Wella S, VIRINA

BSN- I
Review Question

Digestive System

1. Name the organs of the alimentary tube, and describe the

location of each. Name the accessory digestive organs, and describe
the location of each.

 The digestive system will contain accessory organs along with

the alimentary tube. The alimentary tube will extend from mouth
to anus. The parts of the alimentary tube include oral cavity,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine and large
intestine. Of all these organs, the actual digestion will take place
only in the oral cavity, stomach and small intestine. In small
intestine, end products of digestion will be absorbed. The wastes
will be eliminated through the large intestine.

2. Explain the purpose of mechanical digestion, and give two

examples. Explain the purpose of chemical digestion, and give two
examples.

 Mechanical digestion involves physically breaking the food into

smaller pieces. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth as the
food is chewed. Chemical digestion involves breaking down the
food into simpler nutrients that can be used by the cells.
Chemical digestion begins in the mouth when food mixes with
saliva.

Example: 1. Swallowing occurs when the tongue slides back and locks the
epiglottis over the larynx which allows the bolus to be pushed into the
esophagus.

 Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth by the physical act of

mastication (chewing). The specialized teeth break down the
food as it is cut by the incisors, torn by the cuspids and ground
by the molars.
 Digestion involves taking large portions of food and breaking them
down into micronutrients small enough to be absorbed by cells.
Chewing and peristalsis help with this, but they don’t make particles
small enough. That’s where chemical digestion comes in.Chemical
digestion breaks down different nutrients, such as proteins,
carbohydrates, and fats, into even smaller parts.

Example: 1.You eat bread. Salivary amylases break down the starches in the
bread bits and the result is glucose.

2. You eat meat. Peptidases in your stomach break down the

protein and the result is amino acids.

 Name the end products of digestion, and explain how each is

absorbed in the small intestine.

The end products of digestion process can be listed as follows:

• Carbohydrates like starch and disaccharides will be digested into

monosaccharides like glucose, fructose and galactose.

• Proteins will be digested into amino acids.

• Fats will be digested into fatty acids and glycerol.

• Vitamins, minerals and water will also be released from digested food.

4. Explain the function of teeth and tounge, salivary amylase,

enamel of teeth, lysozyme, and water of saliva.

 Teeth- Teeth are living organs and contain blood vessels and
nerves under the dentin in a soft region known as the pulp. The
teeth are designed for cutting and grinding food into smaller
pieces.

Tongue- It is a small organ made up of several pairs of muscles covered in a

thin, bumpy, skin-like layer. The outside of the tongue contains many rough
papillae for gripping food as it is moved by the tongue’s muscles. The taste
buds on the surface of the tongue detect taste molecules in food and
connect to nerves in the tongue to send taste information to the brain. The
tongue also helps to push food toward the posterior part of the mouth for
swallowing
Salivary amylase- salivary glands in your mouth make salivary amylase,
which begins the digestive process by breaking down starch when you chew
your food, converting it into maltose, a smaller carbohydrate.

Enamel of Teeth - It covers the outer layer of each tooth and it is the most
visible part of the tooth.

Lysozyme - is capable of breaking the chemical bonds in the outer cell wall of
the bacteria. Bacterial cell walls contain a layer of peptidoglycan, which is
the specific site that lysozyme targets.

Water of saliva - digestive functions of saliva include moistening food, and

helping to create a food bolus, so it can be swallowed easily.

5. Describe the function of the pharynx , esophagus, and lower

esophageal sphicter.

 Pharynx - its muscular walls function in the process of

swallowing, and it serves as a pathway for the movement of food
from the mouth to the esophagus.

Esophagus - The esophagus is the hollow, muscular tube that carries food
and liquids from the throat to the stomach.

Lower esophageal sphincter - The lower esophageal sphincter (LES) is a

bundle of muscles at the low end of the esophagus, where it meets the
stomach. When the LES is closed, it prevents acid and stomach contents
from traveling backwards from the stomach.

