 0.

Solution:
The equation defines a quadric surface as it is a polynomial equation of degree two. We aim to
put it into one of the six forms as in Definition 1.83. Noting that both 𝑦 2 and 𝑦 terms appear in
the equation, we first complete the squares to get
𝑥 2 − 4(𝑦 − 3)2 − 9𝑧 2 + 36 = 0.
Now the equation contains only terms of degree two and a non-zero constant term, so we aim to
rearrange it so that one side contains only terms of degree two and the other side is 1. We get
𝑥 2 (𝑦 − 3)2 𝑧 2
− 2+ + 2 = 1,
6 32 2
which is the defining equation of a hyperboloid of one sheet with an axis parallel to the 𝑥-axis and
passing through (0, 3, 0).

 For each 𝑘 ∈ ℝ, the cross section of the surface in the plane 𝑥 = 𝑘 is an ellipse
(𝑦 − 3)2 𝑧2
2+ 2 = 1.
𝑘 2 𝑘 2
(√9 + 4 ) (√4 + 9 )

𝑧2 𝑥2
 The cross section of the surface in the plane 𝑦 = 3 is a hyperbola − 62 = 1.
22

(𝑦−3)2 𝑥2
 The cross section of the surface in the plane 𝑧 = 0 is a hyperbola − 62 = 1.
32

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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6. Cylindrical and spherical coordinate systems in ℝ𝟑

Just like the polar coordinate system in ℝ2 , there are coordinate systems in ℝ3 other than the
Cartesian coordinate system which are also useful for calculus as we will see in later chapters.

Definition 1.86 Let 𝑃 be a point in ℝ3 which does not lie on the 𝑧-axis. Then the ordered
triple (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) is called the cylindrical coordinates of 𝑃 if
 𝑟 ∈ (0, +∞) is the distance between 𝑃 and the 𝑧-axis,
 𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋) is the angle from the positive 𝑥-axis to the line segment joining the origin and the
foot of perpendicular of 𝑃 on the 𝑥𝑦-plane, measured counterclockwise on the 𝑥𝑦-plane,
and
 𝑧 ∈ ℝ is the usual Cartesian 𝑧-coordinate of 𝑃.
The point on the 𝑧-axis with Cartesian coordinates (0, 0, 𝑧) has cylindrical coordinates given by
any ordered triple (0, 𝜃, 𝑧) with 𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋).

𝑧 𝑧

𝑤
𝑟
𝑃 = (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑤) 𝑧=𝑘

0
𝜃 𝑦 𝑦

𝑥 𝑥
𝑟=𝑘 𝜃=𝑘

Remark 1.87 The following are some surfaces whose defining equations are simple when using
the cylindrical coordinate system.
 For each 𝑘 > 0, the equation 𝑟 = 𝑘 represents a circular cylinder whose axis of symmetry is
the 𝑧-axis. Its cross section in the 𝑥𝑦-plane is a circle with radius 𝑘 centered at the origin.
 For each 𝑘 ∈ [0, 2𝜋), the equation 𝜃 = 𝑘 represents a half-plane containing the 𝑧-axis as its
boundary. Its intersection with the 𝑥𝑦-plane is a half-line (or ray) emanating from the origin
making an angle of 𝑘 radians with the positive 𝑥-axis.
 For each 𝑘 ∈ ℝ, the equation 𝑧 = 𝑘 represents a plane parallel to the 𝒙𝒚-plane, as usual.

Lemma 1.88 Let 𝑃 be a point in ℝ3 with Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and cylindrical
coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑤). Then
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃
{𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 .
𝑧=𝑤

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Definition 1.89 Let 𝑃 be a point in ℝ3 which does not lie on the 𝑧-axis. Then the ordered
triple (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝜃) is called the spherical coordinates of 𝑃 if
 𝜌 ∈ (0, +∞) is the distance between 𝑃 and the origin,
 𝜙 ∈ (0, 𝜋) is the angle between the positive 𝑧-axis and the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃, and
 𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋) is the angle from the positive 𝑥-axis to the line segment joining the origin and the
foot of perpendicular of 𝑃 on the 𝑥𝑦-plane, measured counterclockwise on the 𝑥𝑦-plane.
In this description, 𝜙 is called the latitude of 𝑃 and 𝜃 is called the longitude of 𝑃.
The point on the 𝑧-axis with Cartesian coordinates (0, 0, 𝑧) has spherical coordinates given by
 any ordered triple (|𝑧|, 0, 𝜃) with 𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋) if 𝑧 > 0,
 any ordered triple (|𝑧|, 𝜋, 𝜃) with 𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋) if 𝑧 < 0,
 any ordered triple (0, 𝜙, 𝜃) with 𝜙 ∈ [0, 𝜋] and 𝜃 ∈ [0, 2𝜋) if 𝑧 = 0, i.e. if it is the origin.

