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Hydration and Muscle Performance

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 Sports Med 2007; 37 (10): 907-921
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 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.

Hydration and Muscular Performance

Does Fluid Balance Affect Strength, Power and
High-Intensity Endurance?
Daniel A. Judelson,1,2 Carl M. Maresh,1 Jeffrey M. Anderson,1
Lawrence E. Armstrong,1 Douglas J. Casa,1 William J. Kraemer1 and Jeff S. Volek1
1 Human Performance Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, University of Connecticut,
Storrs, Connecticut, USA
2 Department of Kinesiology, California State University, Fullerton, California, USA

This material is
Contents
Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
1. Important Influences in Previous Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
1.1 Exacerbating Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908

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1.2 Masking Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
1.3 Other Potential Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
1.4 Ecological Validity and Best Practices for Future Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
2. Effects of Hypohydration on Muscular Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
2.1 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
2.2 Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914

original publisher.
2.3 High-Intensity Endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
2.4 Comparisons and Relevance of Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
2.5 Important Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
3. Potential Mechanisms of Hypohydration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
3.1 Cardiovascular Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
3.2 Metabolic Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918

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3.3 Buffering Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
3.4 Neuromuscular Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
4. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

and distribution
Abstract Significant scientific evidence documents the deleterious effects of hypohydra-
tion (reduced total body water) on endurance exercise performance; however, the
influence of hypohydration on muscular strength, power and high-intensity endur-
ance (maximal activities lasting >30 seconds but <2 minutes) is poorly understood
due to the inconsistent results produced by previous investigations. Several subtle

is prohibited. methodological choices that exacerbate or attenuate the apparent effects of

hypohydration explain much of this variability. After accounting for these factors,
hypohydration appears to consistently attenuate strength (by ≈2%), power (by
≈3%) and high-intensity endurance (by ~10%), suggesting alterations in total
body water affect some aspect of force generation. Unfortunately, the relation-
ships between performance decrement and crucial variables such as mode, degree
and rate of water loss remain unclear due to a lack of suitably uninfluenced data.
The physiological demands of strength, power and high-intensity endurance
couple with a lack of scientific support to argue against previous hypotheses that
suggest alterations in cardiovascular, metabolic and/or buffering function
represent the performance-reducing mechanism of hypohydration. On the other
908 Judelson et al.

hand, hypohydration might directly affect some component of the neuromuscular

system, but this possibility awaits thorough evaluation. A critical review of the
available literature suggests hypohydration limits strength, power and high-
intensity endurance and, therefore, is an important factor to consider when
attempting to maximise muscular performance in athletic, military and industrial
settings.

Some active individuals have difficulty in volun-
tarily maintaining euhydration during exercise and
often fail to rehydrate properly between exercise
sessions,[1-6] leading to reductions in body water that
affect an array of physiological processes and ulti-
mately limit exercise capacity. Significant research
tained through a systematic review of published
articles from Internet databases (e.g. PubMed) and
reference lists from related original research, book
chapters and review articles. Throughout this article,
hypohydration refers to a state of reduced total body
water, while dehydration refers to the process of

This material is
documents the effects of hypohydration on endur-
ance exercise performance,[7-9] with less attention
given to the influence of hydration status on muscu-
lar strength (the maximal force a muscle or muscle
reducing total body water (i.e. dehydration leads to
hypohydration).

1. Important Influences in
group can generate at a specified velocity),[10] peak Previous Research

the copyright of the

power (the power generated when a muscle engages
in a maximal concentric action at the optimal short-
ening velocity),[10] or high-intensity endurance
(maximal activities lasting >30 seconds but <2 min-
Many high-quality investigations that were not
designed to examine isolated hypohydration have
been inappropriately discussed or analysed in the
utes). In previous original research investigations, context of hypohydration. Generally, these studies

original publisher.
hypohydration inconsistently affects muscle per-
formance; the use of interventions that impair exer-
cise performance independent of water loss (e.g.
employed specific research designs, subject popula-
tions and/or testing modalities that preclude a direct
application to only changes in hydration status.
Sometimes these influences magnified the effects of
exercise-heat stress) explains some of this inconsis-
hypohydration, which if interpreted only in the con-

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tency, as does the failure of some studies to control
for factors that obscure the association between hy-
dration state and performance (e.g. caloric restric-
tion or training status).
Although reviews and position statements dis-
text of hydration would overemphasise the effects of
hypohydration (‘exacerbating factors’). In other
cases, these influences counteracted or attenuated
the effects of hypohydration, which if interpreted
only in the context of hypohydration would underes-

and distribution
cussing bodyweight loss[11-23] and general hy-
pohydration[7,24-26] superficially discuss the effects
of hydration state on anaerobic performance, the
literature currently lacks a comprehensive review
timate the effects of hydration on high-intensity
performance (‘masking factors’).

1.1 Exacerbating Factors

describing the effects of hypohydration on strength,

is prohibited.
power and high-intensity endurance. Therefore, the
purpose of this article is to objectively analyse the
scientific literature examining the effects of hydra-
tion state on muscular performance to determine if,
and how, hypohydration affects muscular strength,
power and high-intensity endurance. A major aim is
to compare and contrast studies to better understand
how different methodological factors contribute to
the relationship between hypohydration and per-
formance. Scientific literature on this topic was ob-
Because athletes who participate in weight-con-
trol sports (e.g. wrestling and boxing) regularly alter
their body mass, many studies examining the effects
of acute mass loss on performance used these ath-
letes as subjects. In the days or hours preceding a
competition, many weight-control athletes signifi-
cantly reduce their body mass, typically by decreas-
ing total body water and limiting caloric intake.
Because not every study examining wrestlers or
boxers was designed to evaluate hydration state,

