ABPK2203 Perception and Emotion Module PDF

Faculty of Applied Social Sciences
ABPK2203
Perception and Emotion
Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

ABPK2203
PERCEPTION
AND EMOTION
Asha Angela Bogenfurst

Project Directors: Prof Dato’ Dr Mansor Fadzil
Assoc Prof Dr Mohd Yusuf Ahmad
Open University Malaysia
Module Writer: Asha Angela Bogenfurst
Moderator: Matilda Xavier
Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

Open University Malaysia
First Edition, August 2010

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), December 2011, ABPK2203
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without the written permission of the President, Open University Malaysia (OUM).
Copyright © Open
Copyright Open University
University Malaysia
Malaysia (OUM)
(OUM)
Table of Contents
Course Guide ixă xii
Topic 1 Introduction to Perception 1

1.1 The Perceptual Process 2
1.2 Why Study Perception? 7
1.2.1 Practical Reasons for Studying Perception 7
1.2.2 Perception and Pleasure 7
1.2.3 Perception and Intellectual Curiosity 7
1.3 The Psychophysics in Perception 8
1.4 Approaches to the Study of Perception 10
1.4.1 Psychological Approaches 10
1.4.2 Biological Approaches 11
Summary 12
Key Terms 13
References 13
Topic 2 Visual Perception 14

2.1 The Visual System 15
2.2 From Eye to Brain 18
2.3 Colour Vision 19
2.3.1 The Trichromatic Theory 20
2.3.2 The Opponent-process Theory 21
2.4 Visual Perception and Emotion 22
Summary 24
Key Terms 24
References 25
Topic 3 Perceptual Organisation 26

3.1 Basic Perceptual Organisation 27
3.2 Attentional Processes 28
3.3 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation 29
3.3.1 Figure-ground Distinctions 29
3.3.2 Grouping 30
3.4 Higher Perceptual Organisation 33
Summary 36
Key Terms 37
References 37

iv X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 4 Depth Perception and Perceptual Constancy 38

4.1 Depth Perception 39
4.1.1 Binocular Cues 40
4.1.2 Monocular Cues 41
4.2 Motion Perception 42
4.2.1 Motion After-effects 43
4.2.2 The Ponzo Illusion 44
4.3 Perceptual Constancies 44
4.3.1 Size Constancy 45
4.3.2 Shape Constancy 46
4.3.3 Brightness Constancy 46
4.4 Perceptual Illusions 46
Summary 48
Key Terms 48
References 49
Topic 5 Auditory Perception 50

5.1 The Auditory System 51
5.1.1 Parts of the Ear 51
5.1.2 Process of Hearing 53
5.1.3 The Orienting Sense 53
5.2 Sound 54
5.2.1 Classifications of Sounds 56
5.2.2 Theories of Pitch 57
5.2.3 Locating Sound 58
5.3 Auditory Perception 59
Summary 60
Key Terms 61
References 61
Topic 6 The Skin Senses and Perception of Pain 62

6.1 The Skin 63
6.2 Touch 65
6.3 Perception of Pain 67
6.4 Theory of Pain 69
Summary 70
Key Terms 71
References 71
Topic 7 Taste Perception 72

7.1 Anatomy of Taste 73
7.2 Qualities of Taste 74
7.3 Taste Perception 76

TABLE OF CONTENTS W v
7.3.1 Taste Adaptation 76

7.3.2 Taste Interaction 77
7.3.3 Taste Preferences 77
Summary 79
Key Terms 80
References 80
Topic 8 Smell Perception 82

8.1 The Olfactory System 83
8.1.1 How Do We Smell? 85
8.1.2 What is Odour? 86
8.2 Smell Perception 87
8.2.1 Odour Preferences 87
8.2.3 Odour, Memory and Emotion 88
Summary 89
Key Terms 89
References 90
Topic 9 The Nature of Emotions 91

9.1 Emotion 92
9.1.1 Emotion Versus Mood, Personality, Temperament
and Disposition 93
9.1.2 Historical and Philosophical Foundations of
Emotion 94
9.2 Theories of Emotion 97
Summary 100
Key Terms 101
References 101
Topic 10 Emotions: Functions and Causes 102

10.1 Functions of Emotions 102
10.2 Causes of Emotions 103
10.2.1 Biological Approach 103
10.2.2 Cognitive Approach 104
10.3 Types of Emotions 105
10.3.1 PlutchikÊs Wheel of Emotions 106
10.3.2 Basic Emotions 108
Summary 109
Key Terms 110
References 110

vi X TABLE OF CONTENTS
Topic 11 Aspects of Emotion 111

11.1 Biological Aspect of Emotion 111
11.1.1 The Autonomic Nervous System 112
11.1.2 Discovering the Neural Circuits of Emotions 114
11.2 Cognitive Aspect of Emotion 117
11.3 Social & Cultural Aspects of Emotion 118
11.3.1 Cross-cultural Approaches 120
Summary 121
Key Terms 121
Referenes 121
Topic 12 Emotional Intelligence 123

12.1 A Brief History of Emotional Intelligence 124
12.2 What is Emotional Intelligence? 125
12.2.1 Salovey and MayorÊs Definition of Emotional
Intelligence 126
12.2.2 GolemanÊs Definition of Emotional Intelligence 128
12.2.3 Functions of Emotional Intelligence 130
Summary 131
Key Terms 131
References 131

COURSE GUIDE

ii X PANDUAN KURSUS

COURSE GUIDE W ix
COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells
you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through
the course material. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in
order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to Course
Guide as you go through the course material as it will help you to clarify
important study components or points that you might miss or overlook.
INTRODUCTION
ABPK2203 Perception and Emotion is one of the courses offered by Faculty of
Applied Social Sciences at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is
worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks.
COURSE AUDIENCE
This course is offered to all students taking the Bachelor of Psychology
programme. This module aims to impart the fundamentals of perception and
emotion.
As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and
optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin
this course, please confirm the course material, the course requirements and how
the course is conducted.
STUDY SCHEDULE
It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every
credit hour. As such, for a three-credit hour course, you are expected to spend
120 study hours. Table 1 gives an estimation of how the 120 study hours could be
accumulated.

x X COURSE GUIDE
Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours
STUDY
STUDY ACTIVITIES
HOURS
Briefly go through the course content and participate in
3
initial discussions
Study the module 60
Attend 3 to 5 tutorial sessions 10
Online Participation 12
Revision 15
Assignment(s), Test(s) and Examination(s) 20
TOTAL STUDY HOURS 120
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this course, you should be able to:
1. Explain the fundamental principles of perception;
2. Explain how perception relates to the five senses (sight, hearing, smell,
taste, and touch); and
3. Discuss the nature of emotion and its dynamics.
COURSE SYNOPSIS
This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic can be listed as
follows:
Topic 1 introduces the concept of perception.
Topic 2 discusses visual perception in detail.
Topic 3 discusses perceptual organisation in detail.
Topic 4 discusses depth perception and perceptual constancy in detail.
Topic 5 discusses auditory perception in detail.
Topic 6 discusses the skin senses and the perception of pain in detail.

COURSE GUIDE W xi
Topic 7 discusses taste perception in detail.
Topic 8 discusses smell perception in detail.
Topic 9 discusses the nature of emotions in detail.
Topic 10 discusses the functions and causes of emotions in detail.
Topic 11 discusses aspects of emotion in detail.
Topic 12 discusses emotional intelligence in detail.
TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text
arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your
study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text
arrangement for each topic is as follows:
Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you
have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should
frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously
gauge your understanding of the topic.
Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

throughout the module. It may be inserted after one sub-section or a few sub-
sections. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this
component, try to reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting
to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have
understood the sub-section(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can
be found directly from the module itself.
Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you
to solve questions, explore short case studies, or conduct an observation or
research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come
across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the
module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage
yourself in higher order thinking where you might be required to analyse,
synthesise and evaluate instead of only having to recall and define.

xii COURSE GUIDE
Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. This component
helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should
be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the
summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to
revisit the details in the module.
Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go
through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used
throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to
explain, you should look for the terms in the module.
References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents or sources can be found. The list
can appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (at the References
section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are
encouraged to read or refer to the suggested sources to obtain the additional
information needed and to enhance your overall understanding of the course.
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE
No prior knowledge required.
ASSESSMENT METHOD
Please refer to myINSPIRE.
REFERENCES
Gescheider, G.A. (1997). Psychophysics: The fundamentals. Mahwah, New
Jersey: Lawrence Ehrlbaum Associates.
Goldstein, E.B. (2007). Sensation and perception. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thomson Higher Education.
Sekuler, R. & Blake, R. (1994). Perception. New York: McGraw Hill.
Copyright © Open
Copyright Open University
University Malaysia
Malaysia (OUM)
(OUM)
Topic X Introduction
1 to Perception
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1. Define perception;
2. Describe the perceptual process;
3. Discuss reasons for studying perception;
4. Explain psychophysics; and
5. Describe the different approaches to the study of perception.
X INTRODUCTION
This is a real-life incident about perception and emotion, which happened a few
years ago while I was studying in Germany. One hot summer day, my course
mate and I went to a café for some ice cream. The waitress that took our order
was an old German lady who did not speak English. Both of us, being foreigners
with little knowledge of the German language, struggled to communicate with
her; in the end, we managed somehow. The waitress returned with our ice cream
of choice, but she was rather grumpy and impatient while serving us. All of a
sudden, my course mate started screaming at the waitress and accusing her of
being a racist. I was rather shocked; I had not thought that the waitressÊ
unpleasant attitude towards us had been because she was racist. I assumed she
was just a grumpy old lady who was probably not having a good day. My course
mate and I both experienced the same situation, but we each perceived it very
differently and thus had very different reactions to the same situation. She was
really angry and hurt, while I was mildly irritated. Essentially, the message of
this story is that our reactions to a situation are the result of the way in which we
perceive the situation. Why does one person perceive a situation differently from
another? There are many possible factors; to name a few ă past experiences, oneÊs

2 X TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO PERCEPTION
culture, belief system and values. We will be exploring issues such as these and
much more throughout this module.
In this topic, we will learn about:

(a) The perceptual process;
(b) The psychophysics in perception; and
(c) Approaches to the study of perception.
1.1 THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

Perception can be defined as the process of making meaning out of sensory
information. Our brain is a complex organ that is constantly analysing and
interpreting situations. Any information that we receive through our five
senses (sight, sound, smell, taste and touch) is sent to our brain to be
interpreted. Our brain recognises patterns that match previous experiences and
then uses that information to create perceptions. This is the process that allows
us to be aware of our environment and the world around us.
At one point in time, some people believed that it was possible to build machines
that had the ability to perceive. However, till now, technology has not advanced
enough for human beings to be able to build such a machine. Perceptual ability is
very much related to our brainÊs amazing yet often underappreciated ability to
recognise patterns. We do it every day with such ease that we take this ability for
granted. Most of the time, we are not even aware of this ability because our brain
does it automatically. For example, without our ability to recognise patterns, it
would be impossible for you to read this.
SELF-CHECK 1.1
Define perception.

TOPIC 1 INTRODUCTION TO PERCEPTION W 3
The steps in the perceptual process are arranged in a circle to highlight the fact
that the perceptual process is dynamic and continually changing (Goldstein,
2007). Figure 1.1 illustrates the perceptual process. The shaded arrows represent
stimuli; the white arrows represent processing; and the shaded arrows represent
perceptual responses. Arrows A, B, and C show three important relationships
that are usually investigated when studying the perceptual process ă that is the
relationship between stimuli, processing and perceptual responses.
Figure 1.1: The perceptual process

Source: www.usm.edu/neurolab/Webpage%20Images/chapter1a/chapter1.ppt
SELF-CHECK 1.2
What are the three important relationships that are usually investigated
when exploring the perceptual process?
The following picture story will hopefully make the perceptual process even
clearer for you to understand.

Let us take an adventure into the woods and I will explain to you through these
and the following pictures of the entire perceptual process. Here, the
environmental stimulus refers to everything in the woods. The attended
stimulus, the moth on the tree, is the focus of EllenÊs attention (please refer to
Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2: Selection of stimuli

It is important to realise that we do not always attend to everything that goes on

around us. We tend to be selective in our attention towards stimuli that interest
us. Hence, we select the stimuli that we would like to focus our attention on. For
example, imagine you are standing at the side of the road talking to your friend;
you choose to hear the sound of your friendÊs voice over the sound of the passing
traffic. This is called selective hearing.

Figure 1.3 illustrates the steps taken in processing the stimuli that has been
previously selected. First, an image of the moth forms on EllenÊs retina. Then, the
receptors create electrical energy in response to the light. This is called
transduction. Finally, networks of neurons process this electrical energy into
information (Goldstein, 2007).
Figure 1.3: Processing

Figure 1.4 describes the final stage in the perceptual process ă the stage where we
are finally able to attach meaning to the stimuli. First, Ellen perceives something
on the tree. Then, she recognises that it is a moth. She decides to walk towards
the tree to take a look at the moth (Goldstein, 2007).

Figure 1.4: Perceptual responses

Perception is an interplay of interaction between bottom-up and top-down

processing. Bottom-up processing refers to the recognition and processing of
individual components of a stimulus, while top-down processing refers to
perception that is guided by knowledge, experience, expectations and
motivations. In the example shown in Figure 1.5, (a) bottom-up processing starts
when the image of the moth is formed on EllenÊs retina and (b) top-down
processing starts when EllenÊs prior knowledge of moths is activated (Goldstein,
2007).
Figure 1.5: Bottom-up and top-down processing

SELF-CHECK 1.3
Describe the perceptual process.
1.2 WHY STUDY PERCEPTION?

People from all walks of life have studied perception for a variety of reasons.
Philosophers, psychologists and physiologists have all been interested in this
very subject. Some of these reasons, as you will see, stem from practical
considerations, such as the need to solve a particular problem. Other reasons
arise simply from intellectual curiosity about ourselves and the world we live in.
1.2.1 Practical Reasons for Studying Perception

The study of perception has made it possible for scientists to design more
effective aids for people who have impaired hearing or sight. For example, most
hearing aids not only amplify the desired sounds that the user wants to hear,
such as people speaking, but also amplify other undesired sounds such as traffic
noise (Sekuler and Blake, 1994). However, through the study of the mechanisms
of normal perception, it is now possible to have a hearing aid that selectively
amplifies only the particular desired sounds much like our ears do.
People in the advertising and public relations fields are also very interested in the
study of human perception. In these fields, research on human perception is used
to market goods and services to consumers in a way that is appealing and
attention grabbing. For example, research has suggested that food and beverage
that is blue in colour is not appealing to most people but that the colour red is
attention grabbing.
1.2.2 Perception and Pleasure

We have also learned how to use our senses and the perceptual process in
creative ways such as in visual arts, music and cuisine. Besides bringing pleasure
to us, the arts are also an essential part of our culture and traditions.

1.2.3 Perception and Intellectual Curiosity

Last but not least, people are interested in the study of perception because it
helps us understand and interact with the world around us more efficiently.
Understanding perception also gives us a certain amount of control over
situations and our emotions. We have all heard the common expression ă Is
your glass half empty or half full? There is usually always more than one way
for you to perceive any situation. It is up to you how you want to perceive it.
Figure 1.6 illustrates this point precisely.
Figure 1.6: Perception

Source: http://fatblog.freehealthupdates.com/wpcontent/uploads/2009/06/perception.jpg
1.3 THE PSYCHOPHYSICS IN PERCEPTION

In order to properly study perception, we need to have proper ways of
measuring it. How can we measure perception? Back in the 19th century, Gustav
Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) asked this same question. He also developed a
method for measuring sensation, called psychophysics. Fechner founded
psychophysics in an attempt to answer his questions about the relationship
between mind and body. Psychophysics originally meant the study of sensation
evoked by physical stimuli. As an example to illustrate the distinction between a
stimulus and a sensation, the amount of light reflected by this page is its
luminance, and can be measured with a light meter such as photographers use;
the sensation evoked by that reflected light is the experienced brightness of the
page, and may be deceptively related to the luminance, as photographers know
well. Essentially, psychophysics is defined as the scientific study of the
relationship between physical stimuli and the perceptual experiences they

generate (Gescheider, 1997).
Have you ever been in a situation where you had to strain your eyes to look at
something far away, and finally as you move towards the object, you reach a
point where you could just detect it, enough for you to be able to perceive what it
was? Well, this point of time when you could just detect the presence of or
difference in the object in your focus (stimulus) is called threshold. Threshold is a
concept central to psychophysics.
There are two types of thresholds: absolute and difference. Absolute threshold
can be defined as the smallest amount of stimulus energy necessary to produce a
sensation (Gescheider, 1997). For example, how loud does your mobile phone
have to ring in order for you to hear it in a quiet room? Difference threshold, on
the other hand, refers to the amount of difference between two stimuli with
differing intensities. For example, how different in pitch (high versus low tones)
does your mobile phone have to be in order for you to be able to differentiate
which phone is ringing? Generally, people are able to detect absolute threshold
and difference threshold 50% of the time.
Essentially, experiments in psychophysics attempt to measure perception by

observing whether the subject can detect a stimulus, identify it, differentiate
between it and another stimulus, and describe the magnitude and nature of this
difference (Gescheider, 1997). There are three main methods that are used in
classical psychophysics experiments:
(a) Method of limits;
(b) Method of constant stimuli; and
(c) Method of adjustment.
(a) Method of Limits

In this method, the stimuli is presented to the subject starting at a level so
low that it cannot be detected, then the intensity of the stimulus is adjusted
in small increasing steps (ascending order) until the subject reports that the
stimulus is just detectable. Then, the same steps are repeated in descending
order. Finally, the thresholds from the ascending and descending methods
are averaged. The problem with this method is that the subject may become
so used to reporting that they perceived the stimulus that they continue
doing so even long after the threshold has been reached. This is called the
error of habituation.

(b) Method of Constant Stimuli

The only difference in this method is that the stimuli are presented to the
subjects randomly instead of in ascending or descending order to prevent
the error of habituation from occurring.
(c) Method of Adjustment

In this method, the subject is instructed to control and manipulate the level
of the stimulus until it is just detectable against some background noise or
until it is at the same level as another stimulus present (Gescheider, 1997).
Apart from psychophysics, there are also other methods of measuring

perception. This will be discussed in the following section.
1.4 APPROACHES TO THE STUDY OF

PERCEPTION
The study of perception requires us to use the combined knowledge of various
sciences, such as biology and physics, to fully understand the perceptual process.
These disciplines use different levels of analysis. For example, the level of
analysis from a physiological level would capitalise on information gained from
physiological processes in the body. The two main approaches to the study of
perception that we will explore are the psychological and biological approaches.
It is essential for us to know these different approaches to the study of perception
in order to have a more holistic understanding of perception.
1.4.1 Psychological Approaches

Most, if not all psychological approaches use behavioural reaction to stimuli as a
way to study perception. For example, instructing the subject to press the white
or black button as a response to a certain stimulus (whenever the subject is
presented with the colour blue or yellow). The way in which these psychological
approaches differ from each other is in the type of behavioural reaction that is
used (Sekuler and Blake, 1994). At the moment, we will not go into detail about
the techniques for studying perception. Instead, let us analyse the methods on a
more general level.
(a) Naturalistic Approach

This approach relies on experiences that are obtained through events that
occur naturally. In order to study perception using this method, you have
to first collect and organise your experiences, then discuss your perceptual

experiences with somebody. The problem with this method is that verbal
reports can be inaccurate and thus misleading.
(b) Experimental Approach

The experimental approach allows one to control and manipulate the
stimuli in an experimental setting. It does not rely on naturally occurring
events as the desired events may not always come your way or it may not
follow the sequence that you want.
The psychological approach is no doubt useful in the study of perception, but it

fails to answer questions about the activities taking place in our brain (Sekuler
and Blake, 1994). Therefore, we move on to another approach that may be helpful
in answering those questions.
1.4.2 Biological Approaches

It is essential to understand the connection between brain activity and
perception. The biological approach attempts to do this by using various
methods such as lesion technique, evoked potential technique and brain-scan
techniques.
(a) Lesion Technique

First, a small area of the brain is destroyed by applying strong electrical
current or by surgically removing the particular region; then the changes in
perceptual functioning are measured (Sekuler and Blake, 1994). This is one
of the oldest biological methods for studying perception. However, it is not
the best method as causing a lesion in one area of the brain can sometimes
mean that another area of the brain may adopt the duty that was formerly a
function of the region of the brain that was destroyed.
(b) Evoked Potential Technique

This technique basically involves measuring brain activity by attaching
small electrodes to the subjectÊs scalp. A common strategy is to measure the
level of brain activity (which is termed evoked potential) to stimuli that are
barely detectable (Sekuler and Blake, 1994). For example, the subject is
instructed to press a button whenever he hears the sound of music slowly
disappearing. The brain activity evoked by the appearance and
disappearance of the sound of music could then be measured to see if it
coincides with the actual sound and pattern of the fading music. The
problem with this technique is that sometimes the level of brain activity is
not picked up by the electrodes. This may be because the neural signals are
too weak or the electrodes may have been placed in the wrong areas on the
subjectÊs scalp.
(c) Brain-scan Techniques

The most important brain-scan technique used for studying perception is
the PET (Positron Emission Tomography) scan. The advantage of this
technique is that it is non-invasive and it creates detailed pictures of the
human brain, which then can be used to reveal which part of the brain
contributes to a given perceptual ability (Sekuler and Blake, 1994).
SELF-CHECK 1.4
1. What are the techniques used by the psychological approaches for

studying perception?
2. What are the techniques used by the biological approaches for
studying perception?
• The perceptual process consists of three stages: selection, organisation and

interpretation. First, we select a stimulus through our senses. Then, we
process the stimulus. Finally, in the interpretation stage, we attach meaning
to the stimulus.
• Our interpretations are subjective and based on our values, needs, beliefs,
experiences, expectations, self-concept and other factors.
• People from all walks of life have studied perception for a variety of reasons.
Perception is worth studying for practical considerations as well as to satisfy
our intellectual curiosity.
• Psychophysics is the scientific study of the relationship between physical

stimuli and the perceptual experiences they generate (Gescheider, 1997).
• Essentially, experiments in psychophysics attempt to measure perception by

observing whether the subject can detect a stimulus, identify it, differentiate
between it and another stimulus and describe the magnitude and nature of
this difference (Gescheider, 1997). There are three main methods that are used
in classical psychophysics experiments: method of limits, method of constant
stimuli and method of adjustment.

