TRANSFORMER DESIGN AND APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
FOR NON-SINUSOIDAL LOAD CURRENTS
Linden W.Pierce, Member, IEEE
General Electric Company
1935 Redmond Circle
Rome, Georgia 30165-1319
Abszrucf-The use of adjustable speed drives requires
transformers capable of withstanding high levels of harmonic
currents under normal operating conditions. Experience has
been that overheating problems are much more common with
dry type transformers than with liquid filled transformers.
Transformer insulation life is determined by the hot spot
temperature but confirmation of hot spot temperature rise is
one performance characteristic which is ignored in industry
standards. This is especially important for transformers rated
for non-sinusoidal load currents. Hot spot allowances used in
IEEE standards for ventilated dry type transformers were
developed in 1944 and recent data indicates that revisions are
required. The design of transformers for non-sinusoidal load
currents should include an analysis of the eddy loss
distribution in the windings and calculation of the hot spot
temperature rise. Calculations and thermal tests giving only
average winding temperature rises are not sufficient. Thermal
tests with non-sinusoidal currents and measurements of hot
spot temperature rises are extremely difficult on large
transformers. The combination of testing and analysis may be
the only economically practical approach. Analysis indicates
that the dry type transformer hot spot temperature is very
sensitive to the eddy loss magnitude and distribution. The UL
K-factor rated dry type transformer and the recommended
practices given in ANSIlIEEE C57.110 are reviewed. When
purchasing transformers subject to non-sinusoidal load
currents, considerations should be given to the manufacturer's
development program and capability to calculate the eddy loss
distribution and hot spot temperatures.
I. INTRODUCTION
Common sources of harmonics in industrial electrical systems
are rectifiers, dc motor drives, uninterruptible power supplies, and
arc furnaces. The use of adjustable speed drives requires
transformers capable of withstanding high levels of harmonic
currents under normal operating conditions. Heating due to non-
sinusoidal load currents has become and important (hot) topic in
the last several years. Today almost every conference of the IEEE
Power Engineering or Industry Application Societies has a panel
session on power quality or harmonics. Many of the speakers at
the panel sessions are consultants who continue to present the same
information at conference after conference to promote their
companies. Many trade press articles with erroneous information
have also appeared. Scare headlines and advertisements such as,
"Harmonics-cancer in the electrical body", and "Don't let the
harmonic demon destroy your transformer", are used to promote
0-7803-2456-0195 $4.00 0 1995 IEEE-IAS
a particular product or expertise. Failures have been reported [ 1,2]
in dry type transformers loaded at less than nameplate kVA. The
K-factor rated transformer listed by UL has been advertised as a
solution for these applications. Manufacturers advertise their K-
factor rated transformers while in their trade association (NEMA)
correspondence to UL claim that it is an invalid approach.
Problems due to harmonics started to be recognized in the early
1980's and articles such as those by Stratford [3,4,5] started to
appear in the IEEE Industry Applications Society Transactions and
Conferences. Application considerations for handling the effects
of harmonics in cement plants were also reported in the paper by
Smith and Stratford [6]. Indoor transformer alternatives for
industrial plants include ventilated dry type, cast resin, silicone,
and high temperature hydrocarbon transformers. Outdoor units are
usually oil immersed unless mounted near or on the roofs of
buildings. For each of these transformer options, the cost or
application advantages must be evaluated. McCann [q gives a
review of these options for cement plants.
11. DEVELOPMENT OF IEEE STANDARD C57.110
A. History
In the March 1980 meeting of the Transformers Committee of
the IEEE Power Engineering Society there was a discussion of the
effect of non-sinusoidal load currents on transformer temperature
rise. For industrial systems the non-sinusoidal load was a steadily
increasing percentage of the total load of a load center transformer.
It was suggested that some guide should be developed to assist in
estimating transformer loading capability based on the amount of
distortion. In May 1980 a study committee was formed and had
its first meeting in October 1980. After the first meeting the study
group was elevated to a IEEE Working Group of the Performance
Characteristics Subcommittee. 22 representatives from
manufacturers and users constituted the Working Group.
An IEEE paper by Alexander D. Kline [8] of Southem
Transformer Company was presented at the IAS Annual meeting
in 1981 and distributed to the Working Group membership. This
paper first presented the methodology used in the C57.110
document by considering the eddy loss to vary as the square of the
current and harmonic order. After several preliminary drafts the
first draft for balloting of C57.1101D1, "Recommended Practice
for Establishing Transformer Capability When Supplying
Nonsinusoidal Load Currents", was completed October 29, 1982.
The methodology was also described in a 1984 paper by Rice [9]
using information from a draft copy of the document. The
document [101 was completed and issued as IEEE Std. C57.110 in
1986. In 1989 this Working Group received the IEEE Outstanding
Working Group Award recognizing contributiom-to the industry,
originality of work, and timeliness of publication. Kennedy and
Ivey [ll] in their 1990 paper described application and design
considerations for transformers containing harmonic currents based
on the IEEE (257.110-1986 Recommended Practice.
35
 The intent of IEEE C57.110-1986was to give procedures to
determine the capability of an existing transformer for non-
sinusoidal load currents. The methodology determines the derated
current magnitude to allow for the increased harmonics. The
symbolization used in the 1986 document is overly confusing to
those not knowledgeable of transformer design or terminology.
For example, Balda [12]erroneously calculated that the more a
small single phase distribution transformer was derated the more
load it could carry! An IEEE Working Group of the
Transformers Committee. has been formed to revise IEEE (37.110.
It has produced a draft [13] for discussion but has not been
balloted.
B. Review of Transformer Losses
Transformer losses consists of no-load or core loss and load
losses. This can be expressed by the equation below.
Pr = Pc + PU
where
PC core or no-load loss, watts
PLL load loss, watts
PT total loss, watts.
Core or no-load loss is due to the voltage excitation of the core.
For non-sinusoidal load currents the primary voltage waveform is
assumed to be sinusoidal. There is no allowance in (37.110 for
any increase in core loss for non-sinusoidal load currents.
Although the magnetizing current does consists of harmonics, these
are extremely small compared with the load current and their effect
on the losses is minimal.
Load losses consists of f R loss, eddy loss, and stray loss, or in
equation form,
pU. = I ~ R+ peC + pSL
where
12R loss due to load current and d.c. resistance of the
windings, watts
p, winding eddy loss, watts
PSL stray losses in clamps, tanks,etc., watts.
