i .\‘eiiroweitm, 19XX V d . 3X. pp.

427-434
l i i i ~ r i J. 0 1 Y X X Gordon and Breach, Science Publishers. Inc.
Photocopying permitted hy license only Printed in the United Kingdom

TOPOGRAPHIC EEG BRAIN MAPPING DURING

YOGIC FLYING
DAVID W. ORME-JOHNSON and PAUL GELDERLOOS
Department o f Psychology, Mararishi International University, Fairfield, Iowa,
U S.A.
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(Received May 1, 1987)

Voluntary focal activity typically disrupts EEG alpha activity. This experiment tested the hypothesis that
the alpha wave would not be disrupted during “Yogic Flying” (YF), a TM-Sidhi technique that produces
movement of the body such as hopping, because the technique operates at a self-referral level in which
attention remains in a settled, inwardly directed state. In 23 subjects YF was compared with voluntary
jumping in the same subjects which mimicked the movements of YF. The percentage of relative power of
alpha was significantly higher for YF in virtually all EEG derivations, supporting the hypothesis. The
effect appeared to be of similar magnitude in all cortical areas.

Keywords: bruin mapping, yogic flying, alpha blocking, trunscendentul medilulion

For personal use only.

One of the earliest and most reliable findings in the EEG literature was Hans
Berger’s (1929) discovery that the “alpha train” which is characteristic of an eyes-
closed, undirected, wakeful mental state becomes disrupted by voluntary focused
activity such as mental arithmetic. The waking brain appears to have two basic
EEG states: an intrinsic alpha rhythm that is more or less homogeneous across the
brain corresponding to periods of relative mental quiescence, and a spectrally more
complex, lower amplitude state that corresponds to active information processing
(e.g.,Gevins & Schaffer, 1980; Shagass, 1972).
If a subject is simply asked to sit with eyes closed, the subject usually will engage
in mental activity that will almost certainly disrupt the resting alpha rhythm to some
extent, depending on the degree of mental effort that is exerted (e.g., Gale &
Edwards, 1983).Unstructured rest, then, appears to be a mixture of the two EEG
states, with some alpha corresponding to mental rest and some replacement of
alpha by beta and other frequencies during mental activity.
In this context, the Transcendental Meditation technique (TM) as taught by
Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (1969, pp. 129, 162, 470), can be viewed as a process
which “unmixes” the two EEG states by allowing mental activity to decrease so that
the brain can achieve a pure state of its intrinsic waking rhythms, undisturbed by
mental or perceptual activity. TM is defined as “an effortless procedure for allowing
the excitations of the mind to gradually settle down until the least excited state of
mind is reached” (Mararishi Mahesh Yogi, 1976, p. 123). The state of least
excitation of mental activity is traditionally called transcendental consciousness

Please address reprint requests to David Orme-Johnson, Department of Psychology, Maharishi

International University, Fairfield, Iowa, 52556.
Acknowledgements: The authors would like to thank Fred Travis, Horus Msemaje, and Ted Nevels
for their help in conducting the experiment, Garance Gelderloos for her assistance in data analysis, Dr.
Robert Boyer for his methodological suggestions, and Dr. mod; Orme-Johnson for her editorial
assistance.

421
 3 3 D W. OKME-JOHNSON A N D I’ G t L I ) t R t 0 0 S

(TC) (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1969, pp. 143, 3 1 3 ) and because attention Is
directed inward during .TC, it is a ”self-referral” state in which awareness knows
itself (Maharishi Mahesh Yogi, 1986 p. 27).
It has been hypothesized that the mental state of least excitation has a
corresponding neurophysiological state of least excitation that is analogous to the
simplest, ground state of a quantum mechanical system (Uomash, 1976). The
hypothesis of a neurophysiological “ground state” is supported by research showing
that during the TM technique alpha abundance increases (Banquet. 1973; Banquet
81 Sailhan, 1974; Wallace, 1970; Wallace et al., 1971) as does intra- and
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interhemispheric alpha band coherence (Levine, 1976 1. Since coherence measures

