Male reproductive system

 To produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid (semen)
 To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract
 To produce and secrete male sex hormones
 The male reproductive anatomy includes internal and external structures

External reproductive structures

 is located outside of the man’s abdominal cavity or pelvis

1. Penis
 organ for sexual intercourse
 has three parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the
glans, which is the cone-shaped end of the penis
 glans, which also is called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called
foreskin. (This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure called circumcision.)
 opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the glans
penis
 body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three internal chambers
 chambers are made up of special, sponge-like erectile tissue
 tissue contains thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As
the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual
intercourse. The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during
an erection.

 Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the man
reaches sexual climax (orgasm).
 When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be
ejaculated at orgasm.

2. Scrotum 
 loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis
 contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels
 has a protective function and acts as a climate control system for the testes
 for normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the
body temperature
 Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax, moving the testicles closer
to the body for warmth and protection or farther away from the body to cool the temperature

3. Testicles (testes/male gonad)

 oval organs about the size of very large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a
structure called the spermatic cord
 most men have two testes
 testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for
generating sperm
 within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules

4. Seminiferous tubules
 produce the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis
  The lumen of the seminiferous tubules is line by cells called sertoli cells which is connected
via tight junctions and lining the outside of the sertoli cells is a layer of smooth muscles
and outside of these sertoli cells are the Leydig cells
 Basil compartments - area that goes from the tight junction toward that smooth muscle
 Luminal compartment - area that goes from the tight junction toward the lumen

 Leydig cells (interstitial cells) – secrete testosterone

 Sertoli cells (epithelial cells) – support sperm development or spermatogenesis
 Smooth muscle surrounding the sertoli cells – allows peristalsis which propels sperm
through the seminiferous tubules
o That is fine in dandy that the sertoli cells produce the sperm but how do the sperm get
out of the seminiferous tubules and out of the testis

5. Epididymis 
 a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle
 transport and storage of the sperm cells that are produced in the testes
 bring the sperm to maturity, since the sperm that emerge from the testes are immature and
incapable of fertilization
 during sexual arousal, contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens.

Internal reproductive organs

1. Vas deferens 
 a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the
bladder
 transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation

2. Ejaculatory ducts 
 formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles.
 ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra

3. Urethra
 tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body
 expelling (ejaculating) semen when the man reaches orgasm
 When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only
semen to be ejaculated at orgasm

4. Seminal vesicles
 sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder
 Secrete alkaline fluid that contains fructose, enzymes and prostaglandis. Remember alkaline
fluids are basic.
 fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man’s ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate
 alkaline fluid is to neutralize the acid in the female reproductive tract
 The fructose is used to for energy. Remember, sperm has to swim, so they need energy for motility
 The enzymes facilitates semen clotting
 Prostaglandis are for motility and viability of the sperm

5. Prostate gland
 Secrete citrate, which is an energy source for sperm motility
  Secrete enzymes, to break down the semen clot once in the female reproductive tract
 The semen clots during ejaculation and is then broken down once its inside the female reproductive
tract
 the urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the
prostate gland

6. Bulbourethral glands/Cowper’s glands

 Secret viscous fluid that contains mucus
 Mucus serves as the lubricant
 produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra
 this fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and to neutralize any acidity that may be present due to
residual drops of urine in the urethra

 The sperm is been produced by the sertoli cells and released into the lumen of the seminiferous
tubules

 Those sperm then travel into these little region called the reti testis and then into the efferent ductules.
This is the point where the sperm exits the testis.
 From the efferent ductules the sperm enter into the epididymis and will ultimately make their way to the
vas deferens. So that is the pathway the sperm are taking to get out of the testis. What propel the sperm
for all those structures – peristalsis

 Now the sperm are on the vas deferens. It connects with the seminal vesicles to form the ejaculatory duct.
At this point, the sperm mixed with the fluid that came from the seminal vesicles.
 The ejaculatory duct penetrates through the prostate gland to join the urethra. As such, the sperm wind up
in the urethra which receives substances from the bulbourethral glands.
 Thus, both urine and sperm are in the urethra. So that was just the pathway the sperm take from the
seminiferous tubules to the urethra.

How does the male reproductive system function?

