Chapter

Chapter 11
The
The Nature
Nature of
of
Mathematics
Mathematics
GE 104
CHAPTER
CHAPTER 55
MATHEMATICS
Chapter
Chapter 22
Problem
Problem IN THE
Mathematics
Mathematics in
in
Solving
Solving and
and
ReasoninG
ReasoninG
MODERN our
our world
world

WORLD

Chapter
Chapter 33
Chapter
Chapter 44 Fibonacci
Fibonacci
Mathematical
Mathematical sequence
sequence
language and
language and golden
golden ratio,
ratio,
symbol
symbol golden
golden
rectangle
rectangle
k
 • CHAPTER 1
• THE NATURE OF MATHEMATICS
 A set of
a study of problems
patterns solving tool

MATHEMATIC
S IS

an art
is a language

a process of
thinking

• CHAPTER 2
• MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD
 MATHEMATICS
IN OUR WORLD

MATHEMATICS is a useful
way to think about our
nature and our world.

There’s Things in NATURE

and in the WORLD that
follows a concept
MATHEMATICS

Tiger’s
Population Snowflakes
Stripes and
(Exponential) (Symmetry) Hyena’s
Spot

Flower’s Petals Honeycombs

(Fibonacci Sunflower
(Packing
Numbers) and Snail’s
Problems)
1.) SYMMETRY-Comes from Shell
the (Spiral)
Greek work meaning “to measure
)
together” and is widely use in the study of geometry. It is also
means that one shape becomes exactly like another when you
move it in some way: turn, flip or slide
Types of Symmetry:
 Bilateral Symmetry
 Rotational Symmetry
 n-fold Symmetry

>Bilateral Symmetry >N-fold Symmetry 5 FOLD / 3 FOLD

Rational Symmetry

EXAMPLES OF ANGLE OF ROTTATION

Angle of Rotation-The The smallest angle that a figure can be
rotated while still preserving the original formation.
- Given by the formula: angle of rotation = 360 ͦ / n

2.). Tiger’s Stripes and Hyena’s Spot-The random design are

believed to be govern by mathematical equations.
- Theory of Alan Turing, the man famous for breaking down the
Enigma code during World War II, chemical reactions and diffusion
process in cells determine these growth.
 3.) Packing Problems-involves finding optimum method of filling
up the given space, such as a cubic or cylindrical containers.

Square Packing Hexagonal Packing

4.) Spiral- In Mathematics, it is defined as a curve which emanates from

a point, moving farther away as it revolves around the point.
 \

Equiangular Spiral- as the distance from the center of the spiral

increases (radius), the amplitudes of the angles formed by radii to the
point and the tangent to the point remain constant.

5.) Flower’s Petals (Fibonacci Numbers) - a series of numbers in which each number
(Fibonacci number) is the sum of the two preceding numbers. The simplest is the series
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, etc.
 6.) Population (exponential)

A = (Total Population) e =(Euler’s numbers)

P = (Initial Population) r = (Rate) t = (Time)

A
rt
ln
Formula: A= Pe Formula: r= P
t
A
A ln
Formula: P= rt Formula: t= P
e
r
 • CHAPTER 3
• FIBONACCI SEQUENCE GOLDEN RATIO,
GOLDEN RECTANGLE
•

Fibonacci
Sequence

Sequence- is an ordered list of Example:

numbers, called terms, that may have A. 31, 24, 17, 10, C. -16, -7, 2, 11,
repeated values. The arrangement of
B. 3/4, 5/8, ½ , 3/8
these terms is set by a definite rule.

Fibonacci Sequence

He observed numbers in nature. His most

popular contribution perhaps is the number
that is seen in the petals of flowers.
Calla Lilly – 1 petal N
Trillium – 3 petals amed after the Italian Mathematician
Leonardo of Pisa (1170-1250, who was better
Hibiscus – 5 petals known by his nickname Fibonacci in short for
Cosmos – 8 petals “filius Bonacci or son of Bonacci. He is also
known as Leonardo Bonacci, Leonardo of Pisa,
Marigold – 13 petals Leonardo Pisano Bigollo, or Leonardo
Asters – 21 petals Fibonacci.

