WOLLO UNIVERSITY

KOMBLCHA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

EXTERNSHIP PROJECT IN KOMBOLCHA TANNERY FACTORY, PLC

TITLE: PRODUCTION OF GLUE FROM WASTE HIDES AND SKIN

PREPARED BY: 1) G/SILASIE G/MEDHIN

2) MENGSTIAB WELDEMHRET

AMARA KOMBOLCHA ETHIOPIA

Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT......................................................................................................... VII
ABSTRACT............................................................................................................................... VIII
LIST OF ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................... IX
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
1. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background ......................................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of problem .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3 Objective ............................................................................................................................................. 3
1.3.1General objective .......................................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific objective ......................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Significance of the study ..................................................................................................................... 3
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 4
2. Literature review ......................................................................................................................... 4
2.1 History of glue .................................................................................................................................... 4
2.2 Compare animal hide glue with other types of glues .......................................................................... 6
2.3 Attributes to consider in choosing glues or adhesives ........................................................................ 8
2.4 Physical properties of animal hide glues............................................................................................. 9
2.5 Chemical composition animal hide glue ............................................................................................. 9
2.6 Parameters affecting the final glue.................................................................................................... 10
2.7 Concentration of glue solution .......................................................................................................... 11
2.7.1 Glue grade selection ................................................................................................................... 12
2.7.2 Glue bond failure ....................................................................................................................... 13
2.7.3 Gelatin and collagen................................................................................................................... 13
2.8 Alternative sources of gelatin and collagen ...................................................................................... 15
2.8.1 Gelling and water binding properties ......................................................................................... 16
2.9 Processing glue from animal hide ..................................................................................................... 16
3.1 Material ............................................................................................................................................. 17
3.2 Methodology ..................................................................................................................................... 18
3.3 General procedure ............................................................................................................................. 19
CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 23
4 Result and discussion ............................................................................................................... 23

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 4.1 Quality analysis ................................................................................................................................. 23
4.2 Physico-chemical analysis ................................................................................................................ 24
4.3 Compositional analysis ..................................................................................................................... 24
4.3.1Moisture content analysis............................................................................................................ 24
4.4 External factor evaluations................................................................................................................ 26
4.5 Other parameters of glue ................................................................................................................... 27
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 28
5 Market study .............................................................................................................................. 28
5.1 Past supply ....................................................................................................................................... 28
5.2 Demand of Projection ....................................................................................................................... 29
5.3 Pricing and distribution ..................................................................................................................... 29
CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................. 30
6 Material and Energy Balance ..................................................................................................... 30
6.1 Design basis ...................................................................................................................................... 30
6.2 Material balance ................................................................................................................................ 31
6.3 Energy balance .................................................................................................................................. 36
CHAPTER SEVEN ...................................................................................................................... 38
7. Equipment sizing ...................................................................................................................... 38
CHAPTER EIGHT ....................................................................................................................... 41
8 Plant Cost Estimation and Economic Feasibility ....................................................................... 41
8.1 Economic analysis ............................................................................................................................ 41
8.1.1 Objectives of financial and economic analysis .......................................................................... 41
8.1.2 Capital investment for glue production from animal hide ......................................................... 41
8.2 Estimation of purchased equipment cost ......................................................................................... 42
8.2.1 Cost indexes ............................................................................................................................... 43
8.3 Estimation of Total Production Cost (TPC) or Total Operating Cost ............................................... 44
8.4 Economic evaluation ......................................................................................................................... 46
8.5 Plant Location and Site Selection ..................................................................................................... 47
CHAPTER NINE .......................................................................................................................... 49
9. Environmental impact Analysis ................................................................................................ 49
9.1 Types of pollutants in glue Industry ................................................................................................. 50
9.2 Waste management ........................................................................................................................... 51

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 9.3 Pollution prevention .......................................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER TEN............................................................................................................................ 53
10. Conclusion and Recommendation .......................................................................................... 53
10.1 Conclusions ..................................................................................................................................... 53
10.2 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 54
11 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 55
Appendix ....................................................................................................................................... 58

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LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Comparison of animal glue with other type glues. ......................................................................... 7
Table 2: list of equipment and their function .............................................................................................. 17
Table 3:list of chemicals and their function ................................................................................................ 18
Table 4: Summary of Physico-chemical and moisture content analysis ..................................................... 25
Table 5: External factor analysis of odor .................................................................................................... 26
Table 6:External factor analysis of odor ..................................................................................................... 27
Table 7: Imported adhesives ....................................................................................................................... 28
Table 8: projected demand for natural adhesive (tons) ............................................................................... 29
Table 9:Estimation of major unit operation equipment cost ....................................................................... 43
Table 10:Estimation of direct, indirect and capital investment................................................................... 44
Table 11:Fixed operating costs ................................................................................................................... 45
Table 12:direct production cost (variable cost)........................................................................................... 45
Table 13: Plant overhead cost ..................................................................................................................... 45
Table 14: General expensive ....................................................................................................................... 46
Table 15:Over view for all waste fractions ................................................................................................. 52

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LIST OF FIGURE
Figure 1: Sample collected from kombolcha(hayk) tannery ....................................................................... 19
Figure 2: soaking process............................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 3 :glue extraction process ................................................................................................................ 20
Figure 4 filtration process ........................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 5: final concentrated glue ................................................................................................................ 21
Figure 6: Moisture content determination by varying amount of water ..................................................... 25
Figure 7:Characterizing of odor with increasing of soaking time ............................................................ 26

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First we want to thanks to Kombolcha tannery factory owners and general manager Ato Ykuno
amlak Abera ,vice manager Ato Ali Ahmed , technical manager Hogos Desta and the staff
members as well next to God .We would like also to extend our gratitude to industrial linkage
concerned individuals bodies, Gossaye Sisay , Wesenu Alli .

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ABSTRACT
The main objective of this project study was producing of glue from tannery wastes such as
animal skin, hides and flesh from the Abattoirs. Glue is an adhesive that is created by prolonged
boiling of animal connective tissues. These protein colloid glues are formed through hydrolysis
of the collagen from skins, hides and other tissues. It can be produced either in the form of
granules or weaker liquid glue. However, liquid glue has short shelf life. Strength of glue is the
main factor to determine the quality of extracted glue. There is a grade of glue that will even bond
to glass.The weaker the glue's gram strength, the weaker to bond materials. Main equipment’s used
for producing of glue consists of pretreatment tank (washer tank), soaking tank, liming tank,
heater, concentrator and cooler. During conducting of the experimental work raw hide was taken
from kera of Kombolcha city. The collected sample was washed, soaked and treated in tanks.
Finally the stock was cooked in heater to extract glue. The PH value and moisture content of the
extracted glue was 5-6 and 16.67% respectively. From the economic feasibility analysis a total
capital investment of 19,089,253.56 birr, total production cost of 13,737,899.48Birr and the net
profit of6,058,918.52 birr was generated with a ret of return (ROR) and payback period of 31.7%
and 2.1 year respectively.

Key words: Animal Hide, Collagen, Feasibility, Glue, Net Profit, Payback Period, pH, Total
Capital Investment and Total Production Cost.Chapter one

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LIST OF ACRONYMS & ABBREVIATIONS
PVA ………….polyvinyl acetate
BOD …………biological oxygen demand
COD……….....chemical oxygen demand
FCI …………..fixed capital vestment
IDC …………..indirect cost
RR…………….internal rate of return
NPV…………..net present value
ROR ………….rate of return
TCI …………...total capital investment
TDC…………..total direct cost
TPD…………..total plant direct cost
VOCS ………..volatile organic cpds
WC…………...working capital
CDJ…………...annual sales cost
PBP……………payback period
AC…………….administrative cost

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CHAPTER ONE
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
Ethiopia is endowed with very large divers livestock resources in the world. Ethiopian’s
livestock population was estimated to be 44.3 million of cattle, 23.6 million of sheep and 23.3
million of goats. Based on the off-take rate of 7.0%, 33.0% and 35.0% for cattle, sheep and goat
respectively are being consuming by the society (Central statistical authority, 2004 & 2007). The
potential supply of the hides and skins depends up on the scale of meat production and on the
size of livestock population. Thus, the raw hides and skins, becomes available when meat is
needed. The byproducts of hides and skins of the livestock are also mainly used as a raw material
in different tanneries for the purpose of leather production. But, due to different defects present
on the animals most of hide/skin are not used for leather production (Zenaw Zemene, M. 2012.).

Currently there are about 27 tanneries in Ethiopia and have an average capacity of 4,000 pieces
of hides and 30,000 pieces of skins per day (Ethiopian leather journal, 2004). Even if the country
has a very large source of livestock, the tanneries are working under capacity due to the low
quality of the raw hides and skins. The reason behind is the appearance of skin and hide disease
called ҅ekek՚ due to external parasites, inappropriate management of animals, faults during
slaughtering and improper handling of the raw hides and skins before reached at tanneries (FAO,
1998). These damaged skins and hides are not used neither by the societies nor by the tannery
industries and are simply removed or rejected. These rejected hides and skins may cause
environmental and water pollutions. Our rapid assessment encompasses utilizing of these
damaged or valueless hides and skins into valuable product. Our study was focused on tannery
wastes (discarded skins, tails, and valueless soaked skins) of Dessie/haik tannery process.
Dessie/Haik tannery was established in 1961 in Haik 30km far from Dessie town of South Wollo
Administrative Zone. It is a private share company and processes hides and skins to semi-
finished for local and export purposes. Hides and skins reach the tannery through trade agents
and individual collectors. The tannery receives raw materials from South Wollo (60%, especially
goat skins) and from other localities (40%) such as Go jam, Gondar, Tigray, mainly from
Borena, Kelela, and Woreilu and rarely from Geregera and Addis Ababa. Currently it has a

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tanning capacity of about 1.5 million pieces of skin per year. The raw skins are simply purchased
and collected by visualization without checking the defects of the skin. That we have obtained
information from the Haik tannery, about 0.01%of the collected skin is defected by different
diseases and is low quality skin (Report of 2012 Dessie tannery, Ethiopia).

This type of low quality skin also not used for leather industries and simply rejected or removed
to the environment. In addition to this during preparation and trimming of the feed raw skin
wastes such as tail, ear and other discarded skin is rejected to the environment. This causes high
environmental pollution and other diseases spreading case.

