Rizal Technological University

Pasig Campus

Research in Electrical Engineering

Anore, James Ivan B.

Name

PCEIT-09-FS014E/Tuesday/3:00pm-6:00pm
Section/Schedule

Godefredo Calzado
Professor
 Table of Content

The Introduction of Maxwell’s Theorem………………………………………………………………………………..….

3

Maxwell Circulating Current Theorem: ……….……………………………………………………………………….….. 3

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law…………………………………..…………………………………………………………………..….…

3

Application of Maxwell circulating current theorem……………………………………………………………….

………………………………………………………………….. 4

Mesh Current Analysis ………...……………………………………………………………………………………………….... 5

Mesh Current Analysis Summary………………………………….……………………………………………..…………. 7

Nodal Voltage Analysis…………………………………………………………………………………………………...……... 7

Method for Node Voltage Calculation……………………………………………………………………….……………. 8

Node Voltage Rules ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……10

Example of Node Voltage Method …………………………………………………………………………………..…...10

Summary ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…...12

Nodal Analysis in Electric Circuits …………………………………………………………………………….…………..13

Types of Nodes in Nodal Analysis……………………………………………………………………………………….. 13

Types of Reference Nodes …………………………………………………………………………………………..………..13

Solving of Circuit Using Nodal Analysis ……………………………………………………………………...………….14

Bibliography …………………………………………………………………………………………..………………………………. 16

2
The Introduction of Maxwell’s Theorem

Maxwell's reciprocal theorem is named after James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish scientist in the
field of mathematical physics. The theorem is the most important and fundamental theorem
based directly on the principle of conservation of energy and the principle of superposition.

Maxwell Circulating Current Theorem:

If a network with several sources has more than two nodes, the current in it may be determined
by Maxwell circulating current theorem. This is one of the most universal methods for solving
networks. This theorem is applied for solution of networks having more than two terminals. For
applying this method of solution to a complicated network is divided into meshes or closed
circuits and in each mesh a separate current is assumed to circulate.

This theorem involves representing a current that is assumed to circulate around a closed loop
by a curved arrow and labelling the arrow with its identifying current symbol I with a subscript.

By this theorem the current flowing through the branch common to two meshes will be equal to
the algebraic sum of the two loop currents flowing through it. The direction of any loop current
may be taken either as clockwise or counter-clockwise but for systematic solution the directions
of all loop currents are assumed to be the same (say clockwise).

Then Kirchhoff’s second law is applied to each mesh and algebraic equations are obtained. The
total number of independent equations is equal to the number of meshes (i.e. there are fewer
equations than in a purely Kirchhoffian solution). Therefore, they can be solved as simultaneous
equations to give the circulating currents and then the branch currents. Thus, this method
eliminates a great deal of tedious calculation work involved in the branch current method.

Kirchhoff's Voltage Law

In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchhoff developed a pair or set of rules or laws which deal
with the conservation of current and energy within electrical circuits. These two rules are
commonly known as: Kirchhoffs Circuit Laws with one of Kirchhoffs laws dealing with the current
flowing around a closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the
voltage sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchhoffs Voltage Law, (KVL).

Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the direction of all the
voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back to the same starting point. It is

3
important to maintain the same direction either clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage
sum will not be equal to zero. We can use Kirchhoff’s voltage law when analysing series circuits.

Application of Maxwell circulating current theorem:

Example 1:

Solve the network shown in Fig. 2.65 by mesh current method.

Solution:

The network is redrawn, as illustrated in Fig.

2.66. There are two independent loops. The
loop currents have been taken clockwise, as
marked in the circuit diagram. The individual
branch currents along with their directions of
flow are also shown in the circuit diagram.

4
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law to meshes I and II we have:

Mesh Current Analysis

An easier method of solving the above circuit is by using Mesh Current Analysis or Loop Analysis
which is also sometimes called Maxwell´s Circulating Currents method. Instead of labelling the
branch currents we need to label each “closed loop” with a circulating current.

As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise direction with circulating
currents as the aim is to cover all the elements of the circuit at least once. Any required branch
current may be found from the appropriate loop or mesh currents as before using Kirchhoff´s
method.

5
For example: : i1 = I1 , i2 = -I2 and I3 = I1 – I2

We now write Kirchhoff’s voltage law equation in the same way as before to solve them but the
advantage of this method is that it ensures that the information obtained from the circuit
equations is the minimum required to solve the circuit as the information is more general and
can easily be put into a matrix form.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.

These equations can be solved quite quickly by using a single mesh impedance matrix Z. Each
element ON the principal diagonal will be “positive” and is the total impedance of each mesh.
Whereas, each element OFF the principal diagonal will either be “zero” or “negative” and
represents the circuit element connecting all the appropriate meshes.
First we need to understand that when dealing with matrices, for the division of two matrices it
is the same as multiplying one matrix by the inverse of the other as shown.having found the
inverse of R, as V/R is the same as V x R-1, we can now use it to find the two circulating currents.