 The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones, which are chemicals that stimulate
or regulate the activity of cells or organs.
 The primary hormones involved in the functioning of the male reproductive system are follicle-
stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone.
 FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain.
 FSH is necessary for sperm production (spermatogenesis)
 LH stimulates the production of testosterone, which is necessary to continue the process of
spermatogenesis
 Testosterone also is important in the development of male characteristics, including muscle mass
and strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex drive.

Does a man go through menopause?

Menopause is a term used to describe the end of a woman's normal menstrual function. Female menopause is
characterized by changes in hormone production. The testes, unlike the ovaries, do not lose the ability to
make hormones. If a man is healthy, he may be able to make sperm well into his 80s or longer.
On the other hand, subtle changes in the function of the testes may occur as early as 45 to 50 years of age, and
more dramatically after the age of 70. For many men, hormone production may remain normal into old age,
while others may have declining hormone production earlier on, sometimes as a result of an illness, such as
diabetes.
Whether waning testicular function contributes to such symptoms as fatigue, weakness, depression or
impotence often remains uncertain.

Can "male menopause" be treated?

If testosterone levels are low, hormone replacement therapy may help relieve symptoms, such as the loss of
interest in sex, depression and fatigue. However, replacing male hormones can worsen prostate cancer and,
perhaps, atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries).
A man should receive a complete physical examination and laboratory tests should be performed starting
hormone replacement therapy. How many middle-aged men will benefit from such therapy remains an open
question.

Female reproductive system

 ovaries produce the female egg cells, called the ova or oocytes
 oocytes are then transported to the fallopian tube where fertilization by a sperm may occur
 fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where the uterine lining has thickened in response to the normal
hormones of the reproductive cycle
 once in the uterus the fertilized egg can implant into thickened uterine lining and continue to develop
 if fertilization does not take place, the uterine lining is shed as menstrual flow
 female reproductive system produces female sex hormones that maintain the reproductive cycle

 During menopause the female reproductive system gradually stops making the female hormones
necessary for the reproductive cycle to work. At this point, menstrual cycles can become irregular and
eventually stop. One year after menstrual cycles stop, the woman is considered to be menopausal.

Characteristics of the female reproductive system

 Cyclic changes in activity
 Menstrual cycle and menstruation
 Restricted periods of fertility
 Which is occurring during ovulation
 Limited gamete production
 Pool established at birth - in other word females are born with a set number of oogonia – female
gametes

 In the ovaries are follicles and within the follicles, they will contain developing ovum

 Ovaries are the location the mature or developing ovum. Once that mature ovum will leave the ovary
that will travel into the uterine tube if fertilization is going to occur, it will occur in the uterine tube.
Then either the zygote or the mature ovum will travel to the uterus. If it is a fertilized egg or zygote, that
is going to be implanted into the wall of the uterus. If the developing or the mature ovum rather is
not fertilized, it’s going to continue pass through the
uterus to the vagina and out of the body.

External structures of the female reproductive system

 to enable sperm to enter the body
 to protect the internal genital organs from infectious organisms
1. Labia majora
 (“large lips”)
 enclose and protect the other external reproductive organs
 during puberty, hair growth occurs and the skin of the labia majora, which also contain sweat and
oil-secreting glands

2. Labia minora
 (“small lips”) can have a variety of sizes and shapes
 lie just inside the labia majora, and surround the openings to the vagina (the canal that joins the
lower part of the uterus to the outside of the body) and urethra (the tube that carries urine from the
bladder to the outside of the body)
 This skin is very delicate and can become easily irritated and swollen

3. Bartholin’s glands
 located next to the vaginal opening on each side and produce a fluid (mucus) secretion

4. Clitoris
 two labia minora meet at the clitoris, a small, sensitive protrusion that is comparable to the penis
in males
 covered by a fold of skin, called the prepuce, which is similar to the foreskin at the end of the penis
 like the penis, the clitoris is very sensitive to stimulation and can become erect

Internal reproductive organs

1. Vagina/Birth canal
 canal that joins the cervix (the lower part of uterus) to the outside of the body
 female organ of copulation
 walls contains smooth muscle
 inner surface bathed in acid fluid secreted from uterus or glands of the cervix
 protects against bacterial infections

2. Cervix
 canal leading to vagina

Cervix + vagina = birth canal

3. Uterus (womb)
 home to a developing fetus
 site of fetal development
 divided into two parts: the cervix, which is the lower part that opens into the vagina, and the main
body of the uterus, called the corpus
 corpus can easily expand to hold a developing baby
 a canal through the cervix allows sperm to enter and menstrual blood to exit

