Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135

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Full length article

Effect of augmented reality applications on secondary school students' T

reading comprehension and learning permanency
Hamiyet Bursalia, Rabia Meryem Yilmazb,∗
a
Department of Turkish Education Siirt University, 56100 Siirt, Turkey
b
Department of Computer Education & Instructional Technology, Ataturk University, 25240 Erzurum, Turkey

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of augmented reality (AR) applications on reading comprehension
Augmented reality and learning permanency and to examine 5th grade students' attitudes towards AR applications. In addition,
Turkish education student opinions about these applications were examined. A mixed method was used with a sample composed of
Educational technology 89 5th grade students (43 girls, 46 boys). The experimental group participated in reading activities using AR
Secondary school students
applications, while traditional methods were used for the control group. It was found that the experimental
group students showed a higher level of reading comprehension and learning permanency when measured on a
weekly basis than the control group. The students experienced satisfaction from their participation in AR-based
reading activities, and expressed a desire to see similar applications offered in other courses. They also reported
low anxiety levels. These qualitative results indicate that AR applications can be used effectively as educational
aids for reading-related courses.

1. Introduction
There have been many different definitions of the concept of
reading over the ages. One reason for this is the tendency of scholars to
define the concept in the context of their narrow field of study. In the
Turkish Dictionary (2005), reading is to be able to voice or understand
the words by looking at the letters and signs in a written text. The ac-
tivity of reading includes seeing, perceiving, understanding, vocalizing
and mentally constructing and all these are accomplished through the
combined use of eyes, ears, and brain (Palani, 2012). The constructivist
approach evaluates reading as an active and interactive process where
students mentally build new knowledge on old knowledge in order to
come up with different meanings (Alderson, 2000; Gunes, 2007). One of
the aims of the Turkish Course Teaching Program (2015) is to help
students gain the habit of reading and to develop a positive attitude
toward it. To achieve this, students first need to attain the required level
of reading comprehension. Reading comprehension is achieved through
a combination of prior knowledge and new knowledge provided by the
author. Clearly therefore this skill is not limited to Turkish courses. It is
an essential skill for any individual as they progress through education
and in other aspects of life. Research shows a high significant correla-
tion between students' reading comprehension skills and their academic
success in other courses, for example 0.70 in Language and Literature
courses and 0.62 in other courses (Bloom, 1979). In this context, it is
evident that students who gain high levels of reading comprehension
skills tend to be successful in academic and professional fields.
Elementary and secondary school years are crucial for the acquisi-
tion of reading comprehension skills. Deficiency in these skills is a
major problem encountered in many courses in Turkey, especially in
primary and secondary school Turkish courses. PISA results show a
score of 428 points for reading comprehension skill according to the
2015 data for our country (Pisa Report, 2015). Over the years, a
number of teaching methods and materials have been used in order to
improve students' reading comprehension. Several studies in the lit-
erature describe the effects of different teaching methods and techni-
ques (Akpinar, 2002; Alderson, 2000; Koc, 2007). They indicate that
teaching methods have a considerable influence on students' reading
comprehension.
The rapid rate of technological advance has led commentators to
adopt a variety of different names to describe today's world, such as: the
Digital Age, the Age of Nano Technology, the Robotics Age, the Mobile
Age, the Age of the Hologram etc (Tarhan, 2017). New developments in
robotics, virtual reality, holograms, communications and, space tech-
nologies continue to emerge. Inevitably, through time these develop-
ments create new opportunities for education. Today, visual and audio
materials have been replaced by interactive digital materials in order to