The IZRloss is due to the currents in and the dc resistance of the
windings. Surprisingly this group of terms has no name other than
IZR although "ohmic losses" has been suggested by Ravot and
Kreuzer [14] and Blume et. a1 [I51 refer to it as "(d.c) ohmic
losses." The ohmic loss is affected by the magnitudes of the
harmonic currents but not the frequency. The ohmic loss is
determined by measuring the d.c. resistances using a d.c. current
and voltage then a calculation is performed using the winding
currents.
There is no test method to determine individual winding eddy
loss or to separate transformer stray loss from eddy loss. The total
stray and eddy loss is determined by measuring the total load loss
during the impedance test. The total stray and eddy loss is
determined by subtracting the ohmic loss from the load loss, i.e.,
PeC + = pU. - PR (3)
36
The eddy loss is assumed to vary with the square of the rms
current and the square of the frequency (harmonic order h), i. e.,
2 [?]
k=h, 2
'EC = 'EC,R h2 (4)
where
h harmonic order, 1,2,3,etc.
L the greatest harmonic order to be considered
1, current at harmonic order h, amperes
IR rated current, amperes
PER eddy loss at rated current and frequency.
Bewley [16]in discussing eddy loss stated, "Thus at very high
frequencies it varies as the square root of the frequency, whereas
at low frequencies it varies as the square of the frequency."
Stigant and Franklin [lq stated, "Various formulae have been
propounded from time to time for calculating this lqs, but there
are so many factors which enter into the calculation that it is more
usual and practical to add a percentage on to the IzR loss rather
than to attempt to calculate it by means of formulae. The
percentages which it is customary to add are based upon experience
with the particular type of transformer under consideration."
Similar statements are made about the stray loss.
The eddy loss depends on the square of the strand dimension
perpendicular to the leakage flux field. At the ends of the winding
the flux field bends and the larger dimension of the rectangular
strand is perpendicular to a vector component of the leakage flux
field. Equalking the height of the primary and secondary windings
reduces the concentrated eddy loss at the winding ends. However
the magnitude is still greater than the middle of the winding due to
this bending of the leakage flux field. This is illustrated by a
figure in the Tutorial of C57.110-1986. Approximately equal
heights of primary and secondary windings can be achieved with
any winding design. Reducing strand size reduces the per cent
eddy loss but increases ohmic loss unless more than one strand per
turn is used. If more than one strand per turn is used, eddy losses
may increase due to circulating currents unless the strands are
transposed throughout the winding. Small transformers inherently
have small strand sizes due to low currents.
Stray loss occurs due to the stray flux which introduces losses
in the core, clamps, tank, and other iron parts. Stray loss may
raise the temperature of the structural parts. For dry type
transformers increased temperatures in these regions does not
contribute to an increase in the winding hot spot temperature. For
liquid immersed transformers, the stray loss increases the oil
temperature and thus the hot spot temperature of the windings.
Kennedy and Ivey [111 state, "Even then manufacturers disagree on
the methods to use in order to calculate these stray losses". In a
proposed standard [18]for semi-conductor rectifier transformers
the stray loss is assumed to vary with the square of the current
times the frequency (harmonic order), as shown by (5).
C. Assumptions used in C57.110
(37.110 was intended as a guide and the methodology uses data
from the transformer test report. The methodology is to determine
the per unit current with the harmonic load which gives the same
loss density at the hot s h t location as with rated sinusoidal load
current. The methodology applies to either liquid immersed or dry
type transformers. Since the individual winding eddy loss and
stray losses cannot be determined from the test data, the following
assumptions are made:
1) Conservative Assumptions:
a) All stray loss is assumed to be winding eddy loss,
b) Eddy loss varies with the square of the current and
harmonic order (eq. 4),and
c) The per unit eddy loss at the hot spot location is assumed
to be 4 times the average per unit eddy loss.
2) Other Assumptions:
a) The division of eddy loss between the primary and
secondary winding is assumed to be 60 96 in the inner
winding and 40 % in the outer winding for transformers
having a turns ratio of 4:l or less and 70 % in the inner
winding and 30 96 in the outer winding for transformers
having a turns ratio greater than 4:l and having one or
more windings with a maximum self-cooled current rating
greater than 1 O00 amperes.
b) Although not stated, it is also assumed that the
transformer hot spot temperature rise does not exceed
values given in the transformer standards.
111. K-FACTOR RATED TRANSFORMERS
A. Introduction of K-Factor Rating of Dry Transformers
In a 1988 tutorial paper Kerszenbaum, Majur, Mistry, and
Frank [191 presented a tabulation based on C57.110 methodology
which produced a summation of per unit current squared times the
harmonic order squared which the authors' called the "K
coefficient". Winding eddy loss and average winding temperature
rises were calculated for transformers rated from 225 through 2
500 kVA. Calculated and tested eddy loss at 60 HZ only were
compared. Hot spot temperatures were discussed but not
calculated and eddy loss at the hot spot location also was not
calculated. A temperature rise test was performed on a 15 kVA
transformer connected to a rectified load at 58.3 96 rated. Average
temperature rise of the secondary winding was measured but the
hot spot temperature rise was not measured. For this small
transformer, at reduced load, the average temperature rise was
33.56 'C which was only a 2.31 'C increase above the
temperature rise with sinusoidal current. The paper received the
Ralph E. Lee award in 1990 from the Commercial Power System
Department of the Industry Application Society of the IEEE and
was published in the Transactions in 1991.
International Transformer approached UL and the term "K
coefficient" was changed to "K-factor" and ITC achieved a
marketing coup by convincing UL to adopt the K-Factor rathg
approach in December 1990 and becoming the first manufacturer
to obtain a UL listing for K-factor rated transformers. Presently
most manufacturers of dry type transformers below 500 kVA have
UL listed K-factor rated transformer designs. Frank [20]reviewed
the origin of the k-factor rated transformer in a 1994 pper.
B. UL Definition of K-Factor
The only d e f ~ t i o nfor the K-factor rating for transfora?efsis in
Underwriters Laboratory Standards 1561 and 1662 [21]. Per
Paragraph 7B.l added to UL 1562 on May 12, 1992, UL defines
K-factor as follows:
1. "K-FACTOR -- A rating optionally applied to a transformer
indicating its suitability for use with loads that draw nonsinusoidal
currents. "
2. I
"The K-factor equals ~ Z , ( ~ Uh2) ~
b -1
where:
I,(PU) = the rms current at harmonic "h" (per unit of
rated rms load current) and
h = the harmonic order."