Therefore, glue or strong adhesive could be produced by cooking pieces of these waste animal
hide and skins in water and we can produce desired glue from these parts. And adhesives are
used in almost all sectors of the manufacturing. It is used to bind two or more surfaces together
and is economical compared to other methods. Adhesives are widely used in the wood, metal,
paper, textiles, leather, rubber, glass and other activities of the manufacturing sector. Hence, the
demand for adhesives will grow parallel with the expansion of the manufacturing sector. The
manufacturing sector of Ethiopia is projected to grow by about 18% per annum (EEA, 2007/08).
Animal glue was the most common woodworking glue for thousands of years until the advent of
synthetic glues such as polyvinyl acetate (PVA) and other resin glues in the 20th century. Today
it is used primarily in specialty applications such as pipe organ building, and antique restoration.
Glass artists take advantage of hide glue's ability to bond with glass, applying hide glue to glass.
As the glue hardens it shrinks, chipping the glass. Hide glue is supplied in many different gram
strengths, each better suited to specific applications. Instrument and cabinet builders will use a
range from 120-200 gram strength. Some hide glues are sold without the gram strength specified.
Experienced users avoid this glue as the glue may be too weak or strong for the expected
application(Finch, C.A. 1989)

1.2 Statement of problem

Nowadays, in rural areas and tannery industries of our country discarded (i.e. tail, ear and during
balancing of raw animal hides and skins) has played a great roll in environmental pollution. Most
of the people have no knowledge about the importance of animals hide and skin other than for
the purpose of leather industries and the tannery processes are also very far away from these
areas. So, the animals hide and skin that are affected by worms or bacteria’s are simply rejected

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or thrown to the environment by the rural societies. In addition to this, in the tannery processes
there are a lot of wastes which means discarding of pieces of animal hides and skins. These
damaged hides and wastes are not reused for other purposes. Such kind of wastes is causing
environmental effects like unpleasant smelling, pollution of water etc. Processing of these animal
hide and skin wastes to value added products like gelatin or adhesives would enhance the
contributions of glue sectors to the national economy and is likely to lead an improvement of the
income of those involved in the sector. So, reuse of these wastes and damaged hides and skins
for the production of glue has a multi advantages. By producing animals hide and skin glue, the
country may reduce the importing of adhesives and develop the industry of glue-making through
a more eco-friendly and it is obviously true; prevention of environmental pollution and creation
of job opportunities for the societies.

Therefore, these problems can be reduced by converting and processing of these discarded
animal hides and skins in to desired product glue.

1.3 Objective

1.3.1General objective
Production of glue from waste hide and skin

1.3.2 Specific objective

The specific objective of the study is:
 To determine the Physico-chemical properties of glue from hide
 To study and determine the economic feasibility of utilizing animal hide for the
production of glue.
 To test glue efficiency by varying the soaking time
 To determine quality parameters such as pH, color, odor and viscosity of the glue.

1.4 Significance of the study

The product that we are planning to develop can help the people economically by saving money
in buying expensive adhesives or glues that is sold everywhere by creating an alternative that is
not only very easy to do but also has accessible raw materials. People without permanent jobs
can also use this as an additional source of income or even a new kind of business. This study
can also help in lessening the household waste of any community and making of environmental

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clean. Hide glues generally have greater cohesive strength than strongly denatured and degraded
bone glues, and other forms of adhesives. So, our study helps to societies in order to use stronger
adhesive with a reasonable cost.

CHAPTER TWO
2. Literature review
2.1 History of glue
The use of glue as an adhesive dates from earliest record times. Whoever discovered that a
strong adhesive could be produced by cooking pieces of animal hide or bone in water has never
been figured out, but the use archeological discoveries indicate that the Egyptians used glue
more than 4,000 years ago. The practical manufacture of glue can be traced back directly to 1690
in the Netherland. Shortly thereafter, or about 1700, the English began making glue and
established it is manufacture as a permanent industry. Ancient Greeks developed adhesives for
use in carpentry, and created recipes for glue that included the following items as ingredients:
egg whites, blood, bones, milk, cheese, vegetables and grains. Tar and beeswax were used by the
Romans for glue (Brown, 1988).
Ancient tribes figured out that they could get collagen, which is the protein in animal connective
tissue, from the bones, hides, skin and muscles from animals. The collagen was sticky and was
good for holding things together. Other things that were used as the basis for glue were milk
solids and dried serum from cow’s blood. The serum has albumin in it. The albumin clumps
together when it is heated up and then it won’t dissolve in water any more. Early glue was made
from the heads, hides and skin of fish, but it was really thin and not very sticky. “By
experimenting, early man discovered that the air bladders of various fish produced much more
satisfactory glue that was white and tasteless. It eventually was named isinglass glue. Plants have
also been used to make glues. They dissolve in water and are usually made from the starches that
are in many grains and vegetables. Beeswax and tar were among the earliest. Clay pots that
archeologists have found in burial sites from as far back as 4000 BC have been repaired with
glue made from tree sap. (Waite, J.H, 1987).

The name glue is given to the tough& sticky substances which are used to bind several things
together, or to give firmness to certain fabrics. There are the soft ones, which can be employed in

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this state; others are dry, or more or less thick; but they must be able to be softened, & to be
melted into liquors. Since in this state they are more or less sticky or viscous; one can apply them
in thin layers on various bodies to which they adhere; when they are dry, the glue becomes hard,
& it binds the bodies to each other so well which were coated with it that they would break rather
than separate. According to this definition, several cement species could be included among the
Glues which are employed hot or cold. However, cement species describe different arts which
will put as in a position to better render their advantages comprehensibly. Glues differ from
cements in that they are, when they are employed, liquids & flowing, and that do not form a
thickness; whereas Cements are thick enough to fill hollows & to form reliefs. As several
substances can produce the same effect, one distinguishes various species of glues, such as flour-
glue, fish-glue, that which one names glove glue, and finally, that to which one gives the
particular name of strong-glue, because of its great tenacity (Bogue, R.H. 1922).

Animal glue was the most common wood working glue for thousands of years until the advent of
synthetic glues such as polyvinyl acetate (PVA) and other resin glues in the 20th century. Today
it is used primarily in specialty applications such as lathery, pipe organ building, piano repairs,
and antique restoration. Glass artists take advantage of hide glue's ability to bond with glass,
applying hide glue to glass. As the glue hardens it shrinks, chipping the glass. It has several
advantages and disadvantages compared to other glues. The glue is applied hot, typically with a
brush or spatula. Glue is kept hot in a glue pot, which may be an electric unit built for the
purpose, a double boiler, or simply a saucepan or crock pot to provide a warm water bath for the
container of glue. Most animal glues are soluble in water, useful for joints which may at some
time need to be separated. Alcohol is sometimes applied to such joints to dehydrate the glue,
making it more brittle and easier to crack apart (Ujjal Kumar Sur, 2008).

The significant disadvantages of hide glue are thermal limitations, short open time, and
vulnerability to micro-organisms. This is offset by several advantages. Hide glue joints are
reversible and repairable. Recently glued joints will release easily with the application of heat
and steam. Hide glue sticks to itself, so the repairer can apply new hide glue to the joint and
reclaims it. In contrast, PVA glues do not adhere to themselves once they are cured, so a
successful repair requires removal of the old glue first which usually requires removing some of
the material being glued. Hide glue creates a somewhat brittle joint, so a strong shock will often

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cause a very clean break along the joint. In contrast, a joint glued with PVA will usually break
the surrounding material, creating an irregular, difficult to repair break. This brittleness is taken
advantage of by instrument makers. For example, instruments in the violin family require
periodic disassembly for repairs and maintenance (Ujjal Kumar Sur, 2008).

2.2 Compare animal hide glue with other types of glues

Solvent glues: comprise an adhesive base mixed with a chemical solvent that makes the glue
spreadable; the glue dries as the solvent evaporates. Most solvents are flammable, and they
evaporate quickly; toluene, a liquid hydrocarbon made from fossil fuels, is often used. Included
in this category are glues sold as liquid solders and so-called contact cements. So this is less
acceptable than animal hide glue (Nor land, R.E. (1990).

Water based glues: use water as a solvent instead of chemicals. They work slower than
chemical solvent glues; however, they are not flammable. This category comprises such glues as
white glue and powdered casein glue, made from milk protein and mixed at home or in the shop.
These types of glues have no strength to stick materials. These are also less acceptable than hide
glue.

Casein Glue: Casein is made of skimmed milk. The principal ingredient of casein glue is
casein, which is the chief protein constituent of milk. When milk becomes sour, it separates into
curd and whey. The curd, when washed and dried, is the casein of commerce. When made in this
way, it is known as self-soured or naturally soured casein. Casein is also precipitated by mineral
acids, such as hydrochloric or sulfuric, and by rennet. In preparing the glue, caseins precipitated
by the different methods will require different amounts of water to produce solutions of similar
viscosity. Satisfactory glues, however, can be produced from caseins precipitated by any of these
methods provided the casein is of good quality. The starting point in the manufacture of casein is
skim milk. Its gluing system is too much week and it is no preferable (Yang, H., & Wang, Y.
2009).

Animal hide glues: are useful for woodworking. Made from the hides as well as the discarded
hides and skins and other portions of animals, the glue is sold either ready-made or as a powder
or flake that can be mixed with water, heated, and applied hot. The reason behind animal glue is
preferred than other glue is by its simple processing method, high strength of sticking materials,

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its reversibility behavior (the material can separate without damaging to each other after jointing)
and availability of raw material(Ledward, D.A. 1986). For our study the above criteria’s ordered
us to select animal hide glue processing rather than other types of glues because of its shelf life
and reversibility behavior.

Table 1: Comparison of animal glue with other type glues.

Particular Animal Glue Casein Glue Vegetable Glue Blood Glue Liquid Glue
Compared

Source Bones, hides, Casein from Cassava from Dried Blood Animal glue or fish parts
horns, etc. milk Starch
Cost per gram. 25-40Cents 16-20Cents 10-12Cents 20 cents 1-5Per lit

Spread in Sq. 25-35Cent 35-55Cent 35-50Cent 30-100Cent No data

Per gram

How mixed Soaked in Mixed cold Mixed with alkali Mixed cold No preparation
water melted with rapid cold
stirring
How applied Warm with Cold with Cold with Cold with Cold or warm usually
brush or brush or mechanical brush or applied by hand
mechanical mechanical spreader, not by mechanical
spreader spreader hand spreader
Temperatures of Cold, or with Cold Cold Hot Cold
press hot cauls

Strength(in Higher grades Equal to Equal to medium High Best grades equal to
shear test) stronger than medium grade grade animal glue strength in medium grade animal
strong. animal glue plywood. not glue
used for joint
Water resistance Low High Low High Low

Chief uses wood For strong joint For water For veneer work For water For repair

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working work resistant resistance work and small articles
plywood or veneer
joint work
Source: (Bogue, 1922).