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Hydration and Muscle Performance
weight-loss techniques were frequently uncontrolled
and undocumented. Although dehydration frequent-
ly accounted for some mass loss in this research, the
effects of hypohydration are not easily separated
from the potential performance-reducing effects of
caloric restriction.[27-29] Unfortunately, some authors
failed to recognise the physiological divergence sep-
arating weight loss from hypohydration and, there-
fore, inappropriately analysed and discussed acute
weight loss solely in the context of hypohydration.
Independent of hydration, increasing muscle and/
or core temperature above specific thresholds
reduces muscle function, limits work capacity and
promotes fatigue.[30-32] Methodologically, studies
This material is
employing dehydration techniques that increased
muscle temperature (via exercise and/or heat expo-
sure), but tested subjects before they adequately
cooled, cannot isolate the effects of hypohydration
from the performance-reducing effects of increased
the copyright of the
core temperature. Similarly, many studies employed
dehydration techniques causing muscular fatigue
(primarily exercise); investigations that tested sub-
jects without allowing full recovery cannot separate
the effects of hypohydration from the performance-
original publisher.
reducing effects of muscle fatigue. Clearly, the spe-
cific methodology employed to dehydrate subjects
in hydration studies is vital. If dehydration was
coupled with caloric restriction and/or subjects were
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unable to completely recover from the stress of the
dehydration, the isolated effect of hydration cannot
be evaluated.[14,15,30,33-37]
1.2 Masking Factors
and distribution
Several authors have hypothesised that training
state significantly alters the effects of hydration on
muscular performance,[16,33,38] and at least one study
scientifically confirmed this conjecture. Caterisano
et al.[39] clearly demonstrated that 3% hypohydration
is prohibited.
reduced isokinetic quadriceps muscular endurance
(ability to maintain ≥50% maximal peak torque) in
power athletes and sedentary controls, but failed to
affect performance in endurance athletes. They pro-
posed that the haemodynamic adaptations resulting
from endurance training (primarily increased plas-
ma volume) provided an extra reserve of water to
offset the fluid shifts caused by dehydration. Schoff-
stall et al.[40] corroborated this hypothesis when they
discovered a significant inverse relationship be-
 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
909
tween lean body mass (and hence, reservoir of total
body water) and strength reductions following 1.7%
hypohydration. It appears that any condition (nutri-
tional or physiological) that increases total body
water, including endurance training, helps counter-
act the effects of hypohydration because the body’s
greater fluid reservoir minimises the percentage of
fluid lost for any given decrease of total body water.
Results of studies examining isolated hypohydration
on endurance-trained athletes[41-43] have rarely
demonstrated physiologically or statistically signifi-
cant hypohydration-induced reductions of maximal
muscular performance (see sections 2.1 and 2.2),
further supporting the conclusions of Caterisano
et al.[39]
Very little research examines the effect of hydra-
tion on strength, power or high-intensity endurance
in women.[33,44-46] None of these studies, however,
controlled for subjects’ menstrual status. Although
menstrual status appears to exert little influence on
strength or anaerobic exercise performance,[47] the
alterations in concentration and activity of the fluid
regulatory hormones across the reproductive cycle
promote water retention during the luteal
phase.[48,49] This increased fluid reserve, as suggest-
ed in the previous paragraph, likely provides a
greater fluid reserve to defend against hypohydra-
tion-induced alterations of total body water. Al-
though no scientific investigations confirm this hy-
pothesis, the physiological basis for this argument
and parallel findings in endurance athletes suggest
results obtained from women without controlling for
menstrual status must be cautiously interpreted.
Finally, several studies examining muscular
strength,[50] power[44,51-56] and high-intensity endur-
ance[51,53-59] employed measurements in which only
the subject’s body mass resisted the testing move-
ment (e.g. vertical jumping or short-distance sprint-
ing). The decreased body mass characteristic of
hypohydration might offset reduced muscular
strength and/or power, however, complicating the
interpretation of these studies.[37,44] For example, if
hypohydration fails to reduce muscle force or pow-
er, vertical jump height will increase as total body
water decreases because the jumper must move less
body mass. Body mass based tests require less force
as hypohydration progresses; this reduction of phys-
iological demand promotes improved performance
Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
910
and obscures the effects of hypohydration on muscle
function.
1.3 Other Potential Influences
In addition to the primary exacerbating (caloric
restriction, increased muscle temperature and fa-
tigue) and masking (endurance training, menstrual
status and test type) factors, the subjects’ history of
exercising while hypohydrated has also received
attention as a potential confounding variable. Sever-
al authors hypothesised that subjects accustomed to
hypohydration (typically wrestlers) demonstrate in-
significant performance alterations due to their fa-
This material is
miliarity with the characteristic physiological stress-
es.[16,60] Subjects’ history of hypohydration is not
considered an important influence in the present
review because (i) no scientific literature documents
a physiological adaptation to hypohydration; (ii) this
the copyright of the
effect, if present, would largely result from psycho-
logical rather than physiological mechanisms; and
(iii) research examining isolated hypohydration
published after the presentation of this hypothesis
(in the early 1980s) demonstrated significantly re-
original publisher.
duced muscular performance in individuals with a
history of rapid body mass loss.[40,61]
1.4 Ecological Validity and Best Practices for
Future Research
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Understanding the isolated effects of hypohydra-
tion on strength, power and high-intensity endur-
ance is important from a basic science perspective,
but this topic also merits attention due to high eco-
and distribution
logical validity. While some populations experience
the stress of hypohydration combined with another
factor (e.g. fatigue, caloric restriction or increased
core temperature), multiple groups regularly experi-
ence only hypohydration. Training athletes who fail
is prohibited.
to adequately rehydrate during or immediately after
an initial exercise bout[1-6] might initiate subsequent
exercise bouts in a hypohydrated state, but the hours
between exercise limit the stress of increased core
temperature or fatigue. Other groups that require
peak muscle function for health and safety, such as
astronauts and the elderly, also frequently experi-
ence hypohydration.[62,63]
Given the importance of determining the effect of
isolated hypohydration on high-intensity muscle
 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
Judelson et al.
function, future research must recognise the follow-
ing three vital components of appropriate research
design: (i) dehydration technique; (ii) subject popu-
lation; and (iii) performance measures. Scientists
can completely avoid the dehydration methods de-
scribed in section 1.1 by using diuretics to reduce
total body water (understanding the unique physio-
logical stresses of diuretic-induced hypohydra-
tion[64]); however, exercise and heat exposure are
useful methods to dehydrate subjects. In using these
latter techniques, future investigations must consid-
er the time duration between a physiologically
stressful dehydration protocol and the outcome per-
formance measure(s). Sufficient time must separate
dehydration from performance to allow core tem-
perature to stabilise and fatigue to dissipate. Our
laboratory typically dehydrates subjects via low-
intensity exercise in the heat the evening prior to a
morning data collection;[65-67] the overnight rest pe-
riod drastically reduces the effects of the dehydra-
tion procedures on subsequent outcome measures.
To account for possible influences of subject
selection, future studies should attempt to maximise
the homogeneity of their subjects’ endurance train-
ing background. Hypohydration can (and should) be
studied in female populations, but authors must ac-
knowledge the potential influence of the menstrual
cycle on fluid balance. While data collection might
properly occur during any phase of the menstrual
cycle, (i) all subjects should be tested during a
common phase; and (ii) all data collection for re-
peated measures studies (the most appropriate to
eliminate the effects of the dehydration protocol)
must occur during the same menstrual phase. In
terms of outcome measures, subjects must perform
against consistent workloads in all trials. This re-
quirement eliminates tests that rely primarily on the
subject moving his or her body mass (e.g. vertical
jump or short distance sprinting) and mandates that
performance workloads are based upon euhydrated
subject characteristics (e.g. euhydrated one repeti-
tion maximum or percentage of euhydrated body
mass).
2. Effects of Hypohydration on
Muscular Performance
Tables I–III comprehensively summarise the re-
sults from studies that cannot be evaluated solely in
Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Hydration and Muscle Performance 911