Where:

6
 [ V ] gives the total battery voltage for loop 1 and then loop 2
[ I ] states the names of the loop currents which we are trying to find
[ R ] is the resistance matrix
[ R-1 ] is the inverse of the [ R ] matrix

and this gives I1 as -0.143 Amps and I2 as -0.429 Amps

As : I3 = I1 – I2
The combined current of I3 is therefore given as : -0.143 – (-0.429) = 0.286 Amps
This is the same value of 0.286 amps current, we found previously in the Kirchhoffs circuit law
tutorial.

Mesh Current Analysis Summary

This “look-see” method of circuit analysis is probably the best of all the circuit analysis methods
with the basic procedure for solving Mesh Current Analysis equations is as follows:

1. Label all the internal loops with circulating currents. (I1, I2, …IL etc)
2. Write the [ L x 1 ] column matrix [ V ] giving the sum of all voltage sources in
each loop.
3. Write the [ L x L ] matrix, [ R ] for all the resistances in the circuit as follows:
R11 = the total resistance in the first loop.
Rnn = the total resistance in the Nth loop.
RJK = the resistance which directly joins loop J to Loop K.
4. Write the matrix or vector equation [V] = [R] x [I] where [I] is the list of
currents to be found.

Nodal Voltage Analysis

Nodal Voltage Analysis finds the unknown voltage drops around a circuit between different
nodes that provide a common connection for two or more circuit components it solves for
unknown voltages at circuit nodes in terms of a system of KCL equations. This analysis looks
strange because it involves replacing voltage sources with equivalent current sources. Also,
resistor values in ohms are replaced by equivalent conductances in siemens, G = 1/R. The
siemens (S) is the unit of conductance, having replaced the mho unit. In any event S = Ω-1. And S
= mho (obsolete).

Method for Node Voltage Calculation

We start with a circuit having conventional voltage sources. A common node E0 is chosen as a
reference point. The node voltages E1 and E2 are calculated with respect to this point.

7
Replacing voltage sources and associated series resistors with equivalent current sources and
parallel resistors yields the modified circuit. Substitute resistor conductances in siemens for
resistance in ohms.

I1 = E1/R1 = 10/2 = 5 A
I2 = E2/R5 = 4/1 = 4 A
G1 = 1/R1 = 1/2 Ω = 0.5 S
G2 = 1/R2 = 1/4 Ω = 0.25 S
G3 = 1/R3 = 1/2.5 Ω = 0.4 S
G4 = 1/R4 = 1/5 Ω = 0.2 S
G5 = 1/R5 = 1/1 Ω = 1.0 S

8
The parallel conductances (resistors) may be combined by the addition of the conductances.
Though, we will not redraw the circuit. The circuit is ready for the application of the node
voltage method.

GA = G1 + G2 = 0.5 S + 0.25 S = 0.75 S

GB = G4 + G5 = 0.2 S + 1 S = 1.2 S

Deriving a general node voltage method, we write a pair of KCL equations in terms of unknown
node voltages V1 and V2 this one time. We do this to illustrate a pattern for writing equations by
inspection.

GAE1 + G3(E1 - E2) = I1 (1)

GBE2 - G3(E1 - E2) = I2 (2)
(GA + G3 )E1 -G3E2 = I1 (1)
-G3E1 + (GB + G3)E2 = I2 (2)

The coefficients of the last pair of equations above have been rearranged to show a pattern. The
sum of conductances connected to the first node is the positive coefficient of the first voltage in
equation (1). The sum of conductances connected to the second node is the positive coefficient
of the second voltage in equation (2). The other coefficients are negative, representing
conductances between nodes. For both equations, the right-hand side is equal to the respective
current source connected to the node. This pattern allows us to quickly write the equations by
inspection. This leads to a set of rules for the node voltage method of analysis.

Node Voltage Rules:

9
 ● Convert voltage sources in series with a resistor to an equivalent current source
with the resistor in parallel.
● Change resistor values to conductances.
● Select a reference node(E0)
● Assign unknown voltages (E1)(E2) ... (EN)to the remaining nodes.
● Write a KCL equation for each node 1,2, ... N. The positive coefficient of the first
voltage in the first equation is the sum of conductances connected to the node.
The coefficient for the second voltage in the second equation is the sum of
conductances connected to that node. Repeat for the coefficient of third voltage,
third equation, and other equations. These coefficients fall on a diagonal.
● All other coefficients for all equations are negative, representing conductances
between nodes. The first equation, the second coefficient is the conductance from
node 1 to node 2, the third coefficient is the conductance from node 1 to node 3.
Fill in negative coefficients for other equations.
● The right-hand side of the equations is the current source connected to the
respective nodes.
● Solve the system of equations for unknown node voltages.

Example of Node Voltage Method

Example: Set up the equations and solve for the node voltages using the numerical values in the
above figure.

Solution:

(0.5+0.25+0.4)E1 -(0.4)E2= 5
-(0.4)E1 +(0.4+0.2+1.0)E2 = -4
(1.15)E1 -(0.4)E2= 5
-(0.4)E1 +(1.6)E2 = -4
E1 = 3.8095
E2 = -1.5476

The solution of two equations can be performed with a calculator, or with an octave (not
shown). The solution is verified with SPICE based on the original schematic diagram with voltage
sources. Though, the circuit with the current sources could have been simulated.