2.3 Attributes to consider in choosing glues or adhesives

Key attributes to consider when choosing adhesives include; color, form, shelf life, and pot life.
Other attributes are adhesive bonding power and its ability to cover the profile of the surfaces to
be bonded together.
 Color of Adhesive :
There is clear, pale colored, and dark colored adhesives for bonding wood. Bright colored
adhesives are common in applications where aesthetic characteristics are not a priority, like in
heavy laminated beams for covered applications. Colorless adhesives are preferred in areas
where uniform wood color is of importance. The color of the adhesives and hence adhesive lines
are of importance particularly for furniture and plywood manufacture.
 Form of Adhesive
Adhesives are in form of powder, liquid film or jelly. The carpenter will prefer bottle or tin of
ready to use liquid adhesive whereas the plywood manufacturer may prefer dry powders that he
would use to prepare the adhesives at the time of use.
 Storage Life or Shelf Life of the adhesive:
This is the period between time of manufacture and expiry date. This varies from a month to well
over a year depending on the type of adhesive. Shelf life is important especially for users relying
on overseas supply. It helps one to decide on the level of stock necessary to keep.
 Pot Life Pot life is the period when the adhesive mix is in useable state. Manufacturers
usually state the pot life of adhesives at various working temperatures. This time varies
from an hour to a day. Usually, the end of the pot life is made self-evident by the
adhesives changing from a liquid to a rubbery solid. A long pot life reduces the time
spent on preparation as only one batch of adhesive needs to be prepared for the day's
work (Kollmanet al., 1975).
Based on the above factors we select animal hide glue because,
 It can be prepared in the form of granules, liquid film or viscous jelly
 It has long shelf life time

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  It has reversible behavior

2.4 Physical properties of animal hide glues

General properties:
Moisture: 11 - 14%
PH 6.2 - 7.7
Form Dry Granular 8 - 10 Mesh
Color Yellow/Amber to Brown
Specific Gravity 1.27
A later discussion will present the value and reasons for using different grades. Generally, the
higher the gel strength (in grams):

 The higher the molecular weight

 The higher the viscosity
 The faster the binding
In physical form, animal glues are odorless, dry, hard materials, somewhat transparent, ranging
in color from yellow/light amber to dark brown. They are supplied generally in ground form,
pearls, flakes or pulverized states. The average moisture content of animal glue lies in the range
of 11 to 14 per cent (loss in weight), subject to slight variations due to changes in relative
humidity. An ash content of from 3.00 to 4.50 per cent is considered normal. In water solution,
hide glues are generally found to be practically neutral in reaction pH range of 6.2 to 7.7. 12% of
the raw hide and skin become covered with hair and other impurities (Ramshaw, 1996).For 1kg
of animal hide 10 liters of water is needed for soaking purpose and more than this is used for
washing. In addition to this, for processing of 0.8kg of animal hide 1litter of water is needed
during extraction of hide glue and 2/3 of this is removed in the form of vapor.

2.5 Chemical composition animal hide glue

Hide glue is a protein derived from the simple hydrolysis of collagen which is a principal protein
constituent of animal hides. It is sold in many different gram strengths. The higher the gram
strength, the tackier and stronger the glue. The stronger the glue is, the less open time you have
between when the glue is applied and when it sets and immobilizes the item being glued. The
hide glue we stock is made by the last maker of hide glue in the US. It's the highest refined hide
glue available with the least amount of odor. We sell three different gram strengths: The 192

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gram strength is good general purpose glue, and it's the least expensive hide glue around. That's
why it's the most common. Its real application is veneering, although you can use it for regular
gluing in a pinch. A lot of people consider it the best all-around glue for general woodworking
(including veneering), because it also has the longest open time Collagen, hide glue and gelatin
are very closely related with respect to protein and chemical composition. An approximate
chemical composition of hide glue is carbon, hydrogen,oxygen and nitrogen (Gómez-Guillén,
2002).
 Carbon 51-52%
 Hydrogen 6-7%
 Oxygen 24-25%
 Nitrogen 18-19%
 Total 100 %

2.6 Parameters affecting the final glue

Parameters that should be considered during production of glue from animal hide are:
Animal’s age: animal age has a significant effect on glue production. Most of the time small
animals such as calf hide and young cattle’s hide are good for glue production.
Soaking time: has significant effect on the final production glue. As the soaking time increases
the quality of the product becomes low quality. These soaking time should not above 5 days in
order to produce qualified product.
Extraction time: during extracting of the glue from the raw hide the raw hide should be cooked
for 2 hours and net greater than this time. As the extraction time increases the glue becomes
denature and has low strength quality and if the time becomes decrease the final glue is not well
extracted from the raw hide.
Temperature: during extraction of glue the temperature becomes not more than 80 degree
Celsius and less than 65 degree Celsius. If the temperature is high, the glue becomes denature
and decreases its final strength and at low temperature the glue is not used well extracted. This
will cause less strength and quality of final glue.
Quality of glue also affected by the following important glue efficiency measurements.
Ash content: The mineral content of glue is expressed as total ash content. Ash content of hide
glue is determined by incineration of the dried residue in furnace until stable weight is reached.
The percentage of ash content can be calculated as follow:

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Ash (%) = *100

So the standard is 3% to 4.5 %( Piotrowska, 2007).if this experimental result has high ash
content which indicates this goat hide can have more composition of other compounds rather
than proteins.
Moisture content: Determining of water content is the most important parameter in this
experiment. We can determine to estimate the jelly strength or the amount of gelatin (protein) in
that liquid. Determined by heating of sample in oven until stable weight is reached. Moisture
content was calculated as follow:

Moisture content (%) = ∗ 100

Viscosity: Is a principal parameter when any flow measurements of fluids, such as liquids, semi-
solids, gases and even solids are made. Viscosity measurements are made in conjunction with
product quality and efficiency.
Anyone involved with flow characterization, in research or development, quality control or fluid
transfer, at one time or another gets involved with some type of viscosity measurement. The
standard value for viscosity of animal hide glue is 60±5 MPs (Piotrowska, 2007).
Thermodynamic properties of raw hide and the liquid glue at different temperature is listed
below (Liu Y, Li K, 2007).
 The specific heat capacity of raw animal hide at room temperature is 35KJ/Kg.oc
 Density of animal hide at room temperature is 1540Kg/m3
 Density of water is 1000Kg/m3
 Enthalpy of extracted glue at 70oc is about 2600KJ/Kg.oc
 Density of extracted liquor glue at 70oc is about 1270Kg/m3

2.7 Concentration of glue solution

The proportion of glue to water in preparing a glue solution depends in the main upon the class
of work for which it is required. For general jointing purposes the following percentages of glue
to water will serve as a guide (Bonifer, 1996).
 Russian glue 25 to 30 % of glue by weight
 Match glue 30 to 33 1/3% of glue by weight
 Cabinet glue 30 to 35% of glue by weight
 Joiners glue 35 to 40% of glue by weight

11 | P a g e
  Box glue 40 to 50% of glue by weight
Glue is graded on a basis of its gel strength, a measure of how many grams of force it requires to
depress a 1/2 plunger 4mm. into a 12.5% protein solution of the glue at 10°C. Glue is
manufactured in standard grades from 50 to 512 grams. 192 gram strength is the most commonly
used for woodworking; 251 is the highest normally used for instrument building; 135 is the
lowest used for general woodwork. The higher the gram strength, the stronger the cured glue,
and the shorter the working or gel time. The lowest grades are considered strong enough for
woodworking: “stronger than the wood itself.” (Personally, I don’t think any glue deserves that
sort of comment. It may be that strong only for certain tests; it is not the same as the wood itself.)
It is never a good idea to dilute too strong a glue to obtain lower viscosity or longer working time
when it is possible to use a lower grade of glue. Glues of different gram strengths may be mixed
to get an intermediate (Borderias, 1994)

2.7.1 Glue grade selection

The proper choice and selection of the hide glue adhesive for the specific application greatly
simplifies all gluing and provides fast, efficient operation at maximum economy with
consistently strong joints. For most adhesive applications, it is desirable to use grades 135
through 379 grams. For general repair work, grades 135 through 251grams are commonly used
as the lower ratio of water to glue (versus higher gel strength grades) permits depositing more
glue (higher solids) with adequate open time. Glue makes the bond, not water (Liu Y, Li K
2007).
For assembly and edge-gluing there are three major groups of hide glue, all providing a wide
margin of safety factor and a tensile strength far greater than that of wood itself, and differing
principally only in inherent strength, elasticity, and shock-resistant properties(Liu Y, Li K 2007).
 For maximum strength and shock resistance
Jelly strength grades testing 315-379 grams
 For average strength and shock resistance
Jelly strength grades testing 192-315 grams
 For non-critical strength and shock resistance
Jelly strength grades testing 135-192 grams

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For soft porous woods, principally the conifers, a fairly heavy-bodied adhesive is employed; for
dense, non-porous woods, such as maple, birch, and some of the oaks, a moderately thin-bodied
adhesive is desirable. This variation in the glue concentration of a given test grade of glue
directly leads to consistent glue results through.
 Control of the thickness of spread of the adhesive,
 Degree of penetration into the wood and proper anchorage of the adhesive,
 Holding of the adhesive film at the joint,
 Desired speed of set and length of tack of the adhesive at the joint face.

2.7.2 Glue bond failure

In all adhesive work there are occasional joint failures. With hide glue and its inherent margin of
safety factor and a tensile strength far in excess of wood, such joint failures as may occasionally
be experienced are more properly defined as gluing failures (Lambuth, A.L1977). Among the
more common causes of gluing failure are:
 Improperly seasoned wood. A kiln-dried wood is desirable wherein the excess moisture
has been properly reduced to the moisture content equilibrium under which it will be used
(11 to 14% moisture), with freedom from case hardening and internal stresses.
 Poorly dressed or machined wood. Glue is not a filler – the joints should be true.
 Insufficient clamp pressure. Sufficient pressure should be applied to bring the individual
members into alignment, squeeze out air and excess glue, and hold the members in rigid
position during development of adhesive strength. Pressure of 100 to 200 pounds per
square inch are recommended.
 Excessive clamp pressure. Pressures over 150 to 200 pounds per square inch are
generally unnecessary, and are apt to squeeze out glue essential to formation of a sound
joint.
 Removal of assembly from clamps before sufficient development of joint strength
 Machining or surfacing of joint before full development of joint strength and equilibrium
moisture content of joint have been attained.

2.7.3 Gelatin and collagen

Gelatin is a soluble protein compound obtained by partial hydrolysis of collagen, the main
fibrous protein constituent in bones, cartilages and skins. Therefore, different types of collagen
have been identified, type collagen is the most widely occurring collagen in connective tissue.

13 | P a g e
(Henrickson, 1982). Four to eight collagen molecules in cross-section are stabilized and
reinforced by covalent bonds to constitute the basic unit of collagen fibrils. Thus, the typical
strong, rigid nature of skins, tendons and bones is due to the basic structure formed by many of
these cross-linked collagen fibrils the source, age of animal, and type of collagen, are all intrinsic
factors influencing the properties of the gelatins (Johnston-Banks, 1990).

Insoluble native collagen must be pre-treated before it can be converted into a form suitable for
extraction, which is normally done by heating in water at temperatures higher than 45ºC. A
chemical pre-treatment will break non-covalent bonds so as to disorganize the protein structure,
thus producing adequate swelling and collagen solubilization (Stains by, 1987). Subsequent heat
treatment cleaves the hydrogen and covalent bonds to destabilize the triple helix, resulting in
helix-to-coil transition and conversion into soluble gelatin (Djabourov, 1993).