∗
Corresponding author. Ataturk University, Kazim Karabekir Faculty of Education, Department of Computer Education and Instructional Technology, 25240,
Erzurum, Turkey.
E-mail addresses: hamiyetbursali@gmail.com, hamiyetbursali@siirt.edu.tr (H. Bursali), rkufrevi@atauni.edu.tr, rabia.kufrevi@gmail.com (R.M. Yilmaz).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.01.035
Received 8 June 2018; Received in revised form 22 January 2019; Accepted 26 January 2019
Available online 31 January 2019
0747-5632/ © 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz
improve learning and learning permanence. Students start using tablets
and smartphones even before they begin schooling and therefore they
adapt to these technologies faster than adults. Some of the activities in
this field which can benefit Turkish education include: reading from a
screen (e-reading), e-books, enriched e-books, magic books, digital
stories; in addition, digital writing exercises carried by applications
such as wattpad, digital publishing: and reading through QR code
readers. Augmented reality (AR) technologies are one form of tech-
nology-supported application.
AR is described as a technology that combines real world and virtual
images and provides for simultaneous interaction between the two
(Azuma, 1997). It helps the user interact by adding AR components
(images, animation etc.) onto a real environment image which is used
as background (Billinghurst, Kato, & Poupyrev, 2001). Users require
glasses or a camera in order to perceive the real world image. When the
barcodes/markers are scanned, virtual images such as videos, 3D ob-
jects or other images combine with real-world data on the pointer. In
this way, the individual is provided with the opportunity to make ob-
servations on the virtual image without moving away from the real
world (Yilmaz & Goktas, 2017). Today, AR technologies are mostly used
with computers, tablets and smartphones. They can also be used with
wearable technologies. However wearable technologies can allow too
much access to users' personal information. It was found that there was
a relationship between the media usage status, personality character-
istics and selection criteria of smart glasses users who use Google Glass
or Microsoft Hololens technology. Also, it was found that consumers are
more aware of Google Glass, while users who appreciate the functional
and social benefits of these glasses are more likely to use such wearable
technologies (Rauschnabel, Brem, & Ivens, 2015). A mobile AR appli-
cation which provides personalized travel advice, named CorfuAR,
developed within the scope of a study conducted in the literature, de-
monstrates the relationship between the user's emotions and embraces
behaviors and functional systems. The results of this research indicate
that mobile augmented reality (MAR) applications can stimulate and
initiate users' emotions. Thus it is determined that such technologies
can be used to create a desired mood (Kourouthanassis, Boletsis,
Bardaki, & Chasanidou, 2015).
Alongside the positive evaluations of AR applications, there are also
some concerns about the use of this technology. Particularly in the USA,
it is anticipated that more severe penalties will be introduced with re-
gard to the inappropriate collection and dissemination of individuals'
electronic data, which is made possible by technological tools sup-
ported by AR technologies. Although AR applications which require
biometric information are said to be safe by operating companies, it has
been found that this is not always the case. For example, in the case of
AR applications which interact directly with the individual, personal
(retina, fingerprint etc.) and place recognition systems are used.
However, in remote locations, face recognition systems are not very
successful. Facebook has not made its policy clear on the use of personal
data in the virtual environment, and Google has not imposed a ban on
the use of personal data in relation to Google glass (Facebook, 2018;
Wassom, 2015). With the help of AR applications, government officials
can gain information about the history of any facility and can determine
the nature of any activities which may have taken place behind closed
doors (Rampolla & Kipper, 2012). In fact, it is foreseen that government
authorities and law courts will be able to access people's personal in-
formation. These applications do not appear to be very successful and
there are established agreement to delete websites when operators use
cookies, mobile ads, and web sites to crawl while people are using
them. Increasing attention is being given to the way technology is used,
due to the ineffectiveness of today's laws to prevent companies from
collecting important personal information such as security numbers, e-
mail addresses, phone numbers and IP addresses (Wassom, 2015). The
concern with AR is how legal systems will adapt to challenges that arise
with this new technology. Wassom (2015) closely follows trends in AR
and explores how the legal system may be affected in future years. He
127
Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135
predicts about five legal areas: regulatory requirements, negligence,
copyright, privacy and discovery (Rampolla & Kipper, 2012). Rapidly
developing technology leads to security vulnerabilities, and despite the
technical precautions and legal measures taken, it is very difficult to
control how information is shared in the digital environment.
AR was first used in the military and medicine in the 1960s but
today, with advances in technology and reductions in prices, it is ex-
panding into areas such as entertainment and advertising (Somyurek,
2014) and also the education field. AR applications can be found across
many areas of education, such as medicine, physics, biology, chemistry,
geometry, mathematics, astronomy, history, foreign languages, and also
pre-school and disability education. One example of an AR application
is the MagicBook projects are designed using AR technologies which
allow the connection between text, picture, sound, 3D objects and the
real image (Billinghurst et al., 2001). Through the use of AR display
devices such as Google Glass, Google Cardboard or Hololens, students
in the near future will be able to watch and listen to information in
interactive books, three-dimensional objects, videos, and voice in-
formation, even without the internet (Ozdemir, 2017).
AR applications make the learning process more interesting
(Billinghurst et al., 2001; Bujak et al., 2013; Wojciechowski & Cellary,
2013). Also, it can be seen that AR applications affect the academic
achievement of students in a positive way (Abdusselam & Karal, 2012;
Akcayir & Akcayir, 2016; Barreira, Bessa, Adão, Peres, & Magalhães,
2012; Cakir, Solak, & Tan, 2015; Cevik, Yilmaz, Goktas, & Gulcu, 2017;
Chen, Su, Lee, & Wu, 2007; Chen & Wang, 2015; Dibrova, 2016; Dünser
& Hornecker, 2007; Holden & Sykes, 2011; Hsieh & Lee, 2008; Lin, Yu,
Chen, Huang, & Lin, 2016; Liu, Tan, & Chu, 2007; Pérez-López &
Contero, 2013; Sırakaya, 2015; Vate-U-Lan, 2012). They increase mo-
tivation and make the whole process more entertaining for the students
(Atasoy, Tosik-Gün, & Kocaman-Karoglu, 2017; Kucuk, Yilmaz, &
Goktas, 2014; Liu et al., 2007; Singhal, Bagga, Goyal, & Saxena, 2012;
Sumadio & Rambli, 2010; Vate-U-Lan, 2012). With AR technologies,
several senses are addressed in the learning process, students learn
through experience, group learning and individual learning can both be
easily accommodated, and learning motivation can be maintained at a
high level. AR can be especially effective teaching subjects and events
that require to be visualized, showing dangerous situations, realizing
intangible concepts and teaching complicated topics (Liu et al., 2007).
The use of AR applications in an educational environment is a re-
latively recent development and there is a need for further studies to
ensure they are utilized in the most effective way. There have been a
number of studies in the literature regarding the use of AR in education.
Radu (2014) examined 26 studies comparing education using AR ma-
terials and using other educational media. It was evident that AR
technology increased students' motivation, learning performance and
learning recall. Also, users of this technology generally reported a high
level of satisfaction and were found to have more fun when compared
to traditional education methods. Dünser and Hornecker (2007) in-
vestigated the effect of an AR book designed for 5-7year-old children on
reading achievement. It explained how children learn faster with 3D
animation and interactive systems. Chen et al. (2007), in their research
with pre-school students, observed that students learning Chinese with
AR technologies increased their rate of vocabulary learning, their mo-
tivation to learn and their interest in school compared to traditional
methods. Barreira et al. (2012) found that, with the aid of a game
created using an AR application, elementary school students' rate of
learning English vocabulary increased significantly. Holden and Sykes
(2011) in their study reported the effect of their game-based mobile AR
application on foreign language education. They found that using AR is
beneficial in teaching foreign languages. Hsieh and Lee (2008) and
Vate-U-Lan (2012) found that students who used AR applications im-
proved their skills in reading, comprehension, listening and speaking
compared to students who learned using traditional education. A study
by Kucuk et al. (2014b) on 5th-grade students concluded that they liked
using AR applications in their English language courses and there was a
H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135