Table I. Effects of hypohydration on muscular strength

Study Dehydration Resultsa Primary factorb
Studies with masking factors
Bosco et al.[50] –2.5% via WD 5.3% ↓ strength to mass ratio BMB
Evetovich et al.[33] –2.9% via WD 3.4% ↓ isometric forearm flexion strength UMS
2.1% ↓ isokinetic forearm flexion strength UMS
Saltin[41] –3.8% via E-H 0.5% ↑ R knee extension strength ETS
2.9% ↑ L knee extension strength ETS
2.7% ↑ R elbow flexion strength ETS
0.7% ↓ L elbow flexion strength ETS
–3.8% via S 0.2% ↑ R knee extension strength ETS
0.4% ↓ L knee extension strength ETS
2.3% ↑ R elbow flexion strength ETS
2.8% ↑ L elbow flexion strength ETS
Montain et al.[45] –4.0% via E-H 4.4% ↑ knee extension strength UMS

This material is
Studies with exacerbating factors
Gutiérrez et al.[44]

Bijlani and Sharma[68]

–1.8% via E

–3.0% via E-H

4.0% ↓ in handgrip strength
0.9% ↓ in row strength
0.0% ∆ elbow extensor strength
Temperature
Temperature
Temperature
Viitasalo et al.[52] –3.4% via S 7.8% ↓ knee extension strength* Temperature

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Guastella et al.[72]
Houston et al.[57]
–4.2% via C
≈–4.5% via C
2.2% ↓ grip strength
11.3% ↓ knee extension strength at 30°/sec*
11.5% ↓ knee extension strength at 180°/sec*
10.5% ↓ knee extension strength at 300°/sec*
CR
CR
CR
CR
Moore et al.[69] –4.8% via E-S 8.9% ↓ knee extension strength at 180°/sec* Temperature

original publisher.
Webster et al.[35] –4.9% via C 6.9%
10.2%
7.4%
11.4%
↓
↑
↑
↑
R knee extension strength – fast
R knee extension strength – slow
R knee flexion strength – fast
R knee flexion strength – slow
CR
CR
CR
CR
5.5% ↑ L knee extension strength – fast CR

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2.7% ↑ L knee extension strength – slow CR
0.7% ↓ L knee flexion strength – fast CR
6.9% ↑ L knee flexion strength – slow CR
3.6% ↓ chest press strength – fast CR
6.6% ↓ chest press strength – slow* CR
↓

and distribution
5.2% chest row strength – fast CR
4.5% ↓ chest row strength – slow CR
6.6% ↓ shoulder push strength – fast CR
8.1% ↓ shoulder push strength – slow CR
8.9% ↓ shoulder pull strength – fast CR
4.5% ↓ shoulder pull strength – slow* CR

is prohibited.
Viitasalo et al.[52]
Kraemer et al.[73]
–5.8% via C
≈–6% via C
7.7%
7.0%
11.4%
1.1%
↓
↑
↓
↑
knee extension strength*
hip/back strength
grip strength*
bear hug strength
CR
CR
CR
CR
2.4% ↓ knee extension strength at 0°/sec CR
9.9% ↓ knee extension strength at 60°/sec CR
15.2% ↓ knee extension strength at 300°/sec* CR

Continued next page

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
912 Judelson et al.