3. "K-factor rated transformers have not been evaluated for use
with harmonic loads where the rms current of any singular
harmonic greater that the tenth harmonic is greater than l/h of the
fundamental rms current. "
C. Relationship between K-Factor and C57.110
The UL definition of K-factor is based on using the transformer
rated current in the calculation of per unit current in (6).
Substituting the rated current into the UL equation for the K-factor
gives;
E FACTOR = e["]
b=1 1~
2
h2
where;
1, rated rms load current of transformer.
Equation 7 is similar to (4)from C57.110-1986. Trade press
articles and marketing brochures have contributed to much
confusion by giving examples of K-factor incorrectly calculated
using the fundamental current to calculate per-unit current instead
of the transformer rated current. When the harmonic currents are
less than the rated current this results in a higher but inaccurately
calculated K-factor. If the definition by UL is used then the
calculated K-factor for a given set of harmonic currents varies with
the transformer kVA. Bishop and Gilker [22,23,24]report on a
PC controlled meter which allows input of the transformer rated
current to calculate the K-factor. K-factor alone is meaningless
unless the rated current used to calculate the K-factor is also given.
A suitable statement would be, "A K-factor of -based on a
rated current of amperes".
D. UL Testing Requirements
For K-factor rated dry type transformers UL requires that the
stray and eddy losses for rated sinusoidal current be determined by
test and then multiplied by the K-factor. A thermal test is
permitted using additional sinusoidal current to generate load loss
equivalent to that determined by the calculation and average
temperature rises are measured. Sinusoidaltest current used for all
but small units. The test method gives a lower hot spot rise than
with non-sinusoidal test current. With harmonic currents the added
eddy losses are concentrated at bottom and the hot spot location at
the top of the windings. Current UL listing requirements require
no substantiation that the hot spot temperature is less than the
rated insulation system temperature class for K-factor rated
designs. The effect of l d i eddy loss on the hottest spot
temperature is ignored. The National Electrical Manufacturer's
Association (NEMA) (representingdry type manufacturerswith UL
K-factor listings) is on record with UL that the UL K-factor listing
requirements are inadequate since they ignore increased hot spot
temperatures due to increased eddy losses caused by harmonic
currents at the hot spot location.
37
E. Scope of UL 1562
UL 1562 covers single-phase or three-phase, dry type,
distribution transformers provided with either ventilated or non-
ventilated enclosures and are rated for a primary or secondary
voltage from 601 to 35 OOO volts and from 1 to 5 OOO kVA. UL
1562 does not cover arc furnace transformers, rectifier
transformers, mining transformers, motor starting transformers, or
transformers under the exclusive control of electrical utilities.
F. Neutral Conductors
In 1988 Electrical Construction and Maintenance magazine
published and article [25] entitled "Double the neutral and derate
the transformer--or else", summatizing the Computer and Business
Equipment Manufactures Association recommendations to prevent
damage to the distribution system. Gruzs 1261 presents a survey
of the magnitude of the neutral current in three-phase computer
power systems. Excessive neutral currents may also occur in
three-phase fluorescent lighting circuits [27]. To address this
problem UL 1561 and 1562 contain special requirements for the
sizes of the transformer neutral conductor to allow for the possible
additive nature of triplen harmonic currents.
G. Trade Press and K-Factor
When the first manufacturer obtained its K-factor listing from
UL and began promoting its product, the industry did not
understand the concept. A review of the only consensus industry
standard, C57.110-1986, did not reveal the definition. There is a
K in the document but it is used to describe other parameters.
After the K-factor rated transformer became well known,
advertisements and trade press articles appeared and contributed to
the confusion about the K-factor. However, one of the better
articles is that by Nallen [28]. It appeared that many consultants
and manufacturers portrayed the K-factor concept as a complicated
and mysterious subject for which only they had particular
expertise. In 1993 Electrical Construction and Maintenance 1291
magazine published a series of articles from different Viewpoints
and in the final article by Moravek and Lethert [30] (which was
suppose to clear up the mystery) the "H-factor" was introduced
without definition!
IV. APPLICATION OF K-FACTOR TRANSFORMERS
.
A. K-Factor Rated Transformers in Codes and Standards
Statements which have appeared in advertising literature are:
"The National Electrical Code (NEC) requires that if harmonic
currents are present, then transformers must be K-factor listed per
the National Electrical Code sections 90-4 and 110-3", and
"Transformers ahead of a variable speed drive must be listed for
the purpose to comply with the NEC sections !X-4 and 110-3". A
recent IEEE paper by Massey E311 stated, "The K-factor is the only
acceptable method for estimating harmonic content and for
specdymg distribution transformers for use under non-linear load
conditions according to ANSI, IEEE, the 1993 National Electrid
Code, and Underwriter's Laboratory".
The facts are that K-factor is defined only in UL standards.
NEMA has stated to UL that the UL K-factor listing requirements
are not adequate. The 1993 National Electrical code [32] and the
National Electrical Code Handbook, sixth edition [33] contain no
references to K-factor rated transformers or requirements for
transformers ahead of a variable speed drive. NEC sections 90-4
38
and 110-3 apply to all electrical equipment [34] and are not
specific to transformers. The information in these and related
sections is condensed (based on the NEC and NEC Handbook) as
follows: "All equipment required or permitted by the NEC shall
be acceptable only if approved. Approval of equipment is the
responsibility of the electncal inspection authority. It is the
responsibility of the local authority enforcing the NEC to interpret
the specific rules of the NEC. Listing or labeling is considered as
a means of establishing suitability." The 1993 NEC does include
one fine print note (FPN) after article 222-22, Feeder Neutral
Load, that states, "A 3-phase, 4-wire power system used to supply
power to computer systems or other similar electronic loads may
necessitate that the power system design allow for the possibility
of high harmonic neutral currents".
A proposal was made for the 1996 NEC to require that all
transformers be labeled with a K-factor rating even if it was 1.
This was rejected. The 1994 NFPA Ad hoc Committee on
NonLiear Loads in its report [35] agreed with the code making
panel action and stated, "The loading of a transformer must
account for the total load including the increased heating effects of
nonlinear load currents. Several methods for dealing with the
heating effects of nonlinear loads have been presented including;
derating, oversizing, increased insulation ratings, thermal
protection systems, and K-factor transformers. The optimum
method for dealing with transformer overheating will vary
depending upon several technical and economic factors, and should
be considered in the design phase for the electrid system".