Daisy – 34/55/89 petals

Note: Not all flowers follow this pattern. But
many flowers abide in this pattern.
 Principle behind the Fibonacci
Sequence
- Let Xn be the nth integer in the
Fibonacci sequence, the next (n+1)th
term Xn+1 is determined by adding nth
and the (n+1)th integers.
Consider the first few terms below: Let
X1=1 be the first term, X2=1 the second
term, the third term X3 is found by
X3=1+X2 = 2
Let X1 = 1
X2 = 1
X3 = 2 ( x1 + x2 = 1 + 1 = 2)
X4= 3 ( x2 + x3 = 1 + 2 = 3)
X5 = 5 ( x3 + x4 = 2 + 3 = 5)
X6 = 8 ( x4 + x5 = 3 + 5 = 8)
Can be written as the sequence {1,1,2,3,5,8,
…..}

- This pattern is said to have been discovered much earlier in India. According to some
scholarly articles, Fibonacci sequence is evident in the number of variations of a particular
category of Sanskrit and Prakrit poetry meters. In poetry, meter refers to the rhythmic
pattern of syllables

BINET’S FOFMULA
1 1+ √ 5 n 1+ √ 5 n
Fn = √5 -[( 2
¿ −¿ (
2
¿¿
 GOLDEN RATIO

(also known as The Golden Ratio, Golden Mean, Divine Proportion or Greek letter Phi) exist
when a line is divided into two parts and the longer part (a) divided by the smaller part (b) is
equal to the sum of (a) + (b) divide by (a), which both equal 1.618.
a a+b
= =1.618 …=φ
b a

It is also interesting to note that the ratios of successive Fibonacci numbers approach the
number (phi), also known as the Golden Ratio. This is approximately equal to 1.618.
1/1 =1 13/8 = 1.6250
2/1 = 2 21/13 = 1.6154
3/2 = 1.500 34/21 = 1.6190
5/3 = 1.6667 55/34 = 1.6177
8/5 = 1.600 89/55 = 1.6182
 GOLDEN
RECTANGLE

GOLDEN RECTANGLE
a rectangle can be drawn of such a shape that if it is cut into square and rectangle, the
smaller rectangle will be similar in shape to the larger rectangle. This is a golden rectangle
whose sides are in the golden ratio 1+x:1, where x is a non-ending decimal.

More examples of things in nature and world thst follows the concept of fibonacci sequence golden ratio
and golden rectangle

2. Seed heads
 
The head of a flower is also subject to
1. In Pascal’s Triangle Fibonaccian processes. Typically, seeds are
produced at the center, and then migrate
towards the outside to fill all the space.
Sunflowers provide a great example of
these spiraling patterns.
Note: if you are to divide the no.of spiral
trends, it will yield to golden ratio.

3. Pinecones
 The seed pods on a pinecone are arranged
in a spiral pattern. Each cone consists of a
pair of spirals, each one spiraling upwards in
opposing directions. The number of steps
will almost always match a pair of
consecutive Fibonacci numbers.
5. Shells
 The unique properties of the Golden Rectangle
provides another example. This shape, a rectangle
in which the ratio of the sides a/b is equal to the
golden mean (phi), can result in a nesting process
that can be repeated into infinity — and which
takes on the form of a spiral. It's call the logarithmic
spiral, and it abounds in nature.
7. Uterus
According to glaciologist Jasper Vegut,
when a female comes to its fertile years
(that is 16-21 years old), the measures of
the width and length of uterus when
divided will result to .
8. Animal Fights
9. Production Dynamics
10.DNA Molecules
4. Tree branches
 The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen
in the way tree branches form or split. A
main trunk will grow until it produces a
branch, which creates two growth points.
Then, one of the new stems branches into
two, while the other one lies dormant. This
pattern of branching is repeated for each
of the new stems. A good example is the
sneezewort. Root systems and even algae
exhibit this pattern.
6. Faces
Faces, both human and nonhuman, abound
with examples of the Golden Ratio. The
mouth and nose are each positioned at
golden sections of the distance between the
eyes and the bottom of the chin. Similar
proportions can been seen from the side,
and even the eye and ear itself (which
follows along a spiral).
Golden ratio proportion in human face;
Center of the pupil: bottom of the teeth:
bottom of the chin
Outer and inner edge of the eye: center of
nose
Outer edges of the lips: upper ridges of lips
Width of center tooth: width of second tooth
Width of the eye: width of iris
 CHARACTERISTICS OF
MATHEMATICAL
LANGUAGE