Walls of the uterus

 Perimetrium – outer layer
 Epithelial cells and connective tissue
 Myometrium – middle layer
 Smooth muscle
 Thickest layer
 Endometrium – inner layer
  Layer of epithelial cells
 Layer of connective tissue
 Numerous glands

4. Ovaries
 are small, oval-shaped glands that are located on either side of the uterus
 produce eggs and hormones

5. Fallopian tubes/Uterine tube/Oviducts

 are narrow tubes that are attached to the upper part of the uterus and serve as pathways for the
ova (egg cells) to travel from the ovaries to the uterus
 where fertilization takes place
 fertilized egg then moves to the uterus, where it implants to the uterine lining
 Mature ovum transported to the uterine tube and then to the uterus

Fimbriae
 Finger like projections

Infendibulum
 Located right above the fimbriae
 Help pick up the ovum that’s been released by the ovary

So once that mature ovum leaves the ovary the fimbriae and the infundibulum, they’re going to help move that
mature ovum into the uterine tube and mostly done through peristalsis (initially) and then turns into
ciliary action that moves that ovum through the uterine tube. It takes about four days for a mature ovum to
reach the uterus.
What happens during the menstrual cycle?
Females of reproductive age (beginning anywhere from 11-16 years of age) experience cycles of hormonal
activity that repeat at about one-month intervals. Menstru means "monthly"; hence the term menstrual cycle.
With every cycle, a woman’s body prepares for a potential pregnancy, whether or not that is the woman’s
intention. The term menstruation refers to the periodic shedding of the uterine lining.

The average menstrual cycle takes about 28 days and occurs in phases:
 follicular phase (development of the egg)
 ovulatory phase (release of the egg)
 luteal phase (hormone levels decrease if the egg is not fertilized).

There are four major hormones (chemicals that stimulate or regulate the activity of cells or organs) involved in
the menstrual cycle:
 follicle-stimulating hormone
 luteinizing hormone
 estrogen
 progesterone

Follicular phase
 This phase starts on the first day of your period
 Two hormones, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are released from the
brain and travel in the blood to the ovaries.
 The hormones stimulate the growth of about 15-20 eggs in the ovaries, each in its own "shell," called a
follicle.
 These hormones (FSH and LH) also trigger an increase in the production of the female hormone
estrogen.
 As estrogen levels rise, like a switch, it turns off the production of follicle-stimulating hormone.
This careful balance of hormones allows the body to limit the number of follicles that will prepare eggs to
be released.
  As the follicular phase progresses, one follicle in one ovary becomes dominant and continues to
mature. This dominant follicle suppresses all of the other follicles in the group. As a result, they stop
growing and die. The dominant follicle continues to produce estrogen.

Ovulatory phase
 The ovulatory phase, or ovulation, starts about 14 days after the follicular phase started
 The ovulatory phase is the midpoint of the menstrual cycle, with the next menstrual period starting
about 2 weeks later. During this phase, the following events occur:
 The rise in estrogen from the dominant follicle triggers a surge in the amount of luteinizing
hormone that is produced by the brain.
 This causes the dominant follicle to release its egg from the ovary.
 As the egg is released (a process called ovulation) it is captured by finger-like projections on the end of
the fallopian tubes (fimbriae). The fimbriae sweep the egg into the tube.
 There is an increase in the amount and thickness of mucus produced by the cervix (lower part of
the uterus.)
 If a woman were to have intercourse during this time, the thick mucus captures the man's sperm,
nourishes it, and helps it to move towards the egg for fertilization.

Luteal phase
 The luteal phase begins right after ovulation and involves the following processes:
 Once it releases its egg, the empty ovarian follicle develops into a new structure called the corpus
luteum.
 The corpus luteum secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone.
 Progesterone prepares the uterus for a fertilized egg to implant.
 If intercourse has taken place and a man's sperm has fertilized the egg (a process called conception), the
fertilized egg (embryo) will travel through the fallopian tube to implant in the uterus. The woman is now
considered pregnant.
 If the egg is not fertilized, it passes through the uterus. Not needed to support a pregnancy, the lining of
the uterus breaks down and sheds, and the next menstrual period begins.
How many eggs does a woman have?
During fetal life, there are about 6 million to 7 million eggs. From this time, no new eggs are produced. At
birth, there are approximately 1 million eggs; and by the time of puberty, only about 300,000 remain. Of these,
only 300 to 400 will be ovulated during a woman's reproductive lifetime. Fertility can drop as a woman ages due
to decreasing number and quality of the remaining eggs.