Table I. Contd
Study Dehydration Resultsa Primary factorb
6.3% ↓ knee flexion strength at 60°/sec CR
11.1% ↓ knee flexion strength at 300°/sec* CR
2.8% ↓ elbow flexion strength at 0°/sec CR
2.5% ↓ elbow flexion strength at 60°/sec CR
4.9% ↓ elbow flexion strength at 300°/sec CR
8.3% ↓ elbow extension strength at 60°/sec CR
4.5% ↓ elbow extension strength at 300°/sec CR
Studies difficult to interpret
Ahlman and Karvonen[70] Learning effect
Bell et al.[74] UWL
Ftaiti et al.[75] Temperature, fatigue, ETS
Greenleaf et al.[38] No euhydrated baseline
Greenleaf et al.[46] Temperature, fatigue, UMS

This material is
Gutiérrez et al.[44]
Ööpik et al.[76]
Serfass et al.[60]
Singer and Weiss[77]
Temperature, UMS
UWL
UWL
UWL
Tuttle[78] UWL, caloric restriction

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Vallier et al.[79] No euhydrated baseline, ETS
Wenos and Amato[59] UWL
a Data are shown as percentage change from baseline. Results obtained from references[33,35,38,41,44-46,50,52,57,59,60,68-70,72-79] and findings
obtained from references[38,50,57] estimated from figures.
b Primary factor refers to the variable preventing an isolated analysis of the effects of hypohydration on muscular performance.
BMB = body mass based test; C = combination dehydration techniques; CR = caloric restriction; E = exercise; ETS = endurance-trained

original publisher.
subjects; H = heat exposure (36–41°C); L = left; R = right; S = sauna exposure (70–85°C); UMS = uncontrolled menstrual status; UWL =
uncontrolled weight loss; WD = water deprivation. ↑ indicates improvement; ↓ indicates decrement; ∆ indicates change; * p < 0.05.

the context of hypohydration, presenting investiga- take[55,58,60,68-71] or uncontrolled carbohydrate in-

tions that examined the effect of hypohydration on take[44] during the rehydration.

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muscular strength (table I), power (table II) and
high-intensity endurance (table III), respectively.
Each table is divided into the following three sec-
Figures 1–3 display the results of the 11 pub-
lished, peer-reviewed studies[34,36,37,39,40,50,52,61,81-83]
that accurately assessed only the effects of hy-
pohydration on muscular strength (figure 1), power
tions: (i) research with masking factors (i.e. attenu-
(figure 2) and high-intensity endurance (figure 3).

and distribution
ating hypohydration effects); (ii) research with ex-
acerbating factors (i.e. magnifying hypohydration
effects); and (iii) research that cannot be interpreted
based on acknowledged limitations of research de-
Similar to tables I–III, these figures contain infor-
mation relating only to initial dehydration and ig-
nore subsequent rehydration.[40,83] To examine pos-
sible muscle specificity, figures 1–3 present findings

is prohibited.
sign (e.g. learning effect), lack of description or
control of the hypohydration techniques, and/or
combinations of masking and exacerbating factors.
Single publications appear in multiple sections and
on different tables if the methodology included sev-
eral different dehydration techniques, subject popu-
lations or exercise tasks. In those studies examining
the effects of dehydration and subsequent rehydra-
tion, only the initial dehydration was evaluated to
eliminate effects of ad libitum food and fluid in-
from lower, upper and total body musculature sepa-
rately; whenever possible, results from similar mus-
cle groups/actions are juxtaposed for clarity.
2.1 Strength
Table I and figure 1 present the effects of hy-
pohydration on muscular strength (the maximal
force a muscle or muscle group can generate at a
specified velocity).[10] Protocols used to evaluate
strength typically measured single maximal effort

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Hydration and Muscle Performance 913

Table II. Effects of hypohydration on muscular power

Study Dehydration Resultsa Primary factorb
Studies with masking factors
Hoffman et al.[53] –1.1% via E 3.4% ↑ squat jump height BMB
3.0% ↑ countermovement jump height BMB
–1.8% via E 0.0% ∆ squat jump height BMB
3.0% ↑ countermovement jump height BMB
Gutiérrez et al.[44] –1.8% via H 4.7% ↓ squat jump height BMB
3.8% ↓ countermovement jump height BMB
Walsh et al.[42] –1.8% via E-H 0.1% ↓ cycling power ETS
Watson et al.[51] –2.2% via D 0.1% ↑ 50m sprint BMB
1.0% ↑ 200m sprint BMB
–2.5% via D 1.5% ↑ jump height BMB
Viitasalo et al.[52] –2.5% via D 2.2% ↑ jumping power BMB
7.1% ↑ jump height* BMB

This material is
7.9% ↑ weighted (+20kg) jump height* BMB
8.9% ↑ weighted (+40kg) jump height* BMB
3.9% ↑ weighted (+60kg) jump height BMB
1.3% ↑ weighted (+80kg) jump height BMB
Fritzsche et al.[43] –4.2% via E-H 4.7% ↓ cycling power ETS

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Studies with exacerbating factors
Jacobs[56] –2.0% via H 2.2% ↓ Wingate peak power Temperature
King et al.[80] –3.0% via E-H 2.5% ↓ cycling peak power Temperature, fatigue
Viitasalo et al.[52] –3.4% via S 16.1% ↓ knee extension rate of force development* Temperature
Jacobs[56] –4.1% via H 2.1% ↓ Wingate peak power Temperature
Guastella et al.[72] –4.2% via C 0.6% ↓ Wingate peak power CR

original publisher.
Webster et al.[35]
Jacobs[56]
Viitasalo et al.[52]
Kraemer et al.[73]
–4.9% via C
–5.0% via H
–5.8% via C
~–6.0% via C
21.5%
2.3%
19.0%
3.2%
↓
↓
↓
↓
cycling power
Wingate peak power
knee extension rate of force development*
jumping power
CR
Temperature
CR
CR
Studies difficult to interpret

