ni t n

ee/Resources
New Products for Integrated Electrical Systems /Questions and Answers
S es
cdig

necdigest
and the loads, and Zone 3 is associated with the appli-
ances and other loads. A good AFCI with ground fault
Residential Fires
Breakdown by Zone
ne TM

protection will mitigate against parallel arcing and series

high-resistance faults in zones 1 through 4.

Improved Safety
AFCIs represent a significant step forward in electrical
®
safety. The Consumer Products Safety Commission NFPA’s Official NEC Magazine The Voice of Authority w
www.necdigest.org
(CPSC) has reported that more than 35% of all electri-
cal wiring fires are associated with the fixed wiring.5
The Task Force of the NEMA Molded Case Circuit
Feb/March 2002 Volume 1
Breaker Section also analyzed fire statistics provided by a
• by Dr. Joseph Engel

Circuit
major insurance company. Figure 4 shows the percentage
of electrical fires associated with the various Zones. This
figure indicates that many fires are associated with Zone
1, with statistics that are similar to those reported by Eaton’s Cutler-Hammer business is a worldwide leader in electrical control, power distribution,
CPSC. In addition to detecting and interrupting potentially and industrial automation products and services. Through advanced product development,
dangerous parallel arcs in Zone 1, the AFCI detects paral- world-class manufacturing methods, and global engineering services and support, the Cutler-Hammer
lel arcs in Zones 2 and 3. Also series faults are mitigated, business provides customer-driven solutions that serve the changing needs of the industrial, utility,
as they tend to escalate either into a parallel arcing fault or light commercial, residential, and OEM markets. To learn more about Eaton’s innovative Cutler-Hammer
a ground leakage fault. This is a major safety improve- products visit www.cutler-hammer.eaton.com.
ment over conventional circuit breaker technology. Figure 4 I Percentage of electrical fires associated with
It must be noted, however, that AFCIs will mitigate the Zones defined in Figure 3.
Eaton Corporation is a global $7.3 billion diversified industrial manufacturer that is a leader
the effect of arcing faults but will not eliminate them
completely. Even under optimum conditions there will in fluid power systems; electrical power quality, distribution and control; automotive engine air
always be at least one arcing half cycle and, in certain management and fuel economy; and intelligent truck systems for fuel economy and safety.
environments, this could cause ignition at high currents. Eaton has 49,000 employees and sells products in more than 50 countries. To learn more
about Eaton Corporation visit www.eaton.com.
AFCIs and the NEC ®
Six AFCI proposals were submitted for the 1999
National Electrical Code ®, four from two manufacturers
and two from the Electronics Industries Alliance. The
code was subsequently updated to require the installa-
tion of AFCI protection on all branch circuits supplying
15A or 20A single-phase 125V outlets installed in
dwelling unit bedrooms as of January 1, 2002.
Arc-Fault Interrupters
Bringing a new level of electrical
References
[1] 1999, National Fire Data Center protection into the home
[2] Section 240-1 (FPN) of the 1996 National Electric Code

[3] “Technology for Detecting and Monitoring Conditions

That Could Cause Electrical Wiring System Fires,”
report Prepared by Underwriters Laboratories (UL
Project Number NC233, 94ME78760) for the 1000 Cherrington Parkway
Consumer Product Safety Commission (Contract Moon Township, PA 15108
Number CPSC-C-94-1112), September 1995 www.cutler-hammer.eaton.com
[4] “An Evaluation of Circuit Breaker Trip Levels,” Fact
1-800-525-2000 Each year in the United States, residential electrical fires result in more than 700
Finding Report Prepared by Underwriters Laboratories RE00402001E deaths, 3,000 injuries and $700 million in property damage1. A number of these
for the Electronic Industries Association under UL June 2002
Project 92ME51901, October 25, 1993 Printed in U.S.A.
fires begin with little warning, kindled by sputtering arc faults in damaged or dete-
[5] Memorandum from the United States Consumer riorated wiring. The arc fault creates a spark, generates heat, and eventually
Products Safety Commission, 1992 Estimated Fire ignites nearby combustible material.
Losses involving Electrical Equipment