Functions of the granulosa cells

 Secrete antral fluid
 Provide nutrients for developing oocyte
 Secrete paracrines that support follicle development
 Secrete inhibin
 Secrete estrogens
 Secrete substances that forms zone pellucide
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

ALL CELLS COME FROM PRE-EXISTING CELLS (however, sometimes one cell comes from two!)

ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 involves one parent; daughter cells are identical to the parent cell

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 involves two parent cells; each parent gives some of its traits (characteristics) to the offspring

MITOSIS - produces two cells with the same diploid (two sets) number of chromosomes
MEIOSIS - produces four cells with only one set of chromosomes (called monoploid or haploid); these cells are
called gametes
 * in sexual reproduction, a gamete (sperm or egg)
from each parent fuses (combines--called
FERTILIZATION)

* this produces a fertilized egg cell which is

called a ZYGOTE

Remember, different organisms have a different

number of chromosomes that make up one
set ... (n)

bull frogs have 13 per set (n)

fruit flies have 4 per set (n)
HUMANS HAVE 23 PER SET (n)

However, in our body cells, we have a total of 46 chromosomes (2n)... WHY?

BECAUSE WE GET HALF OF OUR CHROMOSOMES FROM EACH PARENT!

* humans have a diploid number of chromosomes (two sets)

* one chromosome from each set comes from each of our parents
* similar chromosomes from each parent are called HOMOLOGOUS CHROMOSOMES
* these chromosomes have instructions for the same characteristics

I. PROCESS OF MEIOSIS
 in mitosis, there is replication of the DNA, then a division of the chromosomes/cytoplasm
 in meiosis, there is a replication of the DNA, then the chromosomes get shuffled up, the
chromosomes/cytoplasm divide, then they divide a second time
 because the cell only copies the chromosomes once but divides twice, it is sometimes called REDUCTION
DIVISION

A. INTERPHASE
 single-stranded chromosomes are replicated (duplicated) to from double-stranded chromosomes

B. FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

PROPHASE I
 homologous double-stranded chromosomes line up, forming a TETRAD (that is four chromatids lined
up in a row); this is called SYNAPSIS
 while they are lined up, ends of the chromosomes can switch places; this process of shuffling up the
genetic information is called CROSSING-OVER

METAPHASE I
 as in mitosis, the tetrads line up in the equatorial plane (middle) of the spindle in the cell

ANAPHASE I
 the homologous chromosomes of the tetrad separate from each other and move to different ends of the
cell
 this is called DISJUNCTION

TELOPHASE I
 the first meiotic division ends as the cytoplasm divides into two daughter cells
C. SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION
 the second mitotic division is much like mitosis; no further replication of chromosomes occur

PROPHASE II
 the spindle forms for the second time
 the chromosomes move toward the center of the spindle

METAPHASE II
 the chromosomes become attached to the spindle in the center of the spindle
 the chromosomes are STILL DOUBLE-STRANDED

ANAPHASE II
 the centromeres divide and the sister chromatids separate
 now, the SINGLE-STRANDED chromosomes move toward opposite ends of the spindle

TELOPHASE II
 both daughter cells from the first mitotic division divide forming FOUR monoploid cells, having only one set
of chromosomes

MITOSIS vs. MEIOSIS

MITOSIS
1) growth and asexual reproduction
2) occurs in all cells (my-toes-ees)
3) daughter cells are identical to parent (same # of chromosomes)

MEIOSIS
1) sexual reproduction
2) occurs in sex cells (my-oh-sees)
3) daughter cells are different than parent 1/2 # of chromosomes)

II. GAMETOGENESIS

(GAMETE = sex cells) (GENESIS = creation)

 the production of sex cells
 occurs in specialized organs called gonads

TESTES (males) OVARIES (females)

 some organisms have one or the other

 others have both male and female gonads and are called hermaphrodites

A. SPERMATOGENESIS
 (SPERM = sperm) (GENESIS = creation)
 the production of sperm
 a primary sex cell in the testes undergoes meiosis (replication and division) and produces 4 functional
monoploid sperm cells