6. Name and describe the four layers of the alimentary tube.

 Mucosa - membrane that lines various cavities in the body and

covers the surface of internal organs. It consists of one or more
layers of epithelial cells overlying a layer of loose connective
tissue.

Submucosa - submucosa is a dense, irregular layer of connective tissue with

large blood vessels, lymphatics, and nerves that supports the mucosa.

Muscularis -is a thin layer of muscle of the gastrointestinal tract, located

outside the lamina propria and separating it from the submucosa.

Serosa- smooth membrane consisting of a thin layer of cells, which secrete

serous fluid, and a thin connective tissue layer .
7. State the two general functions of the stomach and function of
the pyloric sphincter. Explain the function of pepsin, HCI, and
mucus.

 The stomach is a muscular organ located on the left side of the

upper abdomen. The stomach receives food from the esophagus.
As food reaches the end of the esophagus, it enters the stomach
through a muscular valve called the lower esophageal sphincter.
The stomach secretes acid and enzymes that digest food. Ridges
of muscle tissue called rugae line the stomach. The stomach
muscles contract periodically, churning food to enhance
digestion. The pyloric sphincter is a muscular valve that opens to
allow food to pass from the stomach to the small intestine.

Pepsin - It is produced in the stomach and is one of the main digestive

enzymes in the digestive systems of humans and many other animals, where
it helps digest the proteins in food.

HCl - primary role of hydrochloric acid is to sterilize the food you eat and to
prevent harmful bacteria from entering the GI tract. HCL also triggers the
release of enzymes such as pepsin which are essential for the digestion of
protein.

Mucus - Mucus serves to protect epithelial cells in the respiratory,

gastrointestinal, urogenital, visual, and auditory systems.

8. Describe the general functions of the small intestine and name

the three parts. Describe the structures that increase the surface
area of the small intestine.

 The small intestine connects stomach above it to large intestine.

Small intestine has three parts:

The duodenum is a short section at the top of the small intestine that takes
semi-digested food from your stomach and digests it further, using bile from
your gallbladder and liver and enzymes from the pancreas.

The jejunum is the middle portion of the small intestine. It uses wave-like
contractions to push the food through to the lower part of your small
intestine. As the food moves through the jejunum it continues being digested
and takes on a more fluid state.
The ileum is the longest part of the small intestine and the part from which
most nutrients and liquid are absorbed from food, before the remainder of
the food is deposited into the large intestine.

The internal walls of the small intestine are covered in finger-like tissue
called villi. Each of these villi is covered in even smaller finger-like structures
called microvilli. These villi and microvilli increase the surface area available
for the absorption of nutrients.

9. Explain how the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas contribute to

digestion.

 It makes digestive enzymes that flow through the pancreatic

duct to the small intestine. These enzymes, along with bile from
the gallbladder, break down food for use as energy by the body.
The pancreas also makes insulin and glucagon, hormones that
help regulate blood glucose (sugar) levels.

10. Describe the internal structure of a villus, and explain how its
structure is related to absorption.

 The structure of the small intestine is specially adapted for

absorption to occur efficiently. It has many folds, which help
increase the surface area. The lining is covered in tiny
projections called villi. The villi increase the surface area even
more, making absorption even more efficient.

11. Name the parts of the large intestine, and describe the function
of the ileocecal valve.

 The large intestine is the last organ in the gastrointestinal

system picking up where the small intestine leaves off. It is
charged with removing water from the leftover solids of digestion
and eliminating it as stool. Cancer can form anywhere inside the
five foot tube that squares the abdominal cavity.The large
intestine extends up on the right side (ascending colon), making
a left turn past the liver and across (transverse colon), bending
down at the spleen on the left (descending colon), looping to the
middle (sigmoid colon) before passing through the rectum and
out the anus. (The cecum and appendix balloon off the ascending
colon just below the juncture between the colon and small
intestine.)
The ileocecal valve is a sphincter muscle situated at the junction of the ileum
(last portion of your small intestine) and the colon (first portion of your large
intestine). Its function is to allow digested food materials to pass from the
small intestine into your large intestine.