5
necdigest.org feb/mar 2002 necdigest

Due to the development of advanced, affordable circuit
interrupter technology and the recently updated NEC ®
code, however, fires and deaths attributable to arc faults
may soon be on the decline.
Building On Conventional Breaker Safety
Conventional residential circuit breakers prevent fires by
automatically opening the circuit before conductors or
the insulation that shields them can be damaged by
excessive and dangerous temperatures. The response
times of conventional circuit breakers are determined
solely to protect against circuit overload2 or overcurrent.
However, the response is inadequate for protecting
against the fire hazards associated with arcs, the temper-
o
atures of which can exceed 6000 C.
Arcs also have an extremely short duration, which
cannot typically be detected by conventional breakers.
The challenge, therefore, has been to improve circuit
protection by identifying the presence of arcing faults
and responding to them fast enough to prevent fire.
Modern electronics has answered this challenge with
Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs), devices that rec-
ognize the unique current signatures associated with arc-
ing faults and act to interrupt the circuit before the tem-
perature of combustibles can rise to hazardous levels.
Common Wiring Hazards
Hazards in residential wiring systems develop from
either high-energy arcing (parallel) or high-resistance
(series) faults.3 High-energy arcing faults are caused by a
failure of the insulation between conductors at different
Estimated Short Circuit Current Available (Amperes) vs.
Percentage of Circuits Having Estimated Short Circuit Current Available
Figure 1 The distribution of available fault currents, at 15A household receptacles Curve (A), and at the end of six feet of #18
appliance wire plugged into those receptacles, Curve (B).
2 3
potentials that are located anywhere on the circuit.
Insulation can fail over time due to extended exposure
to moisture, heat, or extraordinarily high voltages.
Insulation can also be accidentally cut or damaged by
nails, staples or other materials. The age of the wiring
or physical abuse can also be contributing factors.
Once the insulation is compromised, heat from an arc
melts the conductors in the wire and the electricity seeks
a new path. As it develops so does a sporadic or inter-
mittent arc fault. Under these conditions, conventional
circuit breakers may not trip either magnetically, since
peak currents are too low, or thermally, since the dura-
tion of the current is too short to cause a thermal ele-
ment to trip. If the breaker should trip, it will only do
so after an unacceptable delay.
A high-resistance fault is not an arc fault initially, but
it can become one over time. A layer of copper or alu-
minum oxide that forms at connections, such as at wire
nuts, receptacle terminals, or plugs, creates this type of
fault. The coating replaces the low resistance path with
one of high resistance and begins to generate heat.
Broken conductors can also create high-resistance faults.
Regardless of the cause, local I2R power dissipation
can overheat and pyrolyse the insulation leading to a
parallel arcing fault. Like the situations that create high-
energy faults, conventional breakers will not always
detect the situation and trip.
The magnitude of parallel faults in residential circuits
can be estimated from Curve A of Figure 1, which is
derived from a UL Report4 prepared for the Electronics
Industries Alliance. The curve shows the distribution of
available fault currents at household receptacles. The X-
axis displays the estimated short circuit currents available;
the Y-axis shows the percentage of circuits that have partic-
ular values of short circuit current available or higher.
The data applies to “bolted faults” with the line and neu-
tral securely clamped together. For 15A receptacles, the
available fault levels are 75A RMS or higher. Only half have
available levels of 250A or higher. These relatively low short
circuit levels are due to the impedance of fixed premise
wiring. The impact of wire impedance is further emphasized
by Curve B, which shows the available fault currents with
six feet of #18 appliance wire plugged into the receptacles.
Now only half have fault magnitudes of 200A or higher at
the end of the appliance wire.
Conventional residential circuit breakers have instanta-
neous trip levels in the range of 125-200A rms. With ref-
erence to Curve B of Figure 1, this means that “bolted
faults,” and their associated sine waves, would cause
instantaneous tripping in 50-85% of residential circuits.
For the remaining 15-50% of the circuits, the breaker
would trip in response to the heating of the bimetal.
The challenge has been to improve circuit protection by
identifying the presence of arcing faults
and responding to them fast enough to prevent fire.
For the case of arcing faults, however, these same
residential circuit breakers, with trip levels in the range
125-200A RMS, would respond instantaneously in a
much lower percentage of circuits due to two character-
istics of arcing faults:
• their arcing voltage of about 50V introduc significant