B. OOGENESIS
 (OO = egg) (GENESIS = creation)
 the production of egg cells
 a primary sex cell in the ovary undergoes meiosis and forms ONLY 1
EGG
 eggs are larger than sperm due to unequal cytoplasmic division (yolk!)
 besides 1 functional ovum (egg), 3 non-functional polar bodies are formed

EGG (OVUM) vs. SPERM

EGG SPERM
1) size depends on organism 1) microscopic
2) round in shape; 3) non-motile (cannot move) 2) made up of a head and a tail and middle piece
4) has yolk to nourish the developing embryo 3) motile
4) middle section has lots of mitochondria for energy
to swim

III. FERTILIZATION
 the union between a monoploid (n) sperm nucleus with a monoploid (n) egg nucleus
 forms a diploid (2n) ZYGOTE which contains one set of chromosomes from each parent

A. EXTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 gametes fuse outside the female parent (externally)
 in this process, the female produces a large number of eggs because...
 1) the eggs can be crushed
2) the eggs can be eaten
3) the eggs can dry out
4) the eggs might not survive
* occurs in aquatic vertebrates such as fish and amphibians

B. INTERNAL FERTILIZATION
 gametes fuse within the female parent in her moist reproductive tract (internally)
 females produce fewer eggs because they are protected inside the mother
 occurs in most terrestrial vertebrate animals C) PARTHENOGENESIS
 the development of an unfertilized egg without fusion with a sperm
 occurs in insects (drone or worker bees)

SO...IN MEIOSIS...a human diploid cell has chromosomes replicate and divide, then shuffles up its chromosomes,
then another division without duplication of chromosomes, which yield human monoploid sex cells

 in meiosis, the homologous chromosomes are randomly assorted for each new monoploid gamete
 this results in forming new combinations of characteristics, which leads to VARIATION in the species when
fertilization occurs

Gametogenesis, the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and eggs (oogenesis), takes place through the
process of meiosis.

In oogenesis, diploid oogonium go through mitosis until one develops into a primary oocyte, which will begin the
first meiotic division, but then arrest; it will finish this division as it develops in the follicle, giving rise to a
haploid secondary oocyte and a smaller polar body.

The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division and then arrests again; it will not finish this division
unless it is fertilized by a sperm; if this occurs, a mature ovum and another polar body is produced.
In spermatogenesis, diploid spermatogonia go through mitosis until they begin to develop into gametes;
eventually, one develops into a primary spermatocyte that will go through the first meiotic division to form two
haploid secondary spermatocytes.

The secondary spermatocytes will go through a second meiotic division to each produce two spermatids; these
cells will eventually develop flagella and become mature sperm.

Mitosis- the division of a cell nucleus in which the genome is copied and separated into two identical halves. It is
normally followed by cell division

Oocyte- a cell that develops into an egg or ovum; a female gametocyte

Spermatocyte - a male gametocyte, from which a spermatozoon develops

polar body - one of the small cells that are by-products of the meiosis that forms an egg

meiosis - cell division of a diploid cell into four haploid cells, which develop to produce gametes

Gametogenesis (Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis)

Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of meiosis. During meiosis,
two cell divisions separate the paired chromosomes in the nucleus and then separate the chromatids that were
made during an earlier stage of the cell's life cycle, resulting in gametes that each contain half the number of
chromosomes as the parent. The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production of eggs is
called oogenesis.

Oogenesis
Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm production, oogenesis starts with a germ
cell, called an oogonium (plural: oogonia), but this cell undergoes mitosis to increase in number, eventually
resulting in up to one to two million cells in the embryo .

Oogenesis
The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovary's outermost layer. A primary oocyte begins the first meiotic
division, but then arrests until later in life when it will finish this division in a developing follicle. This results in a
secondary oocyte, which will complete meiosis if it is fertilized.
The cell starting meiosis is called a primary oocyte. This cell will begin the first meiotic division, but be arrested
in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time of birth, all future eggs are in the prophase stage. At
adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the development of a number of follicles in an ovary. This
results in the primary oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the
cellular material and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one set of chromosomes
and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This second cell is called a polar body and usually dies.
A secondary meiotic arrest occurs, this time at the metaphase II stage. At ovulation, this secondary oocyte will
be released and travel toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell
continues through the meiosis II, completing meiosis, producing a second polar body and a fertilized egg
containing all 46 chromosomes of a human being, half of them coming from the sperm.