decrease in their anxiety levels. An experimental study by Cakir et al. 3. Is there a significant difference, on a weekly basis, between the
(2015) found that university students in an experimental group who permanency levels of students using AR technology and those
were presented with English vocabulary to learn using AR technology reading by traditional methods over a three-week period?
performed better and showed greater levels of motivation compared to 4. Is there a significant difference between students reading with AR
students in the control group, who were exposed to traditional teaching technology and those reading by traditional methods in terms of
methods. Akcayir and Akcayir (2016) found that an AR application permanency levels, as measured after four weeks, at the end of all
created for a Foreign Languages course contributed to a significant the implementations?
improvement in students' word learning processes and in the perma- 5. What are the attitudes of the students reading with AR technology
nency of the learned words. towards these materials?
Chen and Wang (2015) investigated the effect of MAR applications 6. What are the opinions of the students about the use of AR applica-
on English vocabulary learning of primary school students. They found tions in the learning environment?
that the learning success of students with the help of MAR technology
was higher than that of other students. Also, AR technologies had the
2. Method
effect of eliminating the difference in results between students with
high and low learning motivation. Lin et al. (2016) examined the effects
2.1. Research design
of MAR applications on vocabulary learning in students with attention
deficit and hyperactivity. Study by Dibrova (2016) examined the effect
A mixed method, embedded design, was used in this research study.
of reading books, supported by AR technologies, on the word learning
Mixed methods involve the collection of both qualitative and quanti-
and recall processes of eight children of pre-school age. The results of
tative data in combination. Embedded design allows the researcher to
both studies revealed that reading activities with AR technologies po-
embed a qualitative component within a quantitative design. An em-
sitively affected students' motivation and increased their learning suc-
bedded experimental model is used when the researcher wants to in-
cess. Cevik et al. (2017) studied the effect of AR-based applications on
clude qualitative data for various reasons, to examine the intervention
the success levels of pre-school students in learning English words. It
process and related variables or to follow the results of the experiment.
concluded that the experimental group that was taught using AR
In this study, embedded design was used to investigate the intervention
technology was more successful than the control group taught by tra-
process and related variables (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2007). Quasi-
ditional methods.
experimental design was used in the quantitative aspect of the mixed
In the light of these studies in the literature, AR technology can be
method. Random sampling was not used in the quasi-experimental
seen as a bridge between classical education tools and media technol-
design and two of groups were matched on the basis of particular
ogies which positively affects user performance. It is evident that books
variables. Matched groups were randomly assigned to the experimental
supported by AR technology have become universal learning tools for
and control groups. In this study, the quasi-experimental design was
both children and their parents, at home and in school, and this sti-
used as students' reading comprehension and permanency levels are
mulates students' willingness to use the technology (Forgo, 2013).
being compared for the experimental and control groups. The interview
These studies show that AR applications have been used successfully in
technique was used to investigate students' opinions in the experi-
recent years to improve reading comprehension skills and knowledge
mental group about AR applications. The research design of this study is
retention levels. However, there has been little detailed research on the
presented in Fig. 1.
effect of AR technology-supported reading texts on reading compre-
hension and text recall in their native language for secondary school
students. This deficiency in the literature creates the main motivation 2.2. Sampling
for this research. This study differs in some ways from other studies in
the literature. First of all, students' success levels are usually evaluated The sample of the study consisted of 89 5th grade students aged
using the pre-test and post-test method (Cakir et al., 2015; Chen & 10–11 (43 in the experimental group, 46 in the control group) studying
Wang, 2015; Dibrova, 2016; Kucuk et al., 2014b; Vate-U-Lan, 2012). in a public school during the first half of the 2017–2018 school year.
However, this study evaluates inter-group success and permanence le-
vels through each week of the implementation. Secondly, other studies The Embedded Design
use smartphones or tablet computers (Cakir et al., 2015; Cevik et al.,
2017; Chen & Wang, 2015; Dibrova, 2016; Hsieh & Lee, 2008; Kucuk
et al., 2014b; Lin et al., 2016; Vate-U-Lan, 2012) while this study uses
Quantitative Dimension Qualitative Dimension
an interactive smartboard. It is considered that this research will add to
the literature on the use of technology in education, as it is the product
of an interdisciplinary study. Moreover, the AR content used in this
research can be used as course material that is compatible with the Quasi-Experimental
Interview technique
Design
tablet computers and smart boards distributed to schools in Turkey as
part of a project that has been ongoing since 2010.
The study has two main aims. Firstly, to find out the effect of the AR
Experimental group
application specially created for reading activities in Turkish courses on (reading with AR Opinions of the students
the reading comprehension and learning permanency of 5th grade technology) and control taken using AR
students. Secondly, to examine students' attitudes towards AR appli- group (traditional reading technology while reading
activity) compared
cations. Answers were sought to the following research questions:

