LESSON 1 - Ions flow across cell membrane

Graded Potentials
- Subthreshold depolarization
Structure of Neurons - Many subthreshold depolarizations are added
Dendrites Carry information to the cell body
together to produce an action potential (a process
from other neurons
known as summation)
Cell body (Soma) Contains nucleus -

Axon Carries information to the next All-or-None Law

- A neuron either fires or it does not
cell
- When it does fire, it will always produce an
Myein Sheath Insulates the axon and speeds up
the neural impulse impulse of the same strength
- Intensity of a stimulus is coded by the frequency of

action potentials
Types of Neurons -

 Sensory neurons Absolute refractory period

- Period immediately after an action potential when
- Carry information from sensory systems to the
brain another action potential cannot occur
-

- Also referred to as afferent Relative refractory period

 Motor neurons - Period following absolute refractory period when a

- Carry information from the brain to muscles and neuron will only respond to a stronger than normal
glands impulse
- Also referred to as efferent
 Interneurons
- Carry information between other neurons
The Synapse
Synaptic space Tiny gap between neurons
Glial Cells (synaptic cleft)
- Cells that insulate and support neurons Terminal button Enlarged area at the end of an axon
- Create the myelin sheath The synapse Composed of the terminal button of
- Remove waste products one neuron, the synaptic space, and
- Provide nourishment the dendrites or cell body of the
- Prevent harmful substances from entering the brain receiving neuron

The Neural Impulse Transmission Between Neurons

Ions  Synaptic vesicles
- Charged molecules - Sacs in terminal button that release chemicals into
synaptic space
Resting Potential  Neurotransmitters
- When more negative ions are inside the neuron - Chemicals released by synaptic vesicles
than outside  Receptor sites
- Charge is approximately -70mV - Location on receptor neuron for specific
- Neuron is not transmitting information neurotransmitter
-

Polarization
- When the electrical charge of a cell moves away

from zero
-

Depolarization
- When the electrical charge of a cell moves toward

zero
-

Action Potential
- Sudden, massive change in charge in the neuron

- Occurs when depolarization reaches the threshold

of excitation
Some Well-Known Neurotransmitters Neural Plasticity
 The brain can be changed, both structurally and
 Acetylcholine (ACh)
chemically, by experience
- Released at the neuromuscular junction
 Rat studies show that an “enriched” environment
- Plays an important role in arousal and attention
leads to larger neurons with more connections
- Loss of ACh producing cells is linked to Alzheimer’s
 Has also been shown in humans
Disease
 Recent research has uncovered evidence of
 Dopamine neurogenesis, or the production of new brain
- Affects neurons associated with voluntary cells, in human brains
movement
- Plays a role in learning, memory, and emotions
- Loss of dopamine-producing cells causes symptoms of
Parkinson’s Disease Central nervous Consists of the brain and spinal cord
system (CNS)
 Serotonin
- Found throughout the brain Peripheral Connects the CNS to the rest of the
- Appears to sets an “emotional tone” nervous system body
- Low serotonin levels are implicated in depression  Somatic nervous system
 Endorphins  Autonomic nervous system
- Reduce pain by inhibiting or “turning down”
neurons that transmit pain information Nervous System Organization

