Machinability

Matching the most suited cutting tool material (grade)

and insert geometry with the workpiece material to be
machined is important for a trouble-free and productive
machining process.

• Workpiece materials H4

• The cutting edge H 18

• Cutting tool materials H 29

• Manufacturing of cemented carbide H 44

Other information
• Machining economy H 55

• Maintenance & tool wear H 68

• Formulas and definitions H 75

H3
 A Workpiece materials

Workpiece materials
Turning

Six main groups

B The ISO standard material groups are divided into six
different types. Each type has unique properties regarding
machinability and set-ups that make different demands
Parting and

on the tool.
grooving

ISO ISO ISO

C P Steel M Stainless steel K Cast iron
Threading

D ISO ISO ISO

N Aluminium S Heat Resistant Super Alloys
H Hardened material
Milling

E
The largest variety of different types of
P components are probably in the P-area
as it covers several different sectors in the
Drilling
The aircraft industry and manufacturers of
N aluminium automotive wheels dominate
the N-area.

industry.

In the M-area a big part of the application Difficult to machine S-area materials are
M is in gas & oil, tubes, flanges, process S found in the aerospace, gas turbine and
industry and the pharmaceutical business. power generator industries.
Boring

The K-area is dominated by automotive Hardened materials in the H-area are seen
K H
Tool holding

components, the machine builders and the in a variety of industries such as automo-
iron works production. tive and their subcontractors as well as in ma-
chine builders and the Die & Mould business.

H
Other information
Machinability

H4
 Workpiece materials
A

Characteristics for chip formation and removal

Factors that must be identified in order to
determine a material’s machinability:
- Classification, metallurgical/mechanical,
of the workpiece material.
- The cutting edge micro- and macro geom-
Turning
- The cutting tool material (grade) e.g.
coated cemented carbide, ceramic, CBN,
or PCD, etc. B
The selections will have the great influ-
ence on the machinability of the material

Parting and
etry to be used. at hand.

grooving
ISO ISO ISO
P Steel M Stainless steel K Cast iron C

Threading
ISO ISO Heat resistant and super ISO D
N Aluminium S H Hardened material
alloys

ISO-P materials are generally long chipping
P and have a continous, relatively even flow
of chip formation. Variations usually depend on
Milling
E
Chip formation for ISO-K materials varies
K from near powder-like chips to long type of
chips. The power needed to machine this mate-

carbon content.
- Low carbon content=tough sticky material.
- High carbon content=brittle material.
Cutting force and power needed varies very
little.
Drilling
rial group is generally low.
Note that there is a big difference between Grey
Cast Iron (often near powder) and Ductile Iron,
which many times have a chip breaking more F
similar to steel.

Low power needed per mm3, but due to the

N
Boring

high metal removal rate, it is still a good

idea to calculate what max. power is required.
ISO-M forms a lamellar, irregular chip for-
M mation where the cutting forces are higher G
compared to normal steel. There are many
different types of stainless steels. The range is wide, but in general high cut-
S
Tool holding

Chip breaking varies depending on the alloying ting forces are present.
properties and the heat treatment, from easy
to almost impossible to break chips.
Often a continous, red-glowing chip. This
H high temperature helps to lower the kc1-
value and is important to help out with the H
Other information

application.
Machinability

H5
 A Workpiece materials

The complex world of metal cutting

Turning

Many parameters influence the cutting process

B
Parting and
grooving

C
Workpiece material Application Condition

Turning Cutting conditions

Threading

P Steel

D M Stainless steel

Milling
K Cast iron
Milling

E N Aluminium
Drilling
Clamping conditions

S Heat resistant alloys

Drilling

F H Hardened steel
H Roughing/
R Heavy

M Medium
M
Boring

L Finishing/
F Light
G

The ISO material groups There are three major types All components are different
Tool holding

are divided into 6 different
types where each type has
unique properties regarding
machinability
H
Other information
of applications, all requiring
different tools, inserts and
grades. These also depend on
the load on the cutting edge,
from finishing to roughing.
in look, need various set-ups,
and require special attention
and demands from the tool.


Machinability

H6
 Workpiece materials
A

Turning
B

Parting and
grooving
C
Component Hardness Cutting environment

Threading
D

Milling
Hardness Brinell Coolant
E

Drilling
F

Dry machining Boring

Depending on the size, type
of material, set-up and way of
machining, different choice of
tooling are required (turning,
milling, drilling etc).
Usually there is a relation be-
tween material hardness and
tool life, as well as machining
data and type of geometry and
grade. The higher the hard-
ness the shorter the tool life
Carbide performes best when
machining at high, constant
temperatures.
Dry conditions should there- G
fore be the first choice.
Some grades are however
Tool holding

with more rapid wear on the developed for wet conditions,

cutting edge. for example grades for cast
iron machining.

H
Other information
Machinability

H7
 A Workpiece materials

The interaction between workpiece material, geometry

and grade
Turning

Workpiece material • The interaction between an optimized

B
geometry and grade for a certain work-
piece material is the key for a success-
ful machining process.
Parting and
grooving

• These three basic factors must be con-

sidered carefully and adapted for each
machining operation.
C
• The knowledge and understanding about
how to play with these factors is of vital
importance.
Threading

Insert grade Insert geometry

D

Workpiece materials, main groups

Milling

Different materials are placed in different CMC* groups

E
CMC 01, 02, 03, 06 CMC 07, 08, 09 CMC 20, 23
Heat resistant super
Steel Cast iron
alloys and titanium
Drilling

F
P M K N S H
Boring

Stainless steel Aluminium Hardened material

G
CMC 05, 15 CMC 30, 33 CMC 04, 10
Tool holding

Within each material group there are subgroups

depending on the hardness of the material, kc1-value,
and metallurgical and mechanical properties.
H
Other information

* CMC = Coromant Material Classification

Machinability

H8
 Workpiece materials
A

Summary of Coromant Material Classification (CMC)

Turning
This table shows the six different ISO material groups and
the 15 different CMC groups. An explanation of the type B
of material in each group can be found in our ordering
catalogue and the technical handbook.

Parting and
A new material classification with MC codes is being

grooving
introduced during 2010.

Threading
ISO CMC Material

01. Unalloyed steel

D
02. Low-alloy steel ( < 5% alloying elements )
P 03. High-alloy steel ( > 5% alloying elements )
06. Steel castings

Milling
05. Austenitic stainless steel E
M
15. Stainless steel-cast

Drilling
07. Malleable cast iron
K 08. Grey cast iron ( GCI )
F
09. Nodular cast iron ( NCI, CGI )

30. Aluminium alloys

N
Boring

33. Copper alloys

G
20. Heat Resistant Super Alloys (HRSA)
S
Tool holding

23. Titanium alloys

04. Extra hard steel ( > 45 HRC)

H H
Chilled cast iron
Other information

10.
Machinability

H9
 A Workpiece materials

Steel ISO P – main characteristics

Turning

B
Parting and
grooving

C
Machining characteristics: What is steel?
- Long-chipping material -S
 teel is the largest group in the metal
Threading

cutting area.
- Relatively easy, smooth chip control
-S
 teels can be non-hardened or hardened
- Low carbon steel is sticky and needs
D and tempered with hardness up to
sharp cutting edges
400 HB.
- Specific cutting force kc:
-S
 teel is an alloy with the element iron
1500–3100 N/mm2
( Fe) as the major component. It is pro-
Milling

-C
 utting force, and the power needed to duced through a melting process.
machine ISO P materials, stays within a
-U
 nalloyed steels have a carbon content
E limited range.
lower than 0,8 %, and only Fe, with no
other alloying elements.
-A
 lloyed steels have a carbon content
which is lower than 1,7 % and alloying
Drilling

elements like Ni, Cr, Mo, V, W.

F
Boring

ISO CMC Material

G 01. Unalloyed steel

Low-Alloy steel
Tool holding

02. ( < 5% alloying elements )

P
High-alloy steel
03. ( > 5% alloying elements )
H
Other information

06. Steel castings

Machinability

H 10
 Workpiece materials
A

Stainless steel ISO M – main characteristics

Turning
B

Parting and
grooving
C
Machining characteristics: What is stainless steel?
- Long-chipping material -S
 tainless steels are materials alloyed

with min 11–12% chromium.
-C  hip control is fair in ferritic, to difficult in
austenitic and duplex
- Specific cutting force:
1800–2850 N/mm2
- Machining creates high cuttting forces,
built-up edge, heat and deformation
Threading
- T he carbon content is often low (down to
max 0.01%). D
- Alloys are mainly Ni (Nickel), Mo
(Molybdenum), and Ti (Titanium).
- The formed Cr2O3 layer on the steel

Milling
hardening. surface makes it non-corrosive.