1. Is there a significant difference between the reading comprehension

scores of students reading with AR technology and those reading by Students’ reading
traditional methods? Students’ views of AR
comprehension success,
application were
2. Is there a significant difference, as measured on a weekly basis, learning permanency and
determined.
between the comprehension levels of students reading with AR attitudes were revealed.
technology and students reading by traditional methods over a
period of three weeks? Fig. 1. Research design of this study.

128
H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz
Table 1
Distribution of students in experimental and control groups.
Experimental Group Control Group
Class 1 Class 2 Class 3
Female 9 12 11
Male 14 9 11
Total 22 21 22
Their teacher verified that the students were of similar cultural and
technological profile. They had never seen or used AR technology be-
fore. Distribution of the students was based on gender and the groups
are given in Table 1.
In this study, the convenience sampling method was used. This
method allows researchers speed, practicality and the opportunity to
select a particular situation that is located close to them and easy to
access (Yildirim & Simsek, 2013). This method was chosen because the
selected school was willing to cooperate with the study, was situated
near to the researchers' base and access to the school was easily
available. In this context, two classes were randomly chosen as ex-
perimental groups and two as control groups. Their teacher stated that
all classes were on a similar academic level. In order to verify the
groups' equality, an independent sample t-test was used for pre-test
results. There were found to be no significant differences between the
experimental and control groups in terms of reading comprehension
level (t92 = 1,08; p > .05).
2.3. Research material
Animations were prepared based on reading and listening passages
from the 5th grade Turkish course books published by the Ministry of
Education. To control for suitability, opinions were sought from three
area experts, four Turkish teachers, two visual design experts and three
academics in choosing the reading texts. Details of the selected texts are
given in Table 2.
The animations appearing in the reading texts were prepared in
Pawtoon software. Necessary corrections were carried out based on the
opinions of academics expert in instructional design. Aurasma software
was used to develop the AR applications. When the visuals in the
reading text were detected by the lecturer with a camera, the animation
started to play over them. In this way, the integration of the animations
into the reading texts was ensured. The latest version of the AR mate-
rials was controlled by an instructional designer. The steps in the ma-
terial development process are presented in detail in Fig. 2.
2.4. Implementation process
2.4.1. Pilot study
In order to prevent any adaptation problems for the students in the
experimental group, a pilot study was carried out over two days, one
lesson per day. Any necessary changes to the class environment were
made at the end of the pilot study. Different texts were chosen for the
pilot study from those used in the main implementation.
2.4.2. Main implementation
During the implementation period, the researcher downloaded the
Table 2
Reading passages used in the application.
Passage Theme
Keloğlan Akıllı Oğlan Politeness
Arkadaşım Sarmaşık Friendship
Balık Adamlar Confidence
Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135
Aurasma application to his smartphone. The interface of the smart
phone was projected onto the board with the aid of the Air Droid ap-
plication. When the camera was activated by the researcher, animation
on the text was reflected on the interactive board. Different teachers
Class 4 were used for the experimental and control groups. However, the re-
searcher attended all implementations in the class together with the
11
15 teachers.
24 To minimize the influence of teachers on the results, they and the
researchers held a meeting together before each implementation and
agreed on the form and content of the teaching. During the first week of
the implementation, students in the experimental group were given
information about the AR applications by the researcher. The im-
plementations were carried out over three weeks, one lesson per week.
While students in the control group took part in reading activities with
traditional reading materials, the experimental group used AR-based
reading materials. The lecture time was divided up into several seg-
ments, for example: 5 min for preparation, 15 min for reading the text,
10 min for reading the comprehension test, 5 min for evaluation of the
lecture, 5 min for technical problems, etc. Details of the implementation
process are given in Table 3 and related photos are presented in Fig. 3.
2.5. Data collection tools
The following tests were employed in this study: a reading com-
prehension pre-test, reading comprehension success test, permanency
test and an attitude scale for AR applications. The pre-test for reading
comprehension, consisting of 20 multiple choice questions, was devel-
oped by Acat (1996). This test was formulated by selecting 20 questions
from a range of items with acceptable rates of validity and reliability.
The KR-20 coefficient of the test is 0.83 which shows that the test has a
high level of reliability (Acat, 1996). For validity, the content of the test
and its suitability were checked by experts.
In order to determine the students' level of reading comprehension,
three post-tests including 10 questions requiring short answers were
developed by the researcher. These tests were prepared in accordance
with the “reading comprehension outcomes” given in the 5th grade
Turkish course book of the Ministry of Education. When preparing the
reading comprehension test questions, a story map was created as the
first step, then the score distribution was determined for the text ele-
ments of the stories. The Scale for Scoring the Inclusion and Quality of
the Parts of a Story, developed by Coskun (2005), adapted from Harris
and Graham (1996), and the Story Map Scale developed by Akyol
(1999), adapted from Tompkins (1998), were both employed. Scoring
included points given for the main character, space, time, initiator
event, purpose, initiative, result and response elements in the story. The
reading comprehension tests prepared by the researcher were finalized
by expert opinion. By seeking the views of three area experts and three
academic members, the content validity of the tests was ensured and
the tests were finalized. Each question in the success test carried a
weighting of 10 points and the maximum score possible was 100.
Furthermore, some changes were made to the questions in the success
test, as a result of the pilot study conducted with a 5th grade class in the
school. Finally, the permanency test questions were selected from all
those included in the previous three reading comprehension achieve-
ment tests.
The attitude scale for AR applications, created by Kucuk, Yilmaz,
Baydas, and Goktas (2014a), is a 5-point Likert scale (1: Strongly
Writer Publisher Date
Tarık Dursun K. Ministry of Education 2016
Bestami Yazgan Ministry of Education 2016
Aysel Korkut Ministry of Education 2016
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H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135

