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On the 25 th of February 2010 we attended the Pallaskenry Agricultural College
open day to attend their farm walk & talk to examine the workings of a mixed
dairy and crop farm.

There were 10 separate sections that we visited on the day during the walk;

1.) Grasslands

2.) Beef and Dairy breeds

3.) Silage

4.) Milking

5.) Calves

6.) Fertiliser Spreading

7.) Soils

8.) Housing

9.) Sucklers

10.) Sheep

Over the course of this booklet I will look at these topics in detail.
 ð


The correct stocking density is very important to grassland management. If understocking
occurs, grass is left uneaten and wasted, as well as unpalatable. However , overstocking
leads to over grazing and little overall growth. To prevent this, always apply the correct
stocking rate and increase or decrease the stocking rate at different stages of the year when
grass growth is at its highest or lowest.

In order to understand grassland management, it is necessary to understand how grass

grows.

1. Grass does not grow all year round. Growth begins in spring as soon as the temperature
rises above 6 degrees Celsius.

2. Pastures should be well grazed down before livestock is housed the preceding autumn.

3. Grass should be grazed to approximately 6-7cm this is because palatability decreases

below this which would reduce the animals performance

4. Pastures should have a grass break of at least 3 weeks. This allows the grass to be very
palatable, digestible and productive.

5. Grass should be tillered*.

6. Grass grows in 3 stages.

(i) The remaining part of the cut leaves grow longer.

(ii) The tillers produce new leaves.

(iii) The plant produces new tillers.

7. Grass responds well to fertilisers.

8. D.M.D of grass is at its peak in mid-May. After then, it falls by 0.5% per day.

Grazing systems used by farmers vary widely in the degree. However, all are designed to
help match the nutritional demands of the livestock with the supply of forage.

Grassland management involves estimating the amount of herbage required for the year,
applying fertiliser to achieve the herbage required and a controlled grazi ng system.

*(Production of side shoots from main shoot)

 ¢  
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Aubrac: From Massif Central region in Southern France. They are a well muscled medium sized
animal producing a continental type of beef, they have an ability to convert low cost
roughage such as grass/hay into beef, and also, they have good maternal traits and ease
of calving.

Blonde D͛Aquitaine: From Aquitaine/Garonne valley in France near the Pyrenees mountains. It is prized for its
hardiness, good growth rates, excellent conformation, lean muscling and high killing out
percentage. It is docile and its ease of calving makes it good for cross breeding. It is the third
most numerous cattle breed in France after Charolais and Limousin.

Belgian Blue: Originated in Belgium and has either a black, white or blue coat. It has a double muscle gene
and can be very difficult calving.

Charolais: Native of the Charolles region in Central France. It is a large animal with excellent
conformation, has a deep body and is heavily muscled. Its ability for fast growth leads to high
weights and the production of lean meats. It is easily used for cross breeding.
 Limousin: From Limousin region of Central France. It is renowned for top quality hind quarters, the
production of muscle and lean meat. They produce a high percentage of muscle to bone and
it is extensively used for cross breeding and A.I.

Simmental: From the Simmen valley in Switzerland, they are large docile animals with deep muscled
backs and loins, their top beef is quality stock. They have good adaptability hardiness and
growth rates. These animals are dual purpose, they are good milk producers and hence, are
ideal for suckler herds.

Hereford: Originated in Herefordshire in England. They are hardy and are able to fatten on a grass only
diet, they produce 1st class beef with marbelling. They are widely cross bred with Friesian to
produce the familiar black whitehead offspring.

Aberdeen Angus: Native to the Aberdeen region of Scotland. They have a dominant polled gene meaning they
have no horns. They produce adaptable, 1st class marbled meat. They are easy calving and
the breed is used extensively for cross breeding with other breeds.
 O
 ¢ 

Ayrshire: Native to Ayrshire in Scotland. The animal is a pure dairy breed with a very well shaped
udder and teats. It is renowned for its hardiness, adaptability, good foraging and
reproductive ability. They produce milk with a high protein and fat content.

British Friesian: From the Friesian Islands and Holland via Eastern England. They are well built animals
with a large appetite and weigh up to 600kg. They give very high milk yields when well
housed and fed on a high plain of nutrition. They are a dual purpose breed and have fast
growth rates for finishing as beef cattle.

Holstein Friesian: From the Friesian Islands and Holland via U.S.A and Canada. These animals are bred to
produce higher milk and protein yields than any other breed. They are bred to make the
best use of grass for milk production. They are good feeders but are sensitive to cold wet
conditions and need early winter housing.

Jersey: Native of Jersey Island between England and France. They are pure dairy breeds, small in
size, however, they consume very large quantities of herbage. They yield the highest
butter fat content of all breeds at 5%+, jersey milk is renowned for its high quality.
 Aerry: Native of Co. Aerry, it is one of the oldest breeds in Europe. They are Irelands main
surviving native dairy breeds. They are well ribbed and fine boned animals, a winter
hardy breed. They produce milk with small fat globules easily digested by babies.