• The psychological and biological approaches, among others, are essential for
developing a holistic understanding of perception.
Absolute threshold Perception

Bottom-up processing Psychophysics
Difference threshold Sensory information
Error of habituation Stimuli
Experimental approach Top-down processing
Naturalistic approach Transduction
Gescheider, G.A. (1997). Psychophysics: The fundamentals. Mahwah, New

Jersey: Lawrence Ehrlbaum Associates.
Goldstein, E.B. (2007). Sensation and perception. Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth/Thomson Higher Education.
Sekuler, R. & Blake, R. (1994). Perception. New York: McGraw Hill.

Topic X Visual
2 Perception
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain how the eye works;
2. Describe visual pathways;
3. Discuss two main theories that explain how we see colour; and
4. Elaborate on the way emotions impact our visual perception.
X INTRODUCTION
Let us explore the influence of visual perception with regards to Figure 2.1. What
do you see? There are two people in this picture. Can you find them both? You
should be able to see a young woman and an old lady. However, if you were not
aware of the fact that there are two people in this picture, there is a very high
chance that you would have seen only one person. This is a reminder to always
see the world in terms of possibilities. There is a world of possibilities before us;
we only have to open our eyes and perceive them.
Figure 2.1: Optical Illusion

Source: http://o.pticalillusions.com/old-lady-young-lady-illusion

TOPIC 2 VISUAL PERCEPTION W 15
The optical illusion above plays on our visual perception. Looking at Figure 2.1
from different angles will give you two entirely different pictures. For example, if
you stare at the necklace, you are more likely to see the old woman whereas, if
you stare at the nose, you are more likely to see the young woman.
In the first topic, we learned about the perceptual process. We also learned that
we perceive the world through our five senses: sight, sound, smell, taste and
touch. In this topic we will learn about how we perceive the world through sight.
More specifically, in this topic we will learn about:
(a) The visual system; and
(b) Colour vision (how we are able to see colour).
2.1 THE VISUAL SYSTEM

There are two main factors that enable us to see and perceive the world around
us: light and the visual system. The visual system depends on light to function.
Our visual system consists of three main parts: eyes, visual pathways and visual
centres of the brain. Our eyes capture light; the visual pathways (created mainly
by the optic nerve and optic chiasma) carry information from the eye to the brain;
and the visual centres of the brain interpret the information.
Figure 2.2: The visual system

Source: http://www.tsbvi.edu/images/visual-system.jpg
Figure 2.2 illustrates our visual system. Let me summarise briefly. Light enters
our eyes through the cornea and passes through the iris. The lens projects the
image onto the retina. The photoreceptor cells in the retina capture the light
(energy) and transform it into electrical impulses. The optic nerve carries this
16 X TOPIC 2 VISUAL PERCEPTION
information in the form of electrical impulses to the visual cortex in the brain to
be interpreted. The result is visual perception.
SELF-CHECK 2.1
What are the two main factors that enable us to see and perceive the
world around us?
To fully understand our visual system, we first have to learn about the
fundamental parts of the eye and their functions. Please refer to Figure 2.2 as you
go through the following descriptions:
(a) Cornea ă Transparent film that acts as a protective cover over the front part
of our eyes. The lens and the cornea both act together to refract light.
(b) Iris ă Coloured part of our eye which guards the amount of light that enters
through our eyes by controlling the size of the pupil.
(c) Pupil ă The „black spot‰ at the centre of the iris that allows light into the
eye. It looks black to us because the tissues inside the eye absorb most of the
light entering the pupil.
(d) Retina ă The inner surface of the eye where images of the visual world are
reflected.
(i) Photoreceptor cells
The retina contains hundreds of photoreceptors which when
stimulated by light (energy), send information in the form of electrical
impulses to the brain. There are two types of photoreceptors: rods and
cones. Rods help us to see in the dark. Cones make it possible to see
colours. Cones are less sensitive to light compared with rods, and
therefore operate mainly in daylight. Table 2.1 shows the differences
between rods and cones.
(ii) Fovea
The pit in the retina located at the centre of the macula, which allows
us to see the objects in our direct focus in great detail. This is because
the greatest density of cones is located in the fovea.

Table 2.1: Differences Between Rods And Cones
Rods Cones
Plentiful and found in the retina. Concentrated mainly in the fovea.
Activation occurs at a lower threshold. Activation occurs at a higher threshold.
Have lower sharpness. Have higher sharpness.
Rods do not process colour. Cones process colour.
Source: Davis and Palladino, 2000
Now that we know the fundamental parts of the eye and its functions, let me
explain to you briefly how our eye works.
Light first enters the eye through the cornea. Then, the light passes through our
pupil. When there is too much light or bright light, the muscles in our iris
contract in order to make the pupil smaller, thus preventing our eyes from
getting damaged (Tovee, 2008). On the other hand, when there is too little light
or dim light, the muscles in the iris are relaxed to make the pupil larger, and thus
allow more light into our eyes so that we can see better.
The light then moves through the lens, and is reflected on the retina. The image
that is reflected by the lens onto the retina is much like a mirror image in the
sense that it is upside down. Please refer to Figure 2.3 for a picture illustration.
The lens changes its shape in order to focus on objects that are far or close. When
we want to focus on an object that is close to us, the muscles in the lens contract
to make the lens rounder. On the other hand, when we want to focus on an object
that is far away, the muscles in the lens relax, and the lens becomes less rounded.
Any image that passes through the lens will be in sharpest focus at the fovea. The
words that you are reading now are focused on the fovea, while the rest of what
you see is focused on other parts of the retina (Morris and Maisto, 2001).

Figure 2.3: Image reflected by the lens onto the retina

Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb
2.2 FROM EYE TO BRAIN

So far we have only focused our attention on the eye; however, information from
the eye must travel to the brain in order for us to have a visual experience. Now,
we will learn how information from the eye travels to the brain.
Rods and cones are connected to neurons called bipolar cells. Bipolar cells are
connected with other bipolar cells, and eventually these bipolar cells are connected
to the ganglion cells. These ganglion cells join together to create the optic nerve,
which finally sends the information from the eye to the brain. The optic nerve is
basically made up of nerve fibres that stretch beyond the eye and then separate
when they reach a cross-over point at the optic chiasma, where the nerve fibres
from the right side of each eye are connected to the right hemisphere of the brain
and the nerve fibres from the left side of each eye are connected to the left
hemisphere of the brain (Morris and Maisto, 2001). Please refer to Figure 2.4 for a
picture illustration. This simply means that whatever we see from the right side of
each eye is processed in the right side of our brain, and whatever we see from the
left side of each eye is processed in the left side of our brain. The optic nerves carry
information to different areas of the brain. For example, some information from the
eye may be sent to the part of the brain which is responsible for reflex movements
that adjust the size of the pupil. However, most of the time the information from
the eye is sent to the occipital lobe to be interpreted and results in our visual
perception (Tovee, 2008).

Figure 2.4: Neural pathways from the eye to the brain

Source: http://media-2.web.britannica.com/eb-media/
ACTIVITY 2.1
To review what we have just learned, go to youtube.com and type „how
does vision work‰. Watch the video.
SELF-CHECK 2.2
Describe the visual pathways which carry information from the eye to
the brain.
2.3 COLOUR VISION

Imagine that you are somewhere far away from the city and bright lights. You
are sitting on the top of a hill in total darkness in anticipation of the sunrise.
What do you see? Nothing much probably. Perhaps the silhouette of some
objects close to you and some shades of grey. Then, as the sun comes up, you see
a marvellous transformation. You see colours starting to emerge where there had
been no colour earlier. Everything suddenly looks so alive. This is the magic of
colour. Colour makes our world beautiful. However, colour does not just make
everything prettier; it is important for us to see colour so that we can
discriminate between different objects and make quick judgments when

necessary. For example, at the traffic light, we have to be able to differentiate

between red, green and yellow, and make a judgment about our direction and
movement based on the colour of the traffic light.
Isaac Newton, one of the greatest geniuses to have ever lived, also studied light
and colour. Newton found that objects in themselves or light in itself does not
contain colour. Instead, colour is a subjective experience. Therefore, our world is
colourless; it is only through our eyes that we see colour. Most mammals and
humans have the ability to see a fairly wide range of colours. All primates,
humans included, are trichromats (able to see all colours). However, most
mammals are dichromats (able to see only red, green, blue and yellow).
Monochromats are completely colourblind (e.g. rodents such as mice and
hamsters) (Sekuler and Blake, 1994). There are several theories that have
attempted to explain how exactly we see colour.
SELF-CHECK 2.3
Define colour in your own words.
There are two main theories that explain how we see colour: the trichromatic
theory and the opponent-process theory. Both these theories complement each
other and are essential to our understanding of colour vision today.
2.3.1 The Trichromatic Theory

In the 19th century, Thomas Young and Hermann von Helmholtz proposed the
trichromatic theory. According to the trichromatic theory, we are able to see
colour because the retina contains some cones that are more sensitive to red,
while others capture green better and some cones are more responsive to blue.
The mixing of different signals from the three different kinds of cones allows us
to see a wide range of colours (Sekuler and Blake, 1994).
The basic idea behind the trichromatic theory is correct; however, today we have
a better understanding of how we see colour. Today, we know that there are
three different kinds of cones, which differ in terms of the pigments they contain.
Each of the three pigments absorbs different wavelengths of light (energy). By
combining the three different wavelengths of light in various combinations, we
are able to see the world in colour.

While the trichromatic theory can explain certain phenomena in colour vision
such as colourblindness, it fails to explain all colour vision experiences, for
example, afterimages (Sekuler and Blake, 1994). What are afterimages, you may
ask? Well, to find out, simply stare at Figure 2.5 for 30 seconds, then look at a
white wall or a white piece of paper, and you should be able to see the batman
logo. This is an afterimage.
Figure 2.5: Afterimage

Source: http://www.illusionking.com/batman-afterimage/
SELF-CHECK 2.4
1. What is the main criticism of the trichromatic theory?

2. How is what we know today different from what Young and
Helmholtz proposed in their trichromatic theory?
2.3.2 The Opponent-Process Theory

Later on, Ewald Hering proposed an alternative theory called the opponent-
process theory. The opponent-process theory suggests that our eye consists of
three pairs of colour receptors: a red-green pair that is responsible for the colour
you see, a black-white pair that evaluates the brightness of colours and finally a
yellow-blue pair. The members of each pair work against each other, meaning

that the yellow-blue pair cannot communicate information about yellow and blue
light at the same time. This explains why we never see yellowish-blue. (Morris
and Maisto, 2001). This theory also explains afterimages. Afterimages occur when
cones adapt from over stimulation.
Today, we know that the three types of cones earlier described by Hering
actually overlap each other in terms of the wavelengths of light that they respond
to. This is why we are unable to see reddish-green, for instance. The bipolar cells
and ganglion cells are also an important part of this process. They transform
information from the cones, and record the differences between the responses of
cones.
Taken together, the trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory can explain
almost all colour vision phenomena. Both the trichromatic theory and opponent-
process theory actually describe two different stages in the visual process (Morris
and Maisto, 2001).
SELF-CHECK 2.5
1. Explain in your own words how we see colour.

2. How do the trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory
relate to each other?
2.4 VISUAL PERCEPTION AND EMOTION

Have you ever heard the saying „to see the world through rose-tinted glasses‰?
This idiom refers to people who are generally optimistic. According to Schmitz,
De Rosa and Anderson (2009), this is more than just a saying. Schmitz, De Rosa
and Anderson (2009) found evidence that the way we feel is closely related to the
way we see things by moderating activity in the visual cortex. The hypothesis of
this study is that positive emotions broaden our view of the world, whereas,
negative emotions narrow our view of the world.
The subjects in the study were hooked up to a brain-scan imaging machine,

which recorded their visual cortical activity while they were shown various
images. The images shown were photographs of people with positive, negative
and neutral expressions. Every photograph was presented for two seconds each.
Then, following each photograph, the subjects were shown a composite image
consisting of a face at the centre surrounded by photographs of places or houses.
This was done in order to test the subjectsÊ field of vision, whether broad or

narrow. It was found that when photographs of people with positive expressions
were shown (inducing a positive mood in the subjects), the visual field of
subjectsÊ was increased. Whereas, when photographs of people with negative
expressions were shown (inducing a negative mood in the subjects), the visual
field of subjectsÊ was decreased. Therefore, it has now been proven that positive
emotions broaden our view of the world, whereas, negative emotions narrow our
view of the world.
According to evolutionary psychology, when we are in a negative mood, we tend

to focus our attention on specific details. This is called Âthe weapon focusÊ.
According to Kassin et al. (2001), it has been observed that 87 percent of the time,
a person who witnesses a crime involving a weapon usually does not remember
the face of the person using the weapon or any other detail in the crime scene;
instead they only remember the weapon. ÂThe weapon focusÊ while preventing
us from seeing the bigger picture, serves to increase our survival.
Hopefully these findings will serve as a reminder for us to have a positive

outlook, so that we can see the bigger picture. Most often we tend to focus our
attention on the details. However, when we are positive, we open ourselves up to
a broader view of the world, a world filled with possibilities. Have you ever had
a problem and had difficulty solving it? It is always more difficult to solve a
problem when we are in a negative emotional state because we cannot see very
much further than the details of the problem in our hands. However, if we try to
change our emotional state into a positive one, we will be able to see the bigger
picture, and thus solve the problem.
SELF-CHECK 2.6
What is the main finding of Schmitz, De Rosa and Anderson?
ACTIVITY 2.2
How can you apply what you have learned here in your life?

• There are two main factors that enable us to see and perceive the world
around us: light and the visual system.
• Our visual system consists of three main parts: eyes, visual pathways and
visual centres of the brain. Our eyes capture light; the visual pathways
(created mainly by the optic nerve and optic chiasma) carry information from
the eye to the brain; and the visual centres of the brain interpret the
information.
• According to the trichromatic theory, we are able to see colour because the
retina contains some cones that are more sensitive to red, others that capture
green better and some cones that are more responsive to blue.
• Both the trichromatic theory and opponent-process theory actually describe

two different stages in the visual process (Morris and Maisto, 2001).
• Positive emotions broaden our view of the world, whereas negative emotions
narrow our view of the world.
Afterimages Optic nerve

Bipolar cells Optic chiasma
Cones Photoreceptor cells
Cornea Pupil
Dichromats Retina
Fovea Rods
Iris Trichromatic theory
Lens Trichromats
Monochromats Visual cortex
Occipital lobe Weapon focus
Opponent-process theory

Kassin et al. (2001). On the "General Acceptance" of Eyewitness Testimony

Research: A New Survey of the Experts. 56 American Psychologist 405.
Morris, C.G. & Maisto, A.A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Schmitz, T. W., De Rosa, E., & Anderson, A. K. (2009). Opposing influences of
affective state valence on visual cortical encoding. The Journal of
neuroscience, 29, 7199-7207.
Sekuler, R. & Blake, R. (1994). Perception (3rd ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Tovee, M.J. (2008). An introduction to the visual system (2nd ed.). Cambridge
University Press.

Topic X Perceptual
3 Organisation
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain basic perceptual organisation;
2. Discuss attentional processes;
3. List Gestalt principles of perceptual organisation; and
4. Explain the processes involved in top-down processing (higher
perceptual organisation).
X INTRODUCTION
Our perceptions are mainly based on
information that our senses receive from the
environment. Therefore, perception is mainly
based on a collection of all the sensory data
from the environment. You can think of
perceptual organisation as fixing together a
jigsaw puzzle (please refer to Figure 3.1). All
the little jigsaw pieces are sensory data, and
the goal of perception is to organise all the

pieces to form one big picture.
Figure 3.1: Jigsaw puzzle
Source: puzzlemachine.com
In this topic, we are going to learn about the processes that put sensory
information together in a way that makes sense so that we are able to perceive
them as a coherent whole.

TOPIC 3 PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION W 27
Here is an example of perceptual organisation:
Arrange the following letters T H E D O G A T E M E A T to form a phrase. You

would most likely arrange the letters to spell „the dog ate meat‰ rather than „the
do gate me at‰. This process involves organisation, interpretation and discerning
meaning in what we perceive (Myers, 2002). This process is called perceptual
organisation.
The main contents of this topic are as follows:

(a) Basic processes of perceptual organisation (bottom-up processing); and
(b) Higher processes of perceptual organisation (top-down processing).
3.1 BASIC PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION

Basic perceptual organisation can be best described as all the processes involved
in bottom-up processing. We touched briefly on bottom-up and top-down
processing in Topic One. Now, let me briefly explain once again what bottom-up
and top-down processing are.
Our perceptual experience starts with receptor cells and works progressively
towards our brain. The process of starting with sensory data and working
towards a more complex perception is referred to as the bottom-up model.
However, the bottom-up model fails to explain why we can recognise an entire
word better than we recognise individual letters. This is because sometimes we
use a top-down approach in which the whole object is recognised before its basic
parts are identified (Davis and Palladino, 2000).
When an interpretation emerges from sensory information, this is called bottom-

up processing. Remember that perception must be mainly driven by the
information we receive through our senses because it must accurately reflect
events in the outside world. You want your perception to be determined mostly
by information from the senses, not by your expectations. In many situations,
however, your knowledge or expectations will influence your perception. This is
called top-down processing. Perception is a combination of bottom-up
processing and top-down processing. We will explore different aspects of top-
down processing later on in this topic. Now, let us first explore aspects of
bottom-up processing involved in basic perceptual organisation.
We will develop this idea further by focusing on:

(a) Attentional processes; and
(b) Gestalt principles of perceptual organisation.

28 X TOPIC 3 PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION
SELF-CHECK 3.1
Explain the following terms in your own words:

(a) Bottom-up processing; and
(b) Top-down processing.
3.2 ATTENTIONAL PROCESSES

Let us begin our discussion of perceptual organisation with an explanation of
attentional processes that guide you to focus on only some stimuli out of the
enormous amount of stimuli in our environment (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
Look around you. Can you find five things in your environment that you had not
noticed before? There are many things around you that you could focus your
attention on. Why have you focused your attention on these things? What factors
determine the focus of our attention? There are two main mechanisms:
(a) Goal-directed selection is when for example, you have set a goal for
yourself to read and understand this module. Therefore, with regards to
your goal, your attention has been directed to these words.
(b) Stimulus-driven capture happens when objects automatically capture your
attention without the presence of a particular goal in mind. For example,
imagine you are daydreaming at work, just staring into space and not
paying attention to anything in particular, but then a flashing light at the
corner of your eye captures your attention.
Essentially, personal goals and certain properties of objects determine the focus
of our attention. Research suggests that stimulus-driven capture rather than goal-
directed selection often wins our attention, at least under some circumstances
(Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008). In general, our perceptual system is organised so
that objects that are new in the environment automatically draw our attention.
SELF-CHECK 3.2
What factors determine the focus of our attention?

3.3 GESTALT PRINCIPLES OF PERCEPTUAL

ORGANISATION
We have already learned how sensory information from the outside world is
transformed into electrical impulses and then sent to our brain to be interpreted.
So is perception simply a result of all the sensory data put together? If it were so,
we would all be living in confusion. Gestalt psychologists were famous for
saying that the whole is often quite different from the sum of its parts. It is not
enough to just combine all the information, it is essential that the information be
organised in a meaningful way. How do we organise all the bits and pieces of
sensory information into one meaningful whole? In the early nineteenth century,
the Gestalt school of psychology, which was founded by Max Wertheimer,
Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Kofka, asked this same question.
Gestalt psychology suggests that there are certain innate, automatic organising
processes that our brains use to organise sensory data. The two main essential
organising processes are (Davis and Palladino, 2000):
(a) Figure-ground distinctions; and
(b) Grouping.
3.3.1 Figure-ground Distinctions

When you look at something, you always see it in relation to its background. For
example, when you look at the words on this page, you do not just see the words.
Rather, you see these words against a background of white paper. We often
interpret pictures by identifying a figure and the backdrop from which the figure
stands out (ground). Look at Figure 3.2. If you perceive the white part of the
picture to be the figure and the black part to be the background, then you will see
a vase. However, if you perceive the black part of the picture to be the figure and
the white part to be the background, then you will see two faces.