The user must decide (based on the local inspection authority
and requirements) if the NEC applies to any electrical equipment
in the instabtion. For an excellent discussion of this topic refer
to the recent pap& by Goldberg and Castenschiold [36]. The
majority of the transformers supplied by manufacturers for variable
speed drive applications are not listed by UL. Generally these
units are designed to sustain specified unique nonsinusoidal load
currents..
There are no ANSI standards which define K-factor. "K-factor"
is not defined in current IEEE standards. The letter "K" appears
in many iEEE standards to describe many other parameters. The
term does appear in the 1994 IEEE Red Book [37] which states
"An equation developed in IEEE Std C57.110-1986 produces a
value referred to as the K-factor and has helped in rating a
transformer's ability to wry harmonic currents"; and, "An
equation presented in E E E Std. (37.110-1986 includes a
tabulation of the per-unit current squared times the frequency
squared that, when summed up for each harmonic, produces a
value refmed to as the K-factor. The K-factor is related to the
eddy-current loss in the winding conductors."
B. Application Considerations for Combining Non-Sinusoidal
Load Currents
According to the definition in UL standards, K-factor is a rating
applied to dry type transformers. In the UL definition the per unit
current to be used to calculate K-factor is obviously the transformer
rated secondary current at rated kVA. However, the industry has
begun to assign K-factors to the various electricalequipment which
produce harmonic load currents; computers, incandescent lights,
etc. Because these equipment "K-factors" are based on per unit
currents different than the transformer per unit rated current, a
method is needed to determine the required transformer rating for
new installations. Methods have proposed and some
consultants claim particular expertise in this field and have
published magazine articles to publicize their names. Tests
reportedby Arthur [38] show that when many individual harmonic
producing devices are present the combined load K-factor is less
than the individual K-factors of the devices. Methods are needed
to design systems with many different types of equipment of
differing non-sinusoidal loading in order to specify the correct
transformer rating. One method has been proposed by Massey [3 11
however it has not been confirmed by testing. Present methods
consider the non-sinusoidal load current content to be constant with
time. Load diversity, load cycle variation during the day, week,
and year should be considered and these topics are starting to be
addressed. The time duration of harmonics was addressed by
Kaprielian and Emanuel [39] using statistical methods. The
summation of randomly fluctuating loads produced by acldc power
converters has also been studied by Wang, Pierrat, and Wang [MI.
Simple, practical methods, are needed.
V. TRANSFORMER INSULATION LIFE AND
RELIABILITY
A. Introduction
In 1970 articles appeared in the trade press about the life
expected of dry type transformers. The first of these was by
Jerome M. Frank [41,42] of Sorgel Electric Corp. Frank claimed
a 2.3 year life at 220 ' C and a 4.6 year life at 210 'C. Franks's
conclusion was based on a premise (supposedly in industry
standards) that half-life was reached in 20 OOO hours at rated
temperature. Rebuttal articles appeared by Dutton and Antalis of
General Electric [43] quoting industry standards and stating that
service experience supported a longer life than that stated by
Frank. At the time of the articles, the loading guide [U] for dry
type transformers only gave a per unit life curve and the 150 'C
average temperature rise class applied to sealed gas transformers
only and not ventilated .dry units.
These articles must have caused confusion to specifyers of dry
type transformers. Lazar [45] (an electrical consultant) stated in
a 1977 article, "The weakest point of the class H insulation is its
life expectancy at the ultimate temperature of 220 'C. Indeed
Class H materials must withstand 150 'C rise for a minimum of
20,000 hr. At full load and assuming a possible 40 'C ambient for
24-hr. continuous operation, the 20,000 hr would disappear in 2.3
years. Based on these assumptions, it would be good practice to
design for a Class H with 115 'C rise only." However Reason
[&I, assistant editor of Power, wrote in 1980 about ventilated dry
type transformers, "Their normal life expectancy of 20 years can
be drastically increased if they are operated at less than rated
capacity. "
Concerns about life of transformers is also evident in modem
times, In response to a 1990 readers quiz [47] in Electrical
Construction and Maintenance, one reader replied, "As a good
engineering practice the transformers should not be loaded more
than 80 96 of the nameplate rating". Another response was,
"A.A.G may add additional load of up to 450 A, thus bringing the
transformer loading up to 1 800A. However, if this total load is
continuous, the transformer will probably not last longer than ten
more years, as transformers are generally not designed for full-
rated continuous load." The quiz statement did not state whether
the unit was a liquid or dry type.
B. Dry Type Transformers
Test procedures for thermal evaluation of dry type transformer
models is documented in IEEE standard C57.12.56 [48]. A life of
40 OOO hours is to be demonstrated for the insulation temperature
class at the maximum rated ambient temperature. In dry type
transformers standards [55] the kVA rating is based on an average
24 hour ambient of 30 'C with a 40 'C maximum. The rated hot
spot temperature based on the 30 'C ambient is 210 'C for 150 'C
average winding rise system and the maximum hot spot
temperature is 220 "C. The life for the model would then be
expected to be approximately 80 OOO hours at 210 'C. The life to
be demonstrated by model testing is thus one-half the life expected
for full size equipment as shown in the 1989 loading guide [49].
This guide shows a life of 175 680 or 20.05 years at the rated the
hot spot temperature of 210 'C.
C. Liquid Immersed Transformers
For liquid filled distribution transformers thermal evaluations
are conducted per C57.100 [51]. The present document states in
one place that a 60 OOO hour life is required to be demonstrated by
model testing. This appeats to be a carry over from the first
proposed method of thermal evaluation [52]. Initially the
principles in the liquid thermal evaluation and the dry type thermal
evaluation guides were similar. That is, that model aging tests
were overly pessimistic and that the life of actual eqspment would
be longer. After manufacturers conducted thermalaging programs
on distribution transformers, no failures occurred after aging times
several times that shown in the loading guide. Currently the
distribution transformer loading guide is based on a 20 year life at
rated hot spot temperature of 110 'C. For distribution
transformers industry experience [53] has also been to require a
safety factor of 5 times the life in the loading guide. The revision
of C57.100 [54] will also require that a life of 180 OOO hours at
rated hottest spot temperature be demonstrated by using full size
units for distributions transformers and models for power
transformers with a safety factor of 5 for distribution transformers
and 2 for power transformers.