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Bell et al.[74]
Doscher[54]
Fogelholm et al.[55]
Gutiérrez et al.[44]
UWL
CR, BMB
CR, BMB
Temperature, BMB, UMS
Jacobs[56] Temperature, BMB

and distribution
King et al.[80]
Ööpik et al.[76]
Vallier et al.[79]
Viitasalo et al.[52]
Temperature, fatigue, ETS
UWL
No euhydrated baseline, ETS
CR or temperature, BMB
a Data are shown as percentage change from baseline. Results obtained from references[35,42-44,51-56,72-74,76,79,80] and findings obtained

is prohibited.
from references[43,53] estimated from figures.
b Primary factor refers to the variable preventing an isolated analysis of the effects of hypohydration on muscular performance.
BMB = body mass based test; C = combination dehydration techniques; CR = caloric restriction; D = diuretic; E = exercise; ETS =
endurance-trained subjects; H = heat exposure (30–56°C); S = sauna exposure (70–85°C); UMS = uncontrolled menstrual status; UWL =
uncontrolled weight loss; ↑ indicates improvement; ↓ indicates decrement; ∆ indicates change; * p < 0.05.

isometric, isotonic and/or isokinetic force produc-
tion of the upper body (e.g. back extension, bear
hug, bench press, row, elbow extension, elbow flex-
ion, forearm flexion, grip strength, shoulder abduc-
tion, shoulder adduction and shoulder extension)
and lower body (e.g. hip flexion, knee extension and
knee flexion).
Numerical analysis supports the division of stud-
ies by external influence: the average loss of
strength was 2.3%, 0.3% and 3.8% for investiga-

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
914 Judelson et al.

Table III. Effects of hypohydration on muscular endurance (activities >30 seconds and <2 minutes)
Study Dehydration Resultsa Primary factorb
Studies with masking factors
Hoffman et al.[53] –1.1% via E 16.5% ↓ jumping power during 30 sec test BMB
7.2% ↓ jumps in 30 sec BMB
4.8% ↓ average jump height during 30 sec test BMB
–1.8% via E 15.2% ↓ jumping power during 30 sec test BMB
10.5% ↓ jumps in 30 sec BMB
0.0% ∆ average jump height during 30 sec test BMB
Watson et al.[51] –2.5% via D 0.6% ↓ 400m sprint BMB
Caterisano et al.[39] –3.0% via H 1.2% ↑ knee extension endurance ETS
Studies with exacerbating factors
Jacobs[56] –2.0% via H 0.8% ↑ average power during 30 sec Wingate Temperature
Fogelholm et al.[55] –2.7% via C 3.4% ↑ average power during 1 min Wingate 1 (of 2) CR
0.3% ↑ average power during 1 min Wingate 2 (of 2) CR

This material is
Bijlani and Sharma[68]
King et al.[80]
–3.0% via E-H
–3.0% via E-H
31.8%
10.2%
8.5%
3.2%
↓
↓
↓
↓
elbow extensor endurance*
cycling work in 45 sec*
cycling power at end of 45 sec
cycling fatigue index
Temperature
Temperature, fatigue
Temperature, fatigue
Temperature, fatigue
Jacobs[56] –4.1% via H 1.3% ↓ average power during 30 sec Wingate Temperature

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Guastella et al.[72] –4.2% via C 0.7% ↓ average power during 30 sec Wingate CR
Webster et al.[35] –4.9% via C 9.7% ↓ cycling work in 40 sec* CR
Jacobs[56] –5.0% via H 0.5% ↓ average power during 30 sec Wingate Temperature
Studies difficult to interpret
Bell et al.[74] UWL

original publisher.
Doscher[54] CR, BMB
Houston et al.[57] CR, BMB
Jacobs[56] Temperature, BMB
King et al.[80] Temperature, fatigue, ETS
Klinzing and Karpowicz[58] CR, BMB
Mnatzakanian and Undefined weight loss

Unauthorised copying
Vaccaro[71]
Wenos and Amato[59] UWL, BMB
a Data are shown as percentage change from baseline. Results obtained from references[35,39,51,53-59,68,71,72,74,80] and findings obtained
from references[53,57] estimated from figures.
b Primary factor refers to the variable preventing an isolated analysis of the effects of hypohydration on muscular performance.

and distribution
BMB = body mass based test; C = combination dehydration techniques; CR = caloric restriction; E = exercise; ETS = endurance-trained
subjects; D = diuretic; H = heat exposure (40–58°C); UWL = uncontrolled weight loss; ↑ indicates improvement; ↓ indicates decrement; ∆
indicates change; * p < 0.05.

tions with no factors (i.e. those assessing only isolat- vergent results sometimes occur for the same muscle

is prohibited.
ed hypohydration), masking factors and exacerbat-
ing factors, respectively. Only 15 of the 70 total
findings (21%) showed statistically significant per-
formance reductions. Given the relatively small ef-
fect of hypohydration, the rarity of statistical signifi-
cance is not surprising considering the small sample
sizes (mean sample size of uninfluenced studies =
ten) and sometimes insufficiently sensitive testing
modalities.[84] No specific muscle group or action
appears more susceptible to hypohydration, as di-
(e.g. knee extension and elbow flexion). Although
some variability exists, more than two-thirds of un-
influenced results show negative effects, suggesting
that 3–4% hypohydration reduces muscular strength
by approximately 2%.
2.2 Power
Table II and figure 2 present the effects of hy-
pohydration on muscular power (the power generat-
ed when a muscle engages in a maximal concentric

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Hydration and Muscle Performance 915

15 Total
Lower body Upper body
body
Lower body
10
a–g: Knee extension
Muscular strength (%)

h: Leg extension
5
Upper body
0 i: Bench press
j–m: Elbow flexion
–5 * n–o: Handgrip
* p–q: Shoulder extension
–10 r: Trunk extension
* s: Composite score
–15 ab c d e f gh i j k l mn o p q r s
Fig. 1. Non-confounded effects of hypohydration on muscular strength. Data are presented as mean percentage change from baseline.
Results from: Bosco et al.[50] (a, h, j, n, o, r and s) [estimated from figures]; Greiwe et al.[34] (b and k); Viitasalo et al.[52] (c); Bosco et al.[81] (d,
e, l, m, p and q); Bigard et al.[82] (f and g); and Schoffstall et al.[40] (i). * p < 0.05.