Figure 3.2: Figure-ground distinctions

Source: http://images.google.com
SELF-CHECK 3.3
Explain figure-ground distinctions.
3.3.2 Grouping
Now that we have differentiated between figure and ground, the next step is to
organise the figure into a meaningful form. Gestalt psychologists have identified
several rules for grouping stimuli together that we use in order to organise our
sensations into coherent perceptions.
Grouping perceptual elements is very important. Imagine if you had to deal with
each perceptual element individually. Imagine also that you had to think about
each letter individually when reading. What would reading be like? Fortunately
we have the ability to group letters into words. Without these principles of
grouping, reading this module would be extremely difficult. When we organise
perceptual elements into groups, we function more efficiently (Davis and
Palladino, 2000).
There are a few principles guiding the grouping of perceptual elements. Always
remember that although we discuss each of these rules separately here, in reality,
more than one can operate at any given time.

(a) The Law of Proximity

We tend to group together objects that are close (in proximity) to each other
(please refer to Figure 3.3).
Figure 3.3: Proximity

Source: http://www.sapdesignguild.org/resources/optical_illusions/gestalt_laws.html
(b) The Law of Similarity

We tend to group together objects that are similar to each other (please refer
to Figure 3.4).
Figure 3.4: Similarity

Source: http://www.sapdesignguild.org/resources/optical_illusions/gestalt_laws.html

(c) The Law of Good Continuation

We usually experience lines as continuous even when they are broken up.
For example, in Figure 3.5, we perceive the arrow as going through the
heart rather than a heart with two lines.
Figure 3.5: Continuity

Sources: http://www.featurepics.com/FI/Thumb/20070106/Heart-Arrow-
182771.jpg
(d) The Law of Closure

We tend to fill in small gaps to experience objects as wholes (please refer to
Figure 3.6).
Figure 3.6: Closure

Sources: http://www.sapdesignguild. Org/resources/
optical_illusions/gestalt _ laws.html
(e) The Law of Common Fate

We tend to group together objects that appear to be moving in the same
direction.

SELF-CHECK 3.4
List and explain all five of the Gestalt laws for grouping.
3.4 HIGHER PERCEPTUAL ORGANISATION

Higher perceptual organisation can best be described as all the processes
involved in top-down processing. We learned earlier that bottom-up processing
occurs when we take in information from the environment through our senses to
be sent to the brain to be interpreted. In order for our perception to accurately
reflect events in the outside world, our perception has to be based on information
which we extract from the outside world through our senses. However, in many
situations, the context, expectations and knowledge can also play a big role in
influencing our perceptions. This is called top-down processing. Top-down
processing occurs when the concepts stored in your memory determine how you
interpret the incoming sensory information (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008). When
you identify an object, you must match what you see to your stored knowledge
in order for you to recognise it and attach meaning to what you perceive.
Identification and recognition are essential parts of top-down processing.
The world often presents us vague or unclear perceptual information. Look at

Figure 3.7. What do you see? Suppose I tell you that there is a dog in the picture.
Do you see a dog now? You are able to see the dog now because of your
expectations to see a dog.
Figure 3.7: Ambiguous picture

Source: http://www.owlnet.rice.edu/Psyc351PerceptualOrg.
Expectations and contexts are aspects of top-down processing that can influence
your perception. This is because expectations and contexts provide an important
source of information to us. As an example, try to guess the missing letters below.
monkey, elephant, tiger, cat, bird, d?ve

Matt, Luke, Paul, James, David, D?ve
If you guessed the missing letters to be ÂoÊ and ÂaÊ, you are absolutely correct.
How did you guess? You assumed that the missing letters are based on the
context of the series of words. The first series of words belong to the category of
animals. The second series of words belong to the category of names of people.
Essentially, top-down processing involves a higher-process of mental

functioning. The importance of top-down processing can be illustrated by
drawings called doodles (refer to Figure 3.8). Without the labels, these drawings
are meaningless. However, once we have read the labels, expectations form, and
it is through these expectations that we perceive the pictures.
Figure 3.8: Doodles

Source: http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://condition.org/as65-

We must be able to make use of prior knowledge stored in our memory in order
to create suitable expectations. We „see‰ with our memory as much as we see
with our eyes (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
Figure 3.9 illustrates bottom-up and top-down processing.
Figure 3.9: Bottom-up and top-down processing

Source: Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008
If our perceptual organisation process completely depended on bottom-up

processing, we would be stuck in the same commonplace reality of the present.
We would be able to experience many things, but not be able to gain anything
out of our experiences. On the other hand, if our perceptual process completely
depended on top-down processing, we would probably become lost in a fantasy
world of things that we expect to perceive (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
Therefore, both bottom-up and top-down processing are essential aspects of our
perceptual process.

SELF-CHECK 3.5
Name the main factors involved in the higher processes of perceptual

organisation.
• Bottom-up processing is when an interpretation emerges from sensory

information and works progressively towards the brain.
• Top-down processing is when an interpretation emerges from context,

expectations and prior knowledge.
• Gestalt psychology suggests that there are certain innate, automatic

organising processes that our brains use to organise sensory data. The two
main essential organising processes are:
(i) Figure-ground distinctions; and
(ii) Grouping.
• Gestalt psychologists have identified several rules for grouping stimuli

together that we use in order to organise our sensations into coherent
perceptions. The five rules are:
(i) The law of proximity;
(ii) The law of similarity;
(iii) The law of good continuation;
(iv) The law of closure; and
(v) The law of common fate.
• Higher perceptual organisation can best be described as all the processes

involved in top-down processing, in which context, expectations and
knowledge play a big role in influencing our perceptions.

Bottom-up processing The law of closure

Figure-ground distinctions The law of common fate
Gestalt psychology The law of good continuation
Goal-directed selection The law of proximity
Grouping The law of similarity
Stimulus-driven capture Top-down processing
Davis, S.F. & Palladino, J.J. (2000). Psychology (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M.S. & Heatherton, T.F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind,
brain and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Gerrig, R.J. & Zimbardo, P.G. (2008). Psychology and life (18th ed.). Boston:
Pearson Education..
Myers, D.G. (2002). Exploring psychology (5th ed.). New York: Worth
Publishers.

Topic X Depth
4 Perception
and
Perceptual
Constancy
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Demonstrate how depth perception is used in your everyday life;
2. Explain how depth is perceived;
3. Describe how movement is perceived;
4. Explain perceptual constancy; and
5. Analyse perceptual illusions.
X INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered how your brain perceives movement, distance, size,
shapes and depth? How can you judge the distance between you and an
approaching car? How can you determine the size of a faraway object?
Perception is a complex process. Our brains make dozens of calculations every

millisecond without us even being aware of it. For example, as you look around
your surroundings, many images pass across your retina, and yet you perceive
only one stable and coherent whole image. There is a world of difference
between the input our senses receive from the environment and what we

TOPIC 4 DEPTH PERCEPTION AND PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY W 39
perceive. How do we perceive the world as constant and stable? Perceptual

constancy is the answer. You will find out more soon.
Most of the time, what we perceive are usually only limited glimpses of the
world around us. This is because there is simply too much information to take in
all at once; and our brains are not able to capture all the information in the
environment all at once. In order to get a more complete picture of the world
around us, we need to put together information from different moments in time
and spatial locations (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
In this topic we will learn about:

(a) Depth perception;
(b) Motion perception;
(c) Perceptual constancies; and
(d) Perceptual illusions.
4.1 DEPTH PERCEPTION

Depth perception is necessary for locating objects. It would be very difficult to
find our way around in the world without the capability to perceive depth.
Depth perception enables us to estimate the distance of objects from us by seeing
them in three-dimensional perceptions (Myers, 2002). At a quick glance, we are
able to judge the distance of an approaching car or the size of a bus. Depth
perception enables us to do the everyday things that we take for granted, such as
crossing the road or picking up a book. Animals such as bats use their sense of
hearing to pick up information about distance and direction, but we humans
depend mainly on our sense of sight for this information (Sekuler and Blake,
1994).
Although the image that falls on our retina is two-dimensional, we still manage
to perceive our world as three-dimensional. This is possible because of depth
perception. Gibson and Walk (1960) conducted an experiment by creating a
visual cliff such as the one illustrated in Figure 4.1. Infants aged six to fourteen
months were placed at the edge of a table covered with glass and coaxed to crawl
over the glass. The fact that most of the infants refused to crawl over the glass is
proof that they could perceive depth. This experiment suggests that the ability to
perceive depth is partly innate.

40 X TOPIC 4 DEPTH PERCEPTION AND PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCY
Figure 4.1: Visual cliff

Source: http://www.arts.uwaterloo.ca/~bfleming/psych101/image45.gif
How do we convert the two-dimensional images that fall on our retina into three-
dimensional perceptions? Our ability to perceive depth depends on sources that
provide information about distance, called depth cues. There are two types of
depth cues: binocular cues and monocular cues.
4.1.1 Binocular Cues

As you know, our eyes are about two to three inches apart from each other.
As a result, the images that fall on our right and left retinas are slightly different.
When our brain compares these two images, the difference between them
emerges ă a phenomenon called binocular disparity. Binocular disparity enables
us to determine the relative distance of objects. The adjustments of our eye
muscles are also an important binocular cue. Our eyes are supported by muscles
that enable our eyeballs to move around. They also help us to judge distance.
When you look at an object that is very close, you will feel the tension in your eye
muscles. If you move the object farther away from you, you will feel less muscle
strain. If you open and close one eye and then the other, you will not see exactly
the same image with each eye. The closer the object, the greater the difference
between what each eye sees. Binocular disparity creates a sense of depth when
images from both eyes join together in the brain (Davis and Palladino, 2000).

SELF-CHECK 4.1
1. How do we convert the two-dimensional images that fall on our

retina into three-dimensional perceptions?
2. What is binocular disparity?
4.1.2 Monocular Cues

Monocular cues enable us to perceive depth with only one eye open. Artists often
use these cues to create a sense of depth in their art work. Some of these cues
include:
(a) Interposition: An object that is near blocks an object that is farther away
(refer to Figure 4.2 for an example).
Figure 4.2: Interposition

Source: http://psych.hanover.edu/KRANTZ/art/mag.jpg
(b) Relative size: Objects that are farther away project a smaller retinal image
than closer objects.
Figure 4.3: Relative size

Source: chevroncars.com
(c) Familiar size: For objects that are familiar to us, we can identify their
distance from the size of the retinal image.
(d) Linear perspective: In the distance, parallel lines appear to meet (refer to
Figure 4.4 for an example).
Figure 4.4: Linear perspective

Source: http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/259/265596/getstart/images/
SELF-CHECK 4.2
In your own words, explain how depth is perceived.
ACTIVITY 4.1
List three examples of how you use depth perception in your everyday
life.
4.2 MOTION PERCEPTION

How do we perceive movement? If you move your head to look around while
standing still, the images of all the objects in the room will pass across your
retina. Nevertheless, objects in the room are perceived as not moving. The
perception of real movement is determined more by how the position of objects

changes in relation to a background that is perceived as not moving rather than

by images moving across the retina (Morris and Maisto, 2001). For example,
when we see a cat crossing the street, we see the street, the houses and the
pavement as part of a background that is not moving and the cat as a moving
object.
Sometimes we perceive objects to be moving when they are actually not moving.
An example of this is stroboscopic movement, which is the illusory motion
created by a rapid change in a series of still images (technique used to create
motion picture films). Our brainÊs ability to create the perception of motion from
a series of still pictures enables us to watch movies. Our brain creates the illusion
of movement even when there is none because motion is essential for our visual
perception.
Our perception of movement depends on the information we receive through

depth cues. We also have specialised neurons that detect movement. Essentially,
motion perception requires us to put together information from different
glimpses of the world. The phi phenomenon is a good example of how our
perceptual processes put together different glimpses of the world. Have you ever
seen advertisement signs or disco light displays that have two lights at each
corner of the sign that turn on and off alternately, giving you the illusion that a
single light is moving back and forth? (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008). I will
describe two other different phenomena to help you understand how motion
perception is accomplished by our visual system:
(a) Motion after-effects; and
(b) The Ponzo illusion.
4.2.1 Motion After-effects

Motion after-effects occur when you stare at a moving object for some time and
then look away at a non-moving object. You will see the non-moving object
moving in the direction opposite to the earlier moving object. The next time you
have a chance to stare at a waterfall, try this out: stare at the waterfall for a
prolonged period of time and then look away and stare at the trees. You should
be able to see the trees moving upwards (Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003). If
you remember, in Topic 2, we learned about afterimages (from the example of
the batman logo). This is a similar concept in the sense that it also has to do with
adaptation. Motion after-effects are proof of the existence of specialised neurons
that detect movement while adapting to the motion.

4.2.2 The Ponzo Illusion

Take a look at Figure 4.5. Which horizontal line appears to be longer? It seems
like the upper line is longer because the two vertical lines converging towards
the top give us the illusion that these two lines are receding into the distance. If
you recall the different cues we discussed under monocular cues, one of them
was linear perspective. A linear perspective gives us the perception that the two
horizontal lines are of different lengths because the monocular depth cue makes
us believe that they will meet in the distance (Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003).
Figure 4.5: Ponzo illusion

Source: http://retina.anatomy.upenn.edu/~bart/Image6.gif
SELF-CHECK 4.3
In your own words, describehow movement is perceived.
4.3 PERCEPTUAL CONSTANCIES

Try looking at this book from a distance and at a different angle. How does the
book look to you now? Not much different, right? It is still the same shape and
size that it was before. When the location and distance of an object changes, the
image of the object on your retina also changes. However, despite these changes,
we tend to perceive the size and shape of objects as stable (Gerrig and Zimbardo,
2008). This phenomenon is referred to as perceptual constancy. Once we have
formed a stable perception of an object, we can recognise it from almost any

angle, distance and in any light (Morris and Maisto, 2001). A blue car still looks
like a blue car from any distance, angle or light. It is essential for our survival
that we are able to perceive our world as constant and stable. If it were not for
perceptual constancy, our world would be a very confusing place.
4.3.1 Size Constancy

How do we perceive the size of an object? Have you ever looked down from a
high-rise building at people walking on the ground below and thought that they
looked like ants? We perceive the size of an object based on the size of its image
on our retina and the distance of the object from our eyes. Information about the
distance of the object from our eyes is available to us through depth cues.
Essentially, size constancy depends on our ability to estimate distance and our
familiarity with the object (Davis and Palladino, 2000). However, at times we
may be fooled about the size of the object if we fail to estimate the distance
accurately. For example, look at the illusion in Figure 4.6, which shows the Ames
Room, first constructed by Adelbert Ames, Jr in 1946. The reason that the person
on the right looks enormous and the person on the left looks so tiny is because
you perceive the room to be rectangular with the two corners at the back to be
equally distant from you. However, in actuality, the Ames Room is not
rectangular but trapezoidal, and the floor and walls are not perpendicular but
slanted outwards. Any person on the right will look bigger as they are twice as
close to you (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
Figure 4.6: Ames Room

Source: http://images.encarta.msn.com/xrefmedia/sharemed/targets/images/

4.3.2 Shape Constancy

How do we perceive shapes? We are able to perceive shapes even when the
object is turned at different angles, making the shape of the object that falls on
your retina different from the actual shape of the object. For the perception of
shape constancy to occur, we must have sufficient information about the depth
and distance of the object. It also helps when the object is familiar to us and there
is a background or context in relation to which the object can be seen (Davis and
Palladino, 2000).
4.3.3 Brightness Constancy

Although the amount of light from our surroundings changes all the time, the
perceived brightness of familiar objects remains stable. For example, we perceive
a white cat to be brighter than a black cat whether we see it in dim light or in
bright daylight. This is because an object reflects the same amount of light falling
on it whether that light is from a dim lamp or from the sun. We base our
judgments of brightness on the relative reflection of light from the cat compared
with the surrounding objects (Morris and Maisto, 2001).
SELF-CHECK 4.4
1. How do we perceive the size of an object?

2. How do we perceive the shape of an object?
3. Explain in your own words what perceptual constancy means.
4.4 PERCEPTUAL ILLUSIONS

Optical illusions are one of the most popular tools that scientists who study
perception have in understanding the way our brain makes use of the available
information to form perceptions.
We have learned that generally perception involves making sense of all the
sensory data we receive from the world around us. Perceptual constancies,
figure-ground distinctions and grouping are all processes that help us to make
educated guesses or inferences about the stimuli present in our environment.
These educated guesses or inferences also may be referred to as perceptual
hypotheses. Many times our perceptual hypotheses are correct. However, there
are also times when they are incorrect. It is not difficult to trick our senses into

coming up with an inaccurate perceptual hypothesis. Inaccurate perceptual

hypotheses form the basis of perceptual illusions (Davis and Palladino, 2000). For
example, many optical illusions depend on depth cues to fool us into seeing
depth when it does not really exist in reality. Take a look at Figure 4.7. The linear
perspective tells us that the monster in pursuit is farther away. Therefore, we
perceive the monster in pursuit as larger than the monster that is being chased
although both the monsters cast the same retinal images (Myers, 2002).
Figure 4.7: Size-distance relationship

Source:
http://www.sapdesignguild.org/resources/glossary_color/images/size_const.gif
SELF-CHECK 4.5
How are perceptual illusions formed?

• Depth perception enables us to estimate the distance of objects from us by

seeing them in three-dimensional perceptions (Myers, 2002).
• Our ability to perceive depth depends on sources of information about

distance called depth cues. There are two types of depth cues: binocular cues
and monocular cues.
• Our perception of movement depends on information we receive through

depth cues and segregating moving objects from non-moving backgrounds.
• Perceptual constancy is the tendency to perceive objects as having a stable

size, shape and brightness.
• Inaccurate perceptual hypotheses form the basis of perceptual illusions

(Davis and Palladino, 2000).
Binocular cues Motion after-effects

Binocular disparity Motion perception
Brightness constancy Perceptual constancies
Depth cues Perceptual illusions
Depth perception Ponzo illusion
Familiar size Relative size
Interposition Shape constancy
Linear perspective Size constancy
Monocular cues Stroboscopic movement

Prentice Hall.
Pearson Education.
Gibson, E. J., & Walk, R. D. (1960). The "visual cliff." Scientific American, 202, 67ă71.
Myers, D.G. (2002). Exploring psychology (5th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers.

Topic X Auditory
5 Perception
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Identify the functions of the different parts of the ear;
2. Explain how we hear;
3. Compare place theory and frequency theory; and
4. Describe auditory perception.
X INTRODUCTION
Take a minute or two now to cover your eyes and listen carefully to the sounds
around you. What do you hear? Even if you are in an environment that is very
quiet, you will be surprised by how much you can hear if you just sit still and
listen. Can you identify the sources of the sounds around you? Where are the
sounds coming from and from which location? You should also be able to
differentiate between the loudness of sounds. Our ears are extremely sensitive,
and can pick up the softest of whispers.
Sounds differ in their complexity too. For example, the sound of traffic is
complex, consisting of many different kinds of sounds coming from different
sources and different locations. This sound is usually described as a cacophony,
which means not harmonious and is usually perceived by us as unpleasant.
However, not all complex sounds are unpleasant to us. Sounds that come from a
single source or that are composed of just a few pitches are less complex.
It is amazing how our ears can distinguish between the smallest differences in
sound and be able to recognise these sounds as coming from a particular source.
For example, have you ever had the experience of knowing who is knocking on
your door just by the sound of the knock? Hence, sounds have many
characteristics that enable us to locate and identify their sources. Hearing plays
TOPIC 5 AUDITORY PERCEPTION W 51
an extremely important role in our perception of the world around us. Many
times, we are able to hear things in our environment first before we see them. For
example, we first hear a car coming towards us from behind before we turn
around to see it.

(a) The auditory system;
(b) Sound; and
(c) Auditory perception.
5.1 THE AUDITORY SYSTEM

The auditory system picks up the sounds around us and then converts them into
information that the brain can understand so that we are able to perceive sound.
5.1.1 Parts of the Ear

The auditory system consists of the ear and parts of the brain. The ear can be
divided into three parts:
(a) The outer ear;
(b) The middle ear; and
(c) The inner ear.
Figure 5.1 is an illustration of the different parts of the ear.
Figure 5.1: The ear

Source: http://www.skidmore.edu/~hfoley/images/AuditorySystem.jpg
52 X TOPIC 5 AUDITORY PERCEPTION
(a) The Outer Ear

The most prominent part of our ears is the pinna. The pinna is basically our
ear flap, the part of our ears that we can see. The structure of the pinna
helps us to judge the location of sounds. After the pinna collects the sounds,
they are funnelled through the auditory canal. Essentially, the pinna and
auditory canal function like a directional microphone that picks up sound
and modifies it (Sekuler and Blake, 1994).
(b) The Middle Ear

The outer wall of the middle ear is formed by the eardrum. The vibrations
that strike the eardrum are passed along to the oval window of the cochlea.
Between the eardrum and oval window are the ossicles where three of the
tiniest bones in the human body are located. These three bones namely,
malleus, incus and stapes, transfer vibrations from the eardrum to the oval
window of the cochlea (Sekuler and Blake, 1994).
(c) The Inner Ear

The inner ear consists of components that not only help us to hear, but also
to maintain our balance and posture. We will focus on the cochlea first. The
cochlea is a tube filled with fluid that curls into a snail-like shape. The
vibrations in the inner ear create pressure waves in the fluid, and these
waves stimulate the hair cells (auditory receptor cells) on the basilar
membrane (Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003). The basilar membrane runs
along the length of the cochlea. There is a specific spot on the basilar
membrane for the frequency of each tone. Just like each wire on a guitar is
tuned to play a particular note, each spot on the basilar membrane is tuned
to the frequency of a tone.
Hair cells are delicate and fragile, and we only have 16,000 of them compared
with the 100 million receptor cells in our eyes. Sounds that are too loud can
damage our hair cells, easily resulting in loss of hearing. Prolonged exposure to
sound waves above 85 decibels can result in loss of hearing (Myers, 2002).
SELF-CHECK 5.1
1. Identify the important components that are part of the outer ear,
middle ear and inner ear.
2. List the main functions of the outer ear, middle ear and inner ear.