Preparation of animations in accordance with the reading texts in

Pawtoon software.

Evaluation of the animations by Turkish teachers and

instructional design specialists.

Revision of animations and addition of background music

suitable for the content of the texts.

Preparation of the graphic designs summarizing text content and

the animation scene for the plotters.

Preparation of AR application in Aurasma software and adapting

it for mobile use.

Fig. 2. Development process for AR application.

Table 3
Application process of the research.
Implication Duration Time

1 Pre-test 1 Week 40 min/1 Course Hour

2 Pilot Study 1 Week 80 min/2 Course Hour
3 Experimental Application 3 Weeks 120 min/3 Course Hour
4 Permanency Test After 4 weeks, at the end of the last implementation. 40 min/1 Course Hour

Disagree, 2: Disagree, 3: Neutral, 4: Agree, 5: Strongly Agree). It is com-
posed of 15 items with 3 sub-factors: satisfaction, anxiety and will-
ingness. Satisfaction is related to whether students consider the use of
technology to be easy and useful for their learning. Willingness is as-
sociated with whether students want to use the technology in the fu-
ture. If the level of satisfaction and willingness is high, then attitudes
towards AR technology are also positive. Anxiety is indicated by in-
dividuals showing hesitancy about using AR technology for whatever
reason. When anxiety level is high, students are worried about using the
technology and their attitudes are adversely affected. The lowest score
on the scale is 15 and the highest score is 75. The internal consistency
factor for the scale is 0.83. In this study, the internal consistency factor
for the group with whom the AR application is to be applied is de-
termined to be 0.78.
A semi-structured interview form was used in this study as a qua-
litative data collection tool. Its aim was to investigate students' opinions
on the use of AR applications for successful reading comprehension.
The interviews were carried out via voice recording, on a voluntary
basis. Seven open-ended questions prepared by the researcher were
used in order to discover the opinions of the students. The interview
questions were refined and finalized after receiving feedback from area
experts. The interviews were held at the end of the three-week im-
plementation period.
analysis of qualitative data.
3. Findings
The study findings are presented, in answer to the research ques-
tions, as follows:
3.1. Is there a significant difference between the reading comprehension
scores of students reading with AR technology and those reading with
traditional methods?
An independent sample t-test was used to analyze for any significant
differences between the students in the experimental and control
groups in terms of their general reading comprehension skills. The re-
sults are presented in Table 4. The general reading comprehension score
was calculated by taking the average of the scores obtained from the
tests conducted over the three-week period.
The results in Table 4 show a significant difference between stu-
dents in the experimental and control groups in terms of their general
reading comprehension score, in favor of the experimental group
(p < .05). From this, it can be concluded that students reading with AR
materials (M = 78.96) perform better in reading comprehension com-
pared to students reading in the traditional way (M = 65.99).

2.6. Data analysis
Descriptive and predictive analyses were used for the analysis of
quantitative data. Tests were carried out regarding the equality of
variances and normality in order to ensure internal consistency prior to
the data analysis. Extreme data were removed from the dataset, missing
data were filled using missing data analysis and the normality of the
data was ensured. Scores from all tests were calculated out of 100
points. From this, the scores that the students achieved in the weekly
success tests and the corresponding permanency tests became com-
parable. Quantitative data was analyzed using SPSS 20 package soft-
ware. The independence sample t-test was used for the students in the
experimental and control groups in order to evaluate learning perma-
nency and reading comprehension. Content analysis was used in the
3.2. Is there a significant difference, as measured on a weekly basis, between
the comprehension levels of students reading with AR technology and
students reading by traditional methods over a period of three weeks?
An independent sample t-test was used in order to determine any
differences between students reading with AR technology and those
using traditional methods with regard to reading comprehension. The
findings are presented in Table 5.
Table 5 indicates a significant difference in favor of the experi-
mental group in terms of their weekly reading comprehension scores
(p < .05). Though both groups show a tendency for weekly reading
comprehension scores to improve, in total it is evident that students in
the experimental group are more successful than those in the control
group.

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H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135

3.3. Is there a significant difference, on a weekly basis, between the

permanency levels of students using AR technology and those reading by
traditional methods over a three-week period?