V1 11 0 DC 10
V2 22 0 DC -4
r1 11 1 2
r2 1 0 4
r3 1 2 2.5
r4 2 0 5
r5 2 22 1

10
 .DC V1 10 10 1 V2 -4 -4 1
.print DC V(1) V(2)
.end

v(1) v(2)
3.809524e+00 -1.547619e+00

One more example. This one has three nodes. We do not list the conductances on the schematic
diagram. However, G1 = 1/R1, etc.

There are three nodes to write equations for by inspection. Note that the coefficients are
positive for equation (1) E1, equation (2) E2, and equation (3) E3. These are the sums of all
conductances connected to the nodes. All other coefficients are negative, representing a
conductance between nodes. The right-hand side of the equations is the associated current
source, 0.136092 A for the only current source at node 1. The other equations are zero on the
right-hand side for a lack of current sources. We are too lazy to calculate the conductances for
the resistors on the diagram. Thus, the subscripted G’s are the coefficients.

(G1 + G2)E1 -G1E2 -G2E3 = 0.136092

-G1E1 +(G1 + G3 + G4)E2 -G3E3 = 0
-G2E1 -G3E2 +(G2 + G3 + G5)E3 = 0

We are so lazy that we enter reciprocal resistances and sums of reciprocal resistances into the
octave “A” matrix, letting octave compute the matrix of conductances after “A=”. The initial
entry line was so long that it was split into three rows. This is different than previous examples.
The entered “A” matrix is delineated by starting and ending square brackets. Column elements
are space-separated. Rows are “new line” separated. Commas and semicolons are not needed

11
as separators. Though, the current vector at “b” is semicolon-separated to yield a column vector
of currents.

octave:12> A = [1/150+1/50 -1/150 -1/50

> -1/150 1/150+1/100+1/300 -1/100
> -1/50 -1/100 1/50+1/100+1/250]
A=
0.0266667 -0.0066667 -0.0200000
-0.0066667 0.0200000 -0.0100000
-0.0200000 -0.0100000 0.0340000

octave:13> b = [0.136092;0;0]
b=
0.13609
0.00000
0.00000

octave:14> x=A\b
x=
24.000
17.655
19.310

Note that the “A” matrix diagonal coefficients are positive, That all other coefficients are
negative.

The solution as a voltage vector is at “x”. E1 = 24.000 V, E2 = 17.655 V, E3 = 19.310 V. These

three voltages compare to the previous mesh current and SPICE solutions to the unbalanced
bridge problem. This is no coincidence, for the 0.13609 A current source was purposely chosen
to yield the 24 V used as a voltage source in that problem.

Summary

● Given a network of conductances and current sources, the node voltage method of
circuit analysis solves for unknown node voltages from KCL equations.
● See the rules above for details in writing the equations by inspection.
● The unit of conductance G is the siemens S. Conductance is the reciprocal of
resistance: G = 1/R

Nodal Analysis in Electric Circuits

Nodal analysis is a method that provides a general procedure for analyzing circuits using node voltages as
the circuit variables. Nodal Analysis is also called the Node-Voltage Method.

12
Some Features of Nodal Analysis are as

● Nodal Analysis is based on the application of the Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
● Having ‘n’ nodes there will be ‘n-1’ simultaneous equations to solve.
● Solving ‘n-1’ equations all the nodes voltages can be obtained.
● The number of non reference nodes is equal to the number of Nodal equations that can
be obtained.

Types of Nodes in Nodal Analysis

● Non Reference Node – It is a node which has a definite Node Voltage. e.g. Here Node 1
and Node 2 are the Non Reference nodes
● Reference Node – It is a node which acts as a reference point to all the other nodes. It is
also called the Datum Node.

Types of Reference Nodes

1. Chassis Ground – This type of reference node acts a common node for more than one
circuit.

2. Earth Ground – When earth potential is used as a reference in any circuit then this type
of reference node is called Earth Ground.

Solving of Circuit Using Nodal Analysis

Basic Steps Used in Nodal Analysis

13
 1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages V1, V2… Vn-1 to the remaining
nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the reference node.
2. Apply KCL to each of the non reference nodes.
3. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in terms of node voltages.

Node Always assumes that current flows from a higher potential to a lower potential in the resistor.
Hence, current is expressed as follows:

IV. After the application of Ohm’s Law, get the ‘n-1’ node equations in terms of node voltages and
resistances.

V. Solve ‘n-1’ node equations for the values of node voltages and get the required node Voltages as result.

14
Bibliography

● https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_5.html

● https://www.engineeringenotes.com/electrical-engineering/circuits/determining-the-
current-flowing-in-a-circuit-electrical-engineering/27450

● https://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_4.html

● https://www.tutorhelpdesk.com/homeworkhelp/Engineering-/Maxwell-Circulating-
Current-Theorem-Assignment-Help.html

● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_theorem

15
● https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell

● https://books.google.com.ph/books?id=I9l7EQNpM3IC&pg

● ttps://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/dccircuits/dcp_6.html

● https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/node-voltage-
method/

● https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-10/node-voltage-
method/

16