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules , with stem cells at the periphery of the tube and
the spermatozoa at the lumen of the tube. Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are diploid,
undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, called spermatogonia (singular: spermatagonium), go through mitosis
with one offspring going on to differentiate into a sperm cell, while the other gives rise to the next generation of
sperm.
Spermatogenesis
During spermatogenesis, four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte, which divides into two haploid
secondary spermatocytes; these cells will go through a second meiotic division to produce four spermatids.

Meiosis begins with a cell called a primary spermatocyte. At the end of the first meiotic division, a haploid cell is
produced called a secondary spermatocyte. This haploid cell must go through another meiotic cell division. The
cell produced at the end of meiosis is called a spermatid. When it reaches the lumen of the tubule and grows a
flagellum (or "tail"), it is called a sperm cell. Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte that goes
through meiosis.

Stem cells are deposited during gestation and are present at birth through the beginning of adolescence, but in
an inactive state. During adolescence, gonadotropic hormones from the anterior pituitary cause the activation of
these cells and the production of viable sperm. This continues into old age.

The Reproductive System

1. The reproductive systems of both sexes share the same basic organization:
 1. The gonads produce gametes (eggs or sperm) which unite during fertilization. They also
produce steroid hormones essential for reproduction as well the growth and development of the
entire body.
2. The genitalia are the external reproductive structures (penis in males, clitoris and vulva in
females). They allow for passage of the sperm from the male into the female.
3. Ducts and accessory glands are the structures connecting the gonads to the genitalia. They are
the site of final preparation of the gametes for fertilization, and in females also create the
environment where fertilization occurs and the resulting embryo develops until birth.
2. The creation of gametes is called gametogenesis. The process follows the same general sequence in
both males and females:
1. Gamete production begins with germ cells, which begin to develop and multiply in the embryo.
They are diploid cells, containing 23 pairs of chromosomes for a total of 46 chromosomes. Germ
cell proliferation occurs through mitosis, giving rise to more germ cells with the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cells.
2. The path from germ cell to gamete occurs through meiosis, in which a germ cell replicates its
DNA once but divides twice.
3. DNA replication occurs prior to the first replication, as occurs for mitosis. After replication is
complete, each cell possesses four copies of each of the 23 chromosomes.
4. The first meiotic division gives rise to two daughter cells, each with two copies of each of the 23
chromosomes. These cells are called primary gametes. Each primary gamete has a total of 46
chromosomes, the same as most other cells in the body.
5. In the second meiotic division, each of these daughter cells divides again without replicating more
DNA. As a result, each secondary gamete receives only one copy of each of the 23
chromosomes, or half the normal chromosomal contingent of other cells in the body.
6. The cells that arise from meiosis must then undergo extensive changes before they become
actual gametes.
3. Besides gametogenesis, the other major function of the gonads is to produce steroid sex hormones,
include androgens (such as testosterone), estrogens, and progesterone. Hormonal control of the
reproductive system follows the same general pattern in men and women:
1. A group of neurons in the hypothalamus acts as the primary pacemaker of hormonal control of
the reproductive system. These neurons produce bursts of gonadotropin relasing hormone
(GnRH) every one to three hours. GnRH is a small peptide that travels via local blood circulation
to affect cells in the nearby anterior pituitary. The frequency and magnitude of GnRH release is
modulated by the brain in response to a wide variety of internal and external stimuli.
2. GnRH regulates the secretion of two peptide hormones from the anterior pituitary: follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Both hormones
have trophic (stimulatory or growth-inducing) effects on the gonads, but on different types of
cells. As such, they are collectively called gonadotropins. FSH acts on the gamete-producing
cells to regulate gametogenesis. LH acts on the endocrine or hormone-producing cells, stimulating
release of steroid sex hormones.
3. There are two levels of feedback control over production of steroid sex hormones. Gonadal
hormones secreted into the body circulation eventually reach the brain and pituitary and suppress
GnRH, FSH, and LH production. The gonadotropins also directly inhibit GnRH secretion via a
shorter feedback loop.