The degree of collagen conversion into gelatin is related to the severity of both the pre-treatment
and the warm-water extraction process, as a function of pH, temperature, and extraction time
(Johnston-Banks, 1990). Because of the acid labiality of cross-linking in immature collagens,
such as in fish skins, reasonably mild acid treatment is enough to effect collagen solubilization
(Nor land 1990). Gelatin quality for a particular application depends largely on its rheological
properties (Stains, 1987). Apart from basic Physico-chemical properties, such as composition
parameters, solubility, transparency, colour, odor and taste, the main attributes that best define
the overall commercial quality of gelatin are gel strength and thermal stability (gelling and
melting temperatures). For standardizing purposes, measurement of gel strength is determined
using the so-called Bloom test, which consists of performing a well-defined protocol at a given
gelatin concentration (6.67%), temperature (10ºC) and maturation time (17h), thus allowing gel
strength to be expressed in the normalized “bloom value” (Wainwrights’, 1977). Both, gel
strength and thermo stability are largely dependent on the molecular properties of gelatin,
especially with respect to two main factors:

1).The amino acid composition, which is species specific, and

2). the molecular weight distribution, which results mainly from processing conditions (Gómez-
Guillen et.al, 2002).
With regard to molecular weight distribution, gelatin consists of a mixture of polypeptides
frequently presenting a band pattern distribution typical of type I collagen, with a characteristic

14 | P a g e
α1/α2 chain ratio of around 2, the presence of β-and γ-components (covalently linked α-chain
dimers and trimmers, respectively), together with higher molecular weight forms as well as low
molecular weight protein degradation fragments (Stainsby, 1987). A strong decrease in the
prevalence of β- and γ-components and the near-disappearance of higher molecular aggregates,
with an increased presence of degradation fragments, are normally the result of the application of
more intense extracting conditions (pH, temperature, time), which is normal industrial practice
for yield improvement (Johnston-Banks, 1990) Physical properties of gelatin influence its quality
and potential application, since they are related to gelatin structure (Yang, 2009).

2.8 Alternative sources of gelatin and collagen

The most common raw materials for collagen and gelatin extraction are skins or hides, bones,
tendons and cartilages. Pigskin was the first raw material used for the manufacture of gelatin in
the 1930s and continues to be the most important material for large-scale industrial production.
Raw materials from fish and poultry have received considerable attention in recent years, but
they’re still limited production makes them less competitive in price than mammalian gelatins.
As far as fish gelatin is concerned, the huge number of species having very different intrinsic
characteristic of roused the interest of the scientific community in optimizing the extracting
conditions as well as characterizing the yields, and physic co-chemical and functional properties
often resulting gelatins, obtained mainly from skin and bone residues. Although less versatile
than gelatin, fish collagen has received considerable attention for its potential as an ingredient in
processed functional food manufacturing, as well as for cosmetic, biomedical and
pharmaceutical applications(Djabourov, M., Lechaire, J. & Gaill, 1993)..
Thus, extraction and functional characterization of acid- and/or pepsin soluble collagen has also
been reported for different fish species, like, trout and hake (Montero, 1991), plaice, squid
walleye Pollack, brown stripe red snapper or unicorn leather jacket Scales constitute another
important fish industry residue and may account for around 5% of the material contained in fish
collagenous waste. Utilization of fish scales for collagen or gelatin extraction has been reported
for sea bream and red tilapia (Ikoma, 2003), Unlike skins, scales are rich in Calcium phosphate
compounds such as hydroxyl apatite and Calcium carbonate; therefore, pre-treatment removal of
Calcium from fish scales is critical in order to obtain the final yield, purity, and gel strength of
the gelatin (Wang, 2009). These authors found that pre-treatment with 0.2mol/L EDTA produced
decalcification >90%, with a gelatin yield of 22% and gel strength of 152 g, values considerably

15 | P a g e
higher than those obtained with 0.20 mole/L Hcl or 1.2 g/L citric acid. Pre-cooked fin, an
important waste product from canned tuna processing, has been proposed as a Promising source
for high performance gelatin extraction, though with a low yield (2%) (Aewsiri, 2008). Pre-
cooking treatment, collagen might have undergone some denaturation in detriment to the yield
and the properties of the extracted gelatin, which exhibited inferior gelling, emulsifying, foaming
and film-forming properties to those of commercial pigskin gelatin (Kim, 2005).

2.8.1 Gelling and water binding properties

Gel formation, viscosity and texture are closely related properties determined mainly by the
structure, molecular size and temperature of the system. Although collagen and gelatin are
different forms of the same macromolecule, gelatin and collagen gels are often confused by non-
specialists. The gelatin mechanism as well as the formed gel network structure differs
considerably from that of collagen gels melt by lowering the temperature, while gelatin gels melt
by raising the temperature. (Djabourov.et al., 1993).
By increasing gelatin concentrations or by using gelatin mixtures (of cold and warm water fish),
desserts made from fish skin gelatin were found to be more similar to desserts made from high
bloom pork skin gelatin. Furthermore, the lower melting temperature in gel desserts made from
fish gelatins may accelerate flavor release (Zhou, 2007). The properties of gelatin-pectin
hydrogels have been shown to depend strongly on the pH in the reaction mixture and on the
charge balance (determined by the gelatin-pectin ratio), which will influence the degree of
electrostatic associations and ionic interactions in the gelling system (Deiber, 2009).The high
swelling and water binding capacity of solubilized collagen and gelatin makes them suitable
materials for reducing drip loss and impairing juiciness in frozen fish or meat products when
thawed or cooked, and where denatured protein has suffered a partial loss of its water holding
capacity used collagenous material from freeze-dried plaice skin to improve the water-holding
ability and the sensory properties of cod mince during frozen storage.

2.9 Processing glue from animal hide

These glues are made using a rather simple process, which hasn’t changed much over the ages.
The raw material is first conditioned in a water solution with lime (calcium hydroxide). Then the
pH value is adjusted by adding a dilute mineral acid and rinsed in water. Then the process of
cooking begins, and while the material is cooked the water/protein solution is extracted and
filtered. The protein that is collected by the filters is dried and ground up as a final product. The

16 | P a g e
resulting glue is then tested as to viscosity (fluidity) and gel strength (stiffness of gel formation),
and graded on a scale from 50 to 512. Lower grades dry slower and are more flexible and higher
grades dry faster and harder. Glue chip glass is made using hide glue with a 135 gram strength,
which allows the glue to actually tear off the surface of the glass as it sets. Woodworkers choose
between 160 and 250 gram strengths, which have slightly different working characteristics. The
most popular is 190 gram strength that allows adequate working times when the wood is
preheated to 95° F. (35° C) (Henrickson, 1982).

Generally there are two types of products with two processing methods. The first process is
extracting of the final glue from the stock in granules form and the second one is processing or
extracting of the glue in the form of hot liquid glue. For our study we select granules type
product processing method because it has high shelf of life and good bonding characteri

CHAPTER THREE

3 Material and Method

3.1 Material
Materials such as equipment’s and chemicals that we used during conducting of our
experimental work were listed below with their functions.

Table 2: list of equipment and their function

Apparatus Amount Function

Storage tank 2 Storing of raw materials
Washing tank 2 In order to remove dirty materials and blood from
the raw material
Knives 1 Used for balancing method during measuring the
feed
Soaking tank 3 To make soft and preparing the raw hide for
extraction process and producing of stock
Liming tank 1 It is used to remove hair and other un wanted
parts of the stock using lime
Solvent extractor(heater) 1 Used to heating and cooking the stock and
extracting of glue
Sieve 1 Used to separate the liquid from residual cooked
stock
Oven 1 In order to concentrate the final weak liquor glue
and to obtain viscous glue

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Cooler 1 In order to cool final glue and producing of
granules form
PH meter Determine of final PH value (acidic or basic)
Hydrometer To measure the viscosity of the concentrated glue

Table 3:list of chemicals and their function

Apparatus Amount Function

Water For washing, socking, cooking..etc.
Soap 2 pieces For washing
Salt 2kg For killing of bacteria’s
Lime (Cao) 5kg For removing hair and fats
Hydrochloric acid (HCI) 100ml for each Used for neutralization (lime treatment)

3.2 Methodology
The commercial process consists that collecting of raw hide is the first step of the process. Our
sample or the fresh raw hide was collected from Kombolch (hayk) tannery factory. The next step
is curing of the raw hide and we cured it with salt for 12 hours and we washed it with a fresh
water for several times. During washing of the sample, dirty material such as salt, blood and
other unwanted materials were removed. After removal of the dirty material, washed hide
becomes soaked in soaking tank which contains pure water and lime to soften the collagen and to
remove hair and other dirty materials. The stock is then immersed for several days in increasing
concentrations of limewater to affect swelling of skin fiber and to remove hair, and is finally
washed in water to remove the bulk of the lime. Final traces of lime are usually removed by
treatment with strong or weak solutions of acids, such as hydrochloric or acetic acid, to adjust the
hide PH and to swell up it. Finally, boiling or leaching the stock is accomplished in open tanks or
in autoclaves under pressure or in a solvent extractor at 160°F (70°C) for about 2 hours to extract
liquor and dark brown of glue is produced. If white glue is desired, zinc oxide is added. The
weak liquor from the boiling process is concentrated in vacuum evaporators or oven at 30°C for
2 and half hours. Finally cooled and dried by:
 Chilling in to blocks and drying on nets,
 Chilling into sheets and drying on nets and
 Forming pearls by chilling in non-aqueous liquor.

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3.3 General procedure
The procedures for the production of glue from waste hide in laboratory scale are as follow:-
1: We collected the raw material or waste hide from Kombolcha (hayk) tannery factory .

Figure 1: Sample collected from kombolcha(hayk) tannery

2: We removed some dirty (unwanted materials) from the hide by washing the hide several times
by water.

3: Then we added the washed fresh hide in to the prepared soaking tanks and we added 3litters
water for each tank.

Figure 2: soaking process

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4: After the hide is soaked for 3-8 days we immersed this softens (soaked) hide in lime water
soaking tank (three samples different soaking time).

5: In order to remove the limes and other dirty materials we washed the limed softens stock with
fresh water.

6: After cleaning is takes place we treated (neutralized) this softens stock with hydrochloric acid
to remove traces of lime and then we washed by water.

7: After soaking, liming and neutralizing are finished boiling this softens stock using water
solvent at a temperature of 70oc for two hours.

Figure 3 :glue extraction process

8: After extraction process we have separated the liquid glue from that of residual and uncooked
feed stock by using filter( sieve)

Figure 4 filtration process

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9: We concentrated the extracted weak liquor glue at 30oC for 2 and half hours and we obtained a
viscous glue. At the end we cooled and dried the concentrated glue and we obtained a granules
form of animal hide glue

Figure 5: final concentrated glue

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 General frame work of the experiment
Removing of some
We collect raw hide dirty material using
.
and wash with fresh water
water

Killing bacteria

Removing of hair and Soaking, liming

fats and washing

Improving of PH
Lowering of
Removing of lime using PH(neutralization
Treatment of soaked hide with
water ) and prevention
HCl solution and washing with
from unwanted
water
sweelling

Extracting of desired
Boiled of soaked and treated hide at
glue
70oc for two hours and extracting
Filtrated the desired the glue
glue

Concentrating the filtrated glue

at 30oc for two hours and half
and finally

External factor Cooling and drying

evalution Composition
analysis
Texture
Quality test PH
Oduor
Moisture content
Over all acceptability

General frame work of experiment

22 | P a g e
CHAPTER FOUR
4 Result and discussion
4.1 Quality analysis
The results of laboratory experiment was for determining the condition at which the produced
sample product has good quality and we have taken three samples each contained 800 gram of
raw hide. The first 800g sample was soaked with water for three days, the second 800g sample
was soaked for five days and the third sample was soaked for eight days. From these soaking
times results were recorded. Treating the limed and washed hide with hydrochloric acid (Hcl) is
also a process which is conducted in this laboratory experiment. During this process when the
limed hide was treated with diluted (2% of hydrochloric acid) solution, its pH value is decreased
obviously and the result PH from basic to neutral .On the first step or on the soaking and
extracting period, if the hide was soaked for long period of time it starts destruction of the hide
and formation microorganisms and the odor was pungent. While conducting of soaking with
short period of time the result was good quality product. During extraction process, when the
stock hide was cooking with high concentration or amount of water its moisture content was
recorded very high moisture content which is greater than the standard moisture content of glue
and when the amount of water is low its moisture content becomes lower than the standard
moisture content value. The pH value (5-6) for the experimental produced glue was slightly
different from that of the standardized PH value of glue which is ranges from 6.2 to 7.7 which is
almost neutral. The reason for the difference PH will be due to nature of the hide and during the
proportion basic to acid ratio. PH value recorded for each samples was the same. Odor was one
factor for determination of the quality of our result and the result we recorded for the first sample
odorless and the second sample result was not the same with the former experiment. The glue
contains some pungent odor. The third experiment was conducted by soaking of the third sample
for eight (8) days using the same solution. The result recorded from the third experiment was
more pungent odor.