Drilling
F

Boring

ISO CMC Material

05.1 Ferritic/Martensitic stainless G

steel

Austenitic stainless steels

Tool holding

05.2
M
Austenitic-ferritic (Duplex ) stain-
05.5 less steel
H
Other information

15 Stainless steel castings

Machinability

H 11
 A Workpiece materials

Cast iron ISO K – main characteristics

Turning

B
Parting and
grooving

C
Machining characteristics: What is cast iron?
- Short-.chipping material - T here are 3 main forms of cast iron:
Threading

grey (GCI), nodular (NCI) and compacted

- Good chip control in all conditions
graphite (CGI).
- Specific cutting force: 790–1350 N/mm2
D -C
 ast iron is a Fe-C composition with
-M
 achining at higher speeds creates relatively high content of Si ( 1–3%).
abrasive wear
-C
 arbon content is over 2% which is the
- Moderate cutting forces. max solubility of C in the Austenitic
Milling

phase.
-C
 r (Chromium), Mo (Molybdenum), and
E V (Vanadium) form carbides which in-
crease strength and hardness, but lower
machinability.
Drilling

F
Boring

ISO CMC Material

G
Malleable cast iron
07.
Ferritic/Pearlitic types, CGI
Tool holding

Grey cast iron

K 08.
low and high tensile strength

H Nodular SG iron
Other information

09. Ferritic, Pearlitic, Martensitic,

ADI
Machinability

H 12
 Workpiece materials
A

Non-ferrous materials ISO N – main characteristics

Turning
B

Parting and
grooving
C
Machining characteristics: What is Non-ferrous material?
- Long-chipping material - T his group contains non-ferrous, soft

Threading
metals with hardness under 130 HB.
- Relatively easy chip control if alloyed
-A
 luminium (Al) alloys with up to 22%
- Aluminium (Al) is sticky and needs sharp
silicon (Si) make up the largest part. D
cutting edges
- Copper, bronze, brass
- Specific cutting force: 350–700 N/mm2
- Plastic
-C
 utting force, and the power needed to

Milling
machine ISO N materials, stays within a - Composites (Kevlar)
limited range.
E

Drilling
F

ISO CMC Material Boring

Aluminium alloys
30.1
Wrought and/or coldworked

G
Aluminium alloys
30.2
Cast and / or aged
Tool holding

N
Cast
30.3.
High Si-content 13–22%

33.1 Copper and copper alloys

H
Other information

33.2 Free-cutting alloys, brass,

33.3 bronze
Machinability

H 13
 A Workpiece materials

Heat resistant super alloys and titanium

ISO S – main characteristics
Turning

B
Parting and
grooving

C
Machining characteristics: What are Heat Resistant Super Alloys?
- Long-chipping material -- H
 eat Resistant Super Alloys (HRSA)
Threading

include a great number of high alloyed

- Difficult chip control (segmented chips)
iron, nickel, cobalt or titanium based
- Negative rake angle is required with materials.
D ceramics, a positive rake angle with Groups:
carbide - Fe-based
- Ni-based
- Specific cutting force: 2400–3100 N/
- Co-based.
mm2 for HRSA and 1300–1400 N/mm2
Milling

Condition:
for titanium
- Annealed
E - Cutting forces, and power required are - Solution heat treated
quite high. - Aged rolled
- Forged, cast.
Properties:
- Increased alloy content (Co moreso
Drilling

than Ni), results in better resistance

against heat, increased tensile
F strength and higher corrosive resist-
ance.
Boring

ISO CMC Material

Iron base
G 20.1 Annealed or solution treated,
aged
Nickel base
Tool holding

20.2 Annealed or solution treated,

aged, cast
S Cobalt base
20.3. Annealed or solution treated,
aged, cast
H
Other information

23.1 Titanium alloys

23.2
Machinability

H 14
 Workpiece materials
A

Hardened steel ISO H – main characteristics

Turning
B

Parting and
grooving
C
Machining characteristics: What is hardened steel?
- Long-chipping material -H
 ardened steel is the smallest group

Threading
from a machining point of view.
- Fair chip control
- T his group contains hardened and tem-
- Negative rake angle is required
pered steels with hardness >45–65 HRC. D
-S
 pecific cutting force:
- T ypically, however, hard part turned com-
2550–4870 N/mm2
ponents can be found to be within the
-C
 utting forces, and power required are range of 55–68 HRC.

Milling
quite high.

Drilling
F

Boring

ISO CMC Material

G
Hard steel >45 HRC
- hardened and tempered
Tool holding

04.1
Extra hard steel 55-68 HRC
- hardened and tempered
H
Chilled cast iron H
10.1. - cast or cast and aged,
Other information

400 HB
Machinability

H 15
 A Workpiece materials

The specific cutting force

Turning

kc1 – the material constant varies for each material

B
kc
N/mm2
Parting and

• T he cutting force (Fc)

grooving

6000 is the force needed to

shear off a specific chip
cross-section, in certain
C conditions
5000

Fc • T his value (Fc) is used

Threading

in the calculation of the

4000 power consumption need-
D H ed for an operation

3000 • T he specific cutting force

value (kc) is a material
Milling

M constant, expressed in
P S N/mm2
2000
E

1000 K N Fc = kc × ap × fn
Drilling

F
Boring

kc1 values in N/mm2

G
P 1500 – 3100 N 350 – 1350
Tool holding

M 1800 – 2850 S 1300 – 3100

K 790 – 1350 H 2550 – 4870

H
Other information
Machinability

H 16
 Workpiece materials
A

The ISO nomenclature in the ISO-P area

Turning
Operations and working conditions

P01: Internal and external finishing turning; high cutting B

Wear resistance speed; small chip area; good surface finish; narrow
tolerances; no vibrations.
P

Parting and
01 P10: T urning; copying; threading; milling; high cutting

grooving
speed; small to medium chip area.
P20: T urning; copying; medium cutting speed; facing with
10 small chip area; medium to difficult conditions. C
P30: T urning; milling facing; medium to low cutting speed;
medium to large chip area; includes operations with

Threading
20 tough conditions.
P40: Turning; facing; milling; cutting; grooving; low cutting
speed; large chip area; large possible chip angle; D
30 very tough conditions.
P50: W
 hen very high toughness in the tool is needed in
turning, facing,grooving, cutting, low cutting speed,

Milling
large chip area, large possible chip angle, extremely
40 tough conditions.
E
50

Drilling
Toughness

F
The above diagram is related to
the ISO P-area. These demands
apply also to all other ISO-type
of materials i.e. M, K, N, S, H.
Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 17
 A
Turning The cutting edge

B
The cutting edge
Parting and
grooving

The design of the cutting edge and insert

C geometry is of vital importance for the chip
formation process and tool life in metal
cutting.
Threading

D
Milling

E
Drilling

F
Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 18
 The cutting edge
A

The high cutting force on a cutting edge

Turning
Guess how big the tangential force is on the cutting edge
B
Cemented carbide has a high compressive strength re-
sistance and can also work at high temperatures without
plastic deformation. It can also resist high cutting forces

Parting and
without breaking, as long as the insert is well supported.

grooving
C
ap = 13 mm Material: Steel ap = 8.1 mm

ap =13 mm CMC 02.1 180 HB

Threading
ap =8.1 mm

fn =1.0 D
n =0.62

Milling
Fc = 1700 kp Fc = 1700 kp

E
Ft =1700 kp Ft =1700 kp

Drilling
F

Boring

The tangential cutting force in these two G

Calculation of Fc cases (approx. 17000 Newton, or 1700
Material: CMC 02.1 kp) is equivalent to the weight of a pas-
Tool holding

180 HB senger car.

kc = 2100N/mm2

Fc = kc x ap x fn
Fc = 2100 x 13 x 0.62 = 17000 N H
Other information

(Newton) = 1700 kp
Machinability

H 19
 A The cutting edge

The machining starts at the cutting edge

Turning

B
Parting and
grooving

Typical chip breaking

sequences with high
Threading

speed imaging.