5.1.2 Process of Hearing

Now that we have discussed the different parts of the ear and their functions, let
us see how the process of hearing takes place. This is how we hear:
(a) Sound waves enter the outer ear and are funnelled to the eardrum through
the auditory canal, causing it to vibrate.
(b) Three tiny bones in the middle ear (malleus, incus and stapes) amplify the
eardrumÊs vibrations and carry it to the oval window and into the fluid-
filled cochlea.
(c) The moving fluid also makes the basilar membrane move, and as a result
the hair cells on the basilar membrane also move.
(d) The movement of hair cells triggers impulses at the nerve cells which
connect to the auditory nerve.
(e) The auditory nerve connects to the brain, where the impulses are finally
interpreted as sounds.
SELF-CHECK 5.2
In your own words, explain how we hear.
5.1.3 The Orienting Sense

Other than hearing, our ears also are responsible for creating balance and
providing us with a sense of orientation to our environment. The vestibular sense
can be referred to as our orienting sense. Our vestibular sense provides us with
information about how our body (especially our head) is oriented to the world in
connection to gravity (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
The vestibular system is located in the inner ear. The vestibular system consists
of three canals called the semicircular canals and the utricle. Each semicircular
canal is filled with fluid that moves when we move our heads. When the fluids in
the canals move, hair cells located in the canal bend. When hair cells bend, they
are stimulated and proceed to send information about movement to the brain
(Davis and Palladino, 2000). For example, if you were to turn your head quickly
now, the pressure changes in the fluid-filled cochlea would stimulate the hair
cells by bending them as the fluid moves up and down like waves in the cochlea.
The three canals called the semicircular canals provide us with information about
movement. For instance, they tell us the direction our head is moving when we
nod or turn out heads. Essentially, the semicircular canals are responsible for
providing information about the speed and direction of body movement.
The utricle is a fluid-filled chamber in our inner ear that functions in the same
way as the semicircular canals and is also responsible for detecting gravity.
Essentially, the utricle is responsible for providing information about gravitation,
up and down movements, and forward and backward movements (Morris and
Maisto, 2001).
If you were to lose your vestibular sense, you would feel quite disorientated and
dizzy at first, but would most likely adapt by depending more heavily on your
sense of sight. Motion sickness happens when the signals from the visual system
contradict those from the vestibular system. You may feel nauseated while
reading in a moving bus because you are looking at something that is not moving
ă the book, but your vestibular system tells you that you are moving. There is a
conflict between the senses, and this upsets us (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
In order to experience the vestibular system consciously now, try this simple
experiment: first, try to read while moving your head. You should still be able to
read without much problem. However, now try and move your book while
reading. Now, you would probably experience some difficulty reading. Why?
Moving our heads activates our vestibular system, but we can adapt and orient
ourselves to keep our perception of the world somewhat stable (Davis and
Palladino, 2000).
SELF-CHECK 5.3
1. Where is the vestibular system located?

2. What is the function of the vestibular system?
5.2 SOUND
In order to understand how we hear sounds, we first have to understand what
sounds are. Sounds are carried through solid, liquid or gas molecules. Most of
the time, sound is brought to us by air. Molecules in the air are always moving.
Any object that comes in contact with these molecules creates a disturbance in
the air. Disturbance in the air causes sound waves to travel outwards, much like
what would happen if you threw a pebble into a still pond. The ripples ă the
rings of waves you see expanding as the pebble hits the water ă are caused by the

vibrations from the pebble coming into contact with the water molecules. Sound
waves travel through the air much like water waves travel when a pebble causes
a disturbance by hitting the surface of the water (Sekuler and Blake, 1994). When
you are listening to a sound, you experience a sequence of pressure variations as
the sound waves pass by, similar to the water waves you would experience at the
edge of the pond.
The pressure variations that we experience at absolute threshold (when we can

just hear a sound) are incredibly tiny. The loudest sound we can hear without
pain has pressure variations a million times greater than this. Since the range of
sounds that we hear is so large, we measure sound level, or intensity of sound or
loudness, using units called decibels (dB). An increase in 10 dB means that sound
intensity increases ten times more. Similarly, an increase in 20 dB means that
sound intensity increases hundred times more and so on. Using this scale we can
measure sound intensity efficiently. Look at Figure 5.2 for an illustration of some
typical examples of sound pressure levels.
Figure 5.2: Sound levels in decibels

Source: http://knol.google.com/k/-/-/1hvmbypv7oiib/yt0dks/decibelscale.jpg

5.2.1 Classifications of Sounds

Sounds can be classified in terms of their loudness, timbre and pitch. Let us
briefly discuss these classifications of sounds.
(a) Loudness
The loudness or volume of a sound is determined by its amplitude.
Amplitude basically refers to the strength of sound waves. We experience
sound waves with large amplitudes as loud, and sound waves with small
amplitudes as soft. The level of sound or loudness can be measured using
decibels, as we discussed earlier. Essentially, loudness depends on how
many neurons are activated. The more neurons fired, the louder the sound
(Morris and Maisto, 2001).
(b) Timbre
Timbre is what sets apart one sound from another - for example, the sound
of a guitar and the sound of a drum. A pure tone consists of one frequency
and one amplitude. However, most of the sounds we hear in the real world
are not pure tones. Rather, they are a combination of different frequencies
and amplitudes (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008). The sound that we call
„noise‰ is simply an unorganised structure of different frequencies.
(c) Pitch
The frequency of a sound wave determines its pitch. Frequency basically
refers to the length of the sound wave. The longer the wave (the lower its
frequency), the lower the pitch; whereas, the shorter the wave (the higher
its frequency), the higher the pitch. The frequency of sound is measured in
vibrations per second called Hertz (Hz) (Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003).
SELF-CHECK 5.4
1. Explain what sound is in your own words.

2. Define loudness, timbre and pitch.

5.2.2 Theories of Pitch

There are two theories that explain how the auditory system converts sound
waves into pitch:
(a) Place theory; and
(b) Frequency theory.
(a) Place Theory

Hermann von Helmholtz was the first to propose place theory, and then
later the theory was improved by Georg von Bekesy. When sound waves go
through the inner ear, the basilar membrane moves. Different places along
the basilar membrane produce sounds of different frequencies. For
example, the sounds with the highest frequencies are usually produced at
the base of the cochlea. Therefore, according to the place theory, the
particular location on the basilar membrane at which the most stimulation
happens determines the pitch (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
(b) Frequency Theory

According to frequency theory, the rate of vibration of the basilar
membrane determines the pitch. For example, if the frequency of a sound
wave is 70 Hz, then the basilar membrane will vibrate 70 times per second.
At the same time, the vibrations will also cause neurons to fire at the same
rate. The problem with this theory is that neurons cannot fire more than
1000 times per second. This means that neurons cannot produce high-
pitched sounds, which is false. However, these problems in the frequency
theory have been addressed by the volley principle. According to this
principle, several neurons may combine to fire. This means that by
combining together, neurons can fire more than 1000 times per second and
much more in order to produce a variety of pitches (Gerrig and Zimbardo,
2008).
The place theory and frequency theory compliment each other. Frequency theory
is responsible for coding frequencies below 5000 Hz. Place theory is responsible
for coding frequencies above 1000 Hz. We are not able to detect pitches below
1000 Hz.
SELF-CHECK 5.5
Compare place theory and frequency theory.

5.2.3 Locating Sound

Imagine you are walking into the office, and you hear your name being called
out. Most of the time, you would be able to immediately locate where the sound
is coming from. How do we locate sound? How do we know the direction from
which the sound is coming? Just as the placement of our eyes which are two to
three inches apart allows us to sense visual depth, the placement of our ears on
either side of our head enables us to locate sound. The slight difference in sound
that is received by each ear is also used to create a „three-dimensional‰ sound.
Our ability to locate sound is essential for our survival. Imagine how confusing
and dangerous our world would be if we did not know where sounds were
coming from. There are two mechanisms that help us to locate sound: the head
and time delay in neural processing. Our head partially blocks sound waves
coming from the opposite side of the body, making those sounds seem as though
they are farther away. For example, if someone standing next to you on the right
side is talking to you, sounds enter your right ear without being blocked by your
head, but sounds are partially blocked by your head from entering your left ear.
This is how we know where the sound is coming from because the sound
entering through the right ear is stronger than the sound entering the left ear.
Therefore, we know that the sound is coming from the right.
Time delay in neural processing is another mechanism which helps us to locate

sound. If a sound is coming from your right, it enters your right ear first, and
then your left. In order to locate where sound is coming from, our brain
calculates the difference in time when a sound enters one ear and when it enters
the other ear (Davis and Palladino, 2000). This difference in time is usually
extremely tiny, yet our brain is able to calculate the difference and make precise
estimates of where the sound is coming from.
SELF-CHECK 5.6
What are the two mechanisms that help us to locate sound, and how do
they work?

5.3 AUDITORY PERCEPTION

It is very rare that all the sounds we hear come from the same source. Most of the
time, the sounds we hear come from multiple sources, and the sound waves
coming from these sources are mixed together in the air to create a complex
wave. How do we make sense of these sounds? Our auditory system separates
the sound we have selected to hear from the sounds in the background. How
does it do this? First, it groups together the sounds from multiple sources that
occur at the same time. Then, it follows the sequence of sounds from the sound
you have selected to hear. In order to decide which sounds come from which
source, our auditory system uses two rules:
(a) Onset times: Sounds that start at the same time come from the same source.
(b) Harmonicity: Sounds that are harmoniously related come from the same
source.
In order to follow a sequence of sounds from the same source, the auditory
system looks for sounds that are similar. If the sounds have similar frequencies
and locations, they tend to be grouped together (law of similarity). If a sound
was briefly interrupted by a second sound (for example, talking interrupted by a
dog barking), we perceive the first sound as being continuous (law of continuity).
If a brief gap in sound is filled with a second more intense sound, then we
perceive the first sound as being continuous even if it is not (law of closure).
If you remember, we learned about bottom-up and top-down processing in the

previous topics. As an example of bottom-up and top-down processing in
auditory perception, let us look at speech perception. One of the most remarkable
abilities we have is our ability to communicate, express ourselves with words
and exchange ideas. More specifically, our ability to produce and perceive speech
is an important aspect of our evolution as human beings. One of the auditory
perceptionÊs main job is to enable us to perceive speech.
Imagine you are trying to have a conversation with somebody over loud music
or at a noisy place. It is only natural that the person you are talking to does not
hear everything that you are saying, and vice versa. However, somehow people
rarely pay much attention to the words they may have missed out on hearing
due to the loud sounds in the environment. This phenomenon is called phonemic
restoration. Phonemic restoration takes place when people use top-down
processing to fill in missing phonemes or words. Suppose that part of what your
colleague says to you at a noisy hawker stall is, „You should take some time off
to (noise)lax. If the sound „re‰ is covered by noise, you would still most likely
think that you heard the full word „relax‰. Why is this so? Bottom-up processing

provides us with all the possible words in the English language that end with
„lax‰. Then, top-down processing takes over and helps us select the word „relax‰
as the appropriate word for the context given. If both bottom-up processing and
top-down processing occur quickly enough, then you will never know the sound
„re‰ was missing. Your perceptual process fills in the sounds for you.
SELF-CHECK 5.7
Describe auditory perception.
• The auditory system consists of the ear and parts of the brain. The ear can be
divided into three parts:
(i) The outer ear;
(ii) The middle ear; and
(iii) The inner ear.
• Other than hearing, our ears are also responsible for creating balance and
providing us with a sense of orientation to our environment.
• Sounds can be classified in terms of their pitch, loudness and timbre.
• There are two mechanisms that help us to locate sound: the head and time
delay in neural processing.
• According to the place theory, the particular location on the basilar

membrane at which the most stimulation happens determines the pitch.
• According to the frequency theory, the rate of vibration of the basilar

membrane determines the pitch.
• In order to decide which sounds come from which source, our auditory
system uses two rules:
(i) Onset times: Sounds that start at the same time come from the same
source.
(ii) Harmonicity: Sounds that are harmoniously related come from the
same source.

Auditory canal Loudness

Basilar membrane Onset times
Cochlea Ossicles
Decibels Phonemic restoration
Frequency theory Pinna
Harmonicity Pitch
Law of closure Place theory
Law of continuity Timbre
Law of similarity Volley principle
Prentice Hall.
Gazzaniga, M.S. & Heatherton, T.F. (2003). Psychological science: The mind, brain
and behaviour. London: W.W Norton & Company.
Pearson Education.

Topic X The Skin
6 Senses and
Perception of
Pain
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Recall the functions of the skin;
2. Explain the functions of touch;
3. Discuss the perception of pain; and
4. Apply the gate control theory of pain.
X INTRODUCTION
Imagine that one day, all the lights in your house go out. You are left in darkness
to find your way around the house. So you fumble around in the darkness
feeling your way to the drawer where the candles and lighter are kept. Reaching
into the drawer, you grab what you hope is a candle. You can feel a long
cylinder-shaped object in your hands. Then, you grab something else, which you
hope is a lighter. You use your fingers to explore the various parts of the object to
do this. You are searching for information using your sense of touch.
This hypothetical scenario illustrates an important point ă that we sometimes

depend on our sense of touch to identify and recognise objects. There is no doubt
that we rely more heavily on our sight and hearing to identify and recognise
objects. However, our sense of touch can provide information that is not
available to us visually or audibly. For example, touch can tell us how an object
feels like, its texture, and whether it is hard or soft. Other than helping us to

TOPIC 6 THE SKIN SENSES AND PERCEPTION OF PAIN W 63
identify and recognise objects, touch is also a means of social interaction. For
example, we shake hands, hug and tap each other on the back. The skin senses
enable us to feel through touch or other types of contact with the skin.

(a) The skin;
(b) Touch;
(c) Perception of pain; and
(d) Theory of pain.
6.1 THE SKIN

The skin is the largest organ in the human body. It is responsible for:
(a) Protecting us against surface injuries;
(b) Holding in bodily fluids;
(c) Regulating body temperature;
(d) Responding to sensations such as warmth, pressure, cold and pain; and
(e) Influencing our physical and mental well being as we develop.
We receive a large amount of information about our surroundings through our

skin. The skin consists of a vast amount of nerve receptors spread around the
entire surface of our body which send sensory data to our brain to be interpreted.
There are various specialised receptor cells that respond to different types of
contact with the skin. For example, some receptor cells respond best when
something is rubbed against the skin, while others respond best when minimal
pressure is placed against the skin by small objects (Gerrig and Zimbardo,
2008).There are also different receptor cells that respond to warmth and coldness.
The skinÊs sensitivity to pressure is different all over the body. We have the most
number of receptor cells at our fingertips and on our tongue. Our back, legs and
abdomen are some of the less sensitive areas. The sensory feedback we get from
receptor cells on our tongue and fingertips enables effective eating and touching,
which are among the most important functions for these regions (Gerrig and
Zimbardo, 2008).

64 X TOPIC 6 THE SKIN SENSES AND PERCEPTION OF PAIN
SELF-CHECK 6.1
What are the main functions of our skin?
Essentially, skin receptors are responsible for the cutaneous sensations of

pressure, temperature and pain. However, the relationship between the receptors
and our sensory experience is a delicate one. Our brains have to make an
educated guess about the temperature by combining information provided by
many different receptors. This is considered a rather complex task.
For example, how does our brain determine skin temperature? When it is cold,
the receptors sensitive to cold increase their firing rate as the skin cools down,
and decrease their firing rate as the skin gets warmer. Similarly, the receptors
that are sensitive to warmth increase their firing when the skin is warm, and slow
down their firing rate as the skin gets cooler (Morris and Maisto, 2001). However,
what happens when you touch something cold and hot at the same time? Both
the receptors sensitive to cold and hot are activated and send signals to the brain
at the same time. The brain interprets the mixed signals of hot and cold as hot.
This phenomenon is known as paradoxical heat (Morris and Maisto, 2001).
Figure 6.1 shows a cross-sectional magnification of the skin. The epidermis refers
to the outer layer of skin. The dermis refers to the inner layer of skin. The
receptors cells found on our skin are generally referred to as somatosensory
receptors. The receptors responsible for touch or pressure are referred to as
mechanoreceptors. The receptors that are sources of information about
temperature are called thermoreceptors (Davis and Palladino, 2000).
Figure 6.1: Skin

Source: http://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/skin.gif
Table 6.1 shows examples of somatosensory receptors located in the order from
the outer layer of skin (epidermis) to the deeper layer of skin (dermis).
Table 6.1: Somatosensory Receptors And Their Functions
Somatosensory Receptors Function

Meissner corpuscles Receptors that respond to light pressure. For example,
when you move your fingers through your hair.
Merkel disks Receptors that respond to steady pressure of small
objects.
Ruffini endings Receptors that respond to pressure of large objects.
Pacinian corpuscles Receptors that respond best to touch.
Free nerve endings Receptors that respond to pain and temperature.
Source: Davis and Palladino, 2000.
SELF-CHECK 6.2
1. Try to recall the five somatosensory receptors and their functions.

2. Explain the paradoxical heat phenomenon in your own words.
6.2 TOUCH
Touch plays three main functions in our lives:
(a) Helps us to identify and recognise objects: Imagine if you did not have a
sense of touch. A simple task such as searching for the house keys in your
pocket would be impossible. You would have to empty your pockets first
and examine its contents visually.
(b) A means of social interaction: We shake hands, hug and tap each other on
the back to communicate a particular message. Many of these touch
messages are universal. However, there are also some that differ according
to different cultures. For example, in Thailand, touching a girlÊs head is
considered to communicate a message of sexual content (Sekuler and Blake,
1994).
(c) Plays a major role in human development: Studies by Harlow and Harlow
(1966) showed that infant monkeys who had been deprived of touch
developed a stunted growth (both physical and social) later on in life.
Touch triggers a secretion of a growth hormone in infant humans and
animals; without touch to trigger this secretion, growth is stunted. In

addition to that, it has also been found that babies that are given massages
gain weight much faster than babies who are not massaged (Ackerman,
1990).
If you think about it, touch can be a more reliable source of information than
sight. Imagine reaching out to grab the person in front of you only to realise that
you cannot hold on to this person because he or she is not there in reality. After
the initial shock, you would probably assume that you have seen a ghost or that
your visual system has tricked you somehow. Therefore, touch can sometimes be
more reliable and trustworthy than sight.
We tend to use our hands and fingertips in order to touch and explore objects
and people. This is by no accident. Our fingertips are one of the most sensitive
areas on our skin, containing the most amounts of receptors. Braille reading
(used by blind people) is possible because of this. Braille reading requires one to
identify fine patterns (tiny dots) spread out over a very small area. Figure 6.2
shows the Braille alphabet.
Figure 6.2: Braille alphabet

Source: http://www.chuckshomeworld.com/UserFiles/Image/braille-alphabet- letters.gif

SELF-CHECK 6.3
What are the three main functions of touch?
6.3 PERCEPTION OF PAIN

Why do we need to feel pain? Our body uses pain to tell us that something is
wrong. Pain captures our attention and makes us do something about it. There
are rare cases where people are born without the ability to feel pain. You might
think they are lucky, but the reality is that they usually die young. They may
experience severe injuries without ever being alerted by pain signals, and hence
delayed intervention in some crucial situations may lead to death (Myers, 2002).
Pain neurons do not end in specialised structures. They are free nerve endings
found in all body tissues that sense pain. There are two types of fibres for pain:
(a) Delta fibres which respond to sharp, immediate pain; and
(b) C fibres which respond to chronic, dull pain.
Both the types of fibres send information to a different part of the cortex. When
you touch a hot surface, you feel two different kinds of pain: first you feel a sharp
pain at the point on your skin which touched the hot surface (A-delta fibres),
then you feel a dull, burning pain (C fibres). Strong physical pressure or
temperature extremes activate the A-delta fibres. The fibres send impulses to the
thalamus through the spinal cord. Then, the thalamus sends information to the
somatosensory area of the cerebral cortex. Chemical changes that occur when our
skin is damaged activate the C fibres (Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003).
It is important to understand that pain is also a property of the brain, not only of
the senses. A good example of this is people who have lost a limb, but sometimes
still have the perception that they can feel sensations in their non-existent limb.
We have in-built expectations in our brain that tell us that we will be getting
information from all our limbs. This phenomenon is referred to as phantom limb
syndrome. Unlike our other senses, our sense of pain is not linked to a specific
part of the brain. There is also not one specific type of stimulus that activates pain
signals, unlike our sense of vision for example, in which light activates vision
(Myers, 2002). In addition to that, we also do not have special receptors for pain
like we do for vision (rods and cones).