Shorthorn: From North-East England. They were the main dairy breed in Ireland until the 1960͛s.
They have 3 distinct coat colours, red, white and roan. They are a dual purpose breed
having both dairy and beef qualities. A blocky build enables the production of good beef
carcases.

Montbeliarde: From Franche Conte, Jura mountains in France. They have 2 distinctive coat colours, red
and white. They are a dual purpose breed having both dairy and beef qualities. They are
very hardy and well suited to harsh climates.

Rotbunt: Native to Northern Germany they have a red and white coloured coat. They are dual
purpose animals having both dairy and beef qualities. They also have an exceptionally
high protein content.
 h


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Fresh cut grass is naturally covered with millions of bacteria. The cutting process causes cells to
burst, releasing carbohydrates. Tightly compacting the silage is vital to achieve an anaerobic
environment. The anaerobic bacteria involved in good quality silage making are Lactobacillus and
Streptococcus. The acids produced lower the pH and eventually stop bacterial activity.


   
1. Lactic Acid Silage: when the carbohydrate level is high in grass. The sugars are used by the bacteria
and lactic acid silage is formed. This is highly palatable, nutritious and lasts for
years. Silage with a good lactic acid content is light brown in colour, has a
sharp taste and little smell. It is very stable and can last for years.

2. Butyric Acid Silage: When the carbohydrate levels are low. The sugars are used by Clostridium
which results in unpalatable, less nutritious silage which stores badly. Butyric
silage is olive green in colour, has a rancid smell and is unpalatable to stock.

In order to achieve a high level of carbohydrates, it is necessary to:

?V Cut the grass at the young leafy stage when sugars are high
?V Cut in dry conditions as water dilutes the sugar levels
?V Grass should be allowed to wilt for 1 to 2 days after cutting as this increases sugar content
?V Cut using a precision chop harvester as this cuts the grass very small which increases the
surface area for bacteria to work on
?V Use a carbohydrate rich additive such as molasses
?V Mow in the afternoon because there has been more photosynthesis and consequently, more
sugar



 
 
 
 



These tests are easily carried out by the farmer to get a rough idea of the quality of his silage

1.V Look: A yellowish green colour indicates a better quality than a blueish green colour
2.V Feel: Mushy silage is bad, the structure of the ensiled herbage should still be present
3.V Smell: A sweet pleasant smell indicates lactic acid, a stinging smell of vinegar means acetis
acid, a foul smell of rancid butter means butyric acid
4.V Squeeze: if hardly any liquid can be squeezed out then DM > 25, if there is a steady flow of
drops then DM = ~20, if there is a stream of liquid then DM < 15
5.V Check pH4: Use pH test paper. pH 4-4.1 is very good
 4



A cow commences to milk immediately after calving. If the cow is suckled and does not become
pregnant she will continue to milk for up to 2 years. If she becomes pregnant, she goes dry 2 months
before calving as her system gets ready for calving. In commercial milk production, the aim is to have
cows calving once per year at as near as possible to the same date each year. This means that cows
milk for about 10 months of the year. Milk yield records kept for assessing and comparing cows͛
production potential are based on average lactation of 305 days.

Lactation yields achieved by individual Friesian cows in Ireland vary from 2000kg to 13000kg. The
mean lactation yield for the country has increased from 2500kg 20 years ago to 4000kg at present
and many of the better farmers are achieving average herd yields of 5500kg and greater. These
improvements are achieved by selection within the breed. While cows normally produce their 1st calf
at 2 years young they do not reach their maximum yield until their 5th lactation. From this age
onward lactation decreases.

Milking empties the udder and stimulates the milk secreting alveoli to commence further secretion.
Frequently milked cows have the highest daily and lactation yields. Thus, cows milked 4 times daily
give more milk than those milked 3 times, and so on. In practice, however, the yield increases
obtained by milking more than twice a day are uneconomic and so twice daily milking is the normal
procedure.

With twice daily milking, the milking interval should ideally be 12 hours. This puts less stress on the
cows system and gives the best way of maximising yield. As this interval makes for a very long
working day, many farmers use 14/10 or 13/11 hour intervals.
 

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Calves suffer from few congenital abnormalities but the Akabane virus is widely distributed in
temperate to tropical regions of the world. The virus is a teratogenic pathogen which causes
abortions, stillbirths, premature births and congenital abnormalities, but occurs only during some
years


 
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Nitrogen is an essential component of amino acids and, therefore, of proteins
which include nucleic acids, enzymes and chlorophyll. Nitrogen is the nutrient, which normally
produces the greatest yield response in crop plants. Most nitrogen is taken up by plants as nitrate.
Since nitrates are very soluble in water, care must be exercised so that nitrates are not leached out
of the soils into rivers and lakes with consequent environmental problems. It is recommended for
example, that all nitrogen fertiliser be applied by early to mid September.

