NEOTECTONICS

Definition

Neotectonics. Any earth movements or deformations of the geodetic reference level, their

mechanisms, their geological origin, and their implications for various practical purposes

and their future extrapolations (Morner, 1978);

The study of young tectonic events (deformation of upper crust), which have occurred or

are still occurring in a given region after its final orogeny (at least for recent orogenies) or

more precisely after its last significant reorganization (Pavlides, 1989).

The study of the post-Miocene structures and structural history of the Earth’s crust (AGI,

2009)

Introduction

From the three definitions given above, it is clear that neotectonics is the study of

“young” tectonic movements, but there is disagreement on exactly how young they must

be to qualify as “neotectonic.” Hancock and Williams (1986), following T.G. Blenkinsop,

suggested that neotectonics commenced “when the contemporary stress field of a region

was established.” The age of this establishment differs in various regions of the world,

but is generally between the Oligocene and Miocene periods. Such an initiation time

conforms to Vita-Finzi’s (1986) succinct definition of neotectonics as “late Cainozoic

tectonics.”

Neotectonics has a broad spatial extent as well as broad temporal extent. At the macro-

scale it describes the current and geologically recent movements of the Earth’s tectonic
plates (see Plate tectonics). At the meso-scale, it describes vertical and lateral movements

of mountain chains such as the Himalaya, and vertical isostatic movements. At the micro-

scale, it deals with the movement on individual faults (see Fault) and folds, with

dimensions as small as a few km.

Detecting Areas of Neotectonic Deformation:

Neotectonic movements are commonly associated with areas of active seismicity and

active faulting, such as plate margins (see Plate tectonics). For example, linear bands or

belts of earthquakes (see Earthquake) typically indicate zones of active faulting and

folding. However, some late Cainozoic (neotectonic) structures have not generated

significant seismicity in historic time, because they have either become inactive, or

because the recurrence interval (see Recurrence interval) between earthquakes is longer

than the period of historic record. To locate these more subtle neotectonic faults/folds,

geologists look for traces of their deformation expressed as tectonic landforms, a field of

study known as tectonic geomorphology. Examples of tectonic landforms are faceted

spurs on mountain fronts, created by young normal and reverse faulting; deflected

drainages, shutter ridges, sag ponds, and other disrupted topography along strike-slip

faults (see San Andreas fault; North Anatolian fault); and raised marine terraces or

drowned coastal forests along actively subducting coasts (see Subduction). At regional

scales such landforms are identified by satellite imagery (Landsat, ASTER, Google Earth,

synthetic aperture radar), whereas at local scales they are normally recognized on aerial

photographs or in the field. In many cases detailed field studies may yield the number,
displacement, and timing of prehistoric earthquakes from such landforms (see

Paleoseismology).

Neotectonic movements are not limited to individual faults and folds, but may also affect

broader areas of the crust via isostatic rebound or epierogenic uplift. In coastal zones

regional uplift and subsidence creates emergent or submergent shorelines, respectively.

These are commonly related to formerly glaciated areas that are now rebounding

isostatically. In continental areas, regional uplift may be reflected by rejuvenation of

drainage networks, tilting of drainage networks creating asymmetry, or tilting of lake

basins.

Neotectonic structures are also associated with young geologic basins (onshore or

offshore), that contain Neogene and Quaternary sediments. Neotectonic faults and folds

are normally located at the margins of such basins, but they may also lie hidden beneath

the basin fill, in which case geophysical surveys are required to locate and characterize

them.

Finally, neotectonic movements affect areas of active volcanism, including vertical

deformation due to loading by volcanic eruptions, magma movements (inflation,

deflation, bulging); movement on volcano-tectonic faults; rifting; and crustal-scale

landsliding, and volcano flank collapse.

Measuring Neotectonic Motions (slip amount, slip rate)

Neotectonic studies seek to measure the rate and direction of crustal movement at all

scales, either as relative or absolute motions. Prior to the 1970s almost all measurements

were of relative motion. An example is using the offsets of landforms across faults or
folds to measure the fault slip amount and rate (see Paleoseismology). Such offsets

measure the motion of the two fault blocks relative to each other, rather than the absolute

motion of either block compared to some larger reference frame. In coastal areas, it is

possible to measure neotectonic vertical slip amounts and rates in relation to sea level, an

absolute measure, but lateral offsets across faults are only measured as relative motions.

After large historic earthquakes first-order level lines were often surveyed into the

epicentral area from 50-100 km away, so at sites within 50-100 km of the coast the

vertical motions could be related to sea level. Beyond 100 km, vertical motions could

only be measured as relative.