As we know now, pain is natureÊs way of telling us that something is wrong. We

would assume that any kind of injury to the body will cause pain, but there are
many cases when physical harm to the body is not followed by pain. Similarly,
there are also situations when pain is felt even though there has been no physical
injury. Different people also experience pain differently. Some are more sensitive
than others to pain. Some have different reactions to pain. Our behaviour and
emotions can influence our perception of pain greatly. For example, athletes that
injure themselves during a competition often only feel the pain after the
excitement of the event has passed (Morris and Maisto, 2001).Culture and belief
systems also play a big role in our experience of pain. For example, at the Hindu
festival of Thaipusam, devotees pierce themselves with long iron rods without
feeling any pain (please refer to Figure 6.3). Perception of pain is a great example
of the powerful mind and body connection.
Figure 6.3: Do they feel any pain?

Source: travel.webshots.com
SELF-CHECK 6.4
1. Why do we need to feel pain?

2. What are the factors that influence our perception of pain?

6.4 THEORY OF PAIN

The brain can prevent us from feeling pain. According to the gate control theory of
pain proposed by Ronald Melzack and Patrick Wall (1965), the spinal cord has a
neural „gate‰ that can block pain signals from being sent to the brain. The spinal
cord consists of small nerve fibres and large nerve fibres. Small nerve fibres
transmit the majority of pain signals. Whereas, large nerve fibres transmit almost
every other kind of sensory signal. When an injury occurs, the small nerve fibres
are stimulated, and they open the gate, enabling you to feel pain. When large nerve
fibres are stimulated, they close the gate, and block the pain signals (Myers, 2002).
Therefore, one way of reducing pain is to stimulate the large nerve fibres by
massage or acupuncture. You can try this the next time you have sore feet or an
aching back. Just rub the area that hurts and this should stimulate the large nerve
fibres, and thus block some of the pain signals from travelling to your brain.
Another trick that most of us use is to put ice on a bruise. How does this work to
reduce the pain? The cold ice placed on the injury activates large nerve fibres and
sends messages to the brain about the cold while blocking some of the pain signals.
The gate control theory of pain also includes the periqueductal gray (PAG) (a
region in the brain), which consists of neurons that can slow down receptor cells
from sending their signals to the cortex. Painkillers such as morphine make the
neural gate close and block the pain by stimulating the PAG. Endorphins that are
released naturally by our brain act as natural painkillers, and have the same effect
on the PAG (Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003).
Pain can also be controlled by distracting the brainÊs attention. Since pain is
influenced both by physical stimuli and the brain, pain should be treated both
physically and psychologically. For example, the Lamaze childbirth method
includes relaxation techniques, massaging techniques and thought distraction ă
focusing on pleasant images (Myers, 2002). Doctors and nurses often use the
technique of distraction when injecting patients that are scared of needles or pain.
They would usually ask the patient to look away and then while engaging the
patient in conversation, swiftly insert the needle. Other factors such as the context,
your interpretation of the situation and your emotional responses are just as crucial
in determining how much pain you experience as actual physical stimuli (Gerrig
and Zimbardo, 2008).

ACTIVITY 6.1
Describe a real life situation in which the gate control theory of pain can
be applied.
• The skin functions to protect us from surface injuries, hold in bodily fluids
and regulate body temperature.
• Skin receptors are responsible for the cutaneous sensations of pressure,

temperature and pain.
• Touch plays three main functions in our lives:

(i) Touch helps us to identify and recognise objects;
(ii) Touch is a means of social interaction; and
(iii) Touch plays a major role in human development.
• Pain is also a property of the brain, and not only of the senses.
• Perception of pain is a great example of the powerful mind and body

connection.
• According to the gate control theory of pain, the spinal cord has a neural
„gate‰ that can block pain signals from being sent to the brain.
(i) Other factors such as the context, your interpretation of the situation
and your emotional responses are just as crucial in determining how
much pain you experience as the actual physical stimuli (Gerrig and
Zimbardo, 2008).

A-delta fibres Mechanoreceptors

C fibres Meissner corpuscles
Cutaneous sensations Merkel disks
Dermis Pacinian corpuscles
Endorphins Paradoxical heat
Epidermis Ruffini endings
Free nerve endings Small nerve fibres
Gate control theory Somatosensory receptors
Large nerve fibres Thermoreceptors
Ackerman, D. (1990). A natural history of the senses. New York: Random

House.
Prentice Hall.
Pearson Education.
Harlow, H.F. & Harlow, M.K. (1966). Learning to love. Scientific American, 54,
244-272.
Melzack, R. & Wall, P.D. (1965). Pain mechanisms: A new theory. Science, 150,
971-979.
Morris, C.G. & Maisto, A.A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Topic X Taste
7 Perception
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe how we taste;
2. Identify the basic qualities of taste; and
3. Explain how we develop taste preferences.
X INTRODUCTION
Imagine biting into a Mars Bar. You taste the intensely sweet, sticky caramel, the
sweet creamy chocolate with a hint of bitterness from the cocoa, the crunchiness
of the nuts, and the wonderful taste of all the flavours combined in your mouth is
simply out of this world. Could it be Mars? What does it mean when we say we
can taste something? It means that we able to identify the flavour of a substance.
Flavour refers to the taste, smell and texture of food.

(a) The anatomy of taste;
(b) How we taste;
(c) Taste adaptation;
(d) Taste interaction; and
(e) Taste preferences.

TOPIC 7 TASTE PERCEPTION W 73
7.1 ANATOMY OF TASTE

The gustatory system is the scientific name for the system that enables us to taste.
Now, we will learn about the component parts of this incredible system and how
they all work together to produce our perception of taste.
If you look closely at the surface of your tongue, you will notice that it has a
rather bumpy appearance. What you are looking at is called papillae. There are
four kinds of papillae. Table 7.1 shows the types of papillae, their characteristics
and their locations on the tongue.
Table 7.1: Types of Papillae
Types of Papillae
Pappilae Characteristics Location
Filiform papillae Cone shaped All over the tongue
Fungiform papillae Mushroom shaped Sides and tip of the tongue
Foliate papillae Leaf shaped Sides of the tongue
Circumvallate papillae Flat mounds Back of the tongue
Source: Sekuler and Blake (1994).
The only type of papillae that does not have taste buds is the filiform papillae. If
you were to put some salt right at the centre of your tongue, you would not taste
anything. All other papillae contain clusters of taste receptor cells known as taste
buds (onion shaped cells). Although most of our taste buds are located on the
tongue, there are also taste buds located on the roof of your mouth, inside your
cheeks and at the back of your throat (Davis and Palladino, 2000).
Our tongue contains around 10,000 taste buds, and each taste bud contains
around 50 receptor cells. At the tip of each receptor, are short hair-like structures
called microvilli, which when stimulated, send electrical impulses to the brain
(Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003). Just as light is the stimuli for vision,
molecules that dissolve in liquid or substances that dissolve in saliva are the
stimuli for taste. The nerves that carry information about taste also transmit
messages about the temperature and texture of food, swallowing and chewing.
Figure 7.1 gives an illustration of a taste bud.

74 X TOPIC 7 TASTE PERCEPTION
Figure 7.1: Taste bud

Source: http://wwwpsych.stanford.edu/~lera/psych115s/notes/lecture11/images/
7.2 QUALITIES OF TASTE

The primary function of our sense of taste is to prevent us from eating poisonous
food, while making sure that we eat nutritious food. Infants have a very sensitive
sense of taste. Their taste buds are extremely sensitive to bitter and sweet tastes.
Bitter food is usually rejected; while sweet food is usually accepted. As we grow
older (after the age of 40), our sense of taste weakens.
So what are the different qualities of taste that we are able to identify? Most of us
will vaguely remember learning about the different qualities of taste and the map
of the tongue. Does Figure 7.2 bring back any memories? Well, if you do not
remember, then better still because this is incorrect. We were told that there are
four basic qualities of taste: sweet, sour, bitter and salty. Every other taste is a
combination of these four tastes. Now, we know that this map of the tongue is
not completely correct. The tip of the tongue is most sensitive to sweetness and
saltiness; the sides to sourness; and the back to bitterness. However, each area
can also identify all four taste qualities to some degree (Morris and Maisto, 2001).
It is just that the concentration is higher on the places mapped out on the tongue
as bitter, sweet, salty and sour. We do not have only four basic qualities of taste;
we have five and maybe even six.
As we know, protein is a very important part of a nutritious and well-balanced

diet. Scientists have now discovered a taste receptor that is responsible for
making sure we consume enough of it (Chaudhari, Landin & Roper, 2000).The
fifth basic taste quality is umami. It detects the flavour of monosodium glutamate
(MSG), the taste enhancer that is often added to Asian food or instant food such
as Maggi Mee. The flavour can best be described as savoury. This chemical can
actually be found naturally in foods such as seaweed and cheese.
A potential taste receptor for fat has been identified in rats (Laugerette et al,
2005). However, scientists are yet to confirm if humans have the same receptor.
In the past, the possibility that fatty substances may be a sixth basic taste quality
was examined, but the results were mixed. Now, once again research is finding
more proof for this claim.
Still other recent studies are finding more taste qualities such as calcium,
metallicness, dryness, hotness, coolness, numbness and heartiness (Wenner,
2008). Some of these taste qualities have been described by various cultures
centuries ago. For example, in Malay, we have a term that describes the taste of
dryness ă kelat. The taste of hotness which is mainly derived from chilli peppers
and black pepper is used in many diverse cuisines all over the world. You can
taste coolness when eating food with mint or menthol. The taste of numbness can
be described as a tingling sensation of numbness produced by Sichuan peppers
or chilli peppers. In Indonesia, this taste is referred to as mati rasa.
Figure 7.2: Map of the tongue

Source: http://www.odec.ca/projects/2003/acton3s/publichtml/tongue map2.GIF

7.3 TASTE PERCEPTION

Our perception of taste is affected by many factors such as our emotions,
expectations, experiences, genes, environment and age. In this subtopic, we will
learn about how our perception of taste is influenced by both external and
internal factors. The way I perceive the taste of spinach may be very different
from your perception of its taste. Let us find out why.
7.3.1 Taste Adaptation

Like our other senses, adaptation also occurs with our sense of taste. For
example, when you first start eating something really sour like asam, the
sourness is quite strong, but after a while it becomes less obvious. In addition,
exposure to one quality of taste can influence other tastes. For example, if you
were to drink orange juice right after brushing your teeth, you would notice that
the orange juice does not taste as sweet as it should be (Morris and Maisto, 2001).
Remember afterimages? The concept of aftertaste is similar. Aftertaste is a taste

that lingers long after we have swallowed the food, for example, when we eat
durian or curry. Aftertaste is proof of our sense of taste adapting.
There is also what is known as acquired taste, which is an appreciation for

unfamiliar or strange tasting food or beverage that is acquired over time (Sekuler
and Blake, 1994). For example, many people say that the appreciation of beer is
an acquired taste because beer is rather bitter.
Tastes can be grouped into two main categories: appetitive and aversive. Sweet,
umami and salty are appetitive; while sour and bitter are aversive. Appetitive
tastes suggest nutritious food; and aversive food suggests potential harmful
substances. When you combine appetitive and aversive tastes, conflicting
messages are sent to the brain. There is confusion, but our first reaction would be
usually to reject the food with these combinations of tastes because it might be
harmful to us (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008). However, we have acquired the taste
for some food that sends mixed signals such as sweet and sour sauce. There are,
however, combinations that most of us would rather not explore such as
chocolate and salted fish.
The Gestalt psychologists said that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.
Our sense of taste demonstrates this precisely. Many times, adding one taste can
reduce the perceived intensity of another taste. For example, if you want to make
sambal taste less spicy, add a little sugar, and the perceived intensity of the
spiciness is reduced.
ACTIVITY 7.1
1. Give your own example of taste adaptation.

2. What happens when two unlikely tastes are combined?
7.3.2 Taste Interaction

When we are eating, our sense of taste and smell work together very closely. That
is why when you have a cold, it is very difficult to taste food because your nasal
passages are blocked and you cannot smell the food (Davis and Palladino,
2000).You can try a simple experiment in order to test whether this is true.
Simply close your eyes and hold your nose, and get a friend to give you food that
has similar texture but different taste such as pieces of pear and radish. Almost
90% of what we think of as taste is actually smell. We have about 10, 000
receptors on our tongues and 20, 000 receptors in our noses (Biello, 2006).
SELF-CHECK 7.1
1. Why is that you find it difficult to taste food when you are having a cold?
2. Which is stronger: our sense of taste or our sense of smell?
7.3.3 Taste Preferences

How do we develop taste preferences? Why is it that some people hate spinach,
but love chocolate? Many scientists believe that the food we eat in our early years
has a direct link to our taste preferences and eating habits now. Scientists have
also found a strong relation between the food our mothers ate when we were still
in the womb, and our taste preferences now (Drewnowski, 1997). As we
discussed before, as infants, we had a more strong sense of taste compared with
our other senses. Our sense of taste is one of the first ways we learn about the
world around us. This is why infants typically stuff everything they see into their
mouths.
Generally, humans have shown a very diverse sense of taste preferences.

Globalisation plays a big role in our development of diverse taste preferences. In
this age, it is easier than ever to explore different types of tastes from all over the
world. According to evolutionary psychology, our sense of taste tells us to avoid
unfamiliar food (Smith and Margolskee, 2001). However, since we are not

foraging for food any more, and we get our food from supermarkets, we take it
for granted that the food we get from supermarkets is safe for consumption.
Therefore, without that worry in mind, we have become explorers of a vast ocean
of tastes. If you think about it, one of the first reasons we started exploring the
world was because of the spice trade. The demand for flavour led our ancestors
to set sail.
Essentially, our taste preferences are determined by several factors such as genes,
environment, experience and age (Drewnowski, 1997). Genes give us a
predetermined sense of taste. For example, if both your parents are Indian, then
there is a very high chance that you will also have a predetermined taste
preference for spicy food. Our environment also plays an important role by
opening up new taste experiences for us. For example, even though you have
genes that give you a predetermined taste preference for spicy food, but you
grew up in Europe, you would develop taste preferences for European food as
well. As for the age factor, babies innately prefer sweet food and reject bitter
food. Then, as they grow older, they start exploring different tastes.
Experience also plays an important role in taste preferences. For example,

children typically develop their taste preferences through exposure and
association. Children who have been exposed to fast food early and often will
most likely continue to eat fast food throughout their adulthood (Schlosser, 2002).
The food that we enjoyed eating as children is also most of the time our „comfort
food‰ today. When we are emotionally disturbed, we tend to indulge in „comfort
food‰. As a consequence, obesity is a big problem today. We also learn to
associate certain tastes with certain emotions or feelings (Smith and Margolskee,
2001). For example, you may remember going to McDonalds to celebrate your
birthday as a child and feeling very happy. Until now, you may still associate
meals from McDonalds with a feeling of happiness. Similarly, we often develop
food aversions, especially if we become sick after eating a certain kind of food,
even though that food may not have been the cause of the sickness.
Our preferences for certain food are also affected by its colour (Drewnowski,
1997). For example, blue orange juice does not taste as good as orange juice. You
can try this out yourself at home, just add some green food colouring to a glass of
milk and try drinking it. This is because for thousands of years, humans have
relied on their sense of vision to identify food which is good to eat. For example,
the colour of fruit tells us whether it is ripe. Other than that, I believe it is fair
enough to say that our expectations affect our perception of taste. Much of the
food that we consume today has added colouring. For example, yellow colouring
is often added to margarine, which is actually a pale yellow colour, to make it
appear to taste better.

The food industry today has exploited the knowledge and technology available
to produce food that tastes undeniably good, but of very low nutritional value at
a low cost. Specifically, I am referring to food that is mass produced, such as
processed food and fast food. The flavour industry has become a major success
story by creating flavours that are addictive and literally mouth-watering. It has
been found that the combination of fat, salt and sugar together with the
thousands of other chemicals added to fast food makes it taste and smell so
irresistible to most of us. Flavourists have even tangled with the texture of our
food. For example, the vegetables at McDonalds contain different chemicals in
order to make the vegetables crispy and fresh tasting. The typical strawberry
flavour which can be found in a whole range of food products today consists of
over 50 different chemicals so skilfully chosen and combined in a way to mimic
the taste of real strawberries (Schlosser, 2002).
If you open your fridge and take a look at the labels on the food products, you
will find that the list of ingredients will either contain artificial flavour and/or
natural flavour. Natural flavour does not in any case mean that it contains fewer
chemicals and is healthier for you. The only thing it means is that it has been
produced using different methods (Schlosser, 2002). There are many other
ingredients that are not written on that label and many others that we are simply
ignorant of. So, maybe there is actually a need to worry about the food you get
from the supermarket because it does not seem as if it is necessarily safe to
consume.
ACTIVITY 7.2
1. What factors determine our taste preferences?

2. How has the food industry affected our taste preferences?
• The gustatory system is the scientific name for the system that enables us to
taste.
Ć Papillae contain clusters of taste receptor cells known as taste buds.
• At the tip of each receptor, are short hair-like structures called microvilli,
which when stimulated, send electrical impulses to the brain (Gazzaniga and
Heatherton, 2003).

• Just as light is the stimuli for vision, molecules that dissolve in liquid or
substances that dissolve in saliva are the stimuli for taste.
Ć The primary function of our sense of taste is to prevent us from eating

poisonous food, while making sure that we eat nutritious food.
• The five basic taste qualities are: sweet, bitter, sour, salty and umami.
• Our sense of taste interacts very closely with our sense of smell.
• Our taste preferences are determined by several factors such as genes,

the environment, experience and age.
Acquired taste Gustatory system

Aftertaste Microvilli
Circumvallate papillae Monosodium glutamate
Filiform papillae Taste buds
Foliate papillae Umami
Fungiform papillae
Biello, D. (2006). Expectations influence sense of taste. Scientific American

Magazine (February 2006 ed). Retrieved October 6, 2009, from
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=expectations-influence-se
Prentice Hall.
Drewnowski, A. (1997). Taste preferences and food intake. Annual Review of
Nutrition, 17, 237-253.
Pearson Education.

Laugerette, F. et al. (2005). CD36 involvement in orosensory detection of dietary

lipids, spontaneous fat preference, and digestive secretions. The Journal of
Clinical Investigation, 115, 3177ă3184
Morris, C.G. & Maisto, A.A. (2001). Understanding psychology (5th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.
Schlosser, E. (2002). Fast food nation. Penguin Books.
Smith, D.V. & Margolskee, R.F. (2001). Making sense of taste. Scientific American
Magazine (March 2001 ed). Retrieved October 6, 2009, from
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=making-sense-of-
taste&page=5
Wenner, M. (2008). Like the taste of chalk? YouÊre in luck ă humans may be able
to taste calcium. Scientific American Magazine (August 2008 ed). Retrieved
October 6, 2009, from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=
osteoporosis-calcium-taste-chalk

Topic X Smell
8 Perception
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe the olfactory process;
2. Explain what pheromones are;
3. Explain how we smell different scents; and
4. Recommend the main factors influencing odour preferences.
X INTRODUCTION
When it comes to the sense of smell, most other animal species are superior to us
because they use their sense of smell for survival. Humans, on the other hand, do
not depend on the sense of smell to survive. We use our sense of smell mainly in
connection with taste. Smell can also be used to communicate. Many animals
communicate by secreting and detecting chemical signals called pheromones.
Pheromones can be used to communicate various messages such as to mark oneÊs
territory, show sexual preference and signal danger (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008).
For example, dogs often urinate in order to mark their territory.

(a) The olfactory system;
(b) How we smell;
(c) Odour preferences; and
(d) Odour, memory and emotion.

TOPIC 8 SMELL PERCEPTION W 83
8.1 THE OLFACTORY SYSTEM

The olfactory system is the sensory system for our sense of smell or olfaction.
Our olfactory system is divided into two parts. The main olfactory system is
responsible for detecting odours. The second olfactory system is responsible for
communicating sexual and territorial messages. First, we will look at the main
olfactory system. Figure 8.1 is an illustration of the main olfactory system.
Figure 8.1: Olfactory system

Source: http://aromatherapy-recipe-s.com/wp
content/uploads/2009/02/aromatheraphy-work.jpg
Table 8.1 shows the functions and locations of the important component parts of
our olfactory system.
Table 8.1: Parts of the Olfactory System, Functions and Location
Function Location
Olfactory receptors Detecting odour molecules. On the olfactory epithelium
in the nasal cavity.
Conveys messages from the Just below the frontal lobe
Olfactory bulb nose to the brain. and just above the
receptors.
Olfaction, emotion and In the brain, just below the
Limbic system
memory. thalamus,
Source: Santrock, 2005.

84 X TOPIC 8 SMELL PERCEPTION
Figure 8.2 shows the three basic steps involved in the olfactory process:
Figure 8.2: The olfactory process

Source: Gazzaniga and Heatherton, 2003
As I mentioned before, we also have a second sensory system devoted to the

sense of smell which is used for purposes of social interaction such as
communicating sexual or territorial signals. The stimuli for this second olfactory
system are odourless hormones that we naturally produce, called pheromones.
Pheromones are detected by receptors located in the roof of the nasal cavity
(Morris and Maisto, 2001). In the past, scientists thought that only animals
secreted pheromones. This would be an obvious conclusion if you were to make
a direct observation of the world around you. You see dogs sniffing each otherÊs
rear ends to check each other out, but you do not see humans doing the same
thing. However, apparently, we also sniff each other out. We may not urinate on
car tyres to mark our territory, but there is increasing evidence that pheromones
might help us sniff out the right partner (Wright, 2003). A womanÊs sense of
olfaction is heightened during ovulation. This suggests that women may be using
their noses to sniff out pheromones at a time when reproduction has its highest
chances of success. Perfume manufacturers have also made use of pheromones
by combining it with perfume and trying to convince us that perfumes mixed
with pheromones will make us more sexually attractive.