 






1.V       

 (CAN), 27.5%N, chemical formula is NHNO+ Ca CO. Half of the
nitrogen (13.75%) is in the ammonium form and the other half is in the nitrate form. The
ammoniumions (NH) have an acidifying effect in soils, which is counteracted by calcium
acting as a buffer against this acidifying action.
2.V å(46%N) chemical formula is CO (NH). It is slower acting than CAN because the nitrogen
must be converted from the ureic form to the ammonium form (i.e. ammonium carbonate)
and hence, to the nitrate form. This conversion process is facilitated by the presence of
nitrifying bacteria and is favoured by moist, well aerated, warm, high pH soil conditions. The
main agronomic limitation of urea results from the instability of the ammonium carbonate.
When urea is used as a top dressing in warm dry weather it can release free ammonia gas,
which is lost to the atmosphere. When urea is incorporated into the seed bed it can be toxic
to germinating seeds of tillage crops. It is recommended that urea be used as a top dressing
on established crops and only when there is a strong likelihood of rain. Sulphate of ammonia
(21%N) chemical formula is (NH) SO. Infrequently available nowadays. Can cause soil
acidification and when used as a topdressing some ammonia is lost by volatilisation.

1.Aim to have all N fertilizer applied by early to mid-September. 

2.Use only the Teagasc recommended levels of N which take account of the availability
of soil N.
3.Avoid N fertilizer application during extended drought period's 
4.Maintain a balance of nutrients in the soil. A deficiency of other nutrients can increase the
potential for nitrate leaching 
5.Match fertilizer application to yield expectations making due allowance for animal manure
applied.
6.When applying inorganic fertilizer avoid direct contamination of water courses by
leaving a buffer zone of 1.5 metres. 
7.Avoid fertilizer spreading on or near hedgerows. 
8.Do not apply fertilizer when heavy rain is forecast. 
9.Do not apply fertilizer when soils are saturated.
10. Do not apply fertilizer when soils are frozen or snow covered. 
11. Maintain spreading equipment in prime condition and calibrate equipment for even
application.
12. Apply animal manures at rates which take account of the crop's requirements. The
shortfall between the nutrients applied in the manure and crop requirements should be
made up with fertilizers. 
13. Cattle slurry should be recycled to land conserved for h ay or silage at not more than
55m3/ha (5,000 gls. per acre) , and not more than 33 m3/ha (3,000 gls. per acre) in
one application. Root crops can accept up to 44m3/ha(4,000 gls. per acre)in one
application early in the growing season. 
14. Pig slurry should be applied at lower rates because of its higher phosphorus content.
27.5m3/ha (2,500 gls. per acre)may be applied for first cut silage and to root crops
11m3(1,000 gls per acre) per year per year will normally be adequate for grazing
and cereals.
15. Slurry should be applied when plants require the nutrients i.e., at the start or during
the growing season. 
16. Farm Yard Manure (F.Y.M.) should be stored to minimize nutrient loss and applied to
soil using Teagasc recommendations. 
17. Do not apply slurry when heavy rain is forecast within 48 hours. 
18. Do not apply slurry to soils that are saturated. 
19. Do not apply slurry when soils are frozen or snow covered. 
20. When applying slurry avoid direct contamination of watercourses by leaving
adequate buffer zones. 

Streams and drains 10 metres.

Lakes and rivers 20 metres.
Domestic wells 50 metres.
Public water sources 50 - 300 metres. 
21. Maintain spreading equipment in prime condition and calibrate equipment for even
application.
22. Minimize slurry smell and nutrient losses to air by adopting a common sense
approach:
(I) Avail of suitable weather conditions.
(ii) Use of best practices.
Band spreading is more environmentally friendly than splash plate. 
23. Whenever possible, avoid leaving soil bare over the winter. The growing of winter
crops or catch crops reduces nitrate leaching.
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?V For sampling purposes divide the farm into fields or areas of between 2 ʹ 4ha.
?V Take separate samples from areas that differ in soil type, previous cropping history, slope,
drainage or persistent poor yields.
?V Avoid any unusual spots such as old fences, ditches, drinking troughs, dung or urine patches
or where organic manure or lime has been heaped or spilled in the past.
?V Do not sample a field for P and A until þ months after last application of fertilizer P and A
(now is a good time to soil sample). Where lime has been applied allow a time lag of 2 years
before sampling for lime requirements.
?V Follow a ͚W͛ soil sampling pattern to ensure that the sample is representative of the entire
field. Ensure that all soil cores are taken to the full 100mm depth. Place the 20 cores in the
soil box to make up the soil sample.
?V Write the field number and sample number on the soil box.
?V Recommended Soil Sampling Pattern:


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