D
Cutting zone temperatures
The maximum heat generated during cutting is on the top
Milling

part of the insert, in the chip breaker, and close to the

cutting edge. This is where the maximum pressure from
E the material is, and, with the friction between chip and
carbide, causes these high temperatures.
Drilling

F
• T he rake angle, geometry and feed play
an important role in the chip formation
process.
Boring

•R
 emoving heat from the cutting zone
through the chip (80%) is a key FACTOR.
G
• T he rest of the heat is usually evenly
distributed between the workpiece and
Tool holding

the tool.

H
Other information
Machinability

H 20
 The cutting edge
A

The design of a modern insert

Turning
B

Parting and
grooving
C

Threading
A steel turning insert for medium turning.

Definitions of terms and geometry design

Milling
E
Nose cutting edge design Main cutting edge design

Drilling
0.25
20°

5° F
Macro geometry with
chip breaker •C
 utting edge reinforce-
ment 0.25 mm
• Rake angle 20°
Boring

Geometry for small

cutting depths • Primary land 5°

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 21
 A The cutting edge

The re-inforcement of the cutting edge

Turning

The ER-treatment gives the cutting edge the final

B micro geometry

•E
 R-treatment (Edge Roundness) is done
Parting and

before coating, and gives the final shape

grooving

of the cutting edge (micro geometry).

• T he relation between W/H depends on
C the application.
Threading

Generally the ER
corresponds to the
thickness of a hair,
diameter: ~ 80 µm.
D
Milling

E A negative land increases the strength of the cutting edge

Milling inserts often have a negative land and reinforced

insert corners making them stronger and more secure in
the intermittent cutting action.
Drilling

F
Negative
land
Boring

G
Chamfer
Tool holding

•A
 negative land increases the strength
of the cutting edge, but also creates
H higher cutting forces
Other information
Machinability

H 22
 The cutting edge
A

Insert rake angle

Turning
The rake angle can be either negative or positive.
Based on that, there are negative and positive inserts,
where the clearance angles are either zero or several B
degrees plus. This determines how the insert can be
tilted in the tool holder, and results in either a negative or

Parting and
positive cutting action.

grooving
C
• T he insert rake angle is
the angle between the
top face of the insert and

Threading
the horizontal axis of the
workpiece.

Milling
E
Positive and negative cutting action

Turning needs a durable edge that can In most drilling applications there is also

perform for a long time and often in
continuous cuts at high temperature. This
condition requires an edge with among
other things good chip breaking ability,
good resistance against different types of
wear and against plastic deformation.
Drilling
coolant present, mainly for chip transpor-
tation reasons which puts the edge under
extra stress from temperature variations. F
To be able to transport the chips from the
narrow chip flutes and from inside the
hole, good chip breaking into short chips
is an important factor.
Boring

In milling, which always has an intermit-

tent cutting action, the edge needs to
have good bulk strength to resist break- G
age. A large variation in cutting edge
temperature due to interrupted cuts also
Tool holding

makes resistance to thermal cracks of

vital importance.
In drilling, the edge must be strong
enough to last at very low cutting speeds, H
and even at zero speed in the centre of
Other information

the drill.
Machinability

H 23
 A The cutting edge

Peak performance in machining

Turning

Dedicated inserts for different applications

There are major differences in insert geometry and grade
B requirements between applications in turning, milling and
drilling.
Parting and
grooving

Turning •N
 eeds a durable edge that can perform
for a long time, and often in continuous
C cuts at high temperature.
• Good chip breaking ability
•G
 ood resistance against different types
Threading

P of wear and against plastic deformation.

D
M Milling
• T he cutting action is always intermittent
and the edge needs to have good bulk
Milling

K strength to resist breaking.

•V
 ariations in cutting edge temperature
E due to the interrupted cuts also mean
N that the resistance to thermal cracks is
of vital importance.
Drilling

S
F

Drilling
H • T he edge must be strong enough to last
at very low cutting speeds, in fact at
Boring

zero speed in the center of the drill.

•C
 oolant is present, mainly for chip trans-
G portation reasons, which puts the edge
under extra stress from temperature
variations.
Tool holding

• T o transport the chips from the narrow

chip flutes and from inside the hole,
good chip breaking is important.
H
Other information
Machinability

H 24
 The cutting edge
A

Six main groups of workpiece materials

Turning
Different characteristics for removing chips
Good chip forming usually results in high cutting forces B
and excess heat, depending on the material. This can
lead to low cutting speeds with adhesive stresses as

Parting and
a result. On the other hand, materials like aluminium,

grooving
unalloyed steels and low-strength cast iron produce less
cutting force.
C

Threading
D

Milling
Steel Stainles steel Cast iron
E

Drilling
F

Aluminium Heat resistant alloys Hardened steel

Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 25
 A The cutting edge

From universal to optimized turning inserts

Turning

General inserts

B • General geometry
• Optimizing with grades
Parting and

• Performance compromised
grooving

C Application area

Dedicated inserts
Threading

•D
 edicated geometries
and grades

D •O
 ptimized performance
according to workpiece
machinability

Application area
Milling

E Dedicated inserts for the ISO P, -M and -K area

The different micro- and macro-geometries are adapted to the
various requirements in the applications.
Drilling

Workpiece Finishing Medium Roughing

material
F
Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 26
 The cutting edge
A

Type of application - Turning

Turning
ap Depth of
cut, mm Heavy turning
R • Operations for maximum stock removal and/or severe
conditions.
B
• High D.O.C. and feed rate combinations.
• Operations requiring highest edge security.

Parting and
grooving
Medium turning
M • Most applications – general purpose.
• Medium operations to light roughing.
• Wide range of D.O.C. and feed rate combinations. C

Finishing

Threading
F • Operations at light depths of cut (D.O.C.) and low feed rates.
• Operations requiring low cutting forces.
fn
Feed, mm/r D

Dedicated geometries and grades

Todays insert-grade-geometry options are much more

Milling
dedicated towards specific application areas, giving the
full and optimized usage of the machine and tool capacity,
resulting in improved productivity and lower costs. E

Drilling
ISO/ANSI P STEEL
Finishing Medium Roughing
-WF / GC4215 -WM / GC4205 WR / GC4205
-PF / GC4215 -PM / GC4215 -PR / GC4215
F
-WF / GC4215
Single
sided Dominating application areas
-WM / GC4215 -WR / GC4215
Double
sided

P M K
Single
sided
-PF / GC4215 -PM / GC4225 -PR / GC4225
-WF / GC4225 -WM / GC4225 -WR / GC4225
Boring

-PF / GC4225 -PM / GC4235 -PR/ GC4235

Stainless
Material Steel Cast iron
steel
G
Turning F M R F M R F M R
Dedicated
Tool holding

geometries
Milling L M H L M H L M H

Grades GC4200 GC2000 GC3200 H

Other information
Machinability

H 27
 A The cutting edge

Type of application - Milling

Turning

ap Depth of
cut, mm Heavy milling
B H • Operations at maximum stock removal and/or severe
conditions.
• Larger depth of cut and feed rate.
• Operations requiring highest edge security.
Parting and
grooving

Medium milling
M • Most applications – general purpose milling.
• Medium operations to light roughing.
C • Medium depth of cut and feed rate.

Light milling
Threading

L • Operations at small depth of cut and low feed rates.

• Operations requiring low cutting forces.

D Feed fz, mm/tooth

Milling

Selecting the insert geometry in milling

E
Drilling

Light (-L) Medium (-M) Heavy (-H)

Boring

• Extra positive
• Light machining
G
• Low cutting forces
• Low feed rates
Tool holding
•G
 eneral purpose • Reinforced cutting edge
geometry
• Heavy machining
• Medium feed rates
• Highest edge security
•M
 edium operations to
• High feed rates

light roughing

H
Other information
Machinability

H 28
 Cutting tool materials
A

Cutting tool materials

Turning
The selection of cutting tool material and grade is an important factor
to consider when planning a successful metal cutting operation.
A basic knowledge of each cutting tool material and its performance is B
therefore important to be able to make the correct selection for each
application. This should take into consideration the workpiece material

Parting and
to be machined, the component type and shape, machining conditions

grooving
and the level of surface quality required for each operation.