Precise - it is able Concise – It can Powerful- One

to make very fine express long can express
distinctions or expositions or complex thought
definitions among sentences briefly. with relative ease
set of using the

∑ -sum of
R -real number
∃ -there exist
Z -integers
∀ -for all/for every/for
Translating from any ϵ -element of
Mathematics Language ⫃
to English -subset of
⇒ -if…,then
⇔ -if and
only if N
-natural numbers
Q -rational
numbers ۷
-either…or
۸ -and
! -fractional
≡
 • CHAPTER 4
• MATHEMATICAL LANGUAGE AND
SYMBOL
Mathematical Expression/ Sentences English Language
 The product of 2 and x.
 Twice a number x.
 The product of 2 and x.
 The square of root of three.
 P as a function of x.
 Twice the product of x and y.
 The sum of m and b.
 Twice the sum of a and b.
 x subtracted by y.
 The difference of y from x.
 Twice the sum of a and b.
 The equation of a and b such that a is the
dividend and b is the divisor.
 Thrice a number x.
 Thrice the product of a and b.
 Thrice the sum of m and n.
 Four times a number 𝑏.
 5 times the sum of m and n.
 The square of the sum of a and b.
 The cube of the sum of a and b.
 The sum of the squares of a and b.
 Twice the number x greater than three.
 Two less than thrice a number x.
 Five times a number x greater than three.
 The square root of 100 is ten.
 Ten is the square root of 100.
 Five is greater than two.
 Ten is an even number.
 Ten is a multiple of two.
 For every real number a and b, their sum is
also a real number.
 For any real number x, its square is greater
than or equal to zero.
 For every real numbers a and b, the square
of their sum squares plus twice their
product.
 There exist integers a and b such that a
minus b less than or equal to their sum.
 For every rational numbers m and n, it their
product is zero then either m or n is zero.
 • CHAPTER 5
• Problem Solving and Reasoning

Unary and Binary

Operations

Unary Operations
accepts only one value or operand. Binary Operations
Example: - take two values, and include the
operations of addition, subtraction,
(1) -5
multiplication, division and
(2) sin x exponentiation.
(3) cos 45 ͦ
(4) √100
(5) 5!

The Properties of Two Binary Operations(Addition & Multiplication)

 (1)Closure of Binary (2) Commutativity of (3) Associativity of
Operations Binary Operations Binary Operations

Addition: Addition:
Addition: ∀ x , y , z ∈ R , ( x+ y )+ z =x+( y + z)
∀ x , y ∈ R , x+ y =R
∀ x , y ∈ R , x+ y = y + x
Example
a=2 ; b=3; c=4
Example
Example (a+b)+c = a+(b+c)
2+3=5
a=2 ; b=3 (2+3)+4 = 2+(3+2)
−1+ (−2 )=−3
a+b = b+a 5+4 = 2+7
2+3 = 3+2 9 = 9

Multiplication: 5 = 5 Multiplication:
∀ x , y , z ∈ R , ( xy ) z=x ( yz )
∀ x , y ∈ R , xy=R Multiplication:
∀ x , y ∈ R , xy= yx Example
Example a=2 ; b=3; c=4
(−2 ) 3=−6 Example (ab)c = a(bc)
a=2 ; b=3 (2●3)4 = 2(3●4)
ab = ba (6)4 = 2(12)
9 = 9
2(3) = 3(2)
(4) Distributivity of 6 = 6
Binary Operations

Addition:
∀ x , y , z ∈ R , x ( y ± z )= xy ± xz
(5) Identity Elements of (6) Inverse of Binary
Example Binary Operations
a=2 ; b=3; c=4
Operations
a(b-c) = ab-ac
2(3-4) = 2(3)-2(4) Addition:
2(-1) = 6-8 Identity Element = 0 Addition:
-2 = -2 Inverse = 0
Examples;
9+0 = 9 Examples;
a=2 ; b=3; c=4 7+0 = 7 5+(-5) = 0
a(b+c) = ab+ac 3+0 = 3 -2+2 = 0
2(3+4) = 2(3)+2(4) -4+0 = -4
Multiplication: Multiplication:
Identity Element = 1 Inverse = 1