After the reading activities, permanency tests were performed each

week for the three-week period. An independent sample t-test was used
to determine if there were any differences from week to week. The data
collected is laid out in Table 6.
From Table 6, a significant difference in favor of the experimental
group can be seen between the two groups in terms of their weekly
permanency scores (p < .05). It was found that the experimental group
students remembered more of the reading texts over all three weeks of
the study compared to the control group. Over the three weeks, the
mean of the reading comprehension general score for the experimental
group (M = 78.96 points) is close to the mean of their permanency
score after four weeks (M = 76.21 points). The reading comprehension
general score (M = 65.99 points) and the permanency score
(M = 58.03 points) of the control group is relatively low compared to
the experimental group and, when these values are compared to those
in the implementation weeks, they are below the average.

3.4. Is there a significant difference between students reading with AR

technology and those reading by traditional methods in terms of permanency
levels, as measured after four weeks, at the end of all the implementations?

An independent sample t-test was used to determine if there were

any significant differences in terms of students' permanency scores
between the experimental and control groups after four weeks. The
results are presented in Table 7.
From Table 7 it can be seen that there is a significant difference
between the two groups, in favor of the experimental group, in terms of
permanency scores (p < .05). This indicates that students who read
using AR materials remembered more (M = 76.21) compared to stu-
dents in the control group (M = 58.03).

3.5. What are the attitudes of students reading with AR technology towards
these materials?

The attitude levels of students in the experimental group towards

AR materials was examined, in accordance with the scope of the study.
The findings are presented in Table 8 below.
Students in the experimental group were found to be on the
“strongly agree” level for satisfaction and willingness regarding use of
AR applications and anxiety levels were quite low. This result shows the
students are satisfied with using these applications. They indicated also
that they would like to use this kind of application in other courses, and
they do not feel any anxiety while using AR materials.

3.6. What are the opinions of the students about the use of AR applications
in the learning environment?

Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 10 students of

different gender and success levels. The findings are categorized and
presented below in order.

3.6.1. General opinions on reading using AR technologies

Fig. 3. A selection of photographs from the implementation. Most of the students stated that reading with AR technology is more
entertaining compared to the traditional method, the courses are less

Table 4
Differences between students in experimental and control groups in terms of general reading comprehension scores, based on independent sample t-test.
Groups Mean Standard Deviation t p

Reading Comprehension General Score Experimental group 78.96 13.359 3.908 .000
Control Group 65.99 17.762

131
H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135

Table 5
Differences between experiment and control group students in terms of reading comprehension score, assessed on a weekly basis.
Groups Mean Standard Deviation t p

First Week Reading Comprehension Score Experimental group 78.15 17.624 3.987 .000
Control Group 61.20 22.340
Second Week Reading Comprehension Score Experimental group 78.70 18.051 2.832 .006
Control Group 66.75 21.462
Third Week Reading Comprehension Score Experimental group 80.05 13.713 2.852 .006
Control Group 70.04 19.102

Table 6
Differences between permanency levels of students in the experiment and control group, assessed on a weekly basis.
Groups Mean Standard Deviation t p

First Week Permanency Level Experimental group 68.91 19.524 3.272 .002
Control Group 54.05 23.035
Second Week Permanency Level Experimental group 76.19 19.958 4.040 .000
Control Group 56.06 26.768
Third Week Permanency Level Experimental group 83.53 15.004 4.898 .000
Control Group 63.99 22.183

boring and their understanding of the text is better. Below are the Table 8
opinions of some of these students about AR applications. Attitudes of the experimental group towards AR activities.
N Mean Standard Deviation
S2. “It was more entertaining. It would be better to have these applica-
tions in Turkish course books as well.” Willingness 43 4.56 .59
S3. “It made me understand the events in the text better. It was joyous Satisfaction 4.34 .45
Anxiety 1.63 .47
and entertaining.”
S7. “The Turkish course is being taught better, this application is better
than the straightforward way.” relationship sentences such as aim-result and reason-result.”
S4. “It can be used for figurative meaning, idioms, and phrases.”
All the students stated that AR technology is effective in terms of S5. “Idioms and phrases could be used and also, if such applications
aiding retention, and making the topic more interesting and motivating. were added to question banks, it would be more educative and en-
The opinions of the students on this issue are given below. tertaining.”

S1. “The use of the smartphone and interactive board and moving visuals
in the text caught my attention.”
S4. “Moving, speaking and being more like a cartoon caught my atten-
tion.”
Other findings showed that most of the students believed their
reading comprehension can be enhanced by reading activities with AR
technologies. Some opinions of the students about this are expressed
below.
S3. “Yes, it increases success. I would be even more successful if I used
the application on my tablet computer or smartphone.”
S4. “I think I will get better scores if we continue to cover the topics using
these applications.”
S6. “Learning becomes more permanent; it helps the student understand
better.”
The students considered that AR technology could be used in mul-
tiple choice tests and specially to teach grammar topics in Turkish such
as word meanings, relationships between words, etc. Some of the opi-
nions of the students are given below.
S3. “It can be used in grammar. It would be good if it was used in
Consequently, students stated that AR technology is useful for their
reading comprehension and it provides many educational advantages
for them. A summary of these results is presented in Fig. 4.
3.6.2. Possible problems for students and their suggestions for AR
technologies
Some students suggested possible problems that could be experi-
enced during the implementation process and some mentioned poten-
tial uses of the application in Turkish and other courses. Some of their
views are presented below.
S1. “I would like this application to be used in the mathematics course as
well.”
S2. “This application could be used in several other courses such as social
studies or science.”
S5. “The use of this application in future in course books and question
banks will increase success rates by 100%.”
S7. “This kind of applications should be used in question banks as well.
But the application should work without needing an internet connection.
It seems difficult to run the application on the interactive board. As the
internet connection of the school is slow, it cannot run this application.
This application will be better if it can be improved a little more.”