the stability of phase angle between two E E G signals at a given frequency (e.g..
Levine, 1976). increased coherence can be interpreted in this context to be a subtle
measure of the degree to which the ground state has been achieved, i.e., the degree
to which the pure intrinsic E E G rhythms are undisturbed by active information
processing which could be expected to create more complex and varying phase
reIationships.
The settling down of mental activity during meditation is called transcending,
and a subjective report of it is as follow: “As I spontaneously become aware of
more fundamental and abstract levels of the object of attention during meditation,
the rigid boundaries of the object begin to fade. As the object becomes more and
more unlocalized and the focus of attention continues to spread, comprehension
becomes more and more unbounded. When the faintest impulse of the [object]
For personal use only.

dissolves and there is no localized content to experience, my awareness is

completely unbounded. I am left with the experience of a pure, abstract, universal
field of consciousness, unlocalized by specific content or activity of the mind-just
the Self awake within its own unbounded nature” (see Maharishi Mahesh Yogi.
1976, pp. 76-85 for a collection of experiences of TC).
Subjectively reported subperiods of complete mental quiescence during TM, are
often correlated with marked slowing of respiration, usually lasting between 15 to
60 s (Farrow & Hebert, 1982). During TM, these periods of respiratory slowing
have been found to be correlated with increased E E G coherence in all frequencies
and among all derivations, whereas increased coherence was not observed during
an eyes-closed control condition of voluntary breath holding of similar duration
(Badawi, Wallace, Orme-Johnson & Rouzere, 1984; also see Orme-Johnson,
1977). The fact that the E E G coherence increases in all frequencies during TC
(Badawi et al., 1984), together with the observation of spreading of coherence to
other frequency band, usually theta, during TM (Levine, 1976), suggests that the
ground state of the brain may not be a simple homogeneous rhythm of a single
frequency, but rather the coordination of many different cortical rhythms, all of
which become coherent during the ground state. Based on the observation that the
E E G appears to become more rich in different coherent rhythms in some advanced
meditators (Levine, 1976), we speculate that at higher levels of development, the
EEG ground state may reflect increasingly greater differentiation, seen as different
intrinsic rhythms from different cortical areas, together with greater integration,
indicated by increased coherence of these rhythms.
The functional significance of a neurophysiological ground state, defined as a
highly coherent resting E E G state, appears to be that it is an optimal “ready state”
for information processing. That is, it appears to be a completely silent yet alert initial
condition in which the inception of a new thought is able to develop in a completely
integrated neurophysiological environment, without interference from ongoing
processing due to uncompleted prior sequences of mental activity. For example,
 TOPOGRAPHIC EEG BRAIN MAPPING 429

Orme-Johnson and Haynes (1981)found that subjects who attained higher levels
of alpha coherence during TM were more fluent on the Torrance novel uses
creativity test measured outside of meditation. Similarly, Dillbeck, Orme-Johnson,
and Wallace (1981) found that the level of alpha and theta coherence during TM
was correlated with concept-learning performance. In a more direct test of the
hypothesis that coherence represents an optimal ready state, Dillbeck and Vesely
(1986)found that more information was gained on concept-learning trials in which
the EEG was more coherent immediately preceding the trials compared to less
efficient concept learning when the EEG coherence was lower before the trials.
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Maharishi (1978, p. 26) developed the TM-Sidhi techniques as a means of

exercising and strengthening the connections between TC (the proposed
neurophysiological ground state) and all the different channels of
psychophysiological functioning. Whereas ordinarily thought and action are
initiated from active, complicated levels of conscious awareness, the sidhis train the
ability to function from the simplest, most powerful and integrative level of
consciousness, TC. If our interpretation of TC as the neurophysiological ground
state is correct, and if this simplest state of brain functioning is reflected primarily
by the alpha rhythm, then the sidhi performances should occur without disrupting
the intrinsic, resting alpha rhythm of the brain.
There are several sidhi techniques that exercise different neurophysiological
systems-sensory, cognitive, and affective. Of the various TM-Sidhi techniques, the
one with the most objectively observable result is “Yogic Flying” (YF). In the
For personal use only.