Central Nervous System

Psychopharmacology
Most psychoactive drugs (and toxins) work by
blocking or enhancing synaptic transmission
Botulism
- Blocks release of ACh at the neuromuscular
junction, causing paralysis
- “Botox” is botulism toxin used to prevent facial
muscles from making wrinkles
Curare
- Can stun or kill prey quickly
- Blocks ACh receptors causing paralysis
Antipsychotic medications
- Block dopamine receptors
- Reduces schizophrenic hallucinations
Caffeine
- Increases the release of excitatory
neurotransmitters by blocking the inhibitory
neurotransmitter adenosine
Cocaine
- Prevents reabsorption of dopamine
- Leads to heightened arousal of entire nervous
system
The Brain – The Central Core
Medulla Controls breathing, heart rate, and blood
pressure
Pons Maintains the sleep-wake cycle
Cerebellum Coordinates body’s movements
Thalamus Relays information from sensory
receptors to the brain
Hypothalamus - Influences motivated behavior
- Regulates hunger, thirst, body
temperature, and sexual drive.
- Directly involved in emotional behavior
Reticular - Network of neurons found throughout
formation the brain
- Serves to alert and arouse higher brain
in response to incoming information
The Brain – The Limbic System
 Ring of structures located between the central core and
the cerebral hemispheres
 Important to learning and emotional behavior
- Hippocampus essential in formation of new memories
- Amygdala, together with the hippocampus, is
important for regulating emotions
 Magentoencephalogra Can localize activity more
The Cerebral Cortex phy (MEG) and precisely than EEG
Occipital lobe Magnetic source
- Receives and processes visual information imaging (MSI)
Positron Emission Use radioactive glucose to
Temporal lobe Tomography (PET) and determine location of
- Complex visual tasks such as face recognition Single Photon Emission greatest brain activity
- Receives and processed auditory information Computed Tomography
- Involved in balance, some emotions and (SPECT)
motivations Functional Magnetic Shows function and
- Some language processing Resonance Imaging structure by measuring
(fMRI) movement of blood
Parietal lobe molecules within the brain
- Receives sensory information from body
- Involved in spatial abilities
The Spinal Cord
Frontal lobe  Complex cable of nerves that connects brain to
- Coordinated information from other lobes rest of the body
- Controls voluntary movement, attention, setting  Carries motor impulses from the brain to internal
goals, and expression of appropriate emotions organs and muscles
 Carries sensory information from extremities and
internal organs to the brain
Hemispheric Specialization  The spinal cord controls some protective reflex
 Corpus Callosum movements without any input from the brain
- Fibers that connect the two hemispheres
- Allow close communication between left and right
hemishphere
 Each hemisphere appears to specialize in certain The Peripheral Nervous System
functions The Somatic Nervous System
 Consists of neurons that communicate between the
Tools for Studying the Nervous System body and the brain
 Afferent neurons
Microelectrode Techniques
- Neurons that carry messages from sense organs to
—Very small electrodes inserted into individual
spinal cord
neurons
 Efferent neurons
—Used to study activity of a single neuron
- Neurons that carry messages from the spinal cord
Macroelectrode Techniques
or brain to muscles and glands
Used to get a picture of overall activity in the brain
An example is an EEG, which uses electrodes placed
on a person’s scalp to measure brain activity The Autonomic Nervous System
Structural Imaging  Sympathetic division
Computerized Axial Uses X-rays to create a 3- - Most active when you are angry, afraid, or aroused
Tomography (CT-scan) dimensional image of the - Fight-or-flight response
brain - Increases heart rate and breathing
- Stops digestion
Magnetic Resonance Uses a magnetic field and
Imaging (MRI) radio waves to produce  Parasympathetic division
images - Calms body
Functional Imaging - Produces effects opposite to those of the
EEG imaging electrical activity on the sympathetic division
scalp from millions of - Reduces heart rate and breathing
neurons is used to produce - Restores digestion
a continuous picture of
activity in the brain
  Used to assess the heritability of
The Endocrine System psychological disorders or traits
 Twin studies
 Helps coordinate and integrate complex
 Used to determine how heritable a trait
psychological reactions
or disorder may be
 Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the
 Identical twins would have highest
bloodstream
heritability
 Hormones serve to organize the nervous system
and body
 Adoption studies
 Hormones also activate behavior, such as sexual
 Used to assess the influence of
behavior
environment
 Molecular genetics
Thyroid gland Secretes hormones (primarily
 Direct study of the genetic code
thyroxin) that control metabolism
Parathyroid Control levels of calcium and
glands phosphate which in turn controls Evolutionary Psychology
levels of excitability  Natural selection
Pineal gland Secretes melatonin which regulates  “Survival of the fittest”
the sleep-wake cycle  Evolutionary psychology looks at the adaptive or
Pancreas Regulates blood-sugar levels survival value of behaviors
Secretes insulin and glucagon
Pituitary gland Referred to as the “master gland” Social Implications
because it regulates many other  Study of biological origins of behavior could lead
glands to genocide and eugenics aimed at eliminating
Gonads Ovaries and testes secrete estrogens certain types of people
and androgens  Could also be used to create new categories of
Adrenal Secretes hormones in reaction to people, such as people bred to be good soldiers
glands stress or manual laborers

Genes, Evolution, and Behavior

Genetics
 Heredity - transmission of trait from one
generation to next
 Chromosomes
 Pairs of thread like bodies that contain
genes
 Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
 Organic molecule arranged in a double-
helix
 Contains the “code of life”

Behavior Genetics
 Study of behavior from a genetic perspective
 Animal behavior genetic studies include:
 Strain studies
 Selection studies

Human Behavior Genetics

 Family studies
 Assume that close family members share
more of a trait than non-relatives