D. Cast Resin Transformers
Dry type transformers with solid cast windings of epoxy resin
were developed in Europe, and this transformer design began to be
widely accepted in the United States in the 1980's. The solid cast
or residencapsulated transformer was incorporated into the first
IEEE standard [ S I in 1989. There are many cast-resin
transformer designs available with different insulation temperature
classes. Current practice by manufacturers has been to rely on
tests of individual materials to determine the rated insulation
temperature class to assign to their designs. Operating experience
indicates this gives acceptable life when cast-resin transformers are
operated at nameplate ratings. At the present time, the industry
has not established Arrhenius insulation aging curves to give loss
of insulation life for cast-resin transformer windings operated
above the rated insulation temperature class.
A trial use standard NEE (37.12.60 [Sa] for thermal evaluation
of insulation systems for solid cast-resin transformers will serve as
a standard test method for life test models for d e " h b g the rated
insulation temperature class of cast-resin transformer windings.
The materials and coil design techniques used in cast-resin
transformers necessitated a document to recognize factors such as
the effect of glass transition temperature, higher resin to air and
metal ratios, filler contents, and conductor identity on aging and
performance. An arbitrary extrapolation criteria of 40 OOO hours
was selected for the evaluation.
In addition to determining the rated insulation temperatwe class,
thermal evaluation standards give data for preparing loading
guides. At this time no test data in accordance with the trial use
standard IEEE CJ7.12.60 bas been reporkd. There have been
reports of difficulties in using the test methods of C57.12.60 and
an IEEE Working Group of the Transformers Committee has been
39
formed to revise the document. The effect of cracking or softening
of the epoxy due to thermal cycling to elevated temperatures could
be the limiting factor in overloading cast-resin transformers and not
insulation aging. Due to the lack of aging data, the draft [57]
guide for loading cast-resin transformers uses a concept of loading
above rating based on limiting hot spot temperatures to determine
loading capability of cast-resin transformers.
E. Transformer Reliability
Dry type transformers are replacing liquid filled units in many
industrial plants. Thermal failures have been reported on dry type
transformers subjected to non-sinusoidal load currents even when
the RMS current was below rated. The aging model thermal
evaluation requirements discussed previously indicate a longer life
expectancy for liquid immersed transformers. There is a difference
in philosophy between liquid and dry type thermal evaluation
standards. The dry type thermal evaluation requirement is that
model aging demonstrate a life of one-half the 20 year life given
in the loading guide. For liquid immersed transformers the next
thermal evaluation test requirement will be that a life of 2 or 5
times the 20 year life in the loading guide be demonstrated. There
is an argument that model aging testing is generic and that dry type
ageing models could also be expected to last 5 times the life given
in the loading guide, similar to liquid units. Except for the limited
Crouse and Hutchinson data [50] for inorganic systems which are
no longer used, there is no published aging model data to support
this conclusion for the organic insulation systems used currently in
dry type transformers.
Although insulation life is based on the hot spot temperature,
investigation of hot spot temperatures has been ignored until
recently. Hot spot temperature increments in excess of 30 C may
be a factor in failures of dry type transformers with non-sinusoidal
load currents and this needs further study. The last reliability
survey [58] of transformers in industrial plants was conducted in
1979. There is a need for an up to date reliability survey.
VI. TRANSFORMER DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
A. Introduction
Many transformer manufacturers have developed designs rated
for nonsinusoidal load currents while optimizing their product
costs. In addition to material costs the optimizationdepends on the
manufacturer’s labor rates, production volume, and investments in
expensive production equipment required for automated
manufacturing. Every manufacturer claims its own specific design
has features which reduce stray and eddy loss.
Design of transformers for non-sinusoidal load currents should
include an analysis of the eddy loss distribution in the windings and
calculation of the hot spot temperature rise. Eddy losses due to the
leakage flux distribution are concentrated in the ends of the
winding. Thermal studies should be conducted using embedded
thermocouples installed in test windings and prototype transformers
to measure hot spot temperature to refine mathematical models to
calculate the hot spot temperature. A three dimensional
mathematical model should allow for eddy loss variation in
winding. Analysis of the eddy loss distribution may be performed
using finite element or other type computer programs.
Commercial programs are available. A combination of testing and
analysis may be the only economically practical approach for large
transformers above about 300 kVA.
40
B. Electromagnetic Analysis
The subject of harmonics has received much publicity in recent
times leading to the belief that the industry is only beginning to
understand the effect of harmonics and to calculate the increased
eddy losses. It seems that each generation must relearn the
engineering principles discovered by its ancestors. The facts are
that many companies and individuals have made significant
contributions to the design, construction, and testing of
transformers supplying non-linear loads. As early as 1906 Field
[59] presented a paper giving analytical results for the eddy losses
in conductors located in a magnetic field. Although this was for
conductors located in an iron slot, this had similarity to transformer
windings located within the window region of the iron core studied
by B a g [a]. Eiarly investigations were highly mathematical such
as that by Roth [61] in 1928 or graphical flux plotting such as by
Stevenson and Park [62,63] in 1926 and 1927. The flux plots
given in these early papers were every bit as detailed and probably
as accurate as those produced by modem computer programs. An
English language review and summary of the many French
language papers of Roth is given by Hammond [MI. Stephens
[65] in 1934 and Kaul [66] in 1957 also developed methods to
determine eddy current losses in windings.
With the invention of the computer, methods were developed to
use this machine to compute electrical fields and eddy losses in
transformers. Mamak and Laithwaite [67] used finite difference
methods. The paper by Rabins [68] from 1956 is another example.
In a 1985 paper Konrad [69] reviewed 171 references about eddy
curreats and modeling. Figures 3 and 5 from his paper illustrate
flux and current density plots for a prototype transformer
manufactured by the author’s company. Many commercial
computer programs are currently available and many run on a PC.
A list is given in the 1989 ZEEE S p e c ” article by Cendes [70].
These computer programs produce elegant plots however their
accuracy cannot be proven. One example is the paper by Pavlik,
Johnson, and G ~ g i [71].
s In a comparison of calculations with test
results, the total loss including the easily calculable ohmic loss
which indicated a higher accuracy in the calculation of eddy and
stray losses than actually existed. The ohmic loss should be
subtracted from the total load loss to obtain the stray and eddy
loss. A comparison of test and calculated stray and eddy loss
should then be made.