This material is
action at the optimal shortening velocity).[10] Appro-
priate protocols used to evaluate peak power typical-
ly measured performance during maximal intensity
centage increase in performance failed to match the
percentage decrease in body mass. Except for two
investigations examining short-distance sprint-
ing,[51,55] all of these studies examined power via
cycling and maximal knee extension (rate of force
lower body exercise (e.g. jumping or cycling), elim-

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development). Numerical analysis again supports
the division of studies based on the type of external inating an analysis of muscle specificity. Figure 2
influence: the average change in power was –3.2%, displays some variability (more in magnitude than
+1.8% and –7.7% for investigations with no factors, direction) and uninfluenced findings require replica-
masking factors and exacerbating factors, respec- tion in future studies, but the current literature sug-

original publisher.
tively. Nine of the 47 total findings (19%) showed gests that 3–4% hypohydration reduces muscular
statistically significant performance reductions. Un- power by approximately 3%.
fortunately, the 21 results shown in figure 2 come
2.3 High-Intensity Endurance
from only four investigations, one of which was
published only in abstract form[61] (complete details Table III and figure 3 present the effects of

Unauthorised copying
of this research were obtained from the author of the
abstract: Smith SA, 2006, personal communication).
Studies with masking factors that used body mass
based tests further corroborate the power-reducing
hypohydration on high-intensity muscular endur-
ance. Appropriate protocols used to evaluate high-
intensity endurance typically measured total work
(number of repetitions) or average power main-
effect of hypohydration: in 8 of 15 cases, the per- tained during 30–120 seconds of repeated activities

and distribution 20

15
Lower body

10 Lower body
Muscular power (%)

a–h: 10–15s Wingate Test

is prohibited. 5

–5
u:
peak power
i–t: 10–15s Wingate Test
average power
Knee extension rate of
force development
* * *
–10 *
* *
–15
*
–20 a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u
Fig. 2. Non-confounded effects of hypohydration on muscular power. Data are presented as mean percentage change from baseline.
Results from: Smith et al.[61] (a–e, i–m); Cheuvront et al.[37] (f–h, n–p); Yoshida et al.[36] (q–t) [estimated from figures]; and Viitasalo et al.[52]
(u). * p < 0.05.