impedance into low voltage 125V circuits, reducing the
current amplitude
• parallel arcing faults are sputtering in nature as indicated
in the oscillogram of Figure 2. The reduced amplitude
pulses are intermittent and of short duration.
Instead of functioning normally, conventional
breakers would actually trip instantaneously in an even
lower percentage of circuits than indicated in Figure 1.
Further, a conventional breaker might never trip due to
bimetal heating because the RMS current level associated
with the intermittent sputtering arc could be less than
the RMS breaker rating.
Where Faults Are Found
High-energy parallel arcing and high-resistance series
faults occur at numerous locations throughout the
home, including “in-wall” and “in-room” wiring.
The causes of “in-wall” faults include wire insulation
transient current pulses such as those that occur when respond to these conditions by tripping and deenergizing
switching loads, or when an incandescent lamp burns the branch circuit feeding the receptacle.
out. An AFCI’s ability to distinguish a low amplitude
arcing current from a high amplitude normal current, Rigorous Testing
an “intelligent instantaneous trip,” is one of an AFCI’s There are four major manufacturers currently producing
important features. AFCIs: Siemens, Square D, GE and Eaton Corp. Of
these, Eaton Corp.’s Cutler-Hammer business unit first
filed for a patent on AFCI technology on September 26,
2. AFCIs can include ground fault protection. It is recog- 1991. Their design passed UL’s draft standard tests in
nized that high-resistance series faults at wire termina- November/December 1996 and became the first com-
tions and old aluminum wiring are hazards. In fact, the mercially available AFCI on September 30, 1997.
hazards of old aluminum branch circuit wiring on 15- The draft standard testing involved parallel tests using
and 20-ampere branch circuits are well known. Just as A) a guillotine with a carbon-steel blade across the con-
hazardous, but less recognized, are “glowing contacts.” ductors of NM-B cable and two conductor Type SPT-2
They are associated with today’s copper wire and flexible cord and B) sputtering arcs across a cut in their
modern wiring devices, receptacles and switches. insulation that had been conditioned through formation
A loose wire-to-receptacle terminal connection can of a carbon bridge. Series fault tests were also conducted
overheat and create a so-called “glowing contact.” with NM-B fixed premise wiring with the AFCI respond-
ing to the ground fault current resulting from arcing at a
Figure 2 I Typical current waveforms observed when
Eaton Corporation funded a UL Special Services broken conductor without ignition of surrounding mate-
a carbon-steel blade cuts through 16 AWG SPT-2 cord.
Investigation that determined such hazards could be rial. The test also demonstrated resistance to unwanted
The available current is 100A.
mitigated by an AFCI circuit breaker providing both tripping, including motor starting and dimmers, and
arcing and ground fault protection. The “glowing con- resistance to operation inhibition including filters.
tact” has the potential to eventually melt the wire insu- Figure 3 depicts typical residential wiring divided
lation and the receptacle itself. Typically a line-to-neu- into four zones. Zone 0 is associated with the meter,
tral arcing fault or a line-to-ground or neutral-to-ground meter socket, and service cable. Zone 1 is associated
ground fault will develop. An AFCI circuit breaker
employing both arc and ground fault interrupters will
with the loadcenter and the fixed premise wiring. Zone
2 is associated with the wiring between the receptacles
physically damaged by staples or nails or environmen-
tally damaged by lightning or moisture. An example
of an “in-wall” high-resistance series fault is a loose Typical Residential Wiring
receptacle terminal connection that can cause local
heating and damage to the wire insulation and/or the
receptacle.
Ground faults are common as “in-wall” wiring
includes grounded conductors. The ground fault, if
detected soon enough, can prevent the fault from
escalating into a high-energy arcing fault. “In-room”
faults are typically caused by the abuse of cords and
plugs, (e.g. a chair resting on a cord) or wear and
tear over extended periods of time (e.g. a loose plug-
receptacle connection).
The AFCI Difference
AFCIs offer two major advantages over conventional
breakers:
1. The electronic instantaneous trips for an AFCI
for arcing faults are set to trip with PEAK arcing
currents as small as 50 amperes. This is possible
because AFCIs can distinguish between the signa-
tures of parallel arcing faults from switching and
steady state currents associated with normal electri-
cal loads. Further, AFCIs will not nuisance trip Figure 3 I Division of residential wiring into four zones. Zone 0 is associated with the meter, meter socket and service cable, Zone 1
with transient sinusoidal load currents having with the loadcenter and the fixed premise wiring, Zone 2 with the wiring between the receptacles and the loads, and Zone 3 with the
PEAK values of 300 amperes or more (such as appliances and other loads.
occur when a freezer compressor turns) or
4