SELF-CHECK 8.1
1. Name three important components of the olfactory system, and

then list their functions and locations.
2. What are the three basic steps in the olfactory process?
3. What are pheromones?
8.1.1 How Do We Smell?

Olfaction is not considered one of the more important senses that we possess
compared with our visual and auditory systems, and therefore not as much
research has been done on it. Even though the sense of smell has the most direct
route to the brain compared with all the other senses, it is the least understood.
The location of the olfactory receptors are hard to reach and difficult to examine
properly, making research more difficult.
The olfactory receptors are not located all around the nose as you might think;
they are located in an area of tissue of about one inch long in each nasal hole. We
have approximately 10 million olfactory receptors. Each receptor contains about
six to twelve hair-like structures at the tip of the cell called cilia. The olfactory
receptors are continuously replaced (Davis and Palladino, 2000). Unlike our
sense of taste, there are no basic qualities of smell. Each scent is recognised
individually. Humans can identify up to 10,000 different scents. So how does the
olfactory system detect over 10,000 different odours?
In the year 2004, the Nobel Prize in Physiology went to Linda Buck and Richard
Axel for their research on the olfactory system which has given us a better
understanding of the system. Buck and Axel (1991) found that each olfactory
receptor cell contains only one kind of receptor. Each type of receptor can detect
certain molecules, some with more intensity than others. Olfactory receptors
respond to the sub-molecular characteristics of chemicals. For example, one type
of receptor may respond to any chemical that contains a hydrocarbon chain of a
specific pattern (Wilson, 2007). Essentially, receptors respond to many different
odours with the condition that they share a specific characteristic. Then, the brain
(olfactory bulb and olfactory cortex) receives information about the pattern or
combination of receptors that are stimulated at any given time and interprets that
pattern with regard to old patterns that have been experienced before and other
relevant information. What we perceive as smell is the interpreted pattern
(Wilson, 2007).

We use our sense of smell to determine whether food is good enough to be eaten.
For example, by using our sense of smell, we can differentiate between fresh and
rotten food. We can use our sense of smell as a guide to track down where a
certain smell is coming from, though of course not as well as my dog can.
However, you may smell coffee as you are leaving the LRT station, and then be
able follow your nose to lead you to the coffee. An interesting fact about the
neurons in the olfactory system is that they, unlike neurons from other sensory
systems, tend to be replaced only after being damaged. Unlike other sensory
systems, the messages are not sent through the thalamus (Santrock, 2005).
Our sense of smell is also affected by the temperature of the food. Hot food tends
to release more aromas. Dogs have about 200 million smell receptors. We have 10
million. Our sense of smell enhances our sense of taste. The stimuli for smell are
airborne molecules that can dissolve in water or fat (Sternberg, 2001).
Like our other senses, our sense of smell also goes through adaptation. For
example, when you wear perfume, you only smell it initially, then after a few
hours you are not able to smell your own perfume any more although people
around you can still smell it (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson, 2003).
ACTIVITY 8.1
1. How do we identify different scents?

2. What is the main function of smell?
3. Give your own example of smell adaptation.
8.1.2 What is Odour?

When we smell something, we actually smell its molecules mixed with the air
around us. It is easier to smell substances that mix easily with the air. The reason
why you cannot smell the chair is because molecules from the chair do not mix
easily with the air. Odours become alive when they start interacting with
receptors. In order to stimulate the olfactory receptors, it takes only eight
molecules of a substance. However, before you can actually smell the substance,
around 40 nerve endings must be stimulated (Gerrig and Zimbardo, 2008). As
soon as the nerve impulses have been initiated by the substance, they send odour
messages to the olfactory bulb.

When odour is added to taste, taste is amplified. Try closing your nostrils and
eating something, then try eating with your nostrils open. You should be able to
experience a more amplified sense of taste without your nostrils closed. This is
because chewing releases chemicals into the nasal passages (Davis and Palladino,
2000).
8.2 SMELL PERCEPTION

Why does one person love the smell of freshly cut grass while another despises
it? In the following sub-section, we will discuss this briefly as it is rather similar
to what we have learned in the previous topics. Another question that will be
answered is: why do odours bring back such clear memories and evoke such
strong emotions in us? The link between odour, memory and emotion will be
discussed as well.
8.2.1 Odour Preferences

Scientists now basically know how we smell, but why we like certain smells and
dislike others is still very much a mystery. The findings are mixed. Some say
odour preferences are hardwired into our system, some say it could be the shape
of the molecules, or culture or through learned association. While some may
believe that there are odours which are universally disliked such as the smell of
faeces. Herz (2007) disagrees and cites an example of an African tribe that smears
their bodies and faces with faeces as part of a ritual.
According to Herz (2002), we have preferences for certain smells because of

associative learning or past experiences. Imagine a particular odour is
experienced just after you failed your exam; your emotional state at that time is
disappointment. The next time you experience that particular odour again, you
are very likely to feel disappointed. This is what is meant by associative learning.
We learn to associate a certain smell with an emotion (Herz, 2002).
Another view is that we are born liking or disliking certain odours because it has
been hardwired into our system. This means that it has been genetically passed
down to us by our parents (Myers, 2002).
We start to develop odour preferences at a very early stage. Infants, even while
they are still in the motherÊs womb, are exposed to different odours which they
become accustomed to and show a preference for those same smells later on in
life. These odours also become their „comfort odours‰.

SELF-CHECK 8.2
1. Why is it impossible to smell your handphone?

2. What are the main factors influencing odor preferences?
8.2.3 Odour, Memory and Emotion

Odour, memory and emotion are very closely linked because the olfactory bulb,
which is responsible for smell perception, is directly linked to our limbic system,
which is responsible for olfaction, memory and emotion.
Have you ever heard the saying, „Stop and smell the roses?‰ This saying is
usually used to imply that one should take a break from the cacophony and
chaos of everyday life to indulge oneÊs self in pleasure once in a while. Indeed,
certain odours can give us pleasure.
A smell can bring back long, lost memories; affect your mood and even your job
performance (Herz, 2002). When you first smell a new odour, you immediately
link it to something. For example, you may associate the smell of suntan lotion
with the beach or the smell of a particular perfume with a lover. While odours
can remind of us of places and people, they also stir up emotions in us. For
example, the smell of suntan lotion may stir up pleasant emotions because you
associate it with the beach. Whereas, the smell of a perfume may stir up
unpleasant emotions associated with a lover.
For a long time, advertisers left our sense of smell alone. They were busy
bombarding mostly our visual and auditory senses. Now, advertisers have found
that marketing by using scents is just as effective. For example, a real estate agent
may place freshly baked cookies in the kitchen in order to make the house seem
more welcoming and homely.
How can we remember odours when olfactory receptors are replaced by new
ones all the time? This is because, when an olfactory receptor dies, it is replaced
by another one expressing the very same characteristics. This results in
extraordinary pattern stability over years. Let us imagine that on a recent
holiday, you tried some new kind of food. The odour of that particular type of
food is made of a complex pattern of different sub-molecular characteristics. Our
brain interprets this pattern and remembers it. After a few months, you smell the
same kind of food you tasted on your holiday while passing a restaurant. Even
though the receptors that were present when you first tasted that food on your

holiday are dead and have been already replaced by new ones, the pattern
remains the same (Wilson, 2007).
ACTIVITY 8.2
1. Why is odour closely linked to memory and emotion?

2. What is the first thing you do when you smell a new odour?
3. How can we remember odours when olfactory receptors are
replaced by new ones all the time?
• Our olfactory system is divided into two parts: the main olfactory system is
responsible for detecting odours; and the second olfactory system is
responsible for communicating sexual and territorial messages.
• The three most important components parts of the olfactory system are the
olfactory receptors, olfactory bulb and the limbic system.
• Essentially, receptors respond to many different odours with the condition

that they share a specific characteristic ă similar sub-molecular characteristics.
• Then, the brain receives information about the pattern or combination of

receptors that are stimulated at any given time and interprets that pattern
with regards to old patterns that have been experienced before and other
relevant information.
• Odour, memory and emotion are very closely linked because the olfactory
bulb, which is responsible for smell perception is directly linked to our limbic
system, which is responsible for olfaction, memory and emotion.
Cilia Olfactory bulb

Limbic system Olfactory system
Olfaction Pheromones

Buck, L. & Axel, R. (1991). A novel multigene family may encode odorant
receptors: A molecular basis for odor recognition. Cell, 65, 87-175.
Prentice Hall.
Pearson Education.
Herz, R. (2002). Do scents affect peopleÊs moods or work performance. Scientific
American Magazine (November 2002 ed). Retrieved October 15, 2009, from
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=do-scents-affect-peoples
Herz, R. (2007) The scent of desire. Harper Collins Publishing.
Santrock, J.W. (2005). Psychology essentials 2. New York: McGraw Hill.
Sternberg, R.J. (2001). Psychology: In search of the human mind. (3rd ed.).
Florida: Harcourt College Publishers.
Wilson, D. (2007). How do we manage to remember smells despite the fact that each
olfactory sensory neuron only survives for about 60 days and is then replaced by a
new cell? Scientific American Magazine (October 2007 ed). Retrieved October 15,
2009, from http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=experts-olfactory-
neuron-turnover
Wright, L. (2003). Sniffing out that special someone. Scientific American
Magazine (February 2003 ed). Retrieved October 15, 2009, from
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=sniffing-out-that-special
Zimbardo, P.J., Weber, A.L. & Johnson, R.L. (2003). Psychology: Core concepts
(4th ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Topic X The Nature
9 of Emotions
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Compare emotion with mood, personality, temperament and
disposition;
2. Debate about the philosophical foundations of emotion; and
3. Describe the different theories of emotion.
X INTRODUCTION
Think about all the emotions you experienced today. You may have felt irritated
for having to wake up early without proper sleep and then angry on your way to
work because of an inconsiderate driver on the road, and later, happy to read an
e-mail from a friend. We seem to have an emotional reaction to just about
everything. But what is emotion?
In this topic we will discuss:

(a) Different definitions of emotion;
(b) The historical and philosophical foundations of emotion; and
(c) Several theories of emotion.

92 X TOPIC 9 THE NATURE OF EMOTIONS
9.1 EMOTION
The following are several quotes about emotions by some famous people:
„The most beautiful thing we can experience is the mysterious. It is the

source of all art and science. He to whom this emotion is a stranger, who can
no longer pause to wonder and stand rapt in awe, is as good as dead.. his
eyes are closed.‰
ă Albert Einstein (1879-1955), German physicist
„There can be no transforming of darkness into light and of apathy into

movement without emotion.‰
ă Carl Gustav Jung (1875-1961), Swiss psychologist
„The advantage of the emotions is that they lead us astray.‰

ă Oscar Wilde (1854-1900), Irish poet and dramatist
„Any emotion, if it is sincere, is involuntary.‰

ă Mark Twain (1835-1910), American author
„The emotions aren't always immediately subject to reason, but they are
always immediately subject to action.‰
ă William James (1842-1910) American psychologist
The word „emotion‰ comes from Latin and suggests some kind of motion
outwards (Sternberg, 2001). A long time ago, people used the word „emotion‰ to
describe the disturbance or turbulence of a thunderstorm. Today, we use it more
commonly to describe the turbulence we experience as human beings (Kalat and
Shiota, 2007). According to Robert Plutchik (American psychologist), emotions
include three aspects: cognition, feeling and action (Santrock, 2005). In other
words, emotions include thinking, feeling and behaviour. This is the most
commonly accepted view of emotions today. However, oftentimes, emotions
have been seen as the opposite of reason. Although, emotions can make us
behave in unreasonable and irrational ways at times, it would be unfair to jump
to the conclusion that emotions are the opposite of reason or rational thinking.
We are often surprised by emotions because emotions seem to have a sneaky

way of pouncing on you when least expected. Many people often describe the
emotion of love as an emotion that overwhelms them when least expected. When
emotions get out of control, it can be dangerous. For example, the murderous
rage of a jealous lover, or the heartbroken teenager attempting to end his life.

TOPIC 9 THE NATURE OF EMOTIONS W 93
Emotions can make life worth living and it can also be the reason people end
their lives.
SELF-CHECK 9.1
Describe in your own words what emotion is.
9.1.1 Emotion Versus Mood, Personality,

Temperament and Disposition
In order to define something clearly, sometimes it is more effective to define
what it is not or to compare and contrast it with similar concepts or terms. This is
the objective of this sub-section here. Emotions are often associated with moods,
temperaments, dispositions and personality. Now, we are going to discuss the
definitions of, mood, temperament, disposition and personality. Hopefully this
process will give us a better understanding of what emotion is.
(a) Mood
Mood usually refers to an emotional state that typically can last from a few
hours to a few weeks. It can be described as a background feeling that
lingers. The difference between emotions and moods are that moods are
less intense, less specific and last longer (Oatley, Keltner and Jenkins, 2006).
We feel emotions about events and people, but we do not have moods
about something or somebody. Moods are generalised emotions.
(b) Personality
Personality refers to the stable individual differences across situations
(Griffiths, 1997). All personality consists of emotional cores. For example, I
might have an anxious personality. These emotional tendencies shape the
way people live their lives. Hence, being an anxious person by personality,
I might always be worried.
(c) Temperament
Temperament refers to the innate aspects of your personality (Morris and
Maisto, 2001). For example, you may have a very pleasant temperament,
meaning that you are cheerful and friendly by nature. Temperament is
somewhat like a permanent mood.

(d) Disposition
A disposition is a habit, inclination or a tendency to act in a specified way.
A disposition can be described as a persistent emotional tendency about
certain objects or events (Griffiths, 1997). For example, a child that has been
continuously abused by the father will develop a permanent tendency to
feel scared and angry at the sight of the father or might even react in an
abusive manner in similar situations in the future.
ACTIVITY 9.1
1. Compare and contrast the differences and similarities between

emotion and mood, personality, temperament and disposition.
2. Give one example each of an emotion, mood, personality,
temperament and disposition.
9.1.2 Historical and Philosophical Foundations of

Emotion
It is no surprise that emotion is a topic of great interest to philosophers. This is
because examining emotions help us understand ourselves and others better.
(a) Aristotle (384 BC ă 322 BC)

Aristotle is one of the greatest thinkers and philosophers to have lived. He
viewed emotions as an essential part of life. His most important
contribution was that emotions are connected to actions (Oatley, Keltner
and Jenkins, 2006). Unlike many people who believed that emotions are
outside of our control, he believed that emotions are influenced by a
personÊs belief. Emotions are evaluations. Therefore, we can control our
emotions by changing our beliefs. Aristotle said, „Emotions are the things
on account of which the ones altered differ with respect to their judgments,
and are accompanied by pleasure and pain; such as anger, pity, fear and all
similar emotions and their contraries.‰ Most of us would agree with
AristotleÊs view that emotions may alter our judgment. For example, you
often fail to see the imperfections or faults of the person you are in love
with. On the other hand, you might easily point out the faults of the person
you hate. Different judgments give rise to different views. Aristotle defined
fear as "a pain or disturbance due to a mental picture of some destructive or
painful evil in the future‰, whereas anger was defined as "an impulse,
accompanied by pain, to a conspicuous revenge for a conspicuous slight

directed without justification towards what concerns oneself or towards

what concerns one's friends‰.
(b) Rene Descartes (1596 ă 1650)

Like Aristotle, Descartes agrees that emotions depend on how we evaluate
or judge events. Descartes said, „I think therefore I am.‰ Emotions are
evaluations of events in relation to what is important to us: our goals,
values and concerns. Descartes said emotions are a bridge between the
mind and the body, a God-given source of motivation that allows us to
survive.
(c) Charles Darwin (1809 ă 1882)

Charles DarwinÊs theory of emotion focuses on the use of facial expressions
to communicate information and emotions. Darwin suggests that facial
expressions evolved as a way to communicate messages and that emotions
were created by evolution for this purpose (Oatley, Keltner and Jenkins,
2006). Darwin intently studied faces and facial expressions in an attempt to
understand emotion. He also observed that both humans and animals share
certain „universal‰ emotional expressions. According to Darwin (1965),
both humans and animals „express the same state of mind by the same
movements‰. Darwin was trying to prove that all humans irrespective of
race and animals have shared feelings and emotions. In his book The
Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals, he compiled portraits of facial
expressions of humans and animals as evidence that humans and animals
have shared feelings and emotions. Take a look at figures 9.1 and 9.2 for
examples of illustrations from DarwinÊs book.
He also described emotions as reflexes that do not require one to think. For
example, we do not have to think about crying when we are sad; our tear
ducts automatically produce tears. Darwin (1965) defined emotions as „the
direct action of the excited nervous system on the body independently of
the will‰. We often think of emotions as being unique to humans because
we are under the impression that emotion is a product of a highly evolved
species ă humans. However, this is not the case; in fact the very opposite is
true. The part of the brain that is responsible for emotions is one of the most
primitive parts of the brain which evolved thousands of years ago
(Griffiths, 1997).

Figure 9.1: Facial expression of terror from DarwinÊs The Expression of the Emotions in
Man and Animals
Source: http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/history/darwin/darwin-expression-
emotion-blind-athletes-2009.html
Figure 9.2: Sulky chimp from Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and
Animals
Source: http://www.lostworldread.com/images/charles_darwin/sulky_chimp.jpg

(d) Jean-Paul Sartre (1905 ă 1980)

Jean-Paul Sartre was one of the founding fathers of existential philosophy.
The core concept of existentialism is freedom. According to existentialism,
there is no such thing as human nature; rather you are wholly responsible
for the way you are (Oatley, Keltner and Jenkins, 2006). SartreÊs theory of
emotion is in opposition with the view that emotions are instinctual
reactions over which we have no control.
Sartre focused on the way emotions change the way we experience the
world around us. Sartre said that our emotions are „magical
transformations of the world‰. He also said that sometimes we use our
emotions to avoid responsibility and as an escape mechanism. For example,
imagine you were hoping to get a positive reply from a recent job
interview, but it turns out that you did not get the job. So you tell yourself
that the job was not a suitable job for you anyway. In this way we often use
our emotions as a way to avoid responsibility for our actions.
SELF-CHECK 9.2
1. What did Aristotle and Descartes say about emotions?

2. What was the focus of DarwinÊs theory of emotion?
ACTIVITY 9.2
1. Discuss with a partner the different philosophical views on emotion.

2. What was the focus of DarwinÊs theory of emotion?
9.2 THEORIES OF EMOTION

Emotion can be defined as affect or feeling that may include physiological
arousal (quickened heart rate), conscious experience (thinking about your lover),
and behavioural response (smiling). Therefore, physiological arousal, conscious
experience and behavioural responses are all important aspects of emotion.
However, as we will see now, psychologists have debated about which aspects of
emotion are most important and the way in which they combine to create
emotional experiences (Santrock, 2005). Let us look at some of the most
important definitions of emotions.

(a) The James-Lange Theory

William James is known as the founder of American psychology. James believed
that our actions come before our emotions. James (1884) said, „We feel sorry
because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble.‰ James
believed that emotions are a reaction to physiological reactions we experience
such as muscular tension, sweating and trembling. Carl Lange was a Danish
psychologist who had similar ideas about emotion around the same time as
William James. Hence, the James-Lange theory was born out of the combination
of ideas from James and Lange. Common sense view would say you run away
because you are afraid. The James-Lange theory would say you are afraid
because you are running away (Kalat and Shiota, 2007). William JamesÊ stated
that „the perception of bodily changes as they occur is emotion‰. In other words,
emotions are the perceptions of feelings or sensations we experience in our
body, such as sweaty palms, fast heart rate, butterflies in the stomach, muscular
tension and dilated pupils. Figure 9.5 illustrates JamesÊ famous example about
the fear of a bear.
Figure 9.3: William James

Source: http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/james/james.gif
Figure 9.4: Carl Lange

Source: http://www.npadnews.com/research.asp

Figure 9.5: James-Lange theory of emotion using the ‰fear of bear‰ example
Source: Kalat and Shiota, 2007
Critics of the James-Lange theory argue that you do not run away at the
sight of a bear, you run away from a bear that looks like it could harm you.
For example, you would not run away from a bear in a cage, but you would
probably run away from a bear you bumped into in the wilderness.
Therefore, you are not running away from the bear itself, but your
perception or appraisal of the whole event (wild bear heading in your
direction). Perhaps James and Lange only took the feeling aspect of emotion
into consideration (Kalat and Shiota, 2007).
(b) The Cannon-Bard Theory

Walter Cannon is most well known for discovering that the sympathetic
nervous system is responsible for fight-or-flight responses (Kalat and
Shiota, 2007). Cannon, together with Philip Bard, came up with an
alternative theory of emotion. The Cannon-Bard theory of emotion is
basically the opposite of the James-Lange theory. It states that we feel
emotions first, before we experience physiological responses. According to
this theory, we must feel an emotion before we can have a reaction. For
example: I see a bear. → I am afraid. → I begin to tremble (Zimbardo,
Weber & Johnson, 2003).
(c) The Schachter-Singer Theory

Stanley Schacter and Jerome Singer proposed in their theory that the
physiological reactions (sweating) and actions (running away) are aspects
of emotion that give us information about how strong the emotional feeling

will be (Kalat and Shiota, 2007). For example: I am nervous. → My hands

are trembling. → I must be really nervous. Schachter and Singer's two-
factor theory of emotion suggests that emotions are a result of our analysis
of the world around us. Emotion = arousal + appraisal. Unlike the James-
Lange theory, the Schachter-Singer theory defines emotion as our conscious
experience rather than a physiological response.
The Schachter-Singer theory focuses on differentiating one emotion from

another. Since many emotions evoke similar physiological responses, it is
impossible to tell which emotion one is feeling, based on bodily responses.
For example, both fear and excitement evoke an increase in heart rate.
Therefore, one learns to identify different emotions based on the
information available about the situation.
ACTIVITY 9.3
Explain in your own words the three theories of emotion.
• The most commonly accepted view of emotions today sees emotion as

including three aspects: thinking, feeling and behaviour.
• The difference between emotions and moods are that moods are less intense,
less specific and last longer (Oatley, Keltner and Jenkins, 2006).
• Personality refers to the stable individual differences across situations

(Griffiths, 1997). All personality consists of emotional cores.
• Temperament refers to the innate aspects of your personality (Morris and

Maisto, 2001).
• A disposition is a habit, inclination or a tendency to act in a specified way.
• According to William James and Carl Lange, emotions are the perceptions of
feelings or sensations we experience in our body: sweaty palms, fast heart
rate, butterflies in the stomach, muscular tension and dilated pupils.
• The Cannon-Bard theory states that we feel emotions first, before we

experience physiological responses.

• Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory of emotion suggests that emotions

are a result of our analysis of the world around us. Emotion = arousal +
appraisal.
Dispositions Moods
Emotions Personality
Fight-or-flight responses Temperament
Darwin, C. (1965). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. The
University of Chicago Press.
Griffiths, P.E. (1997). What emotions really are: the problem of psychological
categories. The University of Chicago Press.
James, W. (1884). What is an emotion? Mind, 9, 188-205.
Kalat, J.W. & Shiota, M.N. (2007). Emotion. Canada: Thomson Wadsworth.
Oatley, K., Keltner, D. & Jenkins, J.M. (2006). Understanding emotions (2nd ed.).
Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishing.
Sternberg, R.J. (2001). Psychology: In search of the human mind. (3rd ed.). Florida:
Harcourt College Publishers.

Topic X Emotions:
10 Functions
and Causes
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. List the functions of emotions;
2. Identify the causes of emotions; and
3. Compare different types of emotions.
X INTRODUCTION
We experience dozens of emotions every day, but what do they mean? Why do
we experience emotions? What is the function of emotions? What causes
emotions? How many different types of emotions are there? These are some of
the questions that will be discussed in this topic.
10.1 FUNCTIONS OF EMOTIONS

The most accepted and commonly known function of emotion is from the
evolutionary perspective. The evolutionary perspective suggests that emotions
function to aid us in survival and reproduction. For example, the emotion of fear
helps us to avoid harmful or threatening situations. We are more careful when
we are fearful. Imagine that you are still living in a hunter-gatherer society. How
would emotions be helpful to you? Fear of wild animals such as tigers is the
reason why you are not tiger food. Fear gives us two choices: fight or flight (run).
Similarly the emotion of love may make us commit to a family and reproduce.
Jealous lovers may react aggressively because it decreases their own chances of
reproducing (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson, 2003).

TOPIC 10 EMOTIONS: FUNCTIONS AND CAUSES W 103
Emotions can also function as a means of social interaction and a way of

communicating information about our feelings to others. Emotions send a
message to other people about the way we are feeling (Santrock, 2005). Thus, it is
a form of social interaction, so to say. For example, when we are happy, we smile,
and when we are sad, we frown. This display of emotion can also help others
predict our behaviour. For example, if somebody looks irritated and angry, you
most probably will not approach them to ask for a favour because you would
probably not get any co-operation from the person (Griffiths, 1997).
Our emotions are directed by what concerns us most or what is most important
to us. Hence, emotions can function to help us achieve our goals (Morris and
Maisto, 2001). For example, guilt makes me want to correct the wrongs I have
done. Emotions can help us strike back when the need arises (e.g. anger,
revenge), stand up for our integrity (pride) or show support for the people we
care about (love).
Essentially, in both humans and animals, emotions serve as arousal states that
help us cope with important recurring situations (Sternberg, 2001). Emotions are
like mental sticky notes; they remind us of important events. Negative emotions
remind of us of unpleasant events in the past which we would rather avoid in the
future, for example, feeling angry, fighting with a lover and then breaking up.
Positive emotions remind us of pleasant events in the past that we would like to
experience again in the future such as a feeling of love. Emotions are never
neutral. One of the functions of emotion is to give us cues as to whether an event
should be avoided or approached, and to remind us of significant events.
10.2 CAUSES OF EMOTIONS

In Topic 9, we learned that, according to the James-Lange theory, emotions are
caused by physiological reactions. Other theories such as the Schacter-Singer
theory suggest that emotions are a result of a conscious experience. So what
causes emotions? There are multiple factors that cause emotions. Let us have a
look.
10.2.1 Biological Approach

One of the causes of emotions is the biological and physiological reactions which
occur in our bodies. The functions of the central nervous system, limbic system
and endocrine system are essential in order for us to experience emotions. Let us
look at these systems in greater detail.

104 X TOPIC 10 EMOTIONS: FUNCTIONS AND CAUSES
(a) The Central Nervous System

When you first become emotionally aroused, the first part of you that is
alerted is the autonomic nervous system. The parasympathetic division
rules over pleasant emotions; and the sympathetic division rules over
unpleasant emotions. Just say you are experiencing grief, first the
sympathetic division is alerted, and then these messages guide our body to
produce serotonin (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson, 2003).
(b) The Limbic System

The limbic system probably evolved as a defence system or fight-or-flight
response. Experiments conducted such as lesions (damage) to the limbic
system or electrically stimulating certain parts of the limbic system have
shown that animals with altered limbic systems can produce dramatic
changes in emotional responses (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson, 2003). An
altered limbic system can make a peaceful person become a serial killer.
(c) The Endocrine System

Different emotions are connected to different concentrations of hormones.
For example, increased levels of testosterone seem to be associated with
aggression. The relationship between hormones and emotions is not a cause
and effect relationship. Exactly how hormones and emotions are connected
is still a mystery (Sternberg, 2001). There are a few hormones that are
especially important for our emotions: adrenaline, noradrenalin and
serotonin. Adrenaline is associated with fear, serotonin with depression
and noradrenalin with anger. Drugs such as steroids used by body builders
can produce emotional side effects such as depression and rage (Zimbardo,
Weber and Johnson, 2003).
SELF-CHECK 10.1
Explain how and why the central nervous system, limbic system and
endocrine system are essential in order for us to experience emotions.
10.2.2 Cognitive Approach

According to the cognitive approach, cognition in the form of thoughts,
judgments and evaluations must occur before we can experience emotions. In
Schachter and SingerÊs two-component theory of emotion, the first component is
physiological arousal, which can be caused by drugs or situational stimuli (e.g.
sudden surprise). The second component is how we label that physiological
arousal. For example, if you are physiologically aroused and you believe that the

appropriate emotion is jealousy, then you will feel jealous. Thinking about a
situation leads us to feel emotions. We often know how we feel about a situation
long before we have even thought about the situation. Emotions preceded
thinking in evolutionary psychology (Sternberg, 2001).
ACTIVITY 10.1
1. What are some of the functions of emotions?

2. What are the factors that cause emotions?
10.3 TYPES OF EMOTIONS

There are about 500 different types of emotions that can be found in the
dictionary. However psychologists have identified what they call basic or
primary emotions. Table 10.1 shows the different psychologists and their list of
basic emotions.
Table 10.1: List of Basic Emotions
Psychologists Basic Emotions

Arnold Anger, aversion, courage, dejection, desire, despair, fear,
hate, hope, love, sadness.
Ekman, Friesen & Ellsworth Anger, disgust, fear, joy, sadness, surprise.
Frijda Desire, happiness, interest, surprise, wonder, sorrow.
Gray Rage and terror, anxiety, joy.
Izard Anger, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, guilt, interest,
joy, shame, surprise.
James Fear, grief, love, rage.
McDougall Anger, disgust, elation, fear, subjection, tender-emotion,
wonder.
Oatley and Johnson-Laird Anger, disgust, anxiety, happiness, sadness.
Plutchik Acceptance, anger, anticipation, disgust, joy, fear,
sadness, surprise.
Tomkins Anger, interest, contempt, disgust, distress, fear, joy,
shame, surprise.
Watson Fear, love, rage.
Weiner and Graham Happiness, sadness.
Source: Ortony and Turner, 1990

10.3.1 Plutchik’s Wheel of Emotions

Robert PlutchikÊs theory of emotions is one of the most influential and most
popular theories of emotions for the time being. Plutchik sees emotions as natural
reactions that do not need cognitive interpretation. In other words, PlutchikÊs
theory is based on the evolutionary perspective on emotions (Oatley, Keltner and
Jenkins, 2006). Plutchik created the wheel of emotions in order to describe how
emotions are related as shown in Figure 10.1.
Figure 10.1: PlutchikÊs wheel of emotions

Source: http://library.thinkquest.org/25500/emotions/media/circle4.gif
PlutchikÊs eight basic emotions are: happiness, anticipation, sadness, surprise,

contempt, disgust, anger and fear. According to him, all other emotions are
combinations of the basic emotions (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson, 2003). He
suggested that these primary emotions are actually very primitive emotions and
have evolved to increase our chances of survival and reproduction. Each of
PlutchikÊs eight basic emotions has an opposite to match: surprise and
anticipation; anger and fear; acceptance and disgust; and joy and sadness.

According to Plutchik, emotions are like colours. Just like every colour can be
created by mixing the basic colours, every emotion can be created by mixing the
basic emotions (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson, 2003). For example, mixing
acceptance and fear produces submission. Optimism is composed of joy and
anticipation.
Plutchik (1980) proposed that emotions have four dimensions:

(a) Positive or negative (e.g. acceptance or disgust);
(b) Basic or mixed (e.g. sadness or disappointment);
(c) Most have total opposites (e.g. joy and sadness); and
(d) Differences in strength (e.g. ecstasy, joy and serenity).
Figure 10.2 shows another version of PlutchikÊs wheel of emotions. In this

illustration, you can see the intensity of emotions in greater detail. The emotions
at the centre are the most intense. For example, terror is the most intense
emotion, followed by fear and then apprehension.
Figure 10.2: PlutchikÊs emotions

Source: http://spacecollective.org/userdata/4K0pjnFT/1238665708/plutchik_flower.jpg

SELF-CHECK 10.2
1. Explain in your own words PlutchikÊs wheel of emotions.

2. What are the eight basic emotions described by Plutchik?
10.3.2 Basic Emotions

Let us look at some of the emotions that are considered by most psychologists as
the primary emotions that make up all other emotions. After this, you will
hopefully be able to better identify and recognise emotions. This in turn will help
you to respond to emotions more effectively.
(a) Happiness or Joy

Happiness or joy is considered by most common people and psychologists
as a primary emotion. Happiness is the feeling of a sense of well-being or
contentment. People often describe happiness as a warm inner glow.
Happiness is often expressed by smiling, and sometimes even crying
(Sternberg, 2001).
(b) Fear and Anxiety

Fear is the feeling of being afraid or scared of something. Fear motivates us
to avoid threatening situations. Anxiety is a generalised feeling of fear and
worry which is not caused by any object, event or person in particular
(Sternberg, 2001). Hence, the difference between fear and anxiety is: the
cause of fear can be pointed out, whereas, the cause of anxiety cannot.
When we feel anxious, we feel uneasy and worried without knowing why
(Ortony and Turner, 1990).
(c) Anger
We feel angry when we are restrained from pursuing a goal, or when we
feel injustice has been done to us. Research shows that we are more likely to
express our feelings of anger to people we like than to people we dislike.
How do you get rid of your anger? Is it better to let it all out or is it better to
calm yourself down? Recent research shows that expressing anger often
increases it and this can lead to health problems (Sternberg, 2001).
(d) Sadness
Sadness is the feeling of sorrow at a lower intensity and shorter period of
time. On the other hand, grief is a strong emotion of sorrow that usually
lasts longer and is often associated with loss. We feel sad after watching a
sad movie, but we feel grief after losing someone we love. Sadness and

grief causes us a lot of emotional pain, but they too have their functions. For
example, you may feel sad after watching the news today about the victims
of a natural disaster and decide to send some money to them. Therefore,
our sadness can function to motivate us to make changes to improve the
situation (Sternberg, 2001).
(e) Disgust
Disgust is an emotional response to things that are repulsive to us. Disgust
functions to help us avoid things that might be harmful to us such as a
rotten piec of meat (Sternberg, 2001).
ACTIVITY 10.2
1. What is the difference between fear and anxiety?

2. What is the difference between sadness and grief?
• According to the evolutionary perspective, survival and reproduction are the

two basic functions of emotions.
• Emotions also serve as a means of social interaction.
• Emotions can function to help us to achieve our goals.
• Emotions remind us of important events.
• The central nervous system, limbic system and endocrine system are essential
for our experience of emotion.
• Emotions are not only caused by biological factors, but also cognitive factors.
• PlutchikÊs eight basic emotions are: happiness, anticipation, sadness, surprise,

contempt, disgust, anger and fear.

Adrenaline Limbic system

Central nervous system Noradrenalin
Endocrine system Serotonin
Griffiths, P.E. (1997). What emotions really are: The problem of psychological
categories. The University of Chicago Press.
Saddle River, New Jersey. Prentice Hall.
Oatley, K., Keltner, D. & Jenkins, J.M. (2006). Understanding emotions (2nd ed.).
Oxford, U.K.: Blackwell Publishing.
Ortony, A., & Turner, T. J. (1990). What's basic about basic emotions?
Psychological Review, 97, 315-331.
Zimbardo, P.J., Weber, A.L. & Johnson, R.L. (2003). Psychology: Core concepts.

Topic X Aspects of
11 Emotion
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Explain the biological processes involved in emotion;
2. Compare two different cognitive theories of emotion;
3. Show the neural circuits of emotions; and
4. Describe the role of social and cultural aspects of emotion.
X INTRODUCTION
What happens to our bodies when we are experiencing an emotion? Emotions
are literally inside us. They are in our body chemistry, in our bloodstream and in
our brains. However, we need more than just our biological system to produce
emotions. We also need the cognitive aspect ă thinking, evaluation, judgment
and appraisal of situations ă which is also an important aspect of emotion. Social
and cultural factors, such as gender and culture, play a big role in the expression
of emotions as well. In this topic we will learn about the biological, cognitive,
social and cultural aspects of emotion.
11.1 BIOLOGICAL ASPECT OF EMOTION

In Topic 10, we briefly discussed the biological aspect of emotion. In this topic,
we will delve deeper into this discussion. We will learn what goes on in our
bodies when we are experiencing emotions. The following are examples of
biological processes which are connected to emotion:
(a) Reticular Activating System

Activation of the Reticular Activating System (RAS) by either of the two
emotion processing systems generally causes an instant arousal of the

112 X TOPIC 11 ASPECTS OF EMOTION
whole brain. The RAS, which is located in the brain stem, monitors
incoming information. When the RAS recognises a possible threat, it
triggers a set of physiological responses such as sweating, saliva production
and muscle tension. All these responses prepare our body for an emergency
reaction.
(b) The Limbic System

The limbic system is responsible for controlling the hormonal and neural
responses to emotional arousal. This system is situated above the brain
stem and probably evolved as a defence mechanism (e.g. fight-or-flight
response).
(c) The Cerebral Cortex

The cerebral cortex interprets events and associates them with emotions.
The right hemisphere specialises in negative emotions, while the left
hemisphere processes positive emotions.
SELF-CHECK 11.1
1. What role does the limbic system play in emotions?

2. What role does the cerebral cortex play in emotions?
11.1.1 The Autonomic Nervous System

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) acts as a messenger which carries
messages to and from the various organs in our body. It is responsible for
monitoring processes such as heart rate, digestion and breathing. The autonomic
nervous system evolved to increase our chances of survival; however, it does not
require a life-threatening situation to stimulate them. Emotions can also activate
the Autonomic Nervous System (Santrock, 2005).
Imagine you have a phobia of snakes. Even if you see one on television, you start
screaming your head off. You know that being scared of a snake on television
does not make any sense, but you are still afraid. How can you hold two such
conflicting mind sets? This is because you have two separate emotion processing
systems in the brain. The Autonomic Nervous System consists of the Sympathetic
Nervous System (SNS) and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS). The
SNS is responsible for arousing our body. It is accountable for producing
emergency reactions such as the fight-or-flight response. The SNS prepares us for
action (e.g. fighting or running away) by causing faster and harder breathing for
better oxygen intake, increase in blood pressure and a quicker heart rate. When

TOPIC 11 ASPECTS OF EMOTION W 113
the SNS is activated, activities which are not necessary for emergency reactions
such as digestion are temporarily stopped (Santrock, 2005). The Parasympathetic
Nervous System (PNS) calms our body down, and helps to relax and heal our
body. When the PNS is stimulated, breathing becomes slower, blood pressure
and heart rate decrease, and digestion and stomach activity increases.
Additionally, the parasympathetic division rules over pleasant emotions; and the
sympathetic division rules over unpleasant emotions (Zimbardo, Weber and
Johnson, 2003).
Imagine thinking about a bad car accident that happened to you. The first thing
that happens is your brain alerts your body by messages routed through the
sympathetic system. Some messages cause hormones to be released. Others make
you sweat. Then, when the emergency is over, the parasympathetic part carries
instructions to stop the bodily reactions. Sometimes you may remain emotionally
aroused for a while even after the emergency has passed because the hormones
are still circulating in your bloodstream. If situations that provoke emotions are
prolonged (e.g. as when you are forced to interact daily with somebody you
hate), your bodyÊs emergency response can drain your energy and cause both
physical and mental disturbances or illnesses (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson,
2003).
Figure 11.1 shows the functions of the PNS and the SNS which take place so that
we can experience emotions.

Figure 11.1: Functions of the PNS and SNS

Source: http://www.yesselman.com/ans.jpg
SELF-CHECK 11.2
Compare and contrast the PNS and SNS.
11.1.2 Discovering the Neural Circuits of Emotions

What happens in our brains when we experience emotions? Scientists have been
interested in finding out more about the neural circuits of emotions. Most of the
research so far has been focused on the amygdala. The amygdala is an almond-
shaped structure located in the limbic system, which is activated when we
experience negative emotions such as fear (Santrock, 2005).When the amygdala

receives information from our senses about a potential threat or danger, it

immediately sends out messages to other organs to prepare the body for a fight-
or-flight response. Figure 11.2 shows the parts of the brain which are involved in
the response of fear.
Figure 11.2: Parts of the brain involved in the response of fear

Source: http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-nature/emotions/other/fear.htm
The neural circuits that involve fear can follow two different paths: the direct
route or low road from the thalamus to the amygdala; or an indirect route or high
road from the thalamus through the sensory cortex and hippocampus to the
amygdala (refer to Figure 11.3). The difference between the two paths is that the
direct path does not communicate detailed information about the stimulus, but it
has the advantage of being faster (Santrock, 2005). Hence, it is used more in
emergency situations.

Figure 11.3: The paths of fear.

Source: http://health.howstuffworks.com/human-nature/emotions/other/fear1.htm
The amygdala is also connected to emotional memories. In fact, the amygdala

hardly ever forgets. This characteristic of the amygdala is useful because once we
have learned that something is a threat to us, it sticks in our memory, and the
next time we are quicker to react. However, because of this, many people are not
able to let go of their fears, simply because the amygdala refuses to forget. One of
the reasons for this dilemma is that the amygdala is in a much better position to
influence the cerebral cortex (the part of the brain that is responsible for thinking
and decision making) than the other way around. Hence, once a fear is learned, it
is very difficult to unlearn it. This may also be one the reasons why it is so
difficult to sometimes control our emotions (Santrock, 2005).
ACTIVITY 11.1
In your own words, explain the biological processes involved in emotions.