Table 7
Differences between the permanency scores of students, assessed after four weeks.
Groups Mean Standard Deviation t p

Permanency Score (After four weeks) Experimental group 76.21 15.268 4.857 .000
Control Group 58.03 19.876

132
H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz
Entertaining
Enhancing
reading Fun
comprehension
Advantages of augmented
reality
Facilitating
Aiding
better
retention
understanding
Motivating Interesting
Fig. 4. Advantages of AR technology according to the students' qualitative
findings.
S10. “The interactive board does not support the application; we needed
to receive help from our teacher. An internet connection would be faster
for this. Also, the application should start running as soon as we turn on
the interactive board.”
4. Discussion
This study set out to investigate the reading comprehension levels of
secondary school students who use AR technologies in reading activ-
ities, their learning permanency levels and their attitudes towards this
technology. Firstly, it was found that students in the experimental
group who used AR technology showed higher levels of reading com-
prehension and learning permanency scores, on a weekly basis and in
general, compared to the students in the control group. These findings
reflect those of other studies in the literature which suggest that higher
success levels are achieved with AR applications, compared to tradi-
tional teaching methods in English reading as a foreign language,
writing skills, speaking skills and word learning ability. (Akcayir &
Akcayir, 2016; Barreira et al., 2012; Cakir et al., 2015; Cevik et al.,
2017; Chen & Wang, 2015; Dünser & Hornecker, 2007; Hsieh & Lee,
2008; Liu et al., 2007; Vate-U-Lan, 2012). In a study by Holden and
Sykes (2011), the effects of AR-supported mobile games on second
language and foreign language learning were investigated. They con-
cluded that AR applications facilitate the learning of vocabulary and the
learning of word meanings with children who have hyperactivity and
attention deficit (Lin et al., 2016). Other studies in the literature were
conducted with pre-school students (Cevik et al., 2017; Chen et al.,
2007; Dibrova, 2016; Dünser & Hornecker, 2007; Hsieh & Lee, 2008),
elementary school students (Barreira et al., 2012; Chen & Wang, 2015;
Vate-U-Lan, 2012) and university students (Akcayir & Akcayir, 2016;
Cakir et al., 2015).
This is consistent with the results of studies by Chen et al. (2007)
and Dibrova (2016). They focused on the use of AR technology in
mother tongue teaching, and found that students showed improvements
in word memorization levels, persistence levels, learning motivation
with AR technology, as well as increased interest in school. Based on
this evidence, if AR material is selected appropriate to student level,
developed according to multimedia design principles, and the activity
carried out in a suitable environment, then it is predicted that higher
133
Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135
language scores will be obtained in mother tongue teaching compared
to foreign language teaching. Furthermore, it is thought that the success
of students in mother tongue education will contribute to their success
in other courses. Chen et al. (2007), Chen and Wang (2015) and
Dibrova (2016) used tablet computers for AR applications. In our study,
an interactive board was used for the AR applications and the experi-
mental group consisted of 43 secondary students. Tablet computers are
likely to be more effective on individual learning and motivation as
they enable students to interact more directly with the AR material than
with interactive boards. Moreover, tablet computers are better
equipped to hold attention over the AR material for longer periods than
an interactive whiteboard. For this reason, it can be argued that the use
of interactive boards is a limitation of this study. Rogers and Price
(2009) state that it is important to design mobile learning tools in a way
that is appropriate and easy to use for the target child's level’. As
children focus on digital content in AR applications, it is stated that
they may need at times to switch between mobile devices and the real
world. In these cases, the teacher must give appropriate advice and
direction. It is remarkable to see in this study that the students in the
experimental group achieved higher success and permanency scores
than the control group over all three weeks of the implementation
period. Also, the average score for general reading comprehension in
the experimental group students (78.96 points) and the average score
for general permanency of the same students (76.21 points) are very
similar, which is very significant. It appears that the students in the
experimental group forgot the text in the first week but the texts of the
second and third week were partially recalled up to the time of the
implementation week. When the general reading comprehension scores
(65.99 points) and general permanency scores (58.03) of the control
group are analyzed, it can be seen that they are below the average when
compared to the scores in the implementation weeks.
At the end of the study, it is revealed that the students in the ex-
perimental group have a positive attitude towards AR applications.
They want to use this kind of application in other courses as well. They
indicate satisfaction with the application and their anxiety levels are
low. In this regard, the findings of this study equate to those of similar
studies in the literature. Students who learn English with AR applica-
tions experience increased motivation levels, they favor the use of these
applications and they have a positive attitude towards them (Atasoy
et al., 2017; Cakir et al., 2015; Chen & Wang, 2015; Dibrova, 2016;
Kucuk et al., 2014a; Liu et al., 2007; Singhal et al., 2012; Sumadio &
Rambli, 2010; Vate-U-Lan, 2012). Fundamentally, AR applications
make transformed objects more attractive to students and increase
motivation levels. This leads to a desire for students to use AR appli-
cations in the future (Billinghurst et al., 2001; Bujak et al., 2013;
Wojciechowski & Cellary, 2013).
With regard to the qualitative findings of the research, AR tech-
nology has particular advantages according to the students. They con-
sider it is entertaining and fun to use AR in learning environments. Also
it facilitates understanding, it is interesting, it is motivating, it aids
information retention and it enhances reading comprehension. In this