Threading
D

Milling
E

Drilling
F

Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 29
 A Cutting tool materials

Different types of cutting tool materials

Turning

Hardness

B
1
 CD
Diamond
Parting and


2
grooving

CB
3
Cubic boron nitride
C 4
5
 CC
Threading

Ceramics

D
6
 CT
Cermets

1.
2.
Diamond
Cubic boron nitride  GC
Milling

3. Ceramics
4. Cermets Coated carbide


5. Coated carbide
6. High Speed Steel
E HSS
High speed steel

Toughness
Drilling

The ideal cutting tool material should:

F
- be hard to resist flank wear and deformation
- be tough to resist bulk breakage
- not chemically interact with the workpiece material
Boring

- be chemically stable to resist oxidation and diffusion

G
- have good resistance to sudden thermal changes.
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 30
 Cutting tool materials
A

The main range of cutting tool materials

Turning
• Uncoated cemented carbide (HW)
• Coated cemented carbide (HC) B
• Cermet (HT, HC)

Parting and
• Ceramic (CA, CN, CC)

grooving
• Cubic boron nitride (BN)
• Polycrystalline diamond (DP, HC) C

Threading
D
Uncoated cemented carbide

Characteristics, features and benefits

Milling
• Used in moderate to difficult applications
related to steel, HRSA, titanium, cast E
iron and aluminium in turning, milling and
drilling.
•G
 ood combination of abrasive wear

Drilling
resistance and toughness.
• Gives sharp cutting edges.
F
•G
 ood edge security but limited wear
resistance at higher speeds.
•R
 epresents a small portion of the total
Boring

grade programme.

G
Tool holding

H
Other information


Machinability

H 31
 A Cutting tool materials

Coated cemented carbide

Turning

Characteristics, features and benefits

• General use in all kinds of components
B and material for turning, milling and drilling
applications.
• Extremely good combination of wear resist-
ance and toughness in a variety of jobs.
Parting and

• Consists of a large variety of grades with hard

grooving

to tough substrates, usually with gradient

sintering, and various coatings of CVD and
PVD-type.
• Shows very good wear characteristics with
C long tool life.
• Dominates the insert programme and with
increasing share.
Threading

Cermet
D • Used in finishing and semi-finishing applica-
tions where close tolerance and good surface
finish is required.
• Chemically stable with a hard and wear resist-
ant substrate.
Milling

• Consists of Titanium based (TiC, TiCN)

cemented carbide with cobalt as a binder.
• PVD-coating adds wear resistance and tool
E life. “Self sharpening ” properties. Limited
toughness behaviour.
• Quite low share of total insert programme.
Drilling

F
Ceramic
• Depending on type of ceramic, the grades are
mainly used in cast iron and steel, hardened
materials and HRSA.
Boring

• Ceramic grades are generally wear resistant

and with good hot-hardness. Wide applica-
G tion area in different types of material and
component.
• Ceramics are considered brittle and need
stable conditions. With additions in the mix
Tool holding

and whisker reinforced ceramic, toughness is

improved.
• Fairly low share of total sales but increased
usage in the aerospace and hardened steel-
H cast iron area.
Other information
Machinability


H 32
 Cutting tool materials
A

Cubic boron nitride

Turning
Characteristics, features and benefits
• For finish turning of hardened steel. Roughing
of grey cast iron at high cutting speeds. Rough B
turning of rolls in white/chilled cast iron.
• Applications that require extreme wear resist-
ance and toughness.

Parting and
• CBN consists of Boron nitride with Ceramic or

grooving
Titanium nitride binder.
• Resists high cutting temperatures at high
cutting speeds.
• Special application area with small volume C
inserts. Trend is towards a higher volume of
hard materials to be cut.

Threading
D
Polycrystalline diamond
• Turning of normal aluminum at low tempe-
rature and very abrasive hypereutectic

Milling
aluminium. Used in non-metal and non-ferrous
materials.
• Extremely wear resistant grades. Sensitive to E
chipping.
• Brazed-in corners of polycrystalline diamond
(PCD tip) to an insert or thin diamond coated
film on a substrate.
• Long tool life and extremely good wear resist-

Drilling
ance. Decomposes at high temperatures.
Dissolves easily in iron.
• Fairly low share and special limited
applications.
F

Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 33
 A Cutting tool materials

The development of cutting tool material

Turning

The development of cutting tool material through the

years can be seen in the reduced time taken to machine a
B component (500 mm long, with 100 mm diameter) from
1900 to today.
Parting and

At the beginning of the last century, cut- Today with improved geometries and new
grooving

ting tool material was only slightly harder
than the material which needed to be cut.
Therefore tool life was poor, and cutting
C speed and feed had to be kept very low.
The introduction of HSS brought major
improvements, which resulted in reduced
Threading
coating technique we have reached below
1 minute in cutting time for the 500 mm
steel bar.
In addition to traditional uncoated and
coated carbide, new cutting tool materials
like cermet, ceramic, cubic boron nitride

cutting time. and diamond, have contributed to opti-

mized and improved productivity.
20 years later uncoated cemented carbide
D brought down the required time in cut to a
staggering 6 minutes.
The introduction of coated carbide again
lowered the cutting time to 1.5 minutes.
Milling

Min (log) Carbon steel

Drilling

F High speed steel (HSS)

Boring

Cemented carbide

Coated carbide
Tool holding

Insert geometries, new coatings

New cutting tool materials

H
Other information
Machinability

H 34
 Cutting tool materials
A

What is cemented carbide and a grade?

Turning
•C
 emented carbide is a powder metallur-
gical material consisting of:
B
- hard-particles of WC (tungsten carbide)

Parting and
- a binder metal, cobalt (Co)

grooving
-h
 ard-particles of Ti,Ta,Nb
(titanium,tantalum,niobium-carbides).
C
•A
 grade represents the hardness or
toughness of the insert, and is deter-
mined by the mixture of ingredients

Threading
which make up the substrate.

Milling
E
Coating of cemented carbide
•C
 oating of cemented carbide was

Drilling
developed in the 1960s.
•A
 thin Titanium Nitride coating layer was
added, only a few microns thick. This F
improved the performance of carbide
overnight.
•C
 oatings offer improved wear resistance
Boring

giving longer tool life and possibility to

use higher cutting data.
G
•Today modern grades are coated with dif-
ferent carbide, nitride and oxide layers.
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 35
 A Cutting tool materials

Microstructure of cemented carbide

Turning

Cemented carbide consists of hard
particles (carbides) in a binder matrix.
B The binder is more or less in all cases
cobalt (Co) but could also be Nickel (Ni).
The hard particles consist mainly of tung-
sten carbide (WC) with a possible addition
Parting and
grooving
The gamma phase has a better hot hard-
ness and is less reactive at elevated
temperatures, so is often seen in grades
where the cutting temperature can get
high. WC has a better abrasive wear
resistance.

of gamma phase (Ti-, Ta- Nb-carbides and

nitrides).

C
Threading

Elements:
D Alpha-phase
Gamma-phase (TiC) WC (tungsten carbide)

Gamma-phase
Milling

Beta-phase (Co) (Ti,Ta,Nb)C

(titanium, tantalum,
E niobium-carbides)

Alpha-phase (WC)
Beta-phase
Drilling

Co (cobalt)

F
Hair diameter
= 50-70 µm
Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 36
 Cutting tool materials
A

Fundamental characteristics

Apart from the grain size of the WC, the
amount of binder phase (cobalt) is an
important factor determining the charac-
teristics of the carbide. The Co content
in Sandvik Coromant grades is generally
4–15% of the total weight.
Turning
An increase in Co content and WC grain
size contributes to an increase in bulk
toughness, but also lowers the hardness. B
As a result, the substrate has less resist-
ance to plastic deformation, which means
less wear resistance/lower practical tool

Parting and
grooving
life).