Losses due to harmonic currents in rectifier transformers also
appears to be well understood as evidenced by the papers of
DeBlieux [72,73] in 1931 and 1937. More current papers are
those by Crepaz [74,75] from 1970 and 1975. Crepaz used the
letter “k“as a ratio of eddy loss with harmonics divided by eddy
loss with the fundamental harmonic only. Recently Ram, Forrest,
and Swift [76], and Forrest [77] reported on test methods to
determine the variation of losses with frequency. Small currents
at different frequencies are input and the losses measured. A curve
fit equation was developed to predict the eddy current and stray
loss variation with current and frequency. Manufacturers who
have attempted to use the methods have reported varied results.
C. Thermal Analysis
Although hot spot temperature is a performance parameter [55]
to be met by the manufacturer, there are currently no test methods
or requirements that this parameter be measured on production or
prototype transformers. This seems extremely peculiar since it is
the fundamental parameter determuun‘ ’ g the life of the equipment
and the thermal evaluation standards give test methods for
determining the rated hot spot temperature of an insulation system.
Most manufacturers of dry type transformers simply add 30 C to
the average temperature rise (calculated using empirical equations)
and claim this is "per the standards", although the IEEE standards
do not state that this is permissible practice. IEEE standard
(37.12.01-1989 requires that both average winding temperature
rise and hot spot temperature are limits to be met at rated kVA.
The difference between these two limits is 30 ' C but the 30 " C
does not appear as a separate number.
Many dry type transformer manufacturers would like users to
believe that the subject of dry type hot spot temperatures is a
mysterious subject. They would like you to believe that almost
nothing is known on this subject with no published papers, etc.
They also claim that the hot spot temperature is difficult to
measure and that since there is no IEEE test method, they are
under no obligation to conduct testing, etc. They also convey the
impressionthat temperatures in transformer windings are somewhat
uniform and the 30 'C allowance is for localized heating at a spot
which cannot be predicted. They also try to give the impression
that the 30 ' C allowance was adopted in standards as a maximum
number and that it is usually less that this value. Some even claim
that most manufacturers take steps to see that the allowance is
always less than 30 "C in their designs. ANSIHEEE Standard 1
[78] supports these arguments by stating that the hot spot allowance
value is arbitrary, difficult to determine, and depends on many
factors, such as size and design of the equipment.
The hot spot is simply the highest temperature in the
transformer windings. It is a naturally occurring phenomena due
to the generation of losses and the dissipation of those losses by the
heat transfer mechanisms. All transformers have a hot spot since
at some place in the winding the temperature is the highest. Many
commercial computer programs are advertised to predict
temperatures in equipment. Readers of magazines such as Muchine
Design or Design News in which these programs are described
would naturally expect manufacturers to have the capability to
calculate the maximum temperature in the transformer windings.
Similarly readers of magazines such as the IEEE Specfrutn would
naturally expect manufacturers to have the ability to calculate the
eddy loss distribution within the windings. With modem computer
technology it should be possible to predict the hot spot
temperature. Dry type transformers have unique heat transfer
characteristics which are not well known. For this reason the
author developed a proprietary 3-D program for heat transfer
calculations in dry type windings. The program was refined by
tests on windings and prototype transformers with embedded
thermocouples.
There have been extensive investigations of liquid filled
transformer heat transfer phenomena with many published papers.
Some companies have chosen not to publish their test results and
computer calculation methods and expertise depends on the
manufacturer. Harold Moore, a consultant, recently reported that
information submitted by manufacturers of large transformers
during design reviews show that some have detailed computer
analysis of the thermal design but others calculate the hot spot
simply by adding 15 'C to the average temperature rise. An
accurate electromagnetic and thermal analysis is essential for
transformers designed for non-sinusoidal load currents. An
example of this type analysis for liquid immersed transformers is
given by the paper of Preiningerova, Kahoon, and Doiezel[79] and
in the book by Karsai, Kerenyi, and Kiss [80]. Heating due to
harmonic currents may also occur in utility transformers [811.
VII. THERMAL INVESTIGATIONS FOR DRY TYPE
TRANSFORMERS
A. History of the 30 'C Allowance
Based on the 1944 experimental works of Stewart and
Whitman [82] and Satterlee [83], NEE standards used a hottest
spot allowance of 30 * C for 80 'C average temperature rise. The
conclusion of Stewart and Whitman from 1944, that the ratio of
hottest spot temperature rise to average temperature rise was
constant, appears to have been forgotten in present industry
standards for ventilated dry type transformers. The 30 'C hottest
spot temperature allowance established in 1944 for 80 'C average
temperature rise was approximately correct. At that time average
kVA ratings were less than the present. The 150 ' C average
winding temperature rise for the 220 'C insulation temperature
class was extended to ventilated units initially in NEMA Standards
[84] and later in IEEE standards [55] and the 30 'C hottest spot
allowance incorrectly retained. The 1989 LEEE standard [55] used
a constant 30 'C hottest spot allowance for all insulation
temperature classes and all size transformers. The IEC standard
[85] uses a variable hottest spot allowance from 5 " Cto 30 'C.
B. Recent Hot Spot Investigations-Dry Type Transformers
The author and his company have conducted the following tests
on dry type transformer windings and prototypes and the results
shared with the industry [86,87,88,89,90]:
1. 2 OOO kVA cast resin transformer, 300 imbedded
thermocouples, 22 test runs.
2. Six thermal test coils of different duct sizes, 142-171
thermocouples, 97 test runs for fundamental heat
transfer data.
3. 2 500 kVA prototype with disc high voltage windings and
embedded thermocouples.
4. 2 500 kVA prototype with sheet conductor low voltage
winding containing embedded thermocouples.
The above investigations represent the most comprehensive
investigation of dry type transformer heat transfer since that of
Stewart and Whitman [82] 50 years ago. The author is the only
investigator to determine the effect of core loss on the hot spot
temperature by conducting comparative loading back and short
circuit heat run tests. The author discovered that the ratio of hot
spot rise to average rise was essentially constant for a given
winding and depended on duct size and winding height.
C. Hot Spot Temperature of Cast Resin Transformers
The author's test data indicated a ratio of hot spot rise to
average rise of 1.20 to 1.25 for the cast resin transformer design
tested. This is lower than the ratio of 1.4 to 1.5 for large
ventilated dry type transformers due to the extremely large cooling
duct sizes and the large amount of winding surface area available
for radiation heat loss. Cast resin designs with smaller internal
cooling ducts would be expected to have hot spot ratios similar to
ventilated dry type transformers.