light, it is argued that the use of such applications should be extended to
test books and interactive boards should be designed in such a way that
they can run AR applications directly. Given the positive characteristics
of AR applications, it is considered that the time is right for these ap-
plications to be used in lessons. In this context, time management and
the design of application materials become especially important. In this
study, the AR application is carried using interactive boards. In view of
the strength of student opinion, and similar findings in the literature, it
may be predicted that the use of AR applications on mobile phones and
tablets will contribute to increasing success for students in future. In
summary, AR applications should be used in the classroom environment
as an educational/instructional technology due to their positive effects
on learning success and persistence and in increasing levels of interest,
attention and participation in class.
H. Bursali, R.M. Yilmaz
5. Limitations
This study is limited by the use of interactive boards only for
reading experiences supported by AR technology with 5th grade stu-
dents. Some problems were experienced regarding sound, light, internet
connection speed and the hardware properties of the interactive boards.
The socio-economic characteristics of the students can also be regarded
as a limitation of the research.
6. Conclusion
This study shows that students who read using AR materials (the
experimental group) perform better in reading comprehension when
compared with students who read with traditional methods (the control
group). Though both student groups showed improvement week by
week in their success scores, overall it was found that the students in
the experimental group were more successful than the control group.
Moreover, students in the experimental group remembered more of the
reading texts over the three weeks of the study compared to the stu-
dents in the control group. It was found that the general reading
comprehension score and the permanency score of the control group
was relatively low compared to the experimental group, and when these
values were compared to the values in the implementation weeks, they
were below the average. It was determined also that the students in the
experimental group remembered more of what they read than the
students in the control group. In the interviews conducted with ex-
perimental group students at the end of the implementation, the find-
ings supported the research results. The students reported the following
views: that the application of AR contributes to an increase in levels of
reading comprehension and retention; that lessons are more fun and
interesting with such applications; and they would like to see this
technology introduced in other courses. Finally, students in the ex-
perimental group experienced satisfaction in attending AR activities.
They did not report any anxiety in using AR materials, and they were
keen to see more implementations of this kind used in other courses.
7. Suggestions
The following suggestions can be made as a result of the findings of
this study:
7.1. Future research
• The effect of the use of AR materials on different school grade levels
should be investigated further by extending this study to other
grades in future.
•
This study focuses on reading skills as part of a Turkish language
course. It should be extended to cover writing, listening, speaking
skills and grammar topics.
•
This study was designed as a mixed model. Future studies need to be
focused on qualitative or quantitative dimensions specifically in
order to collect greater depth of data. The demographic character-
istics of the students have not been analyzed in this study. In future
studies, there is scope for examination of different learner char-
acteristics such as gender, learning methods, and socio-economic
level in order to compare success levels of students.
•
In this study, reading is done via the interactive board. Future stu-
dies should be conducted using smartphones, AR glasses and tablet
computers.
•
Research material can be used with the interactive boards that were
distributed to schools as part of the FATİH project, in Turkish
textbooks or in supplementary resources.
7.2. Managerial implications
• In implementations of this kind, it is recommended that teachers
134
Computers in Human Behavior 95 (2019) 126–135
and students are informed about the process and the material in
advance and that technical support is provided to the students
throughout the application.
• It should be borne in mind that problems may occur due to internet
network infrastructure and varying internet access speeds in
schools.
• It is recommended that necessary precautions are taken to deal with
problems that may occur due to the standard of lighting in the class
environment, the print quality of markers, the screen resolution of
interactive boards or tablets and the quality of cameras.
• AR applications can have a novelty effect on students. To mitigate
this, it may be beneficial for the students to be allowed to interact
with this technology for a period of time before the start of the
actual application.
• When preparing AR-based interactive reading texts, it is re-
commended that attention is paid to the quality of 3D objects, se-
lection of software, and the use of professional drawings.
7.3. Theoretical implications
• Students' individual learning can be supported by combining AR
applications with game-based learning and problem-based learning
approaches.
• Students can play an active role in the learning process by devel-
oping their own AR applications related to course content, with the
help of simple programs.
• Students can benefit greatly from this technology, especially by
creating products in the course of project-based learning activities.
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Rabia M. Yilmaz is currently an Associate Professor at the Department of Computer
Education & Instructional Technology. She has completed her Ph.D. degree in Department
of Computer Education from Ataturk University in Turkey. Her research interests are in
the computer-based instruction, augmented reality in education (PhD. thesis subject), 3D
virtual worlds, instructional design, and research methods.
Hamiyet Bursalı is a doctoral student at Department of Turkish Education in Ataturk
University. In addition, she is a research assistant at same department of Siirt University.
Her research interest is using augmented reality in Turkish education.