𝑧
𝑧

𝜙=𝑘

𝑃 = (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝜃)
𝜙
𝜌
0
𝜌=𝑘 𝑦
𝜃 𝑦

𝑥
𝑥 𝜃=𝑘

Remark 1.90 The following are some surfaces whose defining equations are simple when using
the spherical coordinate system.
 For each 𝑘 > 0, the equation 𝜌 = 𝑘 represents a sphere with radius 𝑘 centered at the
origin.
 For each 𝑘 ∈ (0, 𝜋), the equation 𝜙 = 𝑘 represents a (single) right circular cone with an axis
parallel to the 𝑧-axis. Its apex is at the origin and it makes an angle of 𝑘 radians with the
positive 𝑧-axis.
 For each 𝑘 ∈ [0, 2𝜋), the equation 𝜃 = 𝑘 represents a half-plane containing the 𝑧-axis as its
boundary. Its intersection with the 𝑥𝑦-plane is a half-line (or ray) emanating from the origin
making an angle of 𝑘 radians with the positive 𝑥-axis.

Lemma 1.91 Let 𝑃 be a point in ℝ3 with Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) and spherical
coordinates (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝜃). Then
𝑥 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃
{𝑦 = 𝜌 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃 .
𝑧 = 𝜌 cos 𝜙

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Example 1.92 Consider the surface in ℝ3 defined by the equation

𝜌 = csc 𝜙
in spherical coordinates. Describe and sketch the surface by first rewriting this equation in
Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates.

Solution:
Note that the Cartesian coordinates (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), the cylindrical coordinates (𝑟, 𝜃, 𝑧) and the spherical
coordinates (𝜌, 𝜙, 𝜃) of a point in ℝ3 satisfy the relations
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (𝜌 sin 𝜙 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝜌 sin 𝜙 sin 𝜃)2 = 𝜌2 sin2 𝜙
and
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (𝑟 sin 𝜃)2 + (𝑟 cos 𝜃)2 = 𝑟 2 .

Now the given equation 𝜌 = csc 𝜙 can be rewritten as 𝜌 sin 𝜙 = 1, so the equation is
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 1
in Cartesian coordinates, and is
𝑟=1
in cylindrical coordinates. The equation therefore defines a circular cylinder in ℝ3 generated by
translating the unit circle lying on the 𝑥𝑦-plane along the 𝑧-axis. The following is a sketch of the
surface:
𝑧
𝜌 = csc 𝜙

−1
−1
1 𝑦
1

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MATH2023 Multivariable Calculus Chapter 1 Vectors and the geometry of space
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Summary of Chapter 1

The following are what you need to know in this chapter in order to get a pass (a distinction) in this
course:

 Coordinate systems in ℝ3
 Cartesian coordinate system
 Cylindrical coordinate system
 Spherical coordinate system
 Conversion between different coordinate systems

 Euclidean vectors
 Position vector of a point in space, component form of a vector
 Addition and scalar multiplication
 Dot product, length of a vector, unit vectors
 Angle between two vectors, orthogonal vectors
 Orthogonal projection of vectors
 Cross product of vectors in ℝ3
 Geometric interpretation of vectors and their operations; to solve geometry problems
using vectors
 To interpret physical quantities, e.g. force and work, using vectors

 Lines and planes in ℝ3

 To find a vector equation and parametric equations of a line or a line segment using a
point on the line together with a direction vector of the line
 To find an equation of a plane using a point on the plane and a normal vector of the plane
 To compute the distance between
 two points
 a point and a line
 a point and a plane
 a pair of non-intersecting lines in ℝ3 (i.e. either parallel lines or skew lines)
 a pair of non-intersecting planes in ℝ3 (i.e. parallel planes in ℝ3 )
 To compute the angle between
 two lines
 two planes

 Cylinders and quadric surfaces in ℝ3

 To identify different types of quadric surfaces using their cross sections

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