Threading
Amount of binder
Toughness

Milling
E

Drilling
F

Boring

Wear resistant WC grain size

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 37
 A Cutting tool materials

Coating design
Turning

Many factors influence the behavior of the

insert:
B
- Coating process
- Coating material
Parting and

- Coating thickness
grooving

- Post treatment
C - Surface morphology.
Threading

D
Milling

E
Example of modern steel turning grades
Structure and build-up of the coating layers
Drilling

Wear resistance P Toughness

F
Boring

Gradient substrate for optimized hardness and toughness

G
Tool holding

ISO P01 – P15 ISO P05 – P30 ISO P10 – P35 ISO P20 – P45
GC4205 GC4215 GC4225 GC4235

H
Thicker coatings; i.e.more wear resistance.
Other information
Machinability

Harder substrates; i.e. more deformation resistance.

H 38
 Cutting tool materials
A

Grade design

Turning
Coatings and substrates vary with the type of application

Parting and
grooving
C
K05 – K15 P05 – P35 M15 M25 M35
Thicker coatings mean more wear resistance.

Threading
Harder substrates mean more deformation resistance.

The coating of a modern turning grade

The grade plays a very important part of the performance

Milling
E
Al2O3
– Coating for chemical and
thermal wear resistance.

Drilling
TiCN F
– MTCVD coating for mechan-
ical wear resistance. Boring

Functional gradient
– For optimized hardness and G
toughness.
Tool holding

Cemented carbide
– Plastic deformation
resistance.
H
Other information
Machinability

H 39
 A Cutting tool materials

Properties of different coating materials

Turning

CVD coating of inserts

B Chemical Vapour Deposition

• T he most common CVD layers today are

Parting and

TiN, Ti(C,N) and Al2O3.

grooving

TiN
• TiCN provides flank wear resistance.
Al2O3 •A
 l2O3 provides temperature protection
C
(plastic deformation resistance).
Ti(C,N) • T iN provides easy wear detection and
nice cosmetics.
Threading

D
TiN = Titanium nitride
Ti(C,N) = Titanium carbonitride
Al2O3 = Aluminium oxide
Milling

PVD coating of inserts

Drilling

Physical Vapour Deposition

F •P
 VD coatings are generally tougher than
CVD coatings.
•P
 VD coatings are often used in combina-
tion with fine-grained substrates to coat
Boring

”sharp” cutting edges.

G • T otal thickness of the PVD layers is often

between 3 and 6 microns.
• The coating is applied at approx. 500 °C.
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 40
 Cutting tool materials
A

The tough environment in metal cutting

Turning
Different wear mechanisms on the inserts B

Type of load Symbol Wear picture Cause

Parting and
grooving
Mechanical stress on
Mechnical the insert edge C
causes breakage.

Threading
Temperature variations
cause cracks and
Thermal heat generates plastic D
deformation (PD) on
the insert edge.

Milling
A chemical reaction
between carbide and E
Chemical working material
causes wear.

Drilling
In cast iron the SiC F
Abrasive inclusions can wear on
the insert edge.
Boring

BUE
With sticky material, G
Adhesive built-up layers/edges
are formed.
Tool holding

BUE = Built-Up Edge

H
PD = Plastic Deformation
Other information
Machinability

H 41
 A Cutting tool materials

Wear pictures, cause and remedy

Turning

Some of the most common wear patterns

B Flank wear (abrasive) Cause Remedy

Cutting speed too high, in- Reduce cutting speed, se-
sufficient wear resistance. lect a more wear resistant
Parting and

grade.
grooving

C
Threading

Crater wear (chemical)

Cutting temperature too Reduce cutting speed, se-
D high. lect a more wear resistant
grade (Al2O3 coated grade).
Milling

Built-up edge (abrasive)

Drilling

Cutting speed too low. Increase cutting speed,

Unsuitable grade. choose a tougher grade,
F preferably PVD coated.
Boring

G
Notch wear (abrasive)
Tool holding

Cutting speed too high or Select a more wear resist-

insufficient wear resist- ant grade or reduce cutting
ance. speed.

H
Other information
Machinability

H 42
 Cutting tool materials
A

Turning
Plastic deformation
(thermal) Cause Remedy B
Cutting temperature too Select a harder grade,
high, combined with a high reduce speed and feed.

Parting and
pressure.

grooving
C

Threading
Chipping (mechanic)
The chips are deflected Change the feed, select an
against the cutting edge. alternative insert geometry.
D

Milling
E
Thermal cracks
Temperature variations Select a tougher grade
caused by: with better resistance to

Drilling
thermal shock.
- intermittent machining
- varying coolant supply Coolant should be applied
copiously, or not at all. F

Boring

Edge chipping/breakage
(mechanic)
G
Overload of mechanical Check the following:
tensile stresses. - chip hammering
Tool holding

- cutting data
- sand inclusions in work-
piece
- built-up edge
- vibration H
Other information

- excessive wear on insert.

Machinability

H 43
 A
Turning Manufacture of cemented carbide

B
Manufacture of
cemented carbide
Parting and
grooving

The manufacture of cemented carbide

C inserts is a carefully designed process,
where
geometry and grade are balanced to
Threading

give a product perfectly matched to the

application.

D
Milling

E
Drilling

F
Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 44
 Manufacture of cemented carbide

The development of cutting tool material

Turning
With the development of better carbide substrates, coat-
ings and geometries, productivity and cost savings have B
improved at the end user.
Large improvements in productivity were possible in the

Parting and
60s and 70s when the first coatings were developed.

grooving
After this, the developments continued - with advanced
substrate design, new geometries, edge designs, new ad-
vanced coating techniques and post treatment of coated C
edges.

Threading
D
The effect on end-user productivity
2006
A new insert

Milling
generation

1999
New generation E
coatings

1989
Functional

Drilling
gradients
1980
Thick aluminium
oxide coating F
1969
First coated
1957 insert
Indexable
inserts
Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 45
 A Manufacture of cemented carbide

Powder production
Turning

There are two main elements of a cemented carbide

B insert:
- WC = Tungsten Carbide
- Co = Cobalt
Parting and
grooving

Other commonly used elements are Titanium, Tantalum

and Niobium Carbides. Designing different types of
powder and different percentages of the elements is what
C makes up the different grades.
The powder is milled and sprayed-dried, sifted and poured
into containers.
Threading

Raw material Milling

Milling

Niobium
E
(Ta, Nb)C Tantalum
(5%)

(Ti, W)C
Drilling

Co (8%) Titanium
(7%)
WC Tungsten
F Cobalt (80%) carbide

Cemented carbide powder

Spray drying
Boring

Ready to press

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 46
 Manufacture of cemented carbide
A

Tungsten powder

Turning
The size of the tungsten carbide grains
The main raw material for the manufac-
ture of cemented carbide is tungsten-ore B
concentrate. Tungsten powder is produced
from tungstic oxide derived chemically from

Parting and
the raw material. By varying the conditions

grooving
of reduction, tungsten powder of various
grain size can be manufactured. The car-
bide granules after spray-drying are small C
and vary in size depending on grade.

0.10 mm

Threading
D

Basic properties of cemented carbide

Apart from the grain size for the WC, the also to a lower hardness which reduces

Milling
amount of binder phase is an important the wear resistance of the substrate.
factor determining the characteristics
of the carbide. Increasing Co-content,
E
together with increasing WC-grain size,
contributes to increasing toughness but

Drilling
Amount of binder Toughness

Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

Wear resistant WC grain size

H 47
 A Manufacture of cemented carbide

Pressing powder compacts

Turning

Top and bottom

B punches
Press force
20 - 50 tons
Parting and
grooving

C
Threading

D
Die and
core pin
Milling

Inspection
E
The pressing operation consists of several pieces
of tooling:
- T op and bottom punches
Drilling

- Core pin
- Cavity.
F
The pressing procedure:
-P  owder is poured into the cavity
Boring

- Top and bottom punches come together (20-50 tons)

- The insert is picked and placed via robot onto a
G graphite tray.
- Random SPC is performed, to check for weight.
Tool holding

The insert is 50% porous at this stage.

H
Other information
Machinability

H 48
 Manufacture of cemented carbide
A

Sintering the pressed inserts

Turning
Sintering phase consists of the following phases:
- L oading trays of inserts into a sintering - T he insert will shrink 18 % in all direc-
furnace. tions during the sintering phase, this
B
- The temperature is raised to ~1400 C°. corresponds to about 50 % in volume.
- This process melts the cobalt and the

Parting and
grooving
cobalt acts as a binder.