D. Hot Spot Temperatures of Ventilated Dry Type
Transformers
The author discovered that there is a large thermal gradient
from the bottom to the top of the windings of large (above 500
kVA) drytype transfor". Thisgradientis dependant onthe
41
height (length) of the winding. IEEE standards utilize a constant
30 'C allowance between the hot spot temperature rise and the
average temperature rise. To meet hot spot temperature rise limits
requires that the average temperature rise be reduced below
guarantees because the difference between hot spot and average
temperature rise may be more than 30 'C. The recent data
indicated that the hot spot increment may be up to 60 'C on large
transformers (generally above 500 kVA). A comparison of the
author's test results with the IEEE assumed temperature gradient
for a typical winding is shown in Figure 1.
Changes in IEEE standards to more accurately reflect the
relationship between average temperature rise and hot spot rise in
large (above 500 kVA) dry type transformers has been proposed.
An IEEE Working Group has been formed to review these
proposals for a future revision of (37.12.01 Table 4A. It will be
difficult to reconcile the divergent opinions on this subject and
most manufacturers are unwilling to change IEEE standards since
it increases their transformer cost.
-
TEST IEEE
..........
The analysis was performed with the calculated average eddy
loss of 1.46 per cent of the ohmic loss for K-factors of 1 and 13.
A calculation was performed with a slightly higher eddy loss of 2
% to show the effect of the uncertainty on the hot spot rise and
average rise. The results are summarized in Table I1 and the
temperature distribution for eddy loss distribution case number 2
is shown in Figure 2. The sensitivity analysis indicates that the hot
spot temperature rise is influenced considerable more than average
winding rise by changes in eddy loss magnitude and location. Test
methods which simply increase sinusoidal current to give the same
losses will give approximately the same average temperature rise
but hot spot temperatures may vary considerable.
TABLE I
EDDY LOSS DISTRIBUTION
DISTRIBUTION DESCRIPTION
Case 1 Eddy loss was distributed throughout the
winding and the eddy loss at the top and
bottom five per cent of the winding was four
times the average eddy loss distribution.
case 2 All the eddy loss was assumed to be at the
top and bottom five per cent of the winding.

U ................
TABLE I1
CALCULATED TEMPERATURE FUSE VARIATION
WITH EDDY LOSS MAGNITUDE AND DISTRIBUTION

[/-.cBOTTOU TEST 40 I K- DIST. EL AVE. HOT SPOT

FACTOR CASE % FUSE 'C RISE 'C
0 20 40 60 80 100
PER CENT HEIGHT 1 1 1.46 80.2 128.1
1 1 2.00 80.5 128.7
Fig. 1. Comparison of test data with IEEE standards. 1 2 1.46 80.2 129.7

VIII. EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS 13 1 18.98' 89.0 151.9

FOR VENTILATED DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER 13 1 26.0- 92.3 160.7
13 2 18.98' 87.5 176.9
A dry type transformer was required rated AA-T-60-300@
13800-950with a harmonic current content equivalent to a k-Factor '1.46 x 13 = 18.98 "2.0 x 13 = 26.0
of 13. Loss data was as follows:

PR LV 7 650 watts
1% HV 15 446 watts
Eddy Loss LV 326 watts K = l K = 13
0 - ----
Eddy Loss HV 225 watts
stray Loss 1 744 watts

For this transformer the high voltage winding had a higher hot spot
temperature even though the eddy loss was lower than the low
voltage winding. The low voltage winding used a sheet conductor
which provided good heat conduction from the high eddy loss
region. The electromagnetic analysis indicated a eddy loss of 1.46
% of the ohmic loss for the high voltage winding.
The three dimensional mathematical model [W] developed to
predict hot spot temperatures in ventilated dry type transformers
allows for eddy loss variation throughout the winding. The
computer program was used to perform a sensitivity analysis of the PER CENT HEIGHT
relationship of eddy loss magnitude and distribution on the average
and hot spot temperature rises. The distribution of the eddy loss Fig. 2. Effect of harmonic losses on temperature rise.
for two cases is described in Table I.

42
 IX. HOT SPOT INVESTIGATIONS data and'the author's experience indicates that the location of the
FOR LIQUID FILLED TRANSFORMERS hot spot is difficult to determine. A recent CERE [97] survey
reported that two to eight sensors would be adequate if placed in
In the decade of the 1990's the technology focus in the the winding where the higher temperature is expected but for
transformer industry is on thermal performance and loadability. prototype transformers it was estimated that twenty to thirty
Many transformers undergo planned overloading by electric sensors would be required.
utilities to maximize the return on the investment in this expensive
equipment. As reported recently by W. J. McNutt [91], "...all X. EXAMPLE CALCULATION
loadability decisions are based on hottest conductor temperature, FOR LIQUID FILLED TRANSFORMER
but that parameter is never measured during a thermal test, and
some manufacturers never actually calculate what it would be for A oil immersed transformer rated OA-T-60-3600 kVA-22000Y-
rated loading. ....The thermal equations provided in the loading 575 was designed for a specified harmonic current content. After
guide are recognized to be grossly inaccurate for some cooling installation actual harmonic currents were measured and the current
modes and not precisely correct for others". spectrum supplied to the manufacturer with a request to check the
Since the loading guide equations were first proposed [92] in temperature rises. At rated load and 60 Hz.the tested losses were:
1945, many papers and trade press articles have been written on
transformer loading using these equations. It is generally stated No Load 4 072 watts
that the equations are conservative without giving test data to PR 27 821 watts
substantiate this statement. The equations have been incorporated Stray and eddy loss 4 060 watts
into computer programs by consultants and utilities. Until recently Total loss 35 953 watts
little research has been performed on measurements of hot spot
temperatures in windings of full size transformers during transient Temperature rises above ambient were:
loading. Thermal research has centered on computer modeling of
steady state performance with tests on model windings to obtain HV Ave. Rise 48.1 'C
data to validate the models. The purpose of these studies was to LV Ave. Rise 47.6 'C
more accurately predict thermal performance at nameplate ratings Top Oil Rise 47.2 'C
to minimize the manufacturer's cost. Hot Spot rise 55.3 'C
Transformer manufacturers have investigated liquid filled
transformer heat transfer phenomena for over a hundred years with A calculation using the harmonic current distribution gave;
many published papers. Many of the design equations are based
on proprietary test data obtained by many researchers. The author
[93] recently reparted on an investigation on a full size test
winding with embedded thermocouples to investigate transient
loading on the hot spot temperature. The tests indicated that the
industry loading guides were not valid for all modes of cooling and
all loading conditions. During overloads there is a time lag
between the top oil temperature rise in the tank and the oil rise in
the winding cooling ducts. Thermal tests were also performed on
a 5 600 kVA prototype transformer at various loads to compare the
hot spot temperature with oil and silicone fluids. The test data was Engineering analysis indicated the division of the eddy and stray
used to refine an analytical computer program to calculate hot spot loss to be;
temperature.