11.2 COGNITIVE ASPECT OF EMOTION

When we talk about emotions, we often describe them as feelings. For example,
you feel angry, it is a feeling you have, an emotion. Sometimes we also describe
emotions as behaviours. For example, when we feel angry, we behave in a certain
way. Our facial expressions and body postures can also be used to describe
emotion. The cognitive aspect of emotion refers to what you are thinking about
when you feel an emotion. For example, you are feeling happy, and then you
think to yourself „what a lovely day‰. Thinking about a situation activates our
emotions. Thinking about your family member may make you happy.
The following are some theories that support the cognitive aspect of emotion:
(a) LazarusÊs and ZajoncÊs Temporal-Sequence Theories

According to Lazarus, we evaluate situations in three stages:
(i) Primary appraisal: We think about the possible outcomes of a
situation. For example, is the stray dog approaching you going to bite
you, bark at you or leave you alone?
(ii) Secondary appraisal: We decide what to do.
(iii) Reappraisal: We may need to think about the situation again as new
events develop.
Our evaluations of situations determine what emotions we feel. Hence,

according to Lazarus, cognitions come before emotions.
Zajonc, on the other hand, suggests that cognitions and emotions are
separate. He supports the evolutionary perspective that the emotional part
of our brain was developed before the thinking brain, and thus it does not
make sense to say that cognition precedes emotion.
(b) Schachter and SingerÊs Theory

According to Schachter and Singer, we often look to the external world for
an explanation of why we are emotionally aroused. For example, if you feel
excited after meeting somebody new, you might label the feeling as ‰love‰.
In order to test this theory, Schachter and Singer (1962) injected one group
of participants with epinephrine (a hormone that increases the activity of
the sympathetic nervous system), and another group received a placebo
injection. Only half of the participants who received the epinephrine
injection were told what to expect. They were told that the injection just
given to them would make them sweat, make their hearts beat faster, and
so on. After that, some of the participants were placed in a „happy‰

situation and others in an „angry‰ situation. The results: the participants

who were injected with epinephrine and told what to expect showed little
emotional response. They were either mildly amused (instead of happy)
and mildly annoyed (instead of angry).
On the other hand, the participants who were injected with epinephrine
and not told what to expect showed stronger emotions. The participants
who had received the placebo injection reacted the same as the participants
who had received the epinephrine injection and not told what to expect.
Therefore, the results are tricky to interpret. The main finding from this
study is that telling people what to expect decreases their emotional arousal
in a situation (Kalat and Shiota, 2007). The results may also indicate that
emotions can be easily misinterpreted or attributed to false causes because
many emotions share the same qualities.
Another experiment by Dutton and Aron (1974) supports the same ideas
that Schachter and Singer had. In this experiment, an attractive young
woman (experimenter) approached males who were about to cross either
one of two challenging bridges (one less frightening than the other). The
female researcher told the participants that she was researching creativity
and instructed the participants to make up a brief story. The men who
crossed the more frightening bridge told more sexually oriented stories.
The female researcher also received more calls from the male participants
crossing the more frightening bridge, perhaps because they had
misinterpreted the excitement of crossing the bridge to an attraction for the
female researcher (Santrock, 2005)!
ACTIVITY 11.2
Compare and contrast two different cognitive theories of emotion.
11.3 SOCIAL & CULTURAL ASPECTS OF

EMOTION
Just as there are biological and cognitive components of emotion, there are also
social and cultural aspects of emotion. The culture you come from, the society
you live in and your gender can all play a significant role in emotions.
About a century ago, William James suggested that physiological reactions

trigger emotions. James said that we are afraid because we are running away.
Walter Canon argued that physical changes do not happen fast enough to explain
quick emotional responses such as the ones we feel in a dangerous situation. In

this theory, emotions and physiological reactions happen at the same time. So
who is right? Both are partially correct. Our physical state does influence our
emotions. For example, being hungry and then feeling grumpy. However, our
emotions can also be triggered by external factors such as social and cultural
factors. For example, the sight of a cockroach may cause you to feel disgust.
Another socio-cultural influence in emotion is gender. Some emotional

differences between males and females are probably biological. This is why it is
more common for women than for men to experience emotional disturbances
such as depression. Hormonal differences in males and females may also explain
why men react more aggressively than women. Other emotional differences
between males and females may depend on culture. For example, in most
cultures, men are encouraged to express dominance and aggression, while
discouraged to cry or show signs of weakness (Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson,
2003).
Charles Darwin proposed the following about the facial expressions of humans
and animals:
(a) Innate, not learned;
(b) The same in all cultures around the world; and
(c) The same in humans and animals.
Today many psychologists still believe that facial expressions are innate, and not
learned. For example, children who are born blind still have the same facial
expressions as normal children. This goes to show that they did not learn how to
mimic this facial expression, rather it is something innate. Furthermore, if
emotional expressions were not innate, they would not be expressed in the same
way all around the world. However, many other expressions of emotions differ
from culture to culture. For example, in Bangladesh it is common to see two men
holding hands, however, in Malaysia it is not. Different cultures also have
different rules about the display of emotion. For example, in the Indian culture, it
is not appropriate for women to display the emotion of anger, especially if it is
directed towards a man (Santrock, 2005).
SELF-CHECK 11.3
Give an example of how your culture has influenced the way you
experience emotions.

11.3.1 Cross-Cultural Approaches

The following are some theories on the cultural aspects of emotion.
(a) Batja Mesquita and Nico Frijda developed a cross-cultural framework for
understanding emotion. They proposed that in order to understand
emotions, we must consider the following components:
(i) Antecedent events: Events that took place before the emotional
reaction;
(ii) Event coding: Interpretation of the event;
(iii) Appraisal: Evaluation of the event and its possible outcomes;
(iv) Physiological reaction pattern: Changes in the body related to
emotion;
(v) Action readiness: Readiness to respond to the emotionally arousing
event;
(vi) Emotional behaviour: Actions following the experience of the
emotion; and
(vii) Regulation: Degree to which the individual tries to make the emotion
reaction stronger or weaker (Sternberg, 2001).
All these components may be influenced by culture.
(b) James Russell (1991) studied the way people categorise emotions and offers
an alternative cross-cultural approach. Russell found that:
(i) Not all cultures categorise their emotions in the same way (e.g. basic
emotions);
(ii) Not all cultures have the same basic emotions; and
(iii) There are many common emotions and expressions that are present in
cultures around the world (Sternberg, 2001).
ACTIVITY 11.3
What are the social-cultural aspects of emotion?

• Emotions activate the Autonomic Nervous System.
• The Autonomic Nervous System consists of the Sympathetic Nervous System

(SNS) and the Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS).
• The Sympathetic Nervous System is responsible for arousing our body. (e.g.
fight-or-flight response).
• The Parasympathetic Nervous System calms our body down, and helps to
relax and heal our body.
• The amygdala is an almond-shaped structure located in the limbic system,

which is activated when we experience negative emotions such as fear
(Santrock, 2005).
• According to Lazarus, we evaluate situations in three stages: primary

appraisal, secondary appraisal, and reappraisal.
Amygdala Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS)

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) Reticular Activating System (RAS)
Cerebral corte Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS)
Limbic system

Zimbardo, P.J., Weber, A.L. & Johnson, R.L. (2003). Psychology: Core concepts.

Topic X Emotional
12 Intelligence
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe emotional intelligence;
2. Explain two different models of emotional intelligence; and
3. Apply emotional intelligence.
X INTRODUCTION
When we have a choice to make or meet head-on with a sudden stimulus, often
we respond with emotions first before we have time to think about choices or
consciously identify the stimulus. In cases like these, our emotions are a useful
guide because they provide a quick response in urgent situations. Most of the
time, our quick emotional responses are correct. However, sometimes they differ
from the choices we would make if we actually took the time to think about the
situation logically. The challenge lies in knowing when to follow our emotions
and when to override them. Making that decision is one aspect of emotional
intelligence. It is clear to see from our observation of people around us that some
people are better than others at understanding their own emotions as well as that
of others. They are able to control their emotions, know when to allow their
emotions to guide them and when not to (Kalat and Shiota, 2007). They are
emotionally intelligent.
In this topic, first we will learn a bit about the history of the concept of emotional
intelligence; then we will discover what emotional intelligence really is.

124 X TOPIC 12 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
12.1 A BRIEF HISTORY OF EMOTIONAL

INTELLIGENCE
Long before the term „emotional intelligence‰ existed, the concept was already
identified by several psychologists. The roots of the emotional intelligence
concept first emerged from the beginning of the intelligence testing movement
(Morris and Maisto, 2001). Traditionally, only intelligence quotient (IQ) was used
to measure intelligence. However, psychologists and education reformers began
to realise that IQ only tested academic intelligence, and that there was more to
intelligence than merely the academic component. Edward Thorndike was one of
the first psychologists to identify the concept of emotional intelligence. He called
it „social intelligence‰. Thorndike (1920) defined social intelligence as „the ability
to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls ă to act wisely in
human relations‰.
Later, David Wechsler (1952), known for his famous IQ test, recognised affective
capacities as important human abilities. Howard Gardner (1983) brought the
concept of emotional intelligence back to life with his model of multiple
intelligences. Finally, Salovey and Mayor (1990) coined the term emotional
intelligence in their seminal article „Emotional Intelligence‰. Daniel Goleman
popularised emotional intelligence when his book Emotional Intelligence: Why it
can matter more than IQ was published in 1996 (Sternberg, 2001). A brief history
of EQ is shown in Table 12.1
Table 12.1: A Brief History of Emotional Intelligence
1930s Edward Thorndike explains the concept of „social intelligence‰.

1940s David Wechsler proposes affective components of intelligence.
1975 Howard Gardner introduces „multiple intelligences‰.
1987 Keith Beasley introduces the term „emotional quotient‰.
1990 Peter Salovey and John Mayer publish an article called ‰Emotional Intelligence‰.
1995 Emotional intelligence becomes popular after the Daniel GolemanÊs book.
Source: Wagner, 2000

TOPIC 12 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE W 125
SELF-CHECK 12.1
1. How did Edward Thorndike contribute to the concept of emotional

intelligence?
2. Who coined the term „emotional intelligence‰?
12.2 WHAT IS EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE?

In the following sub-sections, we will be discussing a few psychological theories
and models of emotional intelligence. However, the clearest definition of
emotional intelligence would be ă an ability that helps us to reason with
emotions. Emotional intelligence is sometimes also referred to as the emotional
aspect of reason. Emotions, often times have been considered the opposite of
reason. Emotional intelligence uses emotions to enhance thought.
There is in fact a biological link between the emotional part of our brain and the
decision making part of our brain. The tragic accident which happened to one
man called Phineas Gage led to our understanding of the emotional aspect of
reason. Gage was working in railroad construction when an explosion occurred
that made a large iron rod go completely through his head (refer to figure 12.1 for
illustration). Gage survived the accident and returned to work a few months
later. All his colleagues noticed the drastic personality change in him. GageÊs
injury damaged his frontal lobe (front part of the brain) causing him to lose the
ability to reason with emotions. His doctor described his injury as one that
destroyed the balance between his reasoning abilities and his emotional
impulses. Hence, GageÊs behaviour was now rash, impulsive and he showed
little self-control. GageÊs accident is a powerful demonstration of how it would
be like to lose the intelligent connections between the emotional part of the brain
and the reasoning part of the brain (Santrock, 2005).

Figure 12.1: Phineas GageÊs tragic accident.

Source: http://www.psywww.com/intropsych/ch02_/02phineas.jpg
ACTIVITY 12.1
1. Describe in your own words what emotional intelligence is.

2. What does Phineas GageÊs tragic accident tell you about emotional
intelligence?
12.2.1 Salovey and Mayor’s Definition of Emotional

Intelligence
Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined emotional intelligence as „the subset of social
intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others' feelings and
emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this information to guide one's
thinking and actions‰. Salovey and Mayer (1997) proposed a model of emotional
intelligence which identifies four branches of emotional intelligence:
(a) Perception Appraisal and Expression of Emotion;
(b) Emotional Facilitation of Thinking ;
(c) Understanding and Analysing Emotions; Employing Emotional
Knowledge; and
(d) Reflective Regulation of Emotions to Promote Emotional and
Intellectual Growth.

The four branches of this model are organised from basic psychological processes
to more complex psychological processes. For example, the first branch is
concerned with the basic expression and perception of emotion; whereas the fourth
branch is concerned with the conscious, reflective regulation of emotion. From left
to right, you can see the progression of the development of abilities. According to
Salovey and Mayer, people that are emotionally intelligent are predicted to be able
to develop the abilities mentioned faster (1997). Table 12.2 is taken from Mayer and
SaloveyÊs (1997) indicated that there are four branches of IQ.
Mayer and SaloveyÊs model views emotions as a source of information that helps
us to find our way around in social situations.
Table 12.2: The Four Branches of Emotional Intelligence
1. Reflective Regulation of Emotion to Promote Emotional and Intellectual Growth

Ability to stay open to Ability to reflectively Ability to Ability to
feelings, both pleasant engage in or detach from reflectively manage
and unpleasant. an emotion depending monitor emotions in
upon its judged emotions in oneself and
informativeness or relation to others by
utility. oneself and moderating
others, such as negative
recognising how emotions and
clear, typical, enhancing
influential or pleasant ones,
reasonable they without
are. repressing or
exaggerating
information
they may
convey.
2. Understanding and Analysing Emotions; Employing Emotional Knowledge
Ability to label Ability to interpret the Ability to Ability to
emotions and recognise meanings that emotions understand recognise likely
relations among the convey regarding complex transitions
words and the relationships, such as feelings: among
emotions themselves, that sadness often simultaneous emotions, such
such as the relation accompanies a loss. feelings of love as the transition
between liking and and hate or from anger to
loving. blends such as satisfaction or
awe as a from anger to
combination of shame.
fear and
surprise.

3. Emotional Facilitation of Thinking

Emotions prioritise Emotions are sufficiently Emotional Emotional states
thinking by directing vivid and available that mood swings differentially
attention to important they can be generated as change the encourage
information. aids to judgment and individual's specific problem-
memory concerning perspective solving
feelings. from optimistic approaches such
to pessimistic, as when
encouraging happiness
consideration of facilitates
multiple points inductive
of view. reasoning and
creativity.
4. Perception, Appraisal and Expression of Emotion
Ability to identify Ability to identify Ability to Ability to
emotion in one's emotions in other express discriminate
physical states, people, designs, emotions between
feelings, and thoughts. artwork, etc. through accurately, and accurate and
language, sound, to express needs inaccurate, or
appearance, and related to those honest vs.
behaviour. feelings. dishonest
expressions of
feeling.
Source: Mayer and Salovey (1997).
ACTIVITY 12.2
1. Explain in your own words Mayor and SaloveyÊs model of

emotional intelligence.
2. Explain in your own words the definition of emotional
intelligence according to Salovey and Mayor.
12.2.2 Goleman’s Definition of Emotional Intelligence

Goleman views emotional intelligence as a set of skills and competencies which
are transferable to social situations like the workplace. GolemanÊs definition of
emotional intelligence includes qualities such as self-awareness, self-control, self-
confidence, empathy, sensitivity and optimism (1995). Goleman identified four
main components of emotional intelligence:

(a) Self-awareness: The ability to identify and recognise emotions and use gut
feelings to guide choices.
(b) Self-management: The ability to control and regulate emotions according to
changing situations.
(c) Social awareness: The ability to understand and respond effectively to
emotions.
(d) Relationship management: The ability to handle conflicts while inspiring
and influencing others (Wagner, 2000).
Many people who are knowledgeable, well-educated and wealthy are not
successful in life and are unhappy. Why? What is the missing element? On the
other hand, there are people that are not as highly educated or knowledgeable,
but understand and know how to manage their emotions and those of others.
Out of the two people, the one likely to succeed in life is the latter. Emotional
intelligence has been linked to happiness, professional success and personal
achievement.
People with high emotional intelligence are better able to understand the feelings
of others and themselves. They are able to manage negative feelings and hold
back inappropriate emotional reactions. The power of this ability can be seen in
the results of a longitudinal experiment by Daniel Goleman. This fascinating
experiment is also known as the „marshmallow test‰.
A group of four-year-olds were given two choices by the experimenter. The

choices were: „If you wait until I return from running my errand, I will give you
two marshmallows, but if you are not able to wait, you can have the one
marshmallow that is already on the table.‰ Once the experimenter left the room,
the children were left by themselves with the temptation to take the
marshmallow in front of them. Some children instantly grabbed it. Others waited
patiently, trying to distract themselves from the marshmallow by singing to
themselves, sleeping and so on. These same children were tracked down when
they were in their adolescence. The fourăyear-olds that were able to delay the
immediate gratification were better off in every aspect. They were better
students, better able to maintain healthy relationships with family and friends,
and better able to handle stress and frustration.
On the other hand, the children who could not resist the temptation were
indecisive, shy and had dysfunctional relationships. They also did worse in the
academic field. Therefore, emotional intelligence can be a predictor of success.
However, unfortunately, many times emotional intelligence is overshadowed by
traditional forms of assessment such as IQ tests. Emotional intelligence should be

used as an additional variable in an assessment instead of a replacement

(Zimbardo, Weber and Johnson, 2003).
According to Goleman (1995), emotional intelligence can be learned. However,

emotional control has its negative side too. Some people can take emotional
control a notch higher than they really need to and become so guarded that they
do not show any emotion at all. The opposite extreme of this - to just let your
emotions flow free uncontrolled is also not the best solution. The best solution is
to find a balance between these two extremes. Some people also learn to control
their emotions so that they can manipulate and deceive others (Zimbardo, Weber
and Johnson, 2003).
ACTIVITY 12.3
1. Explain in your own words GolemanÊs model of emotional

intelligence.
2. Explain in your own words GolemanÊs definition of emotional
intelligence.
12.2.3 Functions of Emotional Intelligence

Imagine you are walking home from work, and you see a young lady sitting
down in a corner and crying. She takes a look at you, and starts crying again.
What do you do? Should you approach her and ask her what is wrong or would
she prefer to be alone? The right answer depends on a lot of factors. For example
her body language and the reason she is crying. Emotional intelligence gives us
the ability to identify and empathise with a strangerÊs emotional state; and
handle the situation effectively.
Emotional intelligence is also a term that is quite popular in the work place now.
Many companies invest a lot of money in training their employees to develop
their emotional intelligence abilities. Emotionally intelligent people perform
better at their jobs (Goleman, 1995).
Emotional intelligence helps us make the right decisions. When we are in a sticky
situation, friends often encourage us to think rationally and not let our emotions
get in the way of making a rational decision. This is because sometimes when we
are overwhelmed by emotions, we make decisions that we normally would not.
For example, anger might lead you to make hasty, angry decisions that you

might regret later when the emotions have subsided. This is why we need to
develop our ability to reason with emotions ă emotional intelligence.
In conclusion, emotional intelligence contributes to successful relationships and

careers. Deficiencies in emotional intelligence can lead to mental and physical
illnesses.
SELF-CHECK 12.2
1. Give an example of a situation in which you may be able to apply
emotional intelligence.
2. List some of the functions of emotional intelligence.
• The roots of the emotional intelligence concept first emerged from the
beginning of the intelligence testing movement.
• Emotional intelligence is the emotional aspect of reason.
• Emotional intelligence has to do with intelligent connections between the

emotional part of our brain and the reasoning part of our brain.
• Salovey and Mayer (1990) defined emotional intelligence as „the subset of

social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one's own and others'
feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them and to use this
information to guide one's thinking and actions‰.
• GolemanÊs definition of emotional intelligence includes qualities such as self-

awareness, self-control, self-confidence, empathy, sensitivity and optimism
(1995).
• Emotional intelligence has been linked to happiness, professional success and

personal achievement.
Emotional intelligence Intelligence quotient

Emotional quotient

Goleman, D. P. (1995). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ

for character, health and lifelong achievement. New York: Bantam Books.
Mayer, J. D. & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey &
D. Sluyter. Emotional development and emotional intelligence: Implications
for educators. New York: Basic Books.
Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (1990). Emotional intelligence. Imagination, Cognition
& Personality; 9 (3), 185-211.
Wagner, K. (2000). What is emotional intelligence? Retrieved November, 4, 2009
from http://psychology.about.com/od /personalitydevelopment/ a/
emotionalintell.htm

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Faculty of Applied Social Sciences

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

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Module Writer: Asha Angela Bogenfurst

Moderator: Matilda Xavier

Developed by: Centre for Instructional Design and Technology

First Edition, August 2010

Topic 1 Introduction to Perception 1

Topic 2 Visual Perception 14

Topic 3 Perceptual Organisation 26

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Topic 4 Depth Perception and Perceptual Constancy 38

Topic 5 Auditory Perception 50

Topic 6 The Skin Senses and Perception of Pain 62

Topic 7 Taste Perception 72

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7.3.1 Taste Adaptation 76

Topic 8 Smell Perception 82

Topic 9 The Nature of Emotions 91

Topic 10 Emotions: Functions and Causes 102

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Topic 11 Aspects of Emotion 111

Topic 12 Emotional Intelligence 123

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COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION

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Table 1: Estimation of Time Accumulation of Study Hours

Topic 1 introduces the concept of perception.

Topic 2 discusses visual perception in detail.

Topic 3 discusses perceptual organisation in detail.

Topic 4 discusses depth perception and perceptual constancy in detail.

Topic 5 discusses auditory perception in detail.

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Topic 7 discusses taste perception in detail.

Topic 8 discusses smell perception in detail.

Topic 9 discusses the nature of emotions in detail.

Topic 10 discusses the functions and causes of emotions in detail.

Topic 11 discusses aspects of emotion in detail.

Topic 12 discusses emotional intelligence in detail.

TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE

Self-Check: This component of the module is inserted at strategic locations

Activity: Like Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various

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References: The References section is where a list of relevant and useful

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In this topic, we will learn about:

1.1 THE PERCEPTUAL PROCESS

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Figure 1.1: The perceptual process

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Figure 1.2: Selection of stimuli

It is important to realise that we do not always attend to everything that goes on

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Figure 1.3: Processing

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Figure 1.4: Perceptual responses

Perception is an interplay of interaction between bottom-up and top-down

Figure 1.5: Bottom-up and top-down processing

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Describe the perceptual process.

1.2 WHY STUDY PERCEPTION?