Due to the development of advanced, affordable circuit
interrupter technology and the recently updated NEC ®
code, however, fires and deaths attributable to arc faults
may soon be on the decline.
Building On Conventional Breaker Safety
Conventional residential circuit breakers prevent fires by
automatically opening the circuit before conductors or
the insulation that shields them can be damaged by
excessive and dangerous temperatures. The response
times of conventional circuit breakers are determined
solely to protect against circuit overload2 or overcurrent.
However, the response is inadequate for protecting
against the fire hazards associated with arcs, the temper-
o
atures of which can exceed 6000 C.
Arcs also have an extremely short duration, which
cannot typically be detected by conventional breakers.
The challenge, therefore, has been to improve circuit
protection by identifying the presence of arcing faults
and responding to them fast enough to prevent fire.
Modern electronics has answered this challenge with
Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs), devices that rec-
ognize the unique current signatures associated with arc-
ing faults and act to interrupt the circuit before the tem-
perature of combustibles can rise to hazardous levels.
Common Wiring Hazards
Hazards in residential wiring systems develop from
either high-energy arcing (parallel) or high-resistance
(series) faults.3 High-energy arcing faults are caused by a
failure of the insulation between conductors at different
Estimated Short Circuit Current Available (Amperes) vs.
Percentage of Circuits Having Estimated Short Circuit Current Available
Figure 1 The distribution of available fault currents, at 15A household receptacles Curve (A), and at the end of six feet of #18
appliance wire plugged into those receptacles, Curve (B).
2 3
potentials that are located anywhere on the circuit.
Insulation can fail over time due to extended exposure
to moisture, heat, or extraordinarily high voltages.
Insulation can also be accidentally cut or damaged by
nails, staples or other materials. The age of the wiring
or physical abuse can also be contributing factors.
Once the insulation is compromised, heat from an arc
melts the conductors in the wire and the electricity seeks
a new path. As it develops so does a sporadic or inter-
mittent arc fault. Under these conditions, conventional
circuit breakers may not trip either magnetically, since
peak currents are too low, or thermally, since the dura-
tion of the current is too short to cause a thermal ele-
ment to trip. If the breaker should trip, it will only do
so after an unacceptable delay.
A high-resistance fault is not an arc fault initially, but
it can become one over time. A layer of copper or alu-
minum oxide that forms at connections, such as at wire
nuts, receptacle terminals, or plugs, creates this type of
fault. The coating replaces the low resistance path with
one of high resistance and begins to generate heat.
Broken conductors can also create high-resistance faults.
Regardless of the cause, local I2R power dissipation
can overheat and pyrolyse the insulation leading to a
parallel arcing fault. Like the situations that create high-
energy faults, conventional breakers will not always
detect the situation and trip.
The magnitude of parallel faults in residential circuits
can be estimated from Curve A of Figure 1, which is
derived from a UL Report4 prepared for the Electronics
Industries Alliance. The curve shows the distribution of
available fault currents at household receptacles. The X-
axis displays the estimated short circuit currents available;
the Y-axis shows the percentage of circuits that have partic-
ular values of short circuit current available or higher.
The data applies to “bolted faults” with the line and neu-
tral securely clamped together. For 15A receptacles, the
available fault levels are 75A RMS or higher. Only half have
available levels of 250A or higher. These relatively low short
circuit levels are due to the impedance of fixed premise
wiring. The impact of wire impedance is further emphasized
by Curve B, which shows the available fault currents with
six feet of #18 appliance wire plugged into the receptacles.
Now only half have fault magnitudes of 200A or higher at
the end of the appliance wire.
Conventional residential circuit breakers have instanta-
neous trip levels in the range of 125-200A rms. With ref-
erence to Curve B of Figure 1, this means that “bolted
faults,” and their associated sine waves, would cause
instantaneous tripping in 50-85% of residential circuits.
For the remaining 15-50% of the circuits, the breaker
would trip in response to the heating of the bimetal.
The challenge has been to improve circuit protection by
identifying the presence of arcing faults
and responding to them fast enough to prevent fire.
For the case of arcing faults, however, these same
residential circuit breakers, with trip levels in the range
125-200A RMS, would respond instantaneously in a
much lower percentage of circuits due to two character-
istics of arcing faults:
• their arcing voltage of about 50V introduc significant
impedance into low voltage 125V circuits, reducing the