Examples; Examples;
9(1) = 9 3(1/3) = 1
5(1) = 5 1/4(4) = 1
-7(1) = -7
 Some
Fundamentals of
Logic

PROPOSITIONS TRUTH TABLE NEGATION

- are made in is a table that - A statement is
people’s shows the truth negation of
statements. It is value of a another if the
a statement compound word is not
which is either statement for all introduced in
true (T) or false possible truth negative
(F). values of its simple statement.
statements. Example:
Examples:
(1) Nine is a prime Let P be a proposition.
P Q
number. The negation of P is
T T
F F
“not P” or ~P.
(2) 5+3=8
P ~P

T F
LOGICAL
IMPLICATIONS F T
- Connectives Let P and
Q be propositions. A Let P and Q be propositions.
logical connective is the
1.Conditional “=>”
equivalent of a
conjunction in English. 2.Biconditional “<=>
(1) and “ᴧ” P Q P=>Q Q=>P P<=>Q
(2) or “V”
T T T T T
P Q PᴧQ PVQ T F F T F
F T T F F
T T T T F F T T T
T F F T
F T F T
 \\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\\

Problem solving
and reasoning

I INDUCTIVE REASONING CONJECTURE

Type of reasoning that uses The conclusion formed by

specific examples to reach general inductive reasoning.
conclusion.
Example: Use inductive reasoning
to predict the next number in each
of the following lists.
COUNTEREXAMPLE
(1) 5,10,15,20,25
This is one method of
(2) 1,4,9,16,25 disproving a statement

EXAMPLE:
(1) Sarah is older than her
friend who owns a cat and
II. DEDUCTIVE REASONING
younger than her friend who
Type of reasoning that uses owns the dog.
general procedures and
(2) Nikkei and her friend who
principles to reach a conclusion.
owns the snake are both of
the same age and are the
youngest members of the
group.
Donna is older than her friend
who owns the fish.
III. Problem Solving with Patterns

Pascal’s Triangle

Polya’s
Problem
Solving
Strategy

In 9145 George Polya published a book How to Solve It, which quickly
become his most prized publication. It sold one million copies and has been
translated into 17 languages. In this book he identities four basic principles of
problem solving.
1.Polya’s First Principle: Understand the Problem.
This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned yet students are often stymied in
their efforts to solve problems simply because they don’t understand it fully, or even in part.
Polya’s First Principle: Understand the Problem.
This seems so obvious that it is often not even mentioned yet students are often stymied in
their efforts to solve problems simply because they don’t understand it fully, or even in part.
Polya taught teacher to ask student questions such as:
 Do you understand all the words used in starting the problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?
 Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a situation?
Polya taught teacher to ask student questions such as:
 Do you understand all the words used in starting the problem?
 What are you asked to find or show?
 Can you think of a picture or diagram that might help you understand the problem?
 Is there enough information to enable you to find a situation?

Example:
Josh is thrice as old as Dina. If the sum of their ages is 24, how old is Dina?
Step 1: Understand the Problem Determine the age
2. Polya’s Second Principle: Device a Plan.
Polya mentions that there are many reasonable ways to solve problem.
The skill at choosing an appropriate strategy is best learned by solving
many problems. You will find choosing a strategy increasingly easy. A
partial list of strategies is included:
Guess and check
Make an orderly list
Eliminate the possibilities
Use symmetry
Consider special cases
Use direct reasoning
Solve an equation
Look for a pattern
Draw a picture
Solve a simpler problem
Use a model
Work backwards Use a formula
Be ingenious

Example:
Step 2: Device the Plan Let J be Josh and D is Dina.
1.D = X
2. J = 3X 3.D+J=24
 Polya’s Third Principle: Carry Out the Plan.
This step is usually easier than devising the plan. In genera, all you need is care and
patience given that you have the necessary skills. Persist with the plan that you have
chosen. If it continues not to work discard it and choose another. Don’t be misled, this is
how mathematics is done, even by professionals.

Example:
Step 3: Carry out the Plan
D + J = 24
4 x 24
x + 3x = 24 4
= 4 x=6

Polya’s Fourth Principle: Look Back.

Polya mentions that much can be gained by taking the time to reflect and look back at
what you have done, what didn’t. Doing this will enable you to predict what strategy