23 | P a g e
4.2 Physico-chemical analysis
PH test
PH is the negative log of the hydrogen ion concentration and is a very crucial factor to determine
the dissociation of acid and structural conformation of protein. In the manufacturing of animal
hide glue pH value plays is a significant role to determine the end product quality. This treating
of the hide with weak hydrochloric acid solution have been played great role in our product
quality, because for our product neutral condition is the optimum condition. The standard pH
value ranges from 6.2 to 7.7(Piotrowska, 2007).
The pH of the final liquid product was measured using digital pH meter (model No: PP-25). Pure
water and distilled water were used for the calibration (cleaning) of the pH meter. But, for our
experiment we have used PH indicator paper to determine the PH of our final glue. 30gram of
liquid glue was taken in a beaker and then the PH indicator paper was immersed in to the liquid
glue until constant color reading was attained. After some time the pH indicator was read 5-6 the
range becomes 5-6 PH values. The pH value (5-6) for the experimental produced glue was slightly
different from that of the standardized PH value of glue which is ranges from 6.2 to 7.7 which is
almost neutral. The reason for the difference PH will be due to nature of the hide and during the
proportion basic to acid ratio. By considering these parameters our result is qualified.

4.3 Compositional analysis

4.3.1Moisture content analysis
Determining of water content is the most important parameter in this experiment. We can
determine to estimate the jelly strength or the amount of gelatin (protein) in that liquid. We
determined the moisture content of the three samples by taking 50g of each samples and heating
in oven at 100oc with the same time. Moisture content was calculated as follow:

Moisture content (%) = ∗ 100

After drying the dried residue was recorded

6.664g, 8.33g, 9.996g was recorded for sample one, sample two and sample three respectively.
.
So,Moisture content for sample one = *100 = 13.328%
.
Moisture content for sample two = *100 = 16.67%

24 | P a g e
 .
Moisture content for sample three = *100 =19.992%

From the literature review the water content of standardized animal hide glue is ranges from 11%
to14%. When this standard is compare with the experimental result, sample two and three
recorded high moisture content than the standard one. This occurred due to the amount of water
proportion of in the boiling and extraction processes was high. The higher moisture content of
glue the lower strength of the glue. The lower the moisture the higher glue strength. Therefore,
we conclude that sample one has high strength to bond materials.
Table 4: Summary of Physico-chemical and moisture content analysis

Parameter Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample3

Soaked hide feed (g) 800 800 800
Water used (L) 0.8 1 1.2
Moisture content (%) 13.328 16.67 19.992

The graphical representation of amount of water and moisture content can be summarized.

water (x) versus moisture content (y) value

25

20

15

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4

Figure 6: Moisture content determination by varying amount of water

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4.4 External factor evaluations
External factors like odor, smell, color and general acceptability of the product should be
evaluate in order to characterize the quality of this product.

Odor test
Odor is one of the parameters that describe the quality characteristics of glue. From the literature
review hide glue has no odor or it is odorless. Three times of sample soaking systems were
conducted in our experiment by varying of soaking time. The first experiment was conducted by
soaking of the 800gram sample one for 3 days using 10%lime water solution. The result that we
recorded from this sample experiment was odorless. The second experiment was conducted by
soaking of the second sample for five (5) days using the same solution. The result we recorded
was not the same with the former experiment. The glue contains some pungent odor. The third
experiment was conducted by soaking of the third sample for eight (8) days using the same
solution. The result recorded from the third experiment was more pungent odor. This may
occurred due to the formation of some different microorganisms during soaking of raw hide for
long period of time. Therefore, the hide should not be soaked more than 5 days.
Table 5: External factor analysis of odor

Samples Parameter Experimental result

Sample one Odor Odor less
Sample two Odor Slightly pungent
Sample three Odor More pungent

Figure 7:Characterizing of odor with increasing of soaking time

26 | P a g e
Color test
Color is also one of the quality characterization parameter. It plays its own role in adhesion
mechanism. The color of the adhesives and hence adhesive lines are of importance particularly
for furniture and plywood manufacture. From the literature review there are clear, pale colored,
and dark colored adhesives for bonding wood materials are preferable. Animal hide glue is one
type of adhesives which is use for bonding of wood materials. The result which recorded from
the three experimental samples was color of sample one ranges from light amber to dark brown
color which is similar to the standardized color. Result recorded from sample two was like
orange color and the third color which was orange to yellow color. Finally when looking at the
overall acceptability of sample one was most acceptable than sample two and three.

4.5 Other parameters of glue

One of the more interesting properties of animal glue solutions is their ability to pass from a
liquid to a jelled state upon cooling, and then revert to the liquid state upon re-heating. So,
carefully heating of this solid glue is an important mechanism and binding of different
woodworking is now possible. Therefore; the view which said animal hide glue has indefinite
shelf life is obviously true.

Table 6:External factor analysis of odor

Parameters Experimental result

Sample 1 Odorless

Sample 2 Slightly Pungent

Odor Sample 3 More pungent
Color Sample 1 Light amber to dark
brown
Sample 2 Orange
Sample 3 Orange to yellow
Shelf life All samples Reversible

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CHAPTER FIVE
5 Market study
5.1 Past supply
The data source for import statistics i.e. Ethiopian Revenue and Customs Authority classifies
import of adhesives under the following table.
Table 7: Imported adhesives

Year Quantity (tons) Value (000 birr )

2000 1614 15028
2001 1842 22076
2002 1498 16453
2003 2115 25496
2004 2310 30536
2005 3542 39332
2006 3920 48995
2007 4418 58295
2008 4858 59,295
2009 4490 74,084
2010 6163 140,209
2011 5658 149,713
Source: - Ethiopian Revenues and Customs Authority
Table above reveals that import of adhesives has been consistently increasing from period to
period, except a slight decline in the year 2002, year 2003 and year 2011 compared to their
respective previous years. The yearly average level of import which was only 1,651 tons during
the period 2000--2002 has reached nearly 6,000 tons by the 2010/11. Generally, during the past
12 years import volume has shown an annual average growth rate of 17%.
To estimate the present (year 2012) demand a 17% growth rate, which is observed in the past 12
years, is applied. Accordingly, the total presented demand for adhesives is computed to be 6,620
tons. In order to arrive at the demand specifically for natural adhesive the share of glues based on
starches and dextrin from the total import in the recent three years has been computed and found
to be about 25%. Hence, the current effective demand for natural adhesives is estimated at 1,655
tons.
28 | P a g e
5.2 Demand of Projection
Adhesives are used in almost all sectors of the manufacturing. It is used to bond two or more
surfaces together and is economically compared to other methods. Adhesives are widely used in
the wood, metal, paper, textiles, leather, rubber, glass and other activities of the manufacturing
sector. Hence, the demand for adhesives will grow parallel with the expansion of the
manufacturing sector. The manufacturing sector of Ethiopia is projected to grow by about 18%
per annual. A 12% annual growth rate, which is smaller than the observed trend in the past and
the forecast of the manufacturing sector, is applied in projecting the future demand (see Table 5.1)
Table 8: projected demand for natural adhesive (tons)

Year Projected demand (tons)

2013 1853
2014 2076
2015 2325
2016 2604
2017 2917
2018 3266
2019 3658
2020 4098
2021 4586
2022 5140
2023 5757

The demand for natural adhesives will increase from 1, 853 tons in the year 2013 to 3,266 tons
and 5, 757 tons by the year 2018 and year 2023, respectively.

5.3 Pricing and distribution

Based on the price of year 2011 and considering other import related costs a factory gate price of
Birr 31,752 per ton is recommended.

29 | P a g e
CHAPTER SIX
6 Material and Energy Balance
6.1 Design basis
By scaling up the experimental result the design capacity for the production of animal hide glue
is processing of 5000 kg of raw hide per day. This figure is taken by considering the availability
of the main raw material which is animal hide. The production plant operates 315days/year. The
hide contains about 12% of hair and fat of its weight. Water consumed for soaking tank
15m3/day. The general production process can be described as:

Feed water fresh water lime water

Soaking HCI
Raw feed
Liming
tank/soak
washinghide
Feed hide washed Stock limed stock tank
ing of Lime
raw hide treatment
tank
Residual hide

Vapor treated stock

Solvent
Concentrati Filtration/scre Liquid glue extractor at
ng of liquid ening out
70 oc
Pure glue
glue impurities
Water

Residual recycling

Viscous glue

Cooling of final
viscous glue and
Packaging of final product
drying
General block diagram of glue production process

30 | P a g e
6.2 Material balance
Material quantities, as they pass through processing operations, can be described by material
balances. Such balances are statements on the conservation of mass. Similarly, energy quantities
can be described by energy balances, which are statements on the conservation of energy. If
there is no accumulation, what goes into a process must come out. It is also true for continuous
operation over any chosen time interval. Material and energy balances are very important in an
industry. Material balances are fundamental to the control of processing, particularly in the
control of yields of the products and to know amount of input and output product. The first
material balances are determined in the explanatory stages of a new process, improved during
pilot plant experiments when the process is being planned and tested, checked out when the plant
is commissioned and then refined and maintained as a control instrument of production is
continues. The increasing cost of energy has caused the industries to examine means of reducing
energy consumption in processing. Energy balances are used in the examination of the various
stages of a process, over the whole process and even extending over the total production system
from the raw material to the finished product.(Coulson & Richardson’s, 2005).