Sintering

Threading
Insert trays D

Milling
E

Shrinking
Inspection rate

Drilling
F

Boring

2 3 G
Tool holding

1. Unsintered insert
2. Sintered insert
3. Coated insert

H
1
Other information
Machinability

H 49
 A Manufacture of cemented carbide

Different types of grinding operations

Turning

B Top and bottom Free profiling Profiling

Parting and
grooving

C
g 00
Bor
Threading

Chamfer – negative land Periphery

D Neg. land
7 8 9
4 5 6
1 2 3

S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8
SI S2
Milling

Chamfer Borg 00

E
Drilling

The reinforcement of the cutting edge

F
The ER-treatment gives the cutting edge the final micro geometry.

•E
 R-treatment (Edge Roundness) is done
before coating.
Boring

• T he relation between W/H depends on

G the application.
Tool holding

Generally the ER corresponds to the thickness of

a hair, diameter: ~80 µm.
H
Other information
Machinability

H 50
 Manufacture of cemented carbide
A

CVD – Chemical Vapour Deposition

Turning
Stacks of inserts are placed into a
furnace, a series of gases are introduced to the chamber,
lines are purged and another series of gases introduced.
B
This is repeated until the layers of coating are complete.
The process is carried out at approx. 900° C for 30 hours.
Thickness is approx 2-12 microns.

Parting and
grooving
C

Threading
D

Milling
E

Drilling
F

The advantages of CVD coatings

• The ability to making thick coatings.
Boring

• Ability to make even coating thickness.

•V
 ery good adherence to the carbide G
substrate.
Tool holding

• The very good wear resistance.

• Possibilty to make oxide coatings.

H
Other information
Machinability

H 51
 A Manufacture of cemented carbide

PVD – Physical Vapour Deposition

Turning

The inserts are loaded into the coating
chamber on trays. Metal source targets,
B are placed on the reactor chamber walls.
The most common source is titanium (Ti).
The targets are heated to a temperature
Parting and
By using a gas as carrier the ions can then
be transported from the targets to the
inserts. As the inserts are cooler, the ions
will condensate on the insert surface, to
form a coating.

where the solid metal ionizes

grooving

C
Threading

D
Milling

E
Drilling

F
Boring

G The coating thickness is in the range of • PVD provides good edge line toughness.
2-6 microns depending on application area
•P
 VD coatings can maintain a ”sharp”
for the insert.
cutting edge.
Tool holding

The most common PVD layers today are

• PVD can be used on brazed tips.
TiN, Ti(C,N), (Ti,Al)N, (Ti,Al,Cr)N and now
also aluminium oxides. • PVD can be used on solid carbide tools.
H
Other information
Machinability

H 52
 Manufacture of cemented carbide
A

PVD vs. CVD coating process

PVD (Physical Vapor Deposition)
In a PVD coating process, the coating is
formed by metal vapour condensating on
insert surfaces. PVD works the same way
as when humid air condensates on cold
Turning
CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition)
In a CVD coating process, the coating is
formed by a chemical reaction of different B
gases. Temparature, time, gas flow, gas
atmosphere etc. are carefully monitored

Parting and
roads and forms a icelayer on the road. to steer the deposition of the coating lay-

PVD is formed at a much lower tem-
perature than CVD. Normal PVD process
temperatures are around 500 °C. The
coating thickness is in the range of 2-6
microns depending on application area for
the insert.
grooving
ers. Depending on the type of coating, the
temperature in the reactor is about 800
to 1100 degrees centigrade. The thicker C
the coating the longer the process time.
The thinnest CVD coating today is below
4 microns and the thickest is above 20

Threading
microns.

Milling
~500 °C ~1000 °C
~1/100000 atm ~1/20 atm E

Drilling
F

Boring

G
Tool holding

• Thinner coating • Thicker coating

• Sharper edges • More wear resistant
H
• Tougher • Thermal resistant
Other information
Machinability

H 53
 A Manufacture of cemented carbide

Vision control, marking and packaging

Turning

After inspection of dimensions, coating and grade, the

B insert is marked with a grade designation and placed in a
10-piece box, labeled and packed and ready for distribu-
tion to the customer or into stock in the warehouse.
Parting and
grooving

C Visual inspection
Marking Packaging
Threading

D
Milling

E
Labelling
Distribution
Drilling

Gimo

F
Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 54
 Machining economy

How to improve machining economy?

H 55
Machining economy

F
C

E
A

H
Machinability Tool holding Boring Drilling Milling
D

Threading Parting and

B

Turning

G
Other information grooving
 A Machining economy

Doing more machining in the same production time

Turning

B
Productivity definition
Parting and
grooving

The value of output

produced divided by the
value of input or resources.
C

= Output / Input
Threading

D
Milling

Attack the productivity gap

E In all industrial operations, the cost of running the
operation, e.g. for labour, raw material, equipment etc,
is increasing at a faster rate than the price of the goods
that are sold. In order to bridge that gap, one needs to
continuously increase efficiency, resulting in higher pro-
Drilling

ductivity. Bridging this gap is the only way to stay competi-

tive and ultimately to stay in business.
F

135
Boring

130
125 Cost development
G 120
115
110
Tool holding

105 Productivity gap

100
Price development
95
H
Other information
Machinability

Source: Mechanical Industry in OECD.

H 56
 Machining economy
A

Maximizing productivity

Turning
Looking at the three main machining parameters, cutting
speed, feed, and depth of cut, each has an effect on tool
life. The depth of cut has the smallest effect followed by B
the feed rate. Cutting speed has the largest effect by far
on insert tool life.

Parting and
grooving
Depth of cut, mm
C

Threading
Feed, mm/rev D

Milling
E
Cutting speed, m/min

Optimizing the feed rate is

the best way to maximize

Drilling
the productivity

Productivity “Q” is meassured as the amount of material

removed in a fixed time period (cm3/min).
Boring

vf
G
Tool holding

H
Other information

a × ae × vf
Q = vc × ap × fn Q= p
Machinability

1000

H 57
 A Machining economy

Maximizing productivity – examples

Turning

Metal removal rates for a fixed depth of cut of 3.0 mm using:

B Low alloy steel, Insert: CNMG 120408-PM 4225

P CMC 02.1
Hardness, HB 180 ap, mm 3.0 3.0 3.0
Parting and
grooving

fn, mm/r 0.15 0.3 0.5

C
vc, m/min 425 345 275
Threading

Q, cm3/min 191 310 412*

D
* Slowest cutting speed with the highest feed
= highest productivity
Milling

Using a trigon W-style insert, versus a C-style double-sided

E or single-sided insert

Low alloy steel, Trigon shape

P CMC 02.1 Insert: double-sided for medium machining.
Hardness, HB 180 3 / 4 mm
Drilling

No of passes / cutting
depth, ap 1 / 3 mm
F Machining time, Tc 22 seconds

15 Rhombic shape
Boring

Insert: double sided for medium machining.

No of passes / cutting 3 / 5 mm
G depth, ap
Machining time, Tc 16 seconds
Tool holding

50
Insert: Single sided for rough machining.
No of passes / cutting 2 / 7.5 mm
depth, ap
H
Machining time, Tc 8 seconds
Other information
Machinability

H 58
 Machining economy
A

Machine tool utilization

Turning
Incomplete use of B
additional shifts Machining 20%

Parting and
grooving
Production Tool change 10%
60%

Set & gauge 10% C

Breakdowns 10%

Threading
Holidays, etc
Workpiece
change 10%
D

Machining economy

Milling
E

Drilling
F

Boring

G
• Variable costs • Fixed costs
Costs incurred only during production: Costs which exist even when not in
Tool holding

- cutting tools, consumables (3%) production:

- workpiece materials 17%. - machine and tool holders (27%)
- labour (31%)
- buildings, administration etc. (22%).
H
Other information
Machinability

H 59
 A Machining economy

Machine tool utilization

Turning

Cost, tool life or productivity

The cost of the tooling, an easily measured value, is

B
always under price or discount pressure, but even when
the price is reduced by 30% it only influences the compo-
nent cost by 1%.
Parting and
grooving

We have a similar result of a 1% cost saving when tool

life is increased by 50%.
C Increasing the cutting data by only 20% will dramatically
reduce component costs and lead to a 10% component
saving.
Threading

D
• Decreased cost:
A 30% decrease in price
Milling

only reduces total cost per

component by 1%.
E
Drilling

• Increased tool life:

A 50% increase in tool life only reduces
F total cost per component by 1%.
Boring

• Increased cutting data:

G
A 20% increase in cutting
data reduces total cost
Tool holding

per component by more

than 10%.