current amplitude
• parallel arcing faults are sputtering in nature as indicated
in the oscillogram of Figure 2. The reduced amplitude
pulses are intermittent and of short duration.
Instead of functioning normally, conventional
breakers would actually trip instantaneously in an even
lower percentage of circuits than indicated in Figure 1.
Further, a conventional breaker might never trip due to
bimetal heating because the RMS current level associated
with the intermittent sputtering arc could be less than
the RMS breaker rating.
Where Faults Are Found
High-energy parallel arcing and high-resistance series
faults occur at numerous locations throughout the
home, including “in-wall” and “in-room” wiring.
The causes of “in-wall” faults include wire insulation
transient current pulses such as those that occur when respond to these conditions by tripping and deenergizing
switching loads, or when an incandescent lamp burns the branch circuit feeding the receptacle.
out. An AFCI’s ability to distinguish a low amplitude
arcing current from a high amplitude normal current, Rigorous Testing
an “intelligent instantaneous trip,” is one of an AFCI’s There are four major manufacturers currently producing
important features. AFCIs: Siemens, Square D, GE and Eaton Corp. Of
these, Eaton Corp.’s Cutler-Hammer business unit first
filed for a patent on AFCI technology on September 26,
2. AFCIs can include ground fault protection. It is recog- 1991. Their design passed UL’s draft standard tests in
nized that high-resistance series faults at wire termina- November/December 1996 and became the first com-
tions and old aluminum wiring are hazards. In fact, the mercially available AFCI on September 30, 1997.
hazards of old aluminum branch circuit wiring on 15- The draft standard testing involved parallel tests using
and 20-ampere branch circuits are well known. Just as A) a guillotine with a carbon-steel blade across the con-
hazardous, but less recognized, are “glowing contacts.” ductors of NM-B cable and two conductor Type SPT-2
They are associated with today’s copper wire and flexible cord and B) sputtering arcs across a cut in their
modern wiring devices, receptacles and switches. insulation that had been conditioned through formation
A loose wire-to-receptacle terminal connection can of a carbon bridge. Series fault tests were also conducted
overheat and create a so-called “glowing contact.” with NM-B fixed premise wiring with the AFCI respond-
ing to the ground fault current resulting from arcing at a
Figure 2 I Typical current waveforms observed when
Eaton Corporation funded a UL Special Services broken conductor without ignition of surrounding mate-
a carbon-steel blade cuts through 16 AWG SPT-2 cord.
Investigation that determined such hazards could be rial. The test also demonstrated resistance to unwanted
The available current is 100A.
mitigated by an AFCI circuit breaker providing both tripping, including motor starting and dimmers, and
arcing and ground fault protection. The “glowing con- resistance to operation inhibition including filters.
tact” has the potential to eventually melt the wire insu- Figure 3 depicts typical residential wiring divided
lation and the receptacle itself. Typically a line-to-neu- into four zones. Zone 0 is associated with the meter,
tral arcing fault or a line-to-ground or neutral-to-ground meter socket, and service cable. Zone 1 is associated
ground fault will develop. An AFCI circuit breaker
employing both arc and ground fault interrupters will
with the loadcenter and the fixed premise wiring. Zone
2 is associated with the wiring between the receptacles
physically damaged by staples or nails or environmen-
tally damaged by lightning or moisture. An example
of an “in-wall” high-resistance series fault is a loose Typical Residential Wiring
receptacle terminal connection that can cause local
heating and damage to the wire insulation and/or the
receptacle.
Ground faults are common as “in-wall” wiring
includes grounded conductors. The ground fault, if
detected soon enough, can prevent the fault from
escalating into a high-energy arcing fault. “In-room”
faults are typically caused by the abuse of cords and
plugs, (e.g. a chair resting on a cord) or wear and
tear over extended periods of time (e.g. a loose plug-
receptacle connection).
The AFCI Difference
AFCIs offer two major advantages over conventional
breakers:
1. The electronic instantaneous trips for an AFCI
for arcing faults are set to trip with PEAK arcing
currents as small as 50 amperes. This is possible
because AFCIs can distinguish between the signa-
tures of parallel arcing faults from switching and
steady state currents associated with normal electri-
cal loads. Further, AFCIs will not nuisance trip Figure 3 I Division of residential wiring into four zones. Zone 0 is associated with the meter, meter socket and service cable, Zone 1
with transient sinusoidal load currents having with the loadcenter and the fixed premise wiring, Zone 2 with the wiring between the receptacles and the loads, and Zone 3 with the
PEAK values of 300 amperes or more (such as appliances and other loads.
occur when a freezer compressor turns) or
4