In the case of this study, the need to conduct material and energy balance on major unit
operations was to scale up all the parameters used in the laboratory that resulted in the annual
production of the plant; in order to design the size of the equipment that helps in estimating
purchased equipment cost. In addition to that it helps in calculating the material, auxiliary and
utility costs. Generally, they are needed to estimate economic analysis; profitability and
financial feasibility of the processing plant. We assumed that material balance on storage tanks,
concentrator, packing and other minor unit operations is not computed because , there is no
significant change in mass of inputs and outputs of those unit operations.

a. Laboratory work
Material balance on laboratory scale includes:
1. Raw hide added as main raw material = Three samples weight of each 800g
2. Water added 30liter for soaking for each tank.
3. Water added in the first sample for boiling = 800ml
4. Water added in the second sample for boiling = 1000ml

31 | P a g e
5. Water added in the third sample for boiling = 1200ml
6. Lime added 10% of the water solution for each sample
5. Hydrochloric acid added 100mlfor 10%of lime solution of 1000ml water
6. Normal salt which is used in soaking system for each sample = 150g
7. Heating temperature for (boiling) extraction unit for each sample = 70oC
8. Concentrating temperature for each sample= 30oC

b.Materials balance on washing Tank and soaking tank

The purposes of washing of raw material hide is in order to remove dirties bloods and other
impurities. Since the impurities have no significant effect on the feed mass of the raw hide mass
balance on washing tank is not available.

c. Materials balance on liming tank

From the literature review, 12%of the total weight of raw hide is covered by hair and the
purposes of soaking reducing of the hair from 12%of the total weight of to 0%. This is implies
that, the hair is completely removed from the hide.
Then, from our design base let the plant has capacity to process5000kg of raw hide per day and
15m3of water is needed for soaking (for 1kg of stock hide 3liter of water is needed for liming).
Let hair = 12%of feed hide
Water for soaking = 15m3
15m3 (lime water)

Feed raw hide

Liming tank
ṀF= 208.33kg/hr Mass of soaked hide(ṁs)

Residual hair + limed water (R=12%Feed=12%ṁF))

From conservation of mass

Input-output+generation-consumption = accumulation

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During soaking of raw hide/skin there is no chemical reaction .this implies, generation and
consumption are neglected. Assume the process is steady state and accumulation becomes
zero(0).
From this idea the equation will be
Input = out put
ṁF + ṁw = ṁS + ṁR +ṁLw
Where, F = mass of feed raw material of hide/skin
LW = mass of limed water
S = mass of stock hide/skin
R = mass of removed hair and impurities which is equal with 12%of F.
Assume all mass of water which is used for liming is completely removed.
ṁF = ṁS + ṁR
ṁF = ṁS +12%F
208.33kg/hr = ṁS + 12 %( 208.33kg/hr)
ṁS = 208.33kg/hr-24.9996kg/hr = 183.333kg/hr
Therefore, 183.333kg/hr raw hide is stock hide is produced per day.

d. Material balance on lime treatment tank

During lime treatment process there is no change in the mass of finally treated hide. This process
is simply carried out for the purposes of adjusting the PH value of the stock hide (PH = 7).
Therefore, mass balance on lime treatment tank is not available.
e.Materials balance on solvent extraction unit
From mass balance of liming tank 183.333kg /hr of treated stock hide is produced. This amount
of treated stock hide then goes to the next process which is extraction unit operation. The process
uses water as solvent for extraction of liquid glue from soaked hide at a temperature of 70ᴼc.
From literature review for processing of 1kg of animal hide /skin 1-1.3liters of water is needed
from this 3/4 water is assumed to be evaporated and about 10% of the treated stock hide/skin is
removed as residual form. The residual is screened out or filtered from the liquor glue by using
screen which occurred beneath the extractor unit.

33 | P a g e
 Mass of vapors (ṁv)

Mass of water ṁw=5.5m3

Solvent extraction at
ṀS = 183.3Kg/hr 70ᴼc
Liquor glue extracted (ṁG) Mass of soaked materials

Mass of water = ṁH20 = ρH20*vH20 = 1000kg/m3*5.5m3

=5500kg/day =229.1666kg/hr.
Mass flow rate of vapor = 3/4 feed water = 3/4mass of feed water
ṁv = 3/4* ṁ feed water =3/4 *229.166 = 171.875kg/hr
Mass of extracted liquid glue can be calculated as follows.
Assume there is no chemical reaction during extraction process and generation and consumption
becomes zero. The process is steady state and then, the accumulation is zero.
So, input = out put
ṁS + w = ṁv + ṁG
Where, ṁS = mass flow rate of treated stock hide
ṁw = mass flow rate of water vapor
ṁR = mass flow rate of residue
ṁG= mass flow rate of water and glue mixture.
183.33kg/hr + 229.166kg/hr = 171.875kg/hr+ ṁG
ṁG = 240.618kg/hr
Therefore, 240.618kg of water and glue mixture is extracted per hour.

f. Mass balance on filtration

During filtration process about 40% of the mixture glue is removed as residual form and
recycling to the solvent extractor in order to re extract the remaining glue.

Filtratio
240.16Kg/hr n product glue = p

40% of residual glue removed

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Mass of the product can be calculated as

240.166 = P + 40%240.166

P =144.3708 Kg/hr

g. Material balance on concentrator (oven)

During concentrating of the extracted liquid glue about 10% of water removed in the form of
vapor and glue becomes viscous liquids.

Vapor=10%P

Oven (concentrator)
P = 144.3708kg/hrproduct (ṁG)

Assume;-There is no chemical reaction means that consumption and generation become zero.The
process is steady state that means accumulation is zero.
Input = out put
P = ṁv + ṁG
Where, ṁG = mass flow rate of extracted glue
ṁv = mass flow rate vapor
P = mass flow rate of feed glue
ṁv = 10% P = 0.1*144.3708kg/hr
= 14.43708kg/hr
Then, ṁG = P -ṁv
ṁG = 144.3708kg/hr – 14.43708kg/hr
ṁG = 129.9372kg/hr.

35 | P a g e
e. Mass balance on cooler
There is no mass balance on the final glue during cooling process.

6.3 Energy balance

a. Energy balance on solvent extractor (heater)

Solvent extraction at 70ᴼc

ṀS = 183.3Kg/hr Liquor glue extracted (ṁG)

T1=25oc ṁG=240.618Kg/hr, T2=70oc

Just as mass conserved so is energy conserved in glue processing (extraction) operation.

The energy combining into a unit operation can be balanced with the energy out and stored
energy.
Energy in =Energy out+ Energy storage
The feed soaked hide and water at room temperature means that the initial temperature of the
feed is 25oc.
hThe feed soaked hide and water are heated to about 70oc for 2 hours.
Then the change in temperature becomes:
∆T=T2-T1=70oc-25oc=45oc
For extracted glue (latent heat of vaporization)
hv at 70oc of glue =2600KJ/Kg
Q of glue== ṁcp∆T, when hv=cp∆T
Q1=ṁ*hv
Q1=2490.618Kg/hr*2600KJ/Kg*1hr/3600sec
Therefore;
Q1=173.78KJ/sec=173.78KW
The specific heat capacity of water at70oc is 4.191KJ/Kg&*K and also at25 oc=4.18KJ/Kg*K
. .
Cpavg= = =4.5495KJ/KgK

Q2=ṁcpavg∆T=171.875Kg/hr*4.5495KJ/Kg*K*40oc

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Q2=171.875Kg/hr*4.5495KJ/Kg*K* (40+273.15) K

Q2=171.875Kg/hr*4.5495KJ/Kg*K*313.15*1hr/3600sec

Q2=68.02KJ/sec=68.02KW
Therefore Qtotal =Q1+Q2=173.78KW+68.02KW
Qtotal=241.8KW

b. Energy balance on oven

Vapor=10%P

Oven (concentrator) at 30oc

P = 144.3708kg/hr product (ṁG=129.937kg/hr)

Outlet
temperature=Tout=30ocInlet temperature=Tin=70oc
The specific heat capacity of glue at 30oc is 35KJ/Kg*K
The specific heat capacity of water at 30oc=4.175KJ/Kg*K
Therefore;Q=129.937kg/hr*35
Q1=ṁcp∆T of glue
Q1=129.937kg/hr*35KJ/kg*(30oc-70oc)
Q1=129.937kg/hr*35KJ/KgK (30+273.1-(70+273.15))
Q1=-181911.8KJ/hr*hr/3600sec=-50.53kw
The negative sign indicates that about 50.53kw of energy is released.
Q2 = ṁcp∆T of water,Q2 = 14.432kg/hr*4.175KJ/ kg K *(30-70) K
Q2 = -2409.977KJ/hr hr/3600sec= -0.669kw
Therefore;
Qtotal =Q1+Q2= [(-50.53) + (-0.669)] KW
Qtotal = -51.199KW
We conclude that about 51.199KW of total energy is released during concentrating of the
extracted glue

37 | P a g e
CHAPTER SEVEN
7. Equipment sizing
a. Sizing of washing tank
Amount of water used for washing is 20m3(i.e. for 1Kg of hide 4liters of water is needed for
washing) and density of water is 1000Kg/m3.Then 20000Kg of water is used for washing. Since
water is continuously flow out and the amount of water has no significant effect on size of
washing tank. The tank size is depend up on the feed raw hide that we want to wash.

Volume of washing tank (Vw)=

Mass flow rate of feed raw hide from our design base is 208.33Kg/hr.
From literature review density of animal hide at room temperature is 1540Kg/m3 and Vw can be
determined as;

Vw=

Vw= 208.33Kg/1540Kg/m3=0.1353m3
Assume design factor is 90% full and 10% is safety factor.
The actual volume of the washing tank can be determined as,
(Vw) act=Vw + 10%Vw= (0.1353 + 0.1 * 0.1353) = 0.14883m3
Specification
 made up of carbon steel
 corrosion resistance
 long service of life
 fouling resistance

b.Sizing of limed water storage tank

From literature review amount of water used for soaking of 208.33Kg raw hide is 15m3 (i.e. for 1
kg of hide/skin 3 liter of water is needed). The amount of lime that is used for soaking is 10% of
water solution.
Volume of water (Vw) = 15m3/day =0.625m3/hr
Density of water (ρwater) = 1000Kg/m3

From literature review density of fine lime (ρlime) at room temperature is 1201Kg/m3.

38 | P a g e
Mass of lime can be determine as follow.
Mass of lime = 10%mass of water
Mass of lime = 0.1 *15000Kg = 1500Kg/day =62.5kg/hr

Volume of lime (Vlime)= = 62.5Kg/1201Kg/m3 = 0.0521m3/hr

To determine the volume of storage tank we should add volume of water and volume of lime.
Volume of storage tank (Vs) = Vw + Vlime
Vs= 15m3 + 1.25m3=16.25m3
Vs=0.625m3+0.0521m3 =0.6771m3
Assume design factor is 90% full and 10% is safety factor. Actual volume of the storage tank can
be determined by adding the safety factor.
Actual volume of storage tank (Vs) act = 0.6771 + 10%0.6771 = 0.77481m3
Specification
 Made up of carbon steel
 More corrosion resistance than stainless steel
 Less expensive than stainless steel
c.Sizing of soaking tank
From our design base amount of hide that going to soak is 208.333kg/hr.
From literature review density of animal hide at room temperature is 1540Kg/mg3
Amount of limed water used for soaking of 208.333Kg of raw hide is 0.625m3 and volume of
raw hide is determined as,

Volume of raw hide (Vhide) =

Vhide=208.33Kg/1540Kg/m3 = 0.1353m3
And total volume of soaking tank is the sum of volume of limed water and raw hide.

Volume total (Vst) = Vlimed water + Vhide= 0.625m3+0.1353m3 = 0.76028m3

Assume design factor is 80% full and 20% is safety factor.

