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Odjel za anglistiku

Phonetics and phonology

Second preliminary test essay

Allophones, connected speech, the syllable, stress

U Zadru, 9. Lipnja 2019.

Paula Jurković
CONTENTS:

1. Allophones
1.1. Allophones, criteria for identifying allophones
1.2. Devoicing, nasalization, voicing, fronting, retraction,
dentalization, velarization
1.3. Narrow and broad transcription

2. Connected speech
2.1. Assimilation
2.2. Coalescence, elision, liaison, smoothing and compression
2.3. Strong form, weak form, citation form

3. The syllable
3.1. Onset, coda, nucleus
3.2. Consonant cluster, minimum syllable, zero onset, zero
coda
3.3. Pre- initial, initial and post-initial consonants
3.4. Pre- final, final and post-final consonants

4. Stress
4.1. Definition of stress and its functions
4.2. Characteristics, factors and levels of stress
4.3. Languages and stress
4.4. Complex words
1. ALLOPHONES

1.1. Allophones, criteria for identifying allophones

An allophone is the term used for different realisations of

phonemes. The most important criteria in identifying
allophones is the absence of a minimal pair. Allophones
which can replace each other, or in other words, which can
occur in the same position, are called free variants, or are said
to be in free variation. Allophones which cannot replace each
other, that is which cannot occur in the same position due to
occurrence of the surounding sounds are called contextual
variants, or are said to be in complementary distribution.

1.2. Devoicing, nasalization, voicing, fronting, retraction,

dentalization, velarization

Devoicing is the articulation of a voiced sound with less voice

than usual or no voice at all. The IPA sign used for devoicing
is a small circle. Voicing is the articulation of an unvoiced
sound with voice. The IPA sign used for the presentation of
voicing is a breve diacritic. Dentalization occurrs when
fronting results in a dental sound, articulated with the tongue
tip and the rims touching the teeth. The IPA sign used for the
presentation of dentalization is a fullstop. While fronting is
indicated by a cross in the IPA system, retraction is indicated
by an underbar. Nasalization is the production of a sound
while the velum is lowered. The IPA sign for nasalization is a
tilde above the symbol. Velarization is a secondary
 articulation involving movement of the back of the tongue
towards the velum, and it is indicated by a tilde across the
symbol.

1.3. Narrow and broad transcription

Narrow transcription aimts to represent spoken language at

the level of phonetics. Broad transcription aims to represent
abstract speech sounds, and idealised utterances. Allophonic
variation is entirely ignored and the only mark attached to
phonemic symbols is the length mark after the symbols for
five long vowel phonemes.

2. CONNECTED SPEECH

2.1. Assimilation
Assimilation is the adaptation of a segment to the adjacent one,
motivated by the process in connected speech at word boundaries.
There are two types of assimilation in English; regressive and
progressive.

2.2. Coalescence, elision, liaison, smoothing and compression

Coalescence takes place when two different segments merge into
another at word boundaries. Elision refers to the deletion of
segments at word boundary. Liaison covers two phenomena:
linking /r/ and intrusive /r/. Linking /r/ means, that if in isolation,
no final /r/ would be pronounced in non-rhotic varieties of English.
The intrusive /r/ is inserted by analogy, with the linking /r/.
Smoothing consists of smoothing the transition between words at
word boundary or within triphthongs. Compression is extensive
elision; it consists of deletion of entire syllables of lexical words in
connected speech.

2.3. Strong form, weak form, citation form

The term for closed-class words which are emphasized in speech is
strong form. The term for closed-class words which are not
emphasized in speech is weak form. A form of a word when it is
said by itself is citation form.

3. THE SYLLABLE

3.1. Onset, coda, nucleus

Onset is a structural element preceeding the centre produced with
greater obstruction of air. Coda is a structural element following the
centre produced with greater obstruction of air. Onset and coda are
always formed by one or more consonants. Centre of a syllable is
also known as a peak or a nucleus.

3.2. Consonant cluster, minimum syllable, zero onset, zero coda

When there are two or more consonants together they are called a
consonant cluster. Zero onset refers to the first syllable of the word
beginning with a vowel. A syllable which ends in a vowel is called
an open syllable or a zero coda.

3.3. Pre-initial, initial and post-initial consonants

The /s/ in the initial consonant clusters of English words is a pre-
initial consonant. If preceeded by the pre-initial /s/ consonant, /p/,
/t/, /k/, /m/ and /n/ are called initial consonants. A syllable onset can
have these elements: pre-initial, initial and post-initial consonants.

3.4. Pre-final, final and post- final consonants

Any consonant may be final except for /h/, /r/, /j/, /w/. Pre-final and
post- final consonants make a small group of sounds. A syllable
coda can have the following elements: pre-final, final and post-
final consonants. There are two types of final three-consonant
clusters. The final three-consonant clusters either consist of pre-
final plus final plus post-final consonant or final consonant plus
two post-final consonants. Four-consonant final clusters consist
mostly of pre-final plus final plus two poat-final consonants, and
rarely of fnal plus three post-final consonants.

4. STRESS

4.1. Definition of stress and its functions

Stress is a relative emphasis given to a certain syllable in a word. It
can be used to give special emphasis to a word or to contrast one
word with another. Also, it indicates the syntactic category of
words.

4.2. Characteristics, factors and levels of stress

Characteristic which is common to all stressed syllables is
prominence. Stressed syllables are recognized by being more
prominent than unstressed ones. Four factors which are important
in making a syllable prominent are: loudness, pitch, lenght and
sound quality. Two factors which have the strongest effect in
making syllables prominent are pitch and lenght. There are two
levels of stress; primary stress and secondary stress. The term used
for the third(unstressed) level of stress is tertiary stress. When
deciding on stress placement in words, a few factors must be taken
into account: the issuse whether the word is morphologically
simple or complex, the grammatical category of the word, the
number of syllables in a word and the phonological structure.

4.3. Languages and stress

Two types of languages are distinguished when dealing with the
stress placement within words in linguistic typology; fixed and free
stress languages. For example, English and Croatian belong to
fixed stress languages, for the stress is commonly on the first
syllable.

4.4. Complex words

The synonyms for words containing one, two and more syllables
are monosyllabic and polysyllabic. Two types of complex words
are affix words and compund words. Complex words have two
types of affixes: prefixes and suffixes. Affixes can have three
possible effects on word stress in complex words:
a)The affix receives the primary stress
b)The word is stressed as if without an affx
c)The stress is shifted to a different syllable.