subjects studied in this experiment, YF produces hopping by as much as two feet

high and five feet forward. Such hopping is described in traditional literature on the
sidhis as being characteristic of the early stages of development of YF (eg, Vasu,
1975). To test the hypothesis that YF trains the ability to function from the self-
referral state of TC, the present experiment compared the relative alpha power
during YF with that during a comparable voluntary jumping control condition,
using subjects as their own controls. If YF is a “self-referral performance” in which
the attention is. directed inward, then the alpha rhythm should not be disrupted
during it compared with ordinary jumping in which the attention is directed
outward.

PROCEDUFE

Twenty-three advanced practitioners of the YF technique were studied with the

Cadwell 8400 (program 8400 V 4.4), which presents color topographic EEG maps
of the brain for specific time epochs, with a different map for each of the four
frequency bands (Delta 0.5-3.5 Hz, Theta 3.5-8 Hz, Alpha 8-12 Hz, Beta
12-20 Hz). The various modes of display include Voltage, Absolute and Relative
Power, and Asymmetry Power, as well as Standard Deviation (Sigma) from a set
norm. Since Relative Power was the most standardized measure across individuals,
this mode was chosen for analysis. Relative Power at each scalp location was
defined as:
(Powerwithin the band at the location)
(Total power across all bands at location) x 100%.
Cadwell 8400 allows recording of 16 channels from the standard 10-20 scalp
locations. Cz functioned as the reference electrode, and Fz, Pz and Oz were
 430 D. W. ORME-JOHNSON AND P. GELDERLOOS

excluded from the analyses. ECI Electro-Caps and body harness were used to
prevent the electrodes from dislodging during the physical movements.
YF resulted in considerable movement artifacts which appeared in the delta
band, indicating that the artifacts most likely originated from slight sliding of the
electrodes during movement. Since the research sought to examine the EEG during
YF, for which movement artifacts could not be removed, we adopted the strategy
of having an equal, matched amount of physical activity during the control
condition. That is, during the control condition, subjects voluntarily jumped with
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the same intensity and frequency as during YF, mimicking it as closely as possible.
Then, assuming equal artifacts in voluntary jumping and YF, the relative alpha
power during the two conditions was compared. The difference between the two
was that voluntary jumping consisted of the usual outwardly directed volitional act,
whereas YF uses a process of the sidhis called sanyamu which entails the coming
together of three elements: ( 1) d/zuruna-focus of attention; (2) dhyuna-the
sequential refining of thought; and ( 3 ) sumadhi-TC, the neurophysiological
ground state (c.f. Orme-Johnson, Clements, Haynes & Badaoui, 1976).
Eighteen subjects underwent routine A which consisted of: (1)Five minutes of
sitting quietly with eyes closed while counting backward by sevens from 2000 in
order to ensure that subjects did not spontaneously slip into the self-referral state
of TC, which tends to occur easily in advanced practitioners of the TM program.
(2) Three minutes of voluntarily jumping (Jumping) in sitting position on a foam
For personal use only.

