BIOLOGY 102

Introductory Genetics

Course Outline (books) and Syllabus

Lecture 1
Discussion this week
Dr. Isgouhi Kaloshian

Reading: Ch 1; pages 1-17 Book 11th edition

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Classical and Modern Genetic

- Mutants analysis led to understanding of specific processes. This work has included:
a. Analyzing heredity in populations.
b. Analyzing evolutionary processes.
c. Identifying genes that control steps in processes.
Make the most of the available resources d. Mapping genes.
e. Determining products of genes.
f. Analyzing molecular features of genes and regulation of gene expression.
- Recent important milestones in genetics include:
a. Berg’s construction (1972) of the first recombinant DNA molecule in vitro.
b. Boyer and Cohen’s first cloning (1973) of a recombinant DNA molecule.
c. Invention by Mullis (1986) of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to amplify
specific DNA sequences.
- Completion of genomic sequencing for an increasing number of organisms has
spawned the new field of genomics.
- Powerful new techniques in genetics raise important ethical, legal, and social issues
that will need thoughtful solutions

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The Subdisciplines of Genetics DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes (1)

Genetics is often divided into four subdisciplines:
1. Transmission (classical) genetics deals with movement of genes
and genetic traits from parents to offspring, and with genetic
recombination.
2. Molecular genetics deals with the molecular structure and
function of genes (BIOL 107).
3. Population genetics studies heredity in groups for traits
determined by one or a few genes (BIOL 108).
4. Quantitative genetics studies group heredity for traits determined
by many genes simultaneously (BIOL 148).
- Genetic material of both eukaryotes and
prokaryotes is DNA. Many viruses also
have DNA, but some have RNA genomes
instead.
- An organism’s full DNA sequence, or the
DNA or RNA sequence of a virus, is its
genome
- DNA has two chains, each made of
nucleotides composed of a deoxyribose
sugar, a phosphate group, and a base. The
chains form a double helix
- There are four bases in DNA: A (adenine), G
(guanine), C (cytosine), and T (thymine).
In RNA, U (uracil) replaces T

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 DNA, Genes, and Chromosomes (2) Chromosomes= c’some
- Genes are specific sequences of
nucleotides that pass traits from - Composed of DNA and protein.
parents to offspring - Most prokaryotes have a single usually circular c’some.
- Genetic material in cells is - In Eukaryotes, c’somes have linear structure.
organized into chromosomes
- C’somes differ in size and morphology.
a. Prokaryotes don’t have a nucleus,
or membrane bound organelles, - Each has a constriction called a centromere.
generally have one circular
chromosome.
b. Eukaryotes generally have:
i) Nucleus where chromosomes are
located, with different species having Short arm
different numbers of chromosomes.
ii) DNA in organelles (e.g., –––––
––––– ) that is usually a circular
molecule.
Long arm

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Chromosomal DNA
- DNA is very efficiently packaged in a chromosome
- This is done by coiling the DNA around molecular spools
known as nucleosomes
- Each nucelosome is composed of eight proteins known as
histones
- DNA and associating nucleosomes are called chromatin
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
- Ploidy= number of sets of c’somes. N= c’some set , 1N= 1 set of
c’somes, while 2N= 2 sets of c’somes.
- Haploid organisms have 1N, while diploid organisms have 2N.
- Diploid organisms have homologous pairs; 2 version of each
c’some. One member in each pair inherited from each parent.

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Chromosomes
Genetic Maps

- The number of c’somes vary Genetic maps have been constructed

among organisms. since 1902. They show the sites of
- Each species has a set number genes (loci) on chromosomes, and
of c’somes. Exceptions genetic distances between them
exists. calculated from recombination in
- Most c’somes are autosomes. experimental crosses. Genetic maps
- There are also Sex c’somes. can show whether genes with related
functions are on the same
chromosome, and are useful in
cloning and genome sequencing.

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 Expression of Genetic Information
Gene expression is the process by which a
gene produces its product and the
product carries out its function.
Production of proteins requires 2 steps:
1. Transcription- involves an enzyme
(RNA polymerase) making an RNA
copy of part of one DNA strand
(Figure 1.3). There are four main
classes of RNA.
2. Translation- converts the information
in mRNA into the amino acid
sequence of a protein using ribosomes,
large complexes of rRNAs and
proteins.
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Transmission of Genetic Information
An organism that has the same alleles for a trait is
homozygous (e.g., CC or cc). An organism with two
different alleles (e.g., Cc) is heterozygous.
The complete genetic makeup of an organism is its
genotype. All observable traits of an organism are
its phenotype. The genotype interacts with both
internal and external environments of the organism
to produce the phenotype.
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Sources of Genetic Variation
3. Selection (favoring particular combinations of genes
in a given environment) was described by Darwin. Its
main consequence is to change the frequency of genes
affecting traits under selection. Different genotypes
contribute alleles to the next generation in proportion
to their selective advantage.
4. Epigenetics- changes in phenotype in the absence of
any underlying change in the DNA sequence.
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Transmission of Genetic Information
Transmission of traits from parents to offspring
was addressed in Mendel’s work with peas.
- He selected strains differing in defined traits (e.g.,
smooth or wrinkled seeds, purple or white flowers)
(Figure above).
- After making genetic crosses, he counted the
appearance of traits in the progeny and analyzed the
results mathematically.
- He concluded that each organism contains two
copies of each gene, one from each parent, and that
alternative versions of the genes (alleles) exist (e.g.,
flower color alleles are purple, C, and white, c).
Allele is one of the different forms of a gene that can exist in a particular locus
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Sources of Genetic Variation
Genetic differences between organisms arise from
mutations, recombination, and selection. All three are
necessary for the process of evolution. Recent
evidence also shows a big role for epigenetics in
phenotypic variation.
1. Mutations (heritable changes in the genetic material)
may be spontaneous or induced. Only those that
escape the cell’s DNA repair mechanisms are fixed in
the genome and passed to the next generation.
2. Recombination (exchange of genetic material) is
produced by enzymes that cut and rejoin DNA
molecules.
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Desirable qualities for an experimental
organism include:
1. A well-known genetic history.
Some organisms
used as model for
2. A short life cycle so that generations can be
studied in a relatively short time. genetics research
3. Large number of offspring from each mating.
4. Ease of growing and handling.
5. Marked genetic variation.
Eukaryotes used in current genetic research
include:
a. Saccharomyces cerevisiae (a unicellular baking
yeast).
b. Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly).
c. Caenorhabditis elegans (nematode).
d. Arabidopsis thaliana (a small weed in the
mustard family).
e. Homo sapiens (human).
f. Neurospora crassa (orange bread mold).
g. Pisum sativum (garden pea).
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