12. Describe the functions of the colon and of the normal flora of the
colon.

 The colon is part of the large intestine, the final part of the
digestive system. Its function is to reabsorb fluids and process
waste products from the body and prepare for its elimination.

The bacterial flora of the small intestine aid in a wide range of intestinal
functions. The bacterial flora provide regulatory signals that enable the
development and utility of the gut. Overgrowth of bacteria in the small
intestine can lead to intestinal failure

13. With respect to the defecation reflex, explain the stimulus, the
part of the CNS directly involved, the effector muscle, the function
of the internal anal sphincter, and the voluntary control possible.

 Stretch receptors in the smooth muscle layer of the return

generate sensory impulses that travel to the sacral spinal cord.
The returning motor impulses cause the smooth muscle of the
rectum to contract. Surrounding the anus is the internal anal
sphincter, which is made of smooth muscle. As part of the reflex,
this sphincter relaxes, permitting defacation to take place.

14. Name the vitamins and mineral stored in the liver. Name the
fixed macrophages of the liver, and explain their function.

 Vitamin B-12 is an exception; it's water soluble, but stored in the

liver. Mineralsare also stored in the body. For example, calcium
and other minerals are stored in your bones. The difference
between vitamin and mineral storage is
that mineralsare stored mainly for metabolism and structure, not
nutrient reserves.

Kupffer cells a fixed macrophages of the liver a critical component of the

mononuclear phagocytic system and are central to both the hepatic and
systemic response to pathogens. Kupffer cells are reemerging as critical
mediators of both liver injury and repair.
15. Describe how the liver regulates blood glucose level. Explain the
purpose of the processes of deamination and transamination

 The liver both stores and manufactures glucose depending upon

the body's need. The need to store or release glucose is primarily
signaled by the hormones insulin and glucagon. During a meal,
your liver will storesugar, or glucose, as glycogen for a later time
when your body needs it.
Deamination is the removal of an amino group from
a molecule. Enzymes that catalyse this reaction are called deaminases. In
the human body, deamination takes place primarily in the liver,
however glutamate is also deaminated in the kidneys. In situations of excess
protein intake, deamination is used to break down amino acidsfor energy.
The amino group is removed from the amino acid and converted
to ammonia. The rest of the amino acid is made up of
mostly carbon and hydrogen, and is recycled or oxidized for energy.
Ammonia is toxic to the human system, and enzymes convert it
to urea or uric acid by addition of carbon dioxide molecules (which is not
considered a deamination process) in the urea cycle, which also takes place
in the liver. Urea and uric acid can safely diffuse into the blood and then be
excreted in urine.
Transamination in biochemistry is accomplished by enzymes called
transaminases or amino transferases. This process is an important step in
the synthesis of some non-essential amino acids (amino acids that can be
synthesized de novo by the organism). The chirality of an amino acid is
determined during transamination.
16. Name the plasma proteins produced by the liver, and state the
function of each.

 One of the main functions of the liver is to produce proteins

secreted into the blood.  Plasma proteins are proteins
present in the blood plasma and are produced by the
liver .
There are a number of different types of plasma proteins,
each serving different specific functions:
Albumins regulate the osmotic pressure of the blood (and hence
moderate the osmotic pressure of body fluids
Globulins participate in the immune system and also act as
transport proteins
Fibrinogens are involved in the clotting process

17. Name the substances excreted by the liver into bile.

 The liver contains fixed macrophages that phagocytize old red
blood cells. Bilibrubin is then formed from the heme portion of
the hemoglobin. The liver also remove from the blood the
bilibrubin formed in the speen and red bone marrow and excrete
it into bile to be eliminated in feces.