Modem computer technology now pertnits more refined eddy loss 316watts
calculations of loading capability. An improved system of stray loss 3 744 watts
equations was developed by the author [94]for inclusion in the
next loadiqg guide [95]. The improved system of loading With the harmonic load currents the losses are;
equations is based on the fluid flow conditions occurring in the
transformer during transient conditions. The equations and No Load 4 072 watts
computer program also incorporated an improved method of I* 27 821 watts
calculation for variable load cycles and variable ambient eddy loss 6.28 x 316 = 1 984 watts
temperatures. The properties of the low flammability fluids stray loss 1.62 x 3 744 = 6 065 watts
polydimethylsiloxane (silicone) and high temperature hydrocarbon Total loss 44 014 watts
(hthc) were also incorporated into the improved loading equations.
In the 1980s direct measurement of winding hot spot using As indicated by equations in the IEEE Loading Guide [95], for the
fiber optic detectors became feasible. In the 1990's thermal OA cooling mode, the top oil rise is proportional to the losses to
research is moving into studies of overload performance using the .8 exponent and may be estimated for the harmonic lossessfrom
these fiber optic hot spot detectors. Due to the high cost and poor the test data at rated load and losses as shown below:
reliability of the fiber optic devices their use appears to be
primarily as a research tool to measure hot spot during factory 014 %.2 = 55.5 -c
thermal tests on transformers and for use on selected units to obtain = [44M I
dynamic loading data under actual field conditions. Due to the
poor reliability, redundant probes must be used. Experience such The maximum per unit eddy loss occurred in the high voltage
as that reported in a recent Doble paper by Troisi [96] indicates winding and was calculated to be 2.0 per cent of the ohmic loss.
that even with extreme care in installation, about 25 to 33 percent Assuming that the maximum eddy loss at the hot spot region to be
of the probescanbe expected to failduetodamage. Reported

43
four times the average eddy loss would give an eddy loss of 8.0
per cent of the ohmic loss density at the hot spot location. The hot
spot rise over top oil can be calculated as,
The hot spot rise over ambient = 55.5 + 10.5 = 66.0 'C.
This is less than the permissible hot spot rise of 80 "C
XI. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Although sophisticated computer programs are available for
electromagnetic analysis and numerous technical papers have been
produced, most manufacturer's simple add a percentage to the
ohmic (d.c.) losses for winding eddy and stray loss. This
percentage is determined from empirical data. There is no test
method to distinguish the winding eddy losses from the stray loss
which occurs in structural parts.
For hot spot temperature calculations many manufacturers
simple add 15 ' C to the average winding rise for liquid units and
30 'C for dry type transformers. Although hot spot temperature is
a performance parameter to be met by the manufacturer, there are
currently no test methods or requirements that this parameter be
measured on production or prototype transformers. Thermal
failures have been reported on dry type transformers subjected to
non-sinusoidal load currents even when the RMS current was
below rated. Hottest spot temperature increments in excess of 30
'C may be a factor in these failures. For large dry type
transformers the difference between hottest spot rise and average
temperature rise may be 50 to 60 ' C instead of the U) ' C . The
hot spot temperature in dry type transformers is more sensitive to
the eddy loss magnitude and distribution within the winding.
Model aging tests suggest a longer life for liquid immersed
transformers than for dry type transformers. A current reliability
survey of transformers in industrial plants is needed for comparison
with data from 1979.
Simple, accurate, practical methods are needed to determine the
required transformer rating for new installations with non-
sinusoidal load currents. The methods should consider the load
diversity from multiple source harmonic load currents and load
cycle variation during the day, week and year. For existing
installations, with transformers not designed for harmonic currents,
the IEEE C57.110-1986 procedures give conservative estimates of
the load capability provided the transformer met industry standard
hot spot temperature performance criteria. When required by the
local inspection authority, the K-factor listed and labeled
transformer at 300 kVA and below appears to be a viable option
for commercial buildings with harmonic currents from sources such
as personal computers.
For industrial plants with dedicated loads such as drive systems
requiring transformers above 300 kVA, the harmomc current
content should be specified. For these transformers a more
sophisticated analysis than the UL K-factor approach is required.
Design of transformers for non-sinusoidal load currents should
include an analysis of the eddy loss distribution in the windings and
calculation of the hottest spot temperature rise. When purchasiig
transformers subject to non-sinusoidal load currents, considerations
should be given to the manufacturer's research programs and
ability to calculate the eddy loss distribution and hot spot
temperatures.
44
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BIOGRAPHY
Linden W. Pierce (M'70) received the B. S. degree in
Mechanical Engineering from The University of Texas, Austin in
1963. completed the General Electric Advanced Course in
Engineering in 1966, and received the M. S. Degree in Mechanical
Engineering from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville in 1973.
He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the State of Georgia.
In 1963 he joined the General Electric Company and since 1965
has worked for the Transformer Department at Rome, Georgia
with various positions in transformer design. development, and
program management. He is currently Senior Engineer, Product
Technology. He holds eight patents and is the author of ten
technical papers. His paper, "An Investigation of the Thermal
Performance of an Oil Filled Transformer Winding", was selected
by the IEEE Transformers Committee for its 1992 Prize Paper
Award.
Mr. Pierce is a member of the IEEE Industry Applications.
Power Engineering, Magnetics, and Dielectrics &d Electrical
Insulation Societies, and is also a member of CIGRE. He is a
member of the IEEE Transformers Committee. Chairman of the
Working Group on Guides for Loading Liquid Filled
Transformers, Chairman of the Working Group on Development
of the Loading Guide for Cast-Resin Transformers, and Chairman
of the Insulation Life Subcommittee.
47