Male Reproductive System

1. Anatomy of the male reproductive system:

 1. The external genitalia of the male consist of the penis and scrotum.
2. The urethra is the common passageway for semen and urine.
3. The testes are the male gonads. Sperm travel from the testes to the urethra via the ductus
deferens.
4. Accessory glands contribute secretions to the sperm as they travel along the pathway from the
testes to the urethra. These glands include the prostate gland, the seminal vesicles, and the
bulbourethral glands. Their secretions constitute most of the volume of the semen that the male
eventually ejaculates.
2. Sperm production takes place within the testes:
1. The internal structure of the testes consists of coiled masses of seminiferous tubules. Germ cells
(spermatogonia) embedded in the walls of the tubules give rise to developing sperm by the
process of meiosis. The primary spermatocyte arises when the spermatogonium commits itself to
undergo meiosis via DNA replication. The first division of meiosis then converts the primary
spermatocyte into a secondary spermatocyte. The second meiotic division converts the secondary
spermatocyte into 2 mobile spermatids, losing most of its cytosol and developing an elongated
flagellum.
2. Spermatid development is regulated and supported by Sertoli cells that are also embedded in the
walls of the seminiferous tubules. FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulates the Sertoli cells to
produce a variety of factors required for normal spermatogenesis. These include:
1. Androgen binding protein, which traps testosterone in the fluid surrounding the
developing spermatids.
2. Inhibin, which selectively inhibits FSH release by the anterior pituitary.
3. The other major function of the testes is production of testosterone. This is handled by Leydig cells found
in the interstitialspaces (outside the seminiferous tubules). Leydig cells are stimulated to produce
testosterone by LH from the anterior pituitary. Testerone, in turn, travels back to the anterior pituitary to
suppress release of LH.

Female Reproductive System

1. Anatomy of the female reproductive system:

1. The entire external genitalia of the female is called the vulva. This includes the labia majora, labia
minora and clitoris.
2. The vagina connects the vulva to the uterus, serving both as a receptacle for sperm during sexual
intercourse and as the passageway for the infant during birth. The urethra ends in a separate
orifice. The cervix is the neck of the uterus that protrudes into the upper end of the vagina.
3. The walls of the uterus contain a thick layer of smooth muscle called the myometrium, which
serve to expel the fetus during labor. The inner lining of the uterus, the endometrium, proliferates
in preparation for implantation of the zygote and is then shed during each menstrual cycle.
4. Two Fallopian tubes, one on each side, connect the uterus to the ovaries. Fertilization typically
occurs here.
5. Closely associated with the end of each Fallopian tube is a walnut-sized ovary, the female gonad.
2. Egg production takes place within the ovaries:
1. In the male, all phases of spermatid production from germ cell to gamete takes place continually
over the entire lifespan. In the female, each phase takes place during specific periods. About 7
million germ cells, or oogonia, develop in the embryonic ovary as early as 5 months of gestation.
Most of these cells then die, with about a half a million of them proceeding through the first stage
of meiosis to become primary oocytes before birth.
2. After puberty, the primary oocytes then begin to develop a few at a time, with each contained in
a follicle of surrounding supporting cells.
3. One or more ovarian follicles rupture at the midpoint of each menstrual cycle, releasing an egg
and surrounding cells into the fallopian tube.
3. Hormone production in the ovaries occurs primarily within the developing follicles. The two major steroid
hormones produced by the human ovaries are progresterone and estradiol, a form of estrogen.
Production of these two hormones varies widely over the course of the menstrual cycle:
1. The first day of menstruation is usually labeled as the beginning of the cycle. At this point, rising
levels of FSH stimulate the development of several follicles in the ovaries. These early follicles in
 turn begin to produce estrogen. Usually, only one of these follicles will develop past the early
stage.
2. Estrogen levels continue to rise as the follicle develops. Progesterone eventually begin to rise as
well. Up to a certain point, the estrogen being produced exerts negative feedback on both GnRH
and gonadotropin secretion.
3. Around the 14th day of the cycle, the anterior pituitary abruptly changes its response to the
persistently high estrogen levels. Rather than suppressing gonadotropin release, the estrogen
now has a positive feedback effect. The reasons for this switch are still not clear.
4. The switch to positive feedback provokes a steep surge in LH, and to a lesser degree FSH. High LH
levels in turn initiates the process of ovulation, whereby the follicle ruptures and egg is released.
5. After ovulation, the follicle collapses and the cells within it transform. This new structure is called
the corpus luteum. The luteal cells produce more progesterone than estrogen, so blood levels of
progesterone rise higher than estrogen levels after ovulation. The corpus luteum only remains
viable for about 14 days, after which both estrogen and progesterone levels taper off. The
declining levels of estrogen remove the negative feedback on GnRH and FSH production, allowing
the cycle to begin over again.