Due to the development of advanced, affordable circuit
interrupter technology and the recently updated NEC ®
code, however, fires and deaths attributable to arc faults
may soon be on the decline.
Building On Conventional Breaker Safety
Conventional residential circuit breakers prevent fires by
automatically opening the circuit before conductors or
the insulation that shields them can be damaged by
excessive and dangerous temperatures. The response
times of conventional circuit breakers are determined
solely to protect against circuit overload2 or overcurrent.
However, the response is inadequate for protecting
against the fire hazards associated with arcs, the temper-
o
atures of which can exceed 6000 C.
Arcs also have an extremely short duration, which
cannot typically be detected by conventional breakers.
The challenge, therefore, has been to improve circuit
protection by identifying the presence of arcing faults
and responding to them fast enough to prevent fire.
Modern electronics has answered this challenge with
Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters (AFCIs), devices that rec-
ognize the unique current signatures associated with arc-
ing faults and act to interrupt the circuit before the tem-
perature of combustibles can rise to hazardous levels.
Common Wiring Hazards
Hazards in residential wiring systems develop from
either high-energy arcing (parallel) or high-resistance
(series) faults.3 High-energy arcing faults are caused by a
failure of the insulation between conductors at different
Estimated Short Circuit Current Available (Amperes) vs.
Percentage of Circuits Having Estimated Short Circuit Current Available
Figure 1 The distribution of available fault currents, at 15A household receptacles Curve (A), and at the end of six feet of #18
appliance wire plugged into those receptacles, Curve (B).
2 3
potentials that are located anywhere on the circuit.
Insulation can fail over time due to extended exposure
to moisture, heat, or extraordinarily high voltages.
Insulation can also be accidentally cut or damaged by
nails, staples or other materials. The age of the wiring
or physical abuse can also be contributing factors.
Once the insulation is compromised, heat from an arc
melts the conductors in the wire and the electricity seeks
a new path. As it develops so does a sporadic or inter-
mittent arc fault. Under these conditions, conventional
circuit breakers may not trip either magnetically, since
peak currents are too low, or thermally, since the dura-
tion of the current is too short to cause a thermal ele-
ment to trip. If the breaker should trip, it will only do
so after an unacceptable delay.
A high-resistance fault is not an arc fault initially, but
it can become one over time. A layer of copper or alu-
minum oxide that forms at connections, such as at wire
nuts, receptacle terminals, or plugs, creates this type of
fault. The coating replaces the low resistance path with
one of high resistance and begins to generate heat.
Broken conductors can also create high-resistance faults.
Regardless of the cause, local I2R power dissipation
can overheat and pyrolyse the insulation leading to a
parallel arcing fault. Like the situations that create high-
energy faults, conventional breakers will not always
detect the situation and trip.
The magnitude of parallel faults in residential circuits
can be estimated from Curve A of Figure 1, which is
derived from a UL Report4 prepared for the Electronics
Industries Alliance. The curve shows the distribution of
available fault currents at household receptacles. The X-
axis displays the estimated short circuit currents available;
the Y-axis shows the percentage of circuits that have partic-
ular values of short circuit current available or higher.
The data applies to “bolted faults” with the line and neu-
tral securely clamped together. For 15A receptacles, the
available fault levels are 75A RMS or higher. Only half have
available levels of 250A or higher. These relatively low short
circuit levels are due to the impedance of fixed premise
wiring. The impact of wire impedance is further emphasized
by Curve B, which shows the available fault currents with
six feet of #18 appliance wire plugged into the receptacles.
Now only half have fault magnitudes of 200A or higher at
the end of the appliance wire.
Conventional residential circuit breakers have instanta-
neous trip levels in the range of 125-200A rms. With ref-
erence to Curve B of Figure 1, this means that “bolted
faults,” and their associated sine waves, would cause
instantaneous tripping in 50-85% of residential circuits.
For the remaining 15-50% of the circuits, the breaker
would trip in response to the heating of the bimetal.
The challenge has been to improve circuit protection by
identifying the presence of arcing faults
and responding to them fast enough to prevent fire.
For the case of arcing faults, however, these same
residential circuit breakers, with trip levels in the range
125-200A RMS, would respond instantaneously in a
much lower percentage of circuits due to two character-
istics of arcing faults:
• their arcing voltage of about 50V introduc significant
impedance into low voltage 125V circuits, reducing the
current amplitude