Actual volume of soaking tank = 0.76028m3+ 0.2%0.76028m3 = 0.912336m3
Specification
Made up of fiber glass

39 | P a g e
 d.Sizing of solvent extractor (Heater)
Volume of water used for boiling =5.5m3/day =0.229m3/hr*hr =0.229m3
Mass of feed soaked hide=183.33Kg
Density of animal hide at room temperature=1540Kg/m3
Volume of animal hide=mass/density =183.33Kg/1540Kg/m3 =0.1191m3
Volume of (mixture) =Volume of hide +Volume of water
=0.229m3+0.1191m3=0.3482m3
Assume the heater has a vertical cylindrical shape and its volume can calculated as;
Volume of heater cylindrical=πD2H/4 and A=ΠD2/4
Volume of heater =A*H
Standard height of vertical cylinder form heater is 1-2.5m
Assume the standard height is 1.5m

Vheater=A*H=0.3482m3=A*1.5m

A=0.2322m2
e.Sizing of concentrator (oven)
Volume of oven =mass of concentrated glue/density of extracted glue
Mass of extracted glue is 129.9372Kg/hr
Standard density of animal hide glue is 1270Kg/m3(i.e animal hide glue has specific gravity of
1.27)
Animal hide specific gravity =density of substance/density of water
=density of hide glue/1000Kg/m3
Density of hide glue=1.27*1000Kg/m3=1270Kg/m3. Then;
Volume of oven=ṁ hide glue/density of hide glue
V of oven=129.9372Kg/1270Kg/m3=0.10238m3
Standard height of oven commonly used for industrial level is from 37 inch-49in.
Assume the height of oven is 47in (i.e. 1.5m)
The oven has cylindrical shape and volume can be determined as;
Volume of cylindrical oven = A*H
0.10238m3=A*1.5m

Therefore; A=0.06825m.

40 | P a g e
CHAPTER EIGHT
8 Plant Cost Estimation and Economic Feasibility
8.1 Economic analysis
The basic reason why financial and economic evaluation is needed is that:
 Because special emphasis is place on the economic and engineering principles.
 Plant design offer a direct cost advantage and must give profit to the investing the
project.
 During plant design there is a success or risk.

8.1.1 Objectives of financial and economic analysis

 To implement our design project
 To screen out plant design project based on financial profitability and economic
analysis.
A project is economically feasible when it is more profitable than other competing project and
financially feasible when management can raise the capital for its implementation. The
economic evaluation of a process proceeds in several steps. These are:-
 Preparing a process flow diagram
 Calculating mass and energy flow
 Sizing major equipment
 Estimating the production cost
 Forecast the product sales price
 Estimating the return on investment
The ultimate purpose for developing such a detailed process design and cost estimate is to
determine the economic feasibility of glue production from hides.

8.1.2 Capital investment for glue production from animal hide

Capital means the stock of accumulated wealth that may be used for investment or financial
project to product goods or services. There are three types of capital investments.
1) Total Capital Investment (TCI)

Total Capital Investment (TCI) is total amount of money invested for:

 Raw material and supply carried in stock

41 | P a g e
  Finished stock products
 Accounts receivable
 Accounts payable
 Taxes payable
 Cash kept on hand for monthly payments of operating expenses such as salaries, wages
and raw material purchases.
Generally, Total Capital Investment is the summation of Fixed Capital Investment and Working
Capital Investment.
2) Fixed Capital Investment (FCI)
Fixed Capital Investment is the total cost of the plant ready for start-up an investment. And also
it is the cost paid to the contractors. It stays permanently in an investment and includes:

 Cost of design and other engineering construction

 All items of equipment and their installation
 Land and buildings as well as cost of utilities and all piping’s including installation.

3) Working Capital Investment (WCI)

Working Capital Investment is the additional investment needed over and above
It includes:
 Cost of star-up and initial catalyst charges
 Finished product inventories
 Fund to cover outstanding accounts from customer

8.2 Estimation of purchased equipment cost

The next step is to determine the installed cost of all equipment depending on their size and
materials of construction. The purchased equipment cost is therefore, the summation of all
equipment costs that is already purchased.
The attachment shown below shows the estimation of all equipment costs based on the Marshall
Swift cost index of 1,000.

42 | P a g e
Table 9:Estimation of major unit operation equipment cost

S. No Description Capacity Quantity US Dollar (ET) Birr

1 Washing Tank 0.14883m3 3 34,800 751,680

2 Storage Tank 0.7748 m3 1 8,200 177,120

3 Soaking Tank 0.912336m3 5 44,500 961,200

4 Heater 0.8322m2 1 4,900 105,840

5 Oven 0.06825m2 1 2,600 56,160

6 Belt conveyors 4m 3 49,500 1,069,200

7 Cooler 0.034Btu/hr 1 41,100 887,760

4,008,960
Total purchased equipment cost(PEC)

8.2.1 Cost indexes

Cost index is used to compare the cost of previous with the cost of present one. This is because
of prices may change considerably with time due to changes in economic condition and
technological advancement of an equipment’s. The common indexes permit fairly accurate
estimates if the time period is less than ten (<10) years. The most common indexes are: Chemical
Engineering plant cost index (CEPCI), process industry equipment index, McGraw-Hill
construction indexes.

Generally, cost index is the ratio of cost present to cost in the past. According to this definition,
present cost is equal to original cost of equipment in the past multiplied by index ratio i,e index
value at present time divided by index value at previous time. Hence; from chemical engineering
plant cost index, (McGraw-Hill construction index).Index, for 2014 is 567.1 and Index for 2013
is 580.5. Therefore, Index ratio can be calculated as follows.

43 | P a g e
Index ratio = index 2014/index 2013
= 567.1/580.5 = 0.98
Current PEC = Previous PEC*0.98 = 4,008,960*0.98
=3,928,781Birr
Table 10:Estimation of direct, indirect and capital investment

Direct cost Factor (from 100%PEC) Cost(ETB)

Purchased equipment 1 3,928,781
Purchased 0.39 1,532,224.59
equipment installation
Instrumentation and control 0.13 510,741.53
Piping (installed) 0.31 1,217,922.11
Electrical(installed) 0.1 392,878.1
Building 0.29 1,139,346.49
Yard improvement 0.1 392,878.1
Service facility 0.55 2,160,829.55
Land 0.06 235,726.86
Total plant direct cost(TPDC)=∑DC 11,501,328.33
Indirect cost(IDC) Factor(from 100%PEC) Cost(ETB)
Engineering and supervision 0.32 1,257,209.92
Construction and expense 0.34 1,335,785.54
Total Indirect cost(IDC)=∑ID 2,592,995.46
Total indirect and direct cost(TIDC)=TPDC+IDC 14,094,324.38
Contractors fee (CF) 5%DC & IDC 704,716.219
Contingency (C) 10%DC & IDC 1,409,432.438
Fixed capital investment(FCI) 413%PEC 16,225,865.53
Working capital (WC) 15%TCI 2,863,388.035
Total capital investment (TCI) = FCI + WC 19,089,253.56

8.3 Estimation of Total Production Cost (TPC) or Total Operating Cost

Total operating costs are generally includes: manufacturing cost (direct production cost, fixed
charges and plant overhead cost) and General Expenses.

44 | P a g e
Table 11:Fixed operating costs

NO Item Factor Cost(ET)Birr

1 Depreciation 0.1FCI 1,622,586.553
2 Local taxes 0.02FCI 324,517.3106
3 Insurance 0.007FCI 113,581.0587
Total fixed charges 2,060,684.922
Total production cost(TPC) = FC/15% 13,737,899.48

Table 12:direct production cost (variable cost)

Item Factor Cost(ET)birr

1 Raw material cost 0.3TPC 4,121,369.845

2 Operating labor(L) 0.15TPC 2,060,684.922

3 Direct supervisor and 0.17TPC 350,316.4367

clerical labor
4 Utility (electric& 0.15TPC 2,060,684.922
water cost)

5 Maintenance& Repair 0.06FCI 973,551.9

6 Operating supplies 0.15M&R 146,032.785

Total direct production cost 9,712,640.815

Table 13: Plant overhead cost

No Items Factor Cost(ET) Birr

1 Plant overhead cost 10%TPC 1,373,789.948

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Table 14: General expensive

S. No Items Factor Cost(ET)Birr

1 Administrative cost 4%TPC 549,515.9792

2 Distribution and sell 11%TPC 1,511,168.943

cost
3 Research and 3%TPC 412,136.9844
development
4 Financial 5%TCI 95,462.7

Total general expense 3,427,284.607

Annual Total production cost (ATP) =Total direct production cost + Total fixed charges +
Plant overhead cost +General expense.
= 9,712,640.812 +2,060,684.922+1,373,789.948 + 3,427,284.607
= 16,574,400.34Birr/Year.
Annual Production capacity (APC) = 130kg/hr*24hr/day*315day/year = 982,800kg/year
Unit Production cost = ATPC/APC = (16,574,400.34Birr/Year)/ (982,800kg/Year)
= 16.86Bwirr/k ≈ 17Birr/kg
To fix our selling price, currently market study is important. So, the current market demand of
glue is 40Birr/kg. But, our unit production cost is 17Birr/kg. So, if we sell our product between
17 and 40 Birr/kg we are profitable. So, by taking average cost, we fix our selling price to
28Birrr/kg.
Total Sales Revenue (TSR) = APC*Selling price

= 982,800kg/year*28Birr/k= 27,518,400Birr/year

8.4 Economic evaluation

I.Net income profit, Payback time and return on investment Gross earn cost

Current price animal glue = 25-30 Birr/kg based on current price. We take 28Birr/kg

Gross annual profit (GAP) =Total Sales Revenue (TSR) –Annual Total production cost(ATPC)

GAP=27,518,400Birr/year-16,574,400.34Birr/year

46 | P a g e
 GAP = 10,943,999.66Birr/year

Tax Rate = 35%

Depreciation (Dpr) = 10%FCI = 0.1*16,225,865.53Bir = 1,622,586.553Birr
Net profit after tax rate (NP) = GAP-Dpr (1-35%)
= (10,943,999.66-1,622,586.553) Birr/year*(0.65)
= 6,058,918.52Birr/year
Payback period (PBP) = (FCI/ (NP +Dpr))
= 16,225,865.53Birr/ (6,058,918.52Birr/year+1,622,586.553Birr/year)

= (16,225,865.53/7,681,505.073)year

= 2.1years

Rate of Return (ROR) = NP/TCI*100%

= (6,058,918.52Birr/year)/ (19089253.56Birr/year)*100%

= 0.317399446*100

= 31.74%

8.5 Plant Location and Site Selection

The location of the plant can have a very marked effect on the successes otherwise o f
Commercial venture. The guiding principle is that the plant should be located where the cost of
Production and distribution of products is a minimum, bearing in mind factors such as space for
Future expansion and the general amenities district, it is convenient of list the more important
factors influencing plant location as follow
 Source of raw material
 Customer and market
 Climate
 Transport facilities
 Effluent disposals
 Labor

47 | P a g e
  Fire and flood protection
 Proximate to industrial center

Industrial site selection involves so much more than just the cost of real estate. Logistics plays a
key role in selecting the best location. Raw material availability is the main factor for site
selection process. When think logistics, the first thing that comes to mind is transportation;
however, that is just one component. Logistics is the planning and execution of efficient and
effective flow and storage of all goods, services and related information to meet customer
requirements. Businesses should also examine where they procure raw materials in determining
the best location for expansion or new investment. Transportation costs remain an important
consideration in location strategy.