mattress. ( 3 )Ten minutes of TM. (4) Five minutes of Y E ( 5 )Ten minutes of lying
down in a supine position as a postexperimental rest. During Jumping and YF
subjects had their eyes closed most of the time.
Only in two cases were the frequencies between Jumping and YF noticeably
different: one subject had considerably more lift-ups during YF, while the other
subject was noticeably more active during Jumping. These two subjects were
excluded from the analysis for this reason.
Although, from an experimental point of view, it would have been appropriate to
counterbalance the sequence of Jumping and YF, in pilot sessions in which this
sequence was tried, subjects contended that there was too much aftereffect of the
YF in the Jumping period, and mere voluntary jumping was not possible. That is, it
was necessary not to let subjects settle into the state of TC before the Jumping
period and for that reason the TM technique could not come first in the sequence.
However, in order to control for the possibility that a longer time with eyes closed
before YF might have resulted in more alpha during YF, (i.e., due to the periods of
counting, jumping and TM prior to YF), five subjects were given routine B in which
the activities before the Jumping episode were matched to a large extent with the
structure of activities before the YF period in routine A. That is, after 5 min of
counting backwards and 3 min of Jumping, these subjects rested in the supine
position for 10 min, and then sat up to count backwards for another 5 min to
replicate to some extent the mental alertness state during TM before starting the
second Jumping period ( 3 min). This second Jumping period was the control
condition used to compare with YF for these subjects. Subsequently, these subjects
practiced TM for 10 min, YF for 5 min, and rested for 10 min.
At the end of the session the subjects were requested to report their experiences
during the various stages of the experiment on an open-ended questionnaire.
Summary displays of the topographic color EEG maps of the last 2.5 rnin of the
Jumping episode (decay = 15, i.e., 15 epochs of about 10 s contributed to this
summary), as well as of the last 2.5 min of the YF practice were photographed on
slides for further analysis. The topographical representations were converted to
 TOPOGRAPHIC EEG BRAIN MAPPING 43 1

numerical scores (percentage relative alpha power) according to a standard color

scale displayed on each slide. For each subject, the percentage relative alpha power
of YF and Jumping were determined for each of 16 EEG derivations.
For five randomly chosen subjects, a frequency count was made of how many of
the 30 individual 10-s YF epochs had the same, more, or less alpha than the mean
of the jumping control period. The standard deviation of each YF epoch relative to
the mean of the Jumping episodes was displayed according to a standard color
scheme from - 2 SD (blue) to + 2 SD (red).The overall deviation was assessed for
the alpha band and categorized as positive deviation (more alpha), virtually the
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same (middle ranges), and negative deviation (less alpha). The hypothesis that YF
epochs would have more alpha than the mean Jumping epoch was tested using the
Chi square statistic.
Of the 21 subjects that were included in the study, 18 were men and 3 women.
The mean age was 33.6 years (SD = 6.3),while the average time of TM practice was
I 1.9 years (SD = 4.2). The TM-Sidhi program, which includes the Y F technique,
was practiced for 5.6 years on the average (SD=2.7). The ages and lengths of
experience with the TM and TM-Sidhi program were highly comparable in the
groups that followed routines A and B.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

For personal use only.

Relative alpha power was significantly greater during YF than Jumping in 15 out of
16 EEG derivations (see Table 1 and Figure I). In the case of C3, a trend ( p = . l )
was found. The results of routines A and B were combined because they were not
statistically different from each other on a I-test for independent means. This
indicates that adding a counting and Jumping episode before a second counting and
Jumping period in routine B did not result in the second Jumping period having as

TABLE 1
Mean percentage of Relatiie Alpha Power for YF and Voluntary Jumping at 16 EEG derivations for
21 subjects

EEG Yogic Voluntary

Derivation Flying Jumping Difference “hIncrease f-Statistic” p Value

FPl 2 1.9 12.6 9.3 73.8 3.96 ,0008

FP2 19.8 10.5 9.3 88.6 4.97 .ooo 1
F3 19.5 13.8 5.7 41.3 3.68 .0015
F4 19.5 13.1 6.4 48.9 4.50 .0002
F7 26.4 15.5 10.9 70.3 4.92 .0oo I
F8 24.5 13.8 10.7 77.5 4.56 .0oo2
c3 18.8 15.5 3.3 21.3 1.73 ,0998
c4 21.7 17.6 4.1 23.3 2.36 .0283
T3 27.1 15.2 11.9 78.3 5.96 .oooo
T4 27.9 18.8 9.1 48.4 5.92 .0000
T5 45.9 21.7 24.2 111.5 7.76 .0000
T6 45.5 24.5 21.0 85.7 5.91 .0000
P3 42.6 21.4 21.2 99.1 6.30 .0000
P4 43.6 24.0 19.6 81.7 6.54 .0o00
01 52.1 28.1 24.0 85.4 6.60 .0ooo
02 51.7 28.1 23.6 84.0 5.73 .ooo0
“Paired I-test, dJ= 20.
 432 D. W. ORME-JOHNSON A N D P. GtLDERLOOS
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For personal use only.