• parallel arcing faults are sputtering in nature as indicated
in the oscillogram of Figure 2. The reduced amplitude
pulses are intermittent and of short duration.
Instead of functioning normally, conventional
breakers would actually trip instantaneously in an even
lower percentage of circuits than indicated in Figure 1.
Further, a conventional breaker might never trip due to
bimetal heating because the RMS current level associated
with the intermittent sputtering arc could be less than
the RMS breaker rating.
Where Faults Are Found
High-energy parallel arcing and high-resistance series
faults occur at numerous locations throughout the
home, including “in-wall” and “in-room” wiring.
The causes of “in-wall” faults include wire insulation
transient current pulses such as those that occur when respond to these conditions by tripping and deenergizing
switching loads, or when an incandescent lamp burns the branch circuit feeding the receptacle.
out. An AFCI’s ability to distinguish a low amplitude
arcing current from a high amplitude normal current, Rigorous Testing
an “intelligent instantaneous trip,” is one of an AFCI’s There are four major manufacturers currently producing
important features. AFCIs: Siemens, Square D, GE and Eaton Corp. Of
these, Eaton Corp.’s Cutler-Hammer business unit first
filed for a patent on AFCI technology on September 26,
2. AFCIs can include ground fault protection. It is recog- 1991. Their design passed UL’s draft standard tests in
nized that high-resistance series faults at wire termina- November/December 1996 and became the first com-
tions and old aluminum wiring are hazards. In fact, the mercially available AFCI on September 30, 1997.
hazards of old aluminum branch circuit wiring on 15- The draft standard testing involved parallel tests using
and 20-ampere branch circuits are well known. Just as A) a guillotine with a carbon-steel blade across the con-
hazardous, but less recognized, are “glowing contacts.” ductors of NM-B cable and two conductor Type SPT-2
They are associated with today’s copper wire and flexible cord and B) sputtering arcs across a cut in their
modern wiring devices, receptacles and switches. insulation that had been conditioned through formation
A loose wire-to-receptacle terminal connection can of a carbon bridge. Series fault tests were also conducted
overheat and create a so-called “glowing contact.” with NM-B fixed premise wiring with the AFCI respond-
ing to the ground fault current resulting from arcing at a
Figure 2 I Typical current waveforms observed when
Eaton Corporation funded a UL Special Services broken conductor without ignition of surrounding mate-
a carbon-steel blade cuts through 16 AWG SPT-2 cord.
Investigation that determined such hazards could be rial. The test also demonstrated resistance to unwanted
The available current is 100A.
mitigated by an AFCI circuit breaker providing both tripping, including motor starting and dimmers, and
arcing and ground fault protection. The “glowing con- resistance to operation inhibition including filters.
tact” has the potential to eventually melt the wire insu- Figure 3 depicts typical residential wiring divided
lation and the receptacle itself. Typically a line-to-neu- into four zones. Zone 0 is associated with the meter,
tral arcing fault or a line-to-ground or neutral-to-ground meter socket, and service cable. Zone 1 is associated
ground fault will develop. An AFCI circuit breaker
employing both arc and ground fault interrupters will
with the loadcenter and the fixed premise wiring. Zone
2 is associated with the wiring between the receptacles
physically damaged by staples or nails or environmen-
tally damaged by lightning or moisture. An example
of an “in-wall” high-resistance series fault is a loose Typical Residential Wiring
receptacle terminal connection that can cause local
heating and damage to the wire insulation and/or the
receptacle.
Ground faults are common as “in-wall” wiring
includes grounded conductors. The ground fault, if
detected soon enough, can prevent the fault from
escalating into a high-energy arcing fault. “In-room”
faults are typically caused by the abuse of cords and
plugs, (e.g. a chair resting on a cord) or wear and
tear over extended periods of time (e.g. a loose plug-
receptacle connection).
The AFCI Difference
AFCIs offer two major advantages over conventional
breakers:
1. The electronic instantaneous trips for an AFCI
for arcing faults are set to trip with PEAK arcing
currents as small as 50 amperes. This is possible
because AFCIs can distinguish between the signa-
tures of parallel arcing faults from switching and
steady state currents associated with normal electri-
cal loads. Further, AFCIs will not nuisance trip Figure 3 I Division of residential wiring into four zones. Zone 0 is associated with the meter, meter socket and service cable, Zone 1
with transient sinusoidal load currents having with the loadcenter and the fixed premise wiring, Zone 2 with the wiring between the receptacles and the loads, and Zone 3 with the
PEAK values of 300 amperes or more (such as appliances and other loads.
occur when a freezer compressor turns) or
4
 ni t n
ee/Resources
New Products for Integrated Electrical Systems /Questions and Answers
S es
cdig