State tax structures and incentives are one of the primary items in national site selection. Rates
for franchise, and real and personal property taxes can differ significantly from location to
location. Labor costs and availability also are significant factors in site selection. By considering
these factors the site selection for this plant may be best around Dessie tannery. Specifically, in
the hayk Town.

48 | P a g e
CHAPTER NINE
9. Environmental impact Analysis

The treatment and processing of animal skin and hides can be a source of considerable
environmental impact. Discharged waste water contains pollutants from the hides, product from
their decomposition, chemicals and various spent solutions used for hide preparation and during
the tanning process.

The major public concern over hide glue industries has traditionally been about Odour and water
pollution from untreated discharges. Other issues have arisen more recently from the increasing
use of synthetic chemicals such as pesticides, solvents, dyes, finishing agents and new processing
chemicals which introduce problem of toxicity and persistence.

Simple measures intended to control pollution can themselves create secondary cross-media
environmental impacts such as groundwater pollution, soil contamination, sludge dumping and
chemical poisoning.

It is also important to treat waste that cannot be prevented in such a way, e.g. by separating of
specific fractions, that efficient treatment is possible.

Several options for the recycling or re-use of organic waste fractions are available:

 Gelatin and glue from untanned wastes can be produced; in some member States
untanned wastes are processed to produce sausage casings
 Tallow recovery from raw trimmings, fleshing and splits is performed in rendering
plants.

Limed trimmings, fleshing and splits may need pre-treatment before conversion

 recovery of protein (protein hydrolyte) from e.g. splits, for conversion into fertilizer
 Recovery of collagen from e.g. Lime trimmings and splits. Collagen has various uses as
meat and bakery product additives, in pharmaceuticals and cosmetics, and as additives to
rubber products

49 | P a g e
As for many other hide processing operations, the main environmental issues associated with
hide glue plants are the high consumption of water, the discharge of high-strength effluent, odor,
solid wastes and some atmospheric emissions also may arise.

9.1 Types of pollutants in glue Industry

Solid waste Pollutants: The production of fresh hides has been estimated at about 8-9 million
tons per year. During the processing of these hides a total of 1.4 million tons of solid waste is
produced (Larry, 1997).Solid waste includes salt from raw skin / hide dusting; raw skin / hide
trimmings; hair from the liming / dehairing process, which may contain lime and sulfides; and
fleshing from raw skins / hides.
Wastewater Pollutants: Untreated hide glue processing wastes in surface water can bring about
a rapid deterioration of their physical, chemical and biological properties
As for the production of wastewater, over 80 per cent of the organic pollution load in BOD terms
Emanates from the beam house (pertaining); much of this comes from degraded hide/skin and
hair matter. The beam house is also the source of all non-limed and limed solid waste such as
fleshing, trimming and waste split. As already mentioned, during the tanning process at least 300
kg of chemicals (lime, salt etc.) is added per ton of hides. Excess of non-used salts will appear in
the wastewater. Because of the changing pH, these compounds can precipitate and contribute to
the amount of solid waste or suspended solids (Department of the Environment, 1978).Every
tanning process step, with exception of the crust finishing operations, produces wastewater. An
average of 35 m3 is produced per ton of raw hide. This wastewater contains:
 Salts ,chlorine, fat, protein, preservatives (soaking);
 Lime and ammonium salts, ammonia, protein (hair), and sulphides (fleshing, trimming,
bating).

Air Emission: Air emissions from hide glue processing plants are mostly attributed to energy
consumption. Air Emissions fall in to three broad categories: odor, solvent vapors from finishing
operation and gas Emissions from the incineration of wastes. Biological decomposition of
organic matter as well as sulphides and ammonia Emissions from waste waters are responsible
for the characteristic objectionable odor arising from hide glue processing plants.

Odor: Odor can be a serious problem for hide glue processing plants if by products and effluent
streams are not managed correctly, or if rendering takes place on site. Biological treatment

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systems, commonly used to treat abattoir (slaughter house) effluent, are another common source
of odor. (Kallenberger, 1978).

9.2 Waste management

Treatment of sludge constitutes the largest disposal problem, apart from effluent. Sludge’s of
organic composition, if free from chrome or sulphides, have value as a soil conditioner as well as
a small fertilizer effect from nitrogenous compounds contained therein. These benefits are best
realized by treating immediately after application. Agricultural use of salt-containing soils has
been a matter of controversy in various jurisdictions, where guidelines have determined
acceptable applications. Various markets exist for the conversion of trimmings and fleshing into
by products used for a variety of purposes, including the production of gelatin, glue, leather
board, tallow grease and proteins for animal feed. Process effluents, subject to suitable treatment
and quality control, are sometimes used for irrigation where water is in short supply and/or
effluent disposal is severely restricted(Stevens, 1979)

9.3 Pollution prevention

To avoid problems of leach generation and odor, only solids and dewatered sludge should be
disposed of at landfill sites. Care must be taken to ensure that hide glue wastes do not react with
other industrial residues, such as acidic wastes, which can react to create toxic hydrogen
sulphited gas. Incineration under uncontrolled conditions may lead to unacceptable emissions
and is not recommended. Improving production technologies to increase environmental
performance can achieve a number of objectives, such as:

 Increasing the efficiency of chemical utilization

 Reducing water or energy consumption
 Recovering or recycling rejected materials.
 Water consumption can vary considerably, ranging from 5 litter/kg to 30litter/kg. Water use
efficiency can be improved through the application of techniques such as increased volume
control of processing waters, batch versus running water washes, low float modification of
existing equipment; low float techniques using updated equipment, re-use of wastewater in
less critical processes and recycling of individual process liquors.
 Reduce inputs of process agents (particularly precipitation agents in wastewater treatment)
to the extent practically applicable

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 Segregate different waste / residue fractions to facilitate recovery and re-use (e.g., to
Manufacture pet toys, pet food, leather fiberboard)
 Process sludge may be used for composting / agriculture after appropriate assessment for
contaminants and potential impacts to soil and groundwater
 Reduction in hydrochloric acid pollution can be achieved through measures to increase the
levels of acid that are fixed in the soaking bath and reduce the amounts that are bled out in
subsequent processes.
 A reduction of the use of salt for preservation can be considered as an option. Fifteen percent
of salt on weight basis may preserve the hides for even 6 weeks, and 5 per cent of salt plus
biocide lead to preservation for two months. Chilling without salt can preserve hides for afew
days. Another alternative preservation method is radiation by electron beam or gamma rays.
 Reduction of odor is more a question of operational maintenance than of technology.
Solvent and other vapors from the finishing operation vary with the type of chemicals used
and the technical method employed to reduce their generation and release. Up to 30% of the
solvent used may be wasted through emissions, while modern processes are available to
reduce this to around 3% in many cases.
 The practice by many hide glue industries of incinerating solid wastes and off cuts raises the
importance of adopting good incinerator design and following careful operating practice
(Nelson1994).

Table 15:Over view for all waste fractions

Process unit Type of Content Further treatment

waste
Depending on the  Re-use in agriculture
Waste water separation of  Composting
Treatment Sludge waste  Biogas
water stream  Land fill
 Thermal treatment
Air Emission

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 Oxides of  Depending on  Organic compounds
Treatments nitrogen and the off- gas (E.g. solvents recover)
sulphur streams
Particulate
Matter
Solid waste  Residue  Lime  Land fill
Treatment from  Organic  Thermal treatment
fleshing matter and
other dirties
Source: (Johns, 1993)

CHAPTER TEN
10. Conclusion and Recommendation
10.1 Conclusions
Animal hide glue is useful for wood working and veneer work which can be sold as flake that
can be mixed with water, heated, and applied hot Soaking, liming and treating with diluted
hydrochloric acid of the raw hide were examined manually. Varying process mechanisms for
soaking and liming were cause significant change in the quality glue. Three types of soaking
have been conducted. Very long and short soaking time has negative effect on the yield of glue.
Very high & low lime concentration with pure water also has negative effect on the yield glue.
Different quality measurements parameters have been conducted. The pH value for the three
samples of glue was almost at the desired (optimum) states which are almost neutral. The
moisture content of the glue was higher than the optimum. Soaking time has also negative effect
on the odor of the glue. Soaking for long period of time was changed the odor of the glue in to
pungent odor. Reversibility of the glue was determined using one of the most interesting
properties of hide glue which is the ability to pass from liquid to jelled state upon cooling, and
then revert to the liquid state upon re-heating.

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Based on the economic analysis with total capital investment of 19,089,253.56birr and total
production cost of 13,737,899.48birr, the net income is6,058,918.52birr with rate of return
31.74% and payback period of 2.1years. So it can be conclude that the project is feasible.

10.2 Recommendations
 Around tannery industries, there is a waste from hide processing that is trimmings of hides
not suitable for leather making .Therefore, it is recommended to build glue making plant
around tanneries for waste prevention as well as for import minimization.
 Age of animals may affect the extractability and functional properties of the glue. Therefore
it is recommended to make further study on effect of animal age efficiency of the glue.
 Heat needed for extracting hide glue should not exceed the optimum level, because it can
distract the protein content of the hide.
 It is recommended to study effects of temperature and time during extraction process for the
purpose of producing glue which has high strength to bond materials
 In this study the Physico-chemical, compositional and external factor characteristics of glue,
such as pH, moisture content and color are studied .But, it is also suggested that further study
should be done to characterize ash content, viscosity, jelly strength, protein content, fat
content and other properties of the glue should be studied.
 It is recommended that to modify the extracted final glue in order to get more qualified glue.

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Appendix
Appendix A: Properties of hide glue

Item Standard
Odour Normal or odorless
Color Light amber to dark brown
Texture Dried or granules or powder form
Moisture content <14% and >11% (11-14%)
Ash content 3-4.5%
PH value 6.2-7.7
Jelly strength 200±10bloom.g
Viscosity 60±5 Mps (millipascal-second)
Appendix B: Moisture and ash

Moisture content (%) = ∗ 100

Ash (%) = *100

Appendix C: CostYear Indices

For the cost estimation of the equipment of this plant design exchange rate is assumed i.e. 1US
Dollar =21.6 ET Birr. The cost indexes obtained from literatures are as follows: - cost data also
Obtained from table 9-50 of Perry’s chemical engineering hand book (7th edition) and Coulson
Volume 6 (4th edition) and equipment cost manipulation is based on Marshall Swift index of
1000.
n
New Cost = Base Costs * ( )

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Present cost= original cost*

Appendix D: Typical percentage of fixed-capital investment values for direct and indirect
Cost purpose plants or large additions to existing facilities

Components Range (%)

Purchased equipment 15-14
Purchased equipment installation 6-14
Instrumentation and control (installed) 2-8
Piping (installed) 3-20
Electrical (installed) 2-10
Buildings 3-18
Land 1-2
Engineering and supervision 4-21
Construction expense 4-16
Contractors fee 2-6
Contingency 5-15

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