 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved. Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
916
40
30
Muscular endurance (%)
20
10
0 f: Sit-ups
–10
–20
–30
–40
Fig. 3. Non-confounded effects of hypohydration on high-intensity muscular endurance (activities lasting >30 seconds but <120 seconds).
Data are presented as mean percentage change from baseline. Results from: Caterisano et al.[39] (a and b); Greiwe et al.[34] (c and e);
This material is
Bigard et al.[82] (d); Bosco et al.[81] (f); and Torranin et al.[83] (g and h). * p < 0.05.
(bench presses, rows, chin-ups, elbow extensions,
elbow flexions, knee extensions, knee flexions,
the copyright of the
shoulder abductions, shoulder adductions and/or sit-
ups); high-intensity cycling tasks were also evalu-
ated. Division of studies based on external influence
is less numerically convincing for this variable: the
average loss of endurance was 15.0%, 6.7% and
original publisher.
5.6% for studies with no factors, masking factors
and exacerbating factors, respectively. Statistically
significant reductions in performance occurred in 7
of the 27 results (26%). The smaller total pool of
Unauthorised copying
results (only 27 compared with 70 for strength and
47 for power) and/or the physiological differences
separating high-intensity muscular endurance from
strength and power (as endurance relies more heavi-
ly on cardiovascular function and muscle metabo-
and distribution
lism; see sections 3.1 and 3.2) might explain the
altered quantitative relationship among influences.
Regardless, the consistent, statistically significant
reductions noted in the uninfluenced studies suggest
is prohibited.
that hypohydration detrimentally affects high-inten-
sity muscular endurance; visual evidence supports a
greater effect in the lower body than the upper body;
however, the small number of results supporting this
hypothesis makes this conclusion tentative. Little
variability exists in figure 3, suggesting that 3–4%
hypohydration reduces high-intensity muscular en-
durance by approximately 10%.
 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
Judelson et al.
Lower Upper Total
body body body
Lower body
a–d: Knee extension
Upper body
e: Elbow flexion
Total body
g: Total body isometric
* h: Total body isotonic
*
* *
a b c d e f g h
2.4 Comparisons and Relevance
of Conclusions
The previous conclusions suggest that hy-
pohydration attenuates the performance of high-
intensity endurance to a much greater degree than
strength and power exercises. The (i) detrimental
effects of body water loss on traditional endurance
exercises; and (ii) direct relationship between the
magnitude of hypohydration-induced performance
decrement and exercise duration[7,9] support this hy-
pothesis. A 10% reduction in high-intensity endur-
ance performance produces clear decrements in ex-
ercise outcome. The relative importance of 2–3%
reductions in strength and peak power, however, is
less clear. These effects are unlikely to affect the
casual resistance exerciser attempting to maintain
health and reduce risk of disease, but small reduc-
tions in exercise performance significantly affect the
outcome of athletic competitions when vanishingly
small differences separate winning from losing.[84]
For example, results from the 1996, 2000 and 2004
Olympic Games indicate the gold medalist in the
100m dash defeated the eighth place finisher by an
average of only 3%. Decrements in peak strength
and power also affect non-elite athletic events, mili-
tary operations and civil servant activities (e.g. po-
lice and fire personnel) when participants strive to
maximise performance for personal satisfaction,
personal or public safety, and overall well-being.
Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Hydration and Muscle Performance
Table IV. Methodological details of the non-confounded studies examining muscular strength, power and high-intensity endurance
Study Dehydration method
Bigard et al.[82] Sauna
Bosco et al.[81] Water deprivation
Bosco et al.[50] Water deprivation
Caterisano et al.[39] Heat
Cheuvront et al.[37] Heat
Greiwe et al.[34] Sauna
Schoffstall et al.[40] Sauna
Smith et al.[61] Combination
Torranin et al.[83] Sauna
Viitasalo et al.[52] Diuretic
Yoshida et al.[36] Exercise
2.5 Important Considerations
This material is
The previous analysis omits three obviously rele-
vant variables. Mode of dehydration,[14-16,25,33,52,64]
degree of hypohydration[16,25,38] and rate of water
loss[16,38,85] likely alter the physiological response to
the copyright of the
hypohydration. Despite their importance, several
reasons justify the intentional exclusion. Given the
small number of uninfluenced results upon which
the previous conclusions are largely based, compar-
original publisher.
ing the effects of different dehydration methods and
degrees of hypohydration becomes difficult (this
information is provided for the uninfluenced studies
in table IV). A surprising lack of scientific evidence
documenting hydration status further complicates
Unauthorised copying
this assessment. Of the studies evaluated in this
review, approximately half verified hydration status
(pre- or post-dehydration) with any physiological
measurement other than body mass (e.g. urine spe-
cific gravity or plasma osmolality). This verification
and distribution
is vital, especially to ensure hydration indices indi-
cate that subjects’ baseline body masses represent a
euhydrated state. Without the physiological verifi-
cation that baseline body mass truly represents
euhydration, the degree of hypohydration post-de-
is prohibited.
hydration cannot be quantified nor can the relation-
ship between the magnitude of hypohydration and
decrement in muscle function be assessed.
Research examining the same subjects complet-
ing the same exercise bouts at multiple hypohydrat-
ed states most effectively analyses the effect of
degree of hypohydration; unfortunately, very few of
these studies exist. Nine published stud-
ies[36,38,43,50,53,56,77,79,80] examined multiple degrees of
hypohydration, but only two[36,50] lack a major
 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
917
Degree of hypohydration (%) Variable(s) assessed
–3.0 Isometric strength, endurance
–5.7 Isometric strength, endurance
–2.5 and –3.1 Isometric strength
–3.0 Endurance
–2.7 Power
–3.8 Isometric strength, endurance
–1.7 Isotonic strength
–4.5 Power
–3.9 and –4.0 Endurance
–2.5 Isometric strength, power
–0.7, –1.7, –2.5 and –3.9 Power
masking or exacerbating factor and four[38,43,53,79]
accurately documented hydration status. Realistical-
ly, the limited data available from studies that accu-
rately documented the effects of only hypohydration
(strength,[34,40,50,52,81,82] power,[36,37,52,61] endur-
ance[34,39,81-83]) fail to provide a suitable number of
data points to accurately or reliably evaluate the
relationship between degree of hypohydration and
change of muscle function. Evidence from an endur-
ance model clearly suggests that the technique used
to dehydrate subjects affects subsequent perform-
ance outcomes and fluid biocompartmentation.[64]
Presumably, mode of dehydration interacts with de-
gree of hypohydration to determine the overall mag-
nitude of performance decrement.
3. Potential Mechanisms
of Hypohydration
How might hypohydration negatively influence
strength, power and high-intensity endurance? Un-
fortunately, the inconsistent results described in sec-
tions 2.1–2.3 have precluded an extensive analysis
of the hypohydration mechanism. Instead, our cur-
rent state of knowledge results from a basic under-
standing of exercise physiology and information
gleaned from studies examining hypohydration and
endurance performance.
3.1 Cardiovascular Mechanisms
During endurance exercise, especially in a hot
environment, many of the deleterious effects of hy-
pohydration result from altered cardiovascular func-