FIGURE 1 Percentage of relative power in the alpha band during Yogic Flying compared to the
voluntary jumping control condition.

much alpha as YF, although the relative alpha power that these subjects displayed
just prior to the second Jumping episode was highly comparable to the relative
alpha power prior to YF in all subjects.
The outcomes of the analyses of the five subjects for whom the individual YF
epochs were compared to the mean Jumping period also showed higher relative
alpha power during Y F as compared to Jumping (x'= 108.16, df= 2, p < .0001,
Table 2).
In order to study possible topographic differences in the effect of Y F on the
EEG, two factors which influence relative power were considered, initial
differences in the distribution of the alpha power (e.g., the fact that occipital and
parietal areas typically have more alpha), and the distance of each recording
electrode from the reference electrode (Cz).A regression analysis was conducted in
which the dependent variable was the relative percentage of alpha during YF and
the two independent variables used were the relative power during voluntary
Jumping as a measure of the initial distribution of alpha, and the distance of the
active electrode from the reference, Cz.
 TOPOGRAPHIC EEG BRAIN MAPPING 433

Both independent variables contributed to the regression, t( 13)= 10.56

( p < .0001) for thle level of alpha during Jumping, and t( 13)= 2.06, ( p = .06, trend)
:for distance from the reference. The multiple R was .958, indicating that the two
i~ndependentvariables accounted for 92% of the variance in the difference among
ithe electrodes irt relative alpha power during YF. Thus, the differences among
’EEG derivations, in alpha during YF could be almost entirely accounted for by
whether the electrode was in a high alpha region (eg., occipital and parietal) or a
lower alpha area (e.g., frontal or temporal) and by the distance from the reference
electrode. This finding leads to the conclusion that the higher level of relative alpha
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power during YF appears to be homogeneous across the cortex, and that no

particular area showed a relatively greater increase than any other area. That is, the
higher alpha during YF compared to Jumping appears to a global effect.

TABLE 2
Frequency distribution of individual YF epochs compared to the mean of the Jumping
Period

Less Alpha Comparable Alpha More Alpha Total

22 18 110 150
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The low level of alpha during the Jumping control condition replicates the
ordinary finding that voluntary, focal activity disrupts the alpha train (Berger, 1929;
Gale & Edwards, 1983). However, the presence of alpha during YF is unusual,
considering that YF involves as much physical movement as the Jumping control
condition. This finding suggests that two seemingly similar behavioral outcomes
rnay arise from very different neurophysiological mechanisms. During YF, balance
appears to be maiintained between the two complementary functions of the nervous
system-integration and differentiation; the state of integration, seen as the alpha
rhythm, is maintaned along with differentiated overt behavior (hopping).
Comparison of the subjective experiences of ordinary Jumping and YF supports
this interpretation of greater integration during Y E The subjective experiences
reported during Jumping were described as strenuous and difficult (8 accounts),
boring (4),and tiring and fatiguing (9).YF was reported to be exhilarating, blissful
and giving joy and happiness (18 accounts), effortless and easy (6),and giving “lots
of energy” (3).Four subjects also reported “lightness”during practice of YF.
Previous research also supports the interpretation that YF increases integration
and differentiation. EEG coherence is maximum at the point at which YF occurs,
jiist before the subject moves (Orme-Johnson, Clements, Haynes & Badaoui, 1976)
and the practice of YF and other TM-Sidhi techniques over a 6-month period is
correlated with increased field independence, creativity, intelligence, and
behavioral flexibility (Orme-Johnson & Granieri, 1976). These latter results
suggest that conntxting specific channels of neurophysiological functioning with the
neurophysiological ground state improves the ability of the individual to integrate
and interact effectively with different aspects of the environment.
 1.34 D. W. ORME-JOHNSON AND P. GELDEKLOOS

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