necdigest
and the loads, and Zone 3 is associated with the appli-
ances and other loads. A good AFCI with ground fault
Residential Fires
Breakdown by Zone
ne TM

protection will mitigate against parallel arcing and series

high-resistance faults in zones 1 through 4.

Improved Safety
AFCIs represent a significant step forward in electrical
®
safety. The Consumer Products Safety Commission NFPA’s Official NEC Magazine The Voice of Authority w
www.necdigest.org
(CPSC) has reported that more than 35% of all electri-
cal wiring fires are associated with the fixed wiring.5
The Task Force of the NEMA Molded Case Circuit
Feb/March 2002 Volume 1
Breaker Section also analyzed fire statistics provided by a
• by Dr. Joseph Engel

Circuit
major insurance company. Figure 4 shows the percentage
of electrical fires associated with the various Zones. This
figure indicates that many fires are associated with Zone
1, with statistics that are similar to those reported by Eaton’s Cutler-Hammer business is a worldwide leader in electrical control, power distribution,
CPSC. In addition to detecting and interrupting potentially and industrial automation products and services. Through advanced product development,
dangerous parallel arcs in Zone 1, the AFCI detects paral- world-class manufacturing methods, and global engineering services and support, the Cutler-Hammer
lel arcs in Zones 2 and 3. Also series faults are mitigated, business provides customer-driven solutions that serve the changing needs of the industrial, utility,
as they tend to escalate either into a parallel arcing fault or light commercial, residential, and OEM markets. To learn more about Eaton’s innovative Cutler-Hammer
a ground leakage fault. This is a major safety improve- products visit www.cutler-hammer.eaton.com.
ment over conventional circuit breaker technology. Figure 4 I Percentage of electrical fires associated with
It must be noted, however, that AFCIs will mitigate the Zones defined in Figure 3.
Eaton Corporation is a global $7.3 billion diversified industrial manufacturer that is a leader
the effect of arcing faults but will not eliminate them
completely. Even under optimum conditions there will in fluid power systems; electrical power quality, distribution and control; automotive engine air
always be at least one arcing half cycle and, in certain management and fuel economy; and intelligent truck systems for fuel economy and safety.
environments, this could cause ignition at high currents. Eaton has 49,000 employees and sells products in more than 50 countries. To learn more
about Eaton Corporation visit www.eaton.com.
AFCIs and the NEC ®
Six AFCI proposals were submitted for the 1999
National Electrical Code ®, four from two manufacturers
and two from the Electronics Industries Alliance. The
code was subsequently updated to require the installa-
tion of AFCI protection on all branch circuits supplying
15A or 20A single-phase 125V outlets installed in
dwelling unit bedrooms as of January 1, 2002.
Arc-Fault Interrupters
Bringing a new level of electrical
References
[1] 1999, National Fire Data Center protection into the home
[2] Section 240-1 (FPN) of the 1996 National Electric Code

[3] “Technology for Detecting and Monitoring Conditions

That Could Cause Electrical Wiring System Fires,”
report Prepared by Underwriters Laboratories (UL
Project Number NC233, 94ME78760) for the 1000 Cherrington Parkway
Consumer Product Safety Commission (Contract Moon Township, PA 15108
Number CPSC-C-94-1112), September 1995 www.cutler-hammer.eaton.com
[4] “An Evaluation of Circuit Breaker Trip Levels,” Fact
1-800-525-2000 Each year in the United States, residential electrical fires result in more than 700
Finding Report Prepared by Underwriters Laboratories RE00402001E deaths, 3,000 injuries and $700 million in property damage1. A number of these
for the Electronic Industries Association under UL June 2002
Project 92ME51901, October 25, 1993 Printed in U.S.A.
fires begin with little warning, kindled by sputtering arc faults in damaged or dete-
[5] Memorandum from the United States Consumer riorated wiring. The arc fault creates a spark, generates heat, and eventually
Products Safety Commission, 1992 Estimated Fire ignites nearby combustible material.
Losses involving Electrical Equipment

5
necdigest.org feb/mar 2002 necdigest
 ni t n
ee/Resources
New Products for Integrated Electrical Systems /Questions and Answers
S es
cdig

necdigest
and the loads, and Zone 3 is associated with the appli-
ances and other loads. A good AFCI with ground fault
Residential Fires
Breakdown by Zone
ne TM

protection will mitigate against parallel arcing and series

high-resistance faults in zones 1 through 4.

Improved Safety
AFCIs represent a significant step forward in electrical
®
safety. The Consumer Products Safety Commission NFPA’s Official NEC Magazine The Voice of Authority w
www.necdigest.org
(CPSC) has reported that more than 35% of all electri-
cal wiring fires are associated with the fixed wiring.5
The Task Force of the NEMA Molded Case Circuit
Feb/March 2002 Volume 1
Breaker Section also analyzed fire statistics provided by a
• by Dr. Joseph Engel

Circuit
major insurance company. Figure 4 shows the percentage
of electrical fires associated with the various Zones. This
figure indicates that many