With the advent of radio astronomy, satellite geodesy, and laser altimetry in the 1980s, it

became possible to measure neotectonic motions relative to fixed points on the Earth’s

surface, to the geoid, or to any external reference frame (Vita-Finzi, 2002). The first real-

time, absolute measurement of horizontal plate motions was made using VLBI (very long

baseline interferometry), which measures the time difference between the arrival at two

Earth-based antennas of a radio wavefront emitted by a distant quasar (see http:

//cddis.nasa.gov/vlbi_summary.html). At present the VLBI method has been replaced by

global positioning satellites (GPS), which measure horizontal motions in relation to an

earthcentric reference frame.

Although vertical neotectonic motions can also be measured via GPS, the accuracy and

precision is lower than for horizontal measurements. Fortunately, vertical crustal motions

can also be measured via laser altimetry (satellite laser ranging) and by interferometry of

synthetic aperture radar (InSAR). The latter technique has revealed patterns of cm-scale

uplift and subsidence over hundreds to thousands of square kilometres associated with
large earthquakes, with nontectonic mechanisms such as fluid withdrawal, and also

vertical movements of unknown origin. Like many new tools developed in science,

InSAR is demonstrating that deformation of the Earth’s surface is more complex, subtle,

and widespread than previously thought.

Modeling Neotectonic Motions

Neotectonic motions can be modeled qualitatively or quantitatively. The qualitative

models aim at establishing a region’s stress regime, that is, the orientation of the

horizontal maximum and least principal stresses responsible for neotectonic deformation.

This type of “stress inversion analysis” can be performed on static geological data, such

as the orientation and slip sense of faults. For example, a system of parallel normal faults

indicates an extensional stress regime with the least principal horizontal stress

perpendicular to fault strike. Neotectonic stress regimes have also been inferred from the

orientation of joints. The key to inferring a neotectonic stress regime from “static”

geologic fault or joint data is to measure only neotectonic faults and joints, rather than

older faults and joints produced by earlier stress regimes.

Stress regimes can also be inverted from more direct data such as focal plane mechanisms

of earthquakes; paleomagnetic rotations of Neogene deposits; and well-bore breakouts

and other direct measurements of contemporary stress fields.

More refined, quantitative neotectonic models rely on finite-element simulations of plate

or microplate motion (e.g., the NeoKinema model of Liu and Bird, 2008). Such models

attempt to reproduce the observed plate motions as measured from GPS surveys, by

specifying in the model an arrangement of crustal layers of a given

shape/thickness/rheology, and by assigning stresses to them. These models may also

include simulated erosion and the isostatic effect of that erosion, inasmuch as the isostatic

effect perturbs the evolving stress field, and thus may conceivably control the locations,

styles, and rates of tectonic deformation (feedback).

Distinguishing Between Seismogenic and Non-Seismogenic Neotectonic Deformation

It is important from a hazards viewpoint, to know whether the observed/measured/modeled

neotectonic deformation is being produced by seismogenic or non-seismogenic processes. As

explained elsewhere (see Tectonic and tectono-seismic hazards), most hazards to human life and

property arise from tectono-seismic (earthquake-related) processes. However, not all neotectonic

deformation is associated with earthquakes. Some tectonic fault types produce deformation but do

not generate earthquakes, such as bending-moment faults and flexural-slip faults. Processes such

as fault creep, deep-seated gravitational spreading (sackung), gravity sliding, evaporate-related

faulting and folding, glacio-isostatic faulting, and dike-related faulting are also non-seismogenic.

Because these structures/processes do not produce earthquakes, they pose much less of a hazard

than seismogenic structures.

In practice it is sometimes difficult to distinguish neotectonic deformation from seismogenic

sources versus non-seismogenic sources, because the surface manifestations are very similar. This

dilemma has become more acute now that systems such as GPS and InSAR are able to measure

hitherto-undetectable patterns and rates of surface deformation. Hansen et al. (1999) provide a

treatise for specialists on how to distinguish these fault types.

Summary

Neotectonics is the study of “young” tectonic movements, subsequent to the

establishment of the contemporary stress (or seismotectonic) regime in the area of study.

This means that neotectonics covers the tectonics of currently-active structures, as well as
some Neogene structures that may no longer be active. At the macro- scale neoteconics

describes the Neogene movements of the Earth’s tectonic plates (see Plate tectonics). At

the meso-scale, it describes vertical and lateral movements of mountain chains such as

the Himalaya, and vertical isostatic movements. At the micro-scale, it deals with the

movement on individual faults (see Fault) and folds, with dimensions as small as a few

km.