tion. Hypohydration reduces total plasma volume,
increasing submaximal heart rates and decreasing
Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
918
maximal cardiac output.[86,87] Further, changes of
muscle blood flow due to water loss can decrease
nutrient delivery, decrease metabolite removal and
alter cellular metabolism.[88,89] The degree to which
these cardiovascular alterations affect strength and
power, however, is unclear. Brief strength and pow-
er production occurs essentially independent of the
cardiovascular system because these exercises do
not require peak cardiac output and largely rely
upon stored intramuscular adenosine triphosphate
(ATP) and creatine phosphate (CP) for energy. Al-
though little research examining hypohydration and
muscular performance documents these variables,
the physiology of maximal performance suggests
This material is
that decreased cardiovascular function cannot ac-
count for reduced strength and power.[13,14,45] The
importance of cardiovascular changes might in-
crease, however, during high-intensity endurance
performance.[14,83] Because repetitive exercises, no
the copyright of the
matter how brief, require adequate delivery of oxy-
gen to and removal of metabolic by-products from
the active musculature, reductions of muscle blood
flow might assume greater importance in dictating
performance reductions.[13,36,43,83]
original publisher.
3.2 Metabolic Mechanisms
Similar to cardiovascular mechanisms, the physi-
ology of maximal performance suggests only a lim-
Unauthorised copying
ited role for muscle metabolism in reducing muscle
function, especially for strength and power.[25]
Closer inspection of basic physiology, however,
shows that hydration-induced changes in cell vol-
ume strongly influence cellular metabolism,[90-92]
and distribution
suggesting that hypohydration might fundamentally
disturb metabolism to affect even the briefest exer-
cises.[80,83] Although altered lipid metabolism has
been suggested as a possible mechanism explaining
the effect of hypohydration on maximal muscle ac-
is prohibited.
tivity,[93-95] the majority of scientific attention and
evidence examines potential changes of carbohy-
drate metabolism.
Experimental evidence, albeit limited, refutes the
possibility that hypohydration fundamentally
changes intramuscular stores of ATP and CP[13,15,45]
or circulating concentrations of blood glucose.[76,81]
Greater controversy exists over the effect of hy-
pohydration on post-exercise circulating lactate con-
centrations; although one study[51] showed increased
 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
Judelson et al.
lactate with hypohydration, the vast majority
demonstrate that hypohydration either failed to
change[43,51,56,72,76,82,93] or decreased[41,64,69,80] post-
exercise lactate. In many cases, the reduced blood
lactate was hypothesised to result from decreased
work rate or work time,[30,96] rather than a physiolog-
ical effect of hypohydration on lactate production,
efflux, or uptake.[93] On the other hand, decreased
lactate production might occur secondary to dehy-
dration-induced reductions of glycogen stores, not
because hypohydration fundamentally affects carbo-
hydrate metabolism.[13,14,76,97,98] This final possibili-
ty explains many findings, as all data demonstrating
reduced post-exercise lactate resulted from subjects
who either restricted caloric intake or increased their
core temperature (each of which promotes glycogen
depletion) during dehydration. Additionally, the de-
hydration protocols frequently stress subjects, stim-
ulating the sympathetic nervous system. This ‘fight
or flight’ response promotes glycogenolysis;[99] pro-
longed dehydration procedures might lead to glyco-
gen depletion and subsequently reduced lactate pro-
duction during performance testing.[36] Thus, the
collective evidence suggests that isolated hy-
pohydration does not directly alter lactate kinetics or
carbohydrate metabolism. Further research is re-
quired to ascertain the effects of hypohydration on
lipid and protein metabolism during exercise, but
these factors appear unlikely to cause decrements in
high-intensity muscular performance.
3.3 Buffering Mechanisms
A third hypothesis proposes that hydration state
affects the acid-base balance of the body. Optimal
cellular functioning requires maintenance of appro-
priate internal pH, causing several researchers to
suggest that hydration influences performance by
reducing buffer capacity.[13,14,97] Actual evidence ex-
amining muscle and blood, however, demonstrated
no hypohydration-induced changes of internal
pH[69,80] and bicarbonate[82] after exercise; therefore,
acid-base balance is unlikely to represent the mecha-
nism for hypohydration.
3.4 Neuromuscular Mechanisms
The three previous mechanisms (cardiovascular,
metabolic and buffering) appear insufficient to ex-
Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)
Hydration and Muscle Performance
plain the effects of hydration on strength, power and
high-intensity endurance, leaving a fourth possibili-
ty, as stated by Coyle and Hamilton:[24]
“It is unlikely that moderate reductions in muscle
water alter force generation capability or energy
production when maximally stimulated. It is more
likely that the infrequently reported reductions in
strength following hypohydration are due to a di-
minished ability of the central nervous system to
recruit motor units”.
Many others similarly claimed that the loss of
total body water affects some component of the
neuromuscular system.[14,36,42,43,45,52,53,75,81,83] Unfor-
This material is
tunately, very little scientific evidence evaluates
these hypotheses. Electromyographic data collected
during maximal contractions are limited and incon-
clusive,[33,75,79,82] and research examining the effect
of hypohydration on muscle membrane excitability
the copyright of the
clearly argues against this hypothesis.[100,101] Al-
though altered neuromuscular function is an appeal-
ing hypothesis, the literature currently lacks a well
designed study evaluating the effect of hydration
state on a sensitive marker of central drive (e.g.
original publisher.
twitch interpolation or central activation ratio). Until
this gap in the literature is filled, the importance of
neuromuscular alterations in mediating hypohydra-
tion-induced decrements of muscle function cannot
be accurately assessed.
Unauthorised copying
4. Conclusions
When the masking and exacerbating influences
and distribution
of dehydration procedure, test selection and subject
population have been accounted for, hypohydration
appears to negatively influence muscular strength,
power and high-intensity endurance. After consider-
ing the important external factors, future research
is prohibited.
should aim to elucidate the magnitude of hy-
pohydration effects, to clarify the mechanism of
these effects, and explore interrelationships with key
modulators such as the degree of hypohydration and
mode of dehydration. Although further work re-
mains to be completed, this critical review of the
available literature suggests hypohydration is an
important factor to consider when attempting to
maximise muscular performance in athletic, military
and industrial settings.
 2007 Adis Data Information BV. All rights reserved.
919
Acknowledgements
No funding sources were used in the preparation of this
manuscript. Douglas J. Casa serves on the Board of Advisors,
has received grant funding and honoraria from Gatorade and
has received honoraria from Camelbak, Inc. The authors wish
to thank Dr Sinclair A. Smith for his exceptional helpfulness
and Dr Barry A. Spiering for editorial contributions.
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Correspondence: Dr Daniel A. Judelson, Department of Ki-
nesiology, California State University, 800 North State Col-
lege Boulevard, Fullerton, CA 92887, USA.
E-mail: djudelson@fullerton.edu
Sports Med 2007; 37 (10)