H
Other information
Machinability

H 60
 Machining economy
A

Machine tool utilization

Turning
Example:
Shop spends $10,000 B
to make 1000 parts.
Machine cost is $10.00

Parting and
per part.

grooving
C

Threading
Increase
Variable Today Lower price Tool life cutting data
– Tooling $ .30 $ .21 $ .20 $ .45
D
– Material $ 1.70 $ 1.70 $ 1.70 $ 1.70

Milling
Fixed
– Machinery $ 2.70 $ 2.70 $ 2.70 $ 2.16 E
– Labour $ 3.10 $ 3.10 $ 3.10 $ 2.48
– Building $ 2.20 $ 2.20 $ 2.20 $ 1.76

Drilling
Cost per part $ 10.00 $ 9.91 $ 9.90 $ 8.55
F

Savings 1% 1% 15% Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 61
 A Machining economy

Machining ecomomy
Turning

Cutting data and cost

• Cutting speed has no effect on fixed costs.
B • As cutting speed increases more parts are produced per hour and therefore cost per
part is reduced.
• As cutting speed increases more tools are used and therefore cost per
Parting and

part increases.
grooving

If we add all costs together we will get the curve of total Production cost.
C 1. As speed increases the Parts per hour increase until we reach a point where we are
spending a disproportionate amount of time changing tools and production rate will
start to decrease.
Threading

2. The lowest point on the Production cost curve corresponds to the economic cutting
speed.
3. The highest point on the Production cost curve corresponds to the the maximum
D cutting speed.
The speed between these two points is the High Efficiency Range, which is where we
should be trying to operate.
Milling

Parts per hour

Cost per part
Drilling

Production rate
Production cost
F
Tool cost
Boring

G
Tool holding

Fixed cost
Machine cost

H
Cutting speed
Other information

Economic High Efficiency Speed for maximum

speed Range production
Machinability

H 62
 Machining economy
A

Base for cutting data recommendations

Turning
Compensation of cutting data for difference in tool life
• Tool life Higher metal removal
B
-A
 ll cutting data is based If you want to change the cutting speed to obtain higher metal
removal rates the new cutting speed values can be calculated
on 15 min tool life. from the following table.

Parting and
-1
 5 min tool life

grooving
= Factor 1.0
-U
 se correction factor for Tool life (min)
other values according to Correction
C
the table. factor

Example:

Threading
If the recommended cutting speed (vc) = 225 m/min. a tool life
of 10 minutes gives you 225 x 1,11 ≈ 250 m/min.
D

Milling
Compensation of cutting speed for difference in hardness, HB E

• Hardness Reduced hardness Increased hardness

-A
 ll cutting data is based

Drilling
on the reference materi-
als and the respective
hardness. F
-E
 .g ISO P HB 180 =
Factor 1.0.
-U
 se correction factors for
Boring

other values according to

the table.
G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 63
 A Machining economy

Use the table or diagram to compensate the

cutting speed for different hardnesses
Turning

B Diagram form for P, M and K

Parting and

ISO Steel, HB180 ISO Grey cast iron, HB220

P K
grooving

CMC 02.1 CMC 08.2

ISO Stainless steel, HB180 ISO Nodular cast iron, HB250
C M CMC 05.21 K CMC 09.2
Threading

D
Factor for cutting speed
Milling

E
Drilling

N/mm2
HB

F Specific cutting force / hardness

Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 64
 Machining economy
A

Example of calculating hardness factor and cutting speed

compensation

Turning
ISO Steel Reduced hardness Increased hardness
B
P CMC 02.1
-R
 eference hardness

Parting and
HB= 180

grooving
-1
 5 min tool life
= Factor 1.0
C
-U
 se correction factor for
other values according to
the table.

Threading
D
• Customer workpiece
material

Milling
- DIN 42CrNiMo4
- Tensile strength 900 N/mm2.
E
- 900 N/mm2 = HB 266 values
according to the table.

Drilling
F

• Calculating hardness factor

- HB 266-180 = +86
Boring

- Cutting speed factor vc = 0.70.

- Reduce the cutting speed G
to 70%.
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 65
 A Machining economy

Cutting speed and feed data compensation for turning

Turning

• How to calculate cutting data compensation

B - The cutting data is based on 15 min tool life.
Parting and

Increased feed fn, mm/r

grooving

Decreased cutting speed, %

Example 1 Starting value

C

Increased cutting speed, %

Threading

D
Example 2

Decreased feed fn, mm/r

Milling

E
• Example 1
- Increase the feed from e.g fn 0.3 mm/r to 0.45 mm/r
= +0.15 mm/r.
Drilling

-D
 ecrease the cutting speed by 12% from the given
cutting speed value.
F

• Example 2
- Increase the cutting speed by +15% e.g from
Boring

345 m/min to 400 m/min.

- Decrease the feed by 0.18 mm/r from the given
G
feed value.
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 66
 Machining economy
A

How can you improve your productivity?

Turning
Things to consider
B
• Identify the material and hardness HB or
tensile strength N/mm2.

Parting and
• Choose the correct geometry.

grooving
• Choose the correct grade.
• Use the given cutting data values or C
compensate the cutting data values
according to your needs.

Threading
• Correctly applied, our tools can increase
productivity by at least 20%.

Milling
Machining tips for improved tool life
E
• Speeds and feeds within insert
parameters.
• Make use of all available corners on

Drilling
inserts.
• Proper insert radius in relationship
to D.O.C. F
• Choose the right combination of insert
radius and geometry.
Boring

• Use down milling over conventional mill-

ing wherever possible.
• Worn inserts can be used for G
chamfering.
Tool holding

H
Good stability = Successful metal cutting
Other information
Machinability

H 67
 F
C

E
A

H
Machinability Tool holding Boring Drilling Milling

D
Threading Parting and

B
Turning

G
Other information grooving

H 68
Maintenance & tool wear

wear
• Tool wear

• Maintenance
Maintenance & tool

H 71
H 69
 Maintenance & tool wear
A

Consequences of excessive tool wear

Turning
B

Parting and
grooving
C

Threading
D

Milling
E

Drilling
• Damaged inserts
• Damaged shims
F
• Damaged tool holders
• Damaged components
• Damaged machine
Boring

Result:
Tool holding

• Reduced production
• Higher production costs
H
Other information
Machinability

H 69
 A Maintenance & tool wear

Inspection of tool wear

Turning

Visually inspect shims & shim seats

B •D
 amaged shims. Shims should not have
chipped corners in the cutting area.
•S
 hims should have no visible wear from
Parting and

Damage chip breaking and/or impressions from

grooving

the insert.
Chip breakage
C impression

Inspect pockets
Threading

•P
 ockets damaged or mushrooming in the
corners.

•O
 versized pockets due to wear. The
insert does not sit properly in the pocket
sides. Use a 0.02 mm shim to check
Milling

the gap.
E •S
 mall gaps in the corners, between the
shim and the bottom of the pocket.
Drilling

The importance of correct wrench

F
Why use the proper wrenches?
• Extends life of screw and wrench.
• Reduces risk of stripping screw.
Boring

G
What is the proper way to tighten an insert
Tool holding

screw?
• Important to use the proper wrench.
•A
 lways use correct torque. Values are
H marked on tool and shown in product
catalogue.
Other information

• Common sense!!
Machinability

H 70
 Maintenance & tool wear
A

Torx Plus® wrenches

Turning
Torx Plus from Sandvik Coromant
Nm B

Parting and
grooving
C

Torx Plus® vs. Torx

Threading
Cross section

Torx Plus® Torx

Torx Plus® D

Milling
E

Torx Plus is a registered trademark of

Standard Torx
Camcar-Textron (USA)
screw

Drilling
F

Torx Plus® wrenches with adjustable torque

Boring

• On
 parting and grooving tools an adjust-
able torque wrench is required, as the G
torque is not related to screw size.
Tool holding

• It should of cause be used on all prod-

ucts with clamp screw.

H
Other information
Machinability

H 71
 A Maintenance & tool wear

Insert screws / clamping screws

Turning

• Screw threads, heads and Torx sockets

should be in good condition.
B
• Use correct keys.
• Ensure correct screw-tightening torque
Parting and
grooving

• Apply sufficient screw lubrication to

prevent seizure. Lubricant should be
applied to the screw thread as well as
C the screw-head face.
• Replace worn or exhausted screws.
Threading

Important!
Use MolyKote for screw heads
Milling

and threads

Tool maintenance
Drilling

Shim and insert seat

F • Check shim damage.

• Clean insert seat and damaged location
and support for cutting edge.
• If necessary index or replace shim.
Boring

• Ensure correct insert location against

support points.
G
• It is important to ensure that shim cor-
ners have not been knocked off during
Tool holding

machining or handling.

H
Other information
Machinability

H 72
 Maintenance & tool wear
A

Tool maintenance

Turning
Contact faces
• Always
 check supporting and contact
faces of tool holders, milling cutters and B
drills, making sure there is no damage
or dirt.

Parting and
• In boring operations it is especially

grooving
important to have the best possible
clamping. If the bar is not supported to
the end of the holder, overhang will be C
increased and create vibration.

Threading
D
Production security
• It
 is important to select the correct
insert size, insert shape and geometry

Milling
and insert nose radius to achieve good
chip flow.
l -S
 elect largest possible point angle on E
the insert for strength and economy.

re -S
 elect largest possible nose radius for
insert strength.

Drilling
l = cutting edge length (insert size) -S
 elect a smaller nose radius if there is
re = nose radius a tendency for vibration. F

Stability
Boring

• Stability
 is the key factor for successful
metal cutting, affecting machining costs G
and productivity.
•M
 ake sure that any unnecessary play,
Tool holding

overhang, weakness, etc has been elimi-

nated and that correct types and sizes of
tools are employed for the job.
H
Other information
Machinability

H 73
 A Maintenance & tool wear

Insert handling
Turning

• Inserts
 should never be removed from
the original package until they are ready
B to be installed.
Parting and
grooving

C
Threading

D
Summary of maintenance points
 Check tool wear and shims for damage.
Milling

 Make sure insert seat is clean.

E  Make sure of correct insert location.

 Make sure correct keys and drivers are used.

Drilling

 Insert screws should be correctly

tightened.
F  Lubricate screws before tool assembly.

 Make sure contact faces are clean and undamaged on

tools, holding tools and machine spindles.
Boring

 Make sure boring bars are clamped well and that

G holder is undamaged at the end.

 A well organized, maintained and documented tool

Tool holding

inventory is a production cost saver.

 Stability is always a critical factor in any metal cutting

H operation.
Other information
Machinability

H 74
 Formulas and definitions
A

Turning
B
Formulas & defini-
tions, calculator

Parting and
grooving
Turning H 76
C

Milling H 77

Threading
Drilling H 78

Boring H 79 D

Milling
E

Calculator

Drilling
Cutting data calculator H 80
F

Boring

G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 75
 A Formulas and definitions

Formulas and definitions for turning

Turning

Cutting speed, m/min

B
π × Dm × n
vc =
1000
Parting and
grooving

C
Spindle speed, r/min
vc × 1000
Threading

n=
π × Dm

D
Designation/
defination
Machining time, min
Symbol

Unit
Milling

lm
Tc =
fn × n
E Dm Machined diameter mm
fn Feed per revolution mm/r
ap Cutting depth mm
vc Cutting speed m/min
Drilling

Metal removal rate, cm3/min

n Spindle speed rpm

F Q = vc × ap × fn Pc Net power kW
Q Metal removal rate cm3/min
hm Average chip thickness mm
hex Maximum chip thickness mm
Boring

Tc Period of engagement min

Net power, kW
G lm Machined length mm
v × ap × fn × kc Specific cutting force N/mm2
Pc = c kc
60 × 103 κr
Tool holding

Entering angle degree

H
Other information
Machinability

H 76
 Formulas and definitions
A

Formulas and definitions for milling

Turning
Table feed, mm/min
B
vf = fz × n × zc

Parting and
grooving
Cutting speed, m/min
π × Dcap × n C
vc =
1000

Threading
Spindle speed, r/min

Designation/
vc × 1000
n=
defination
π × Dcap D
Symbol

Unit
Feed per tooth, mm
ae Working engagement mm

Milling
vf
fz = ap Cutting depth mm
n × zc
Dcap Cutting diameter at cutting
depth ap mm
E
Feed per revolution, mm/rev Dm Machined diameter
(component diameter) mm
v
fn = f

Drilling
fz Feed per tooth mm
n
fn Feed per revolution mm/r
n Spindle speed rpm F
Metal removal rate, cm3/min vc Cutting speed m/min
ap × ae × vf vf Table feed mm/min
Q=
1000 zc Number of effective teeth pcs
Boring

hex Maximum chip thickness mm

Net power, kW hm Average chip thickness mm G
ae × ap × vf × kc kc Specific cutting force N/mm2
Pc =
Tool holding

Pc Net power kW
60 × 106
Mc Torque Nm
Torque, Nm Q Metal removal rate cm3/min

Pc × 30 × 103 κr Entering angle degree H

Mc =
Other information

π×n
Machinability

H 77
 A Formulas and definitions

Formulas and definitions for drilling

Turning

B Penetration rate, mm/min

vf = fn × n
Parting and
grooving

C Cutting speed, m/min

π × Dc × n
vc =
1000
Threading

Designation/
D Spindle speed, r/min

defination
Symbol

vc × 1000

Unit
n=
π × Dc
Milling

Dc Drill diameter mm
fn Feed per revolution mm/r
Feed force, N
E n Spindle speed rpm
D
Ff ≈ 0.5×kc × c fn × sin κr vc Cutting speed m/min
2
vf Penetration rate mm/min
Drilling

Ff Feed force N

Metal removal rate, cm3/min kc Specific cutting force N/mm2

F Mc Torque Nm
v × Dc × fn
Q= c Pc Net power kW
4
Q Metal removal rate cm3/min
κr
Boring

Entering angle degree

Net power, kW
G
vc × Dc × fn × kc
Pc =
240 × 103
Tool holding

Torque, Nm
H
Pc × 30 × 103
Mc =
Other information

π×n
Machinability

H 78
 Formulas and definitions
A

Formulas and definitions for boring

Turning
Penetration rate, mm/min B

vf = fn × n

Parting and
grooving
Cutting speed, m/min C
π × Dc × n
vc =
1000

Threading
Designation/
Spindle speed, r/min

Metric unit
D
vc × 1000 defination
Symbol

n=
π × Dc

Milling
Dc Drill diameter mm

Feed per revolution, mm/r fn Feed per revolution mm/r

n Spindle speed rpm E
fn = zc × fz vc Cutting speed m/min
vf Table speed mm/min

Drilling
Ff Feed force N

Metal removal rate, cm3/min kc Specific cutting force N/mm2

Mc Torque Nm F
vc × Dc × fn
Q= Pc Net power kW
4
Q Metal removal rate cm3/min
κr
Boring

Entering angle degree

Net power, kW zc Number of effective teeth pcs

( (
(zc = 1 for step boring) G
vc × ap × fn × kc ap
Pc = 1–
60 × 103 Dc
Tool holding

Torque, Nm Feed force, N

Pc × 30 × 103 H
Mc = Ff ≈ 0.5 × kc × ap × fn × sin κr
Other information

π×n
Machinability

H 79
 A Calculator

Cutting data calculator

Turning

Self-explanatory and very easy to use

B
The Sandvik Coromant cutting data calcu-
lator is designed to solve most calculation
problems encountered in the metal cutting
Parting and
The Sandvik Coromant cutting data calcu-
lator also functions as a standard
mathe­matical calculator. Calculations can

area. be done in metric or inch.

grooving

The calculator is self-explanatory and very

easy to use. Users include programmers,
C
operators, machinists, supervisors, fore-
men, designers and more.
As a user, you simply decide what param-
Threading

eter you want to calculate, choose the

appropriate formula from the menu in the
display and enter the input as prompted
D by the calculator. This means that the user
does not need to memorize any metal cut-
ting formulas.
Milling

E
Drilling

• Calculator metric/inch
Boring

• Size 80x125x15 mm
G
Tool holding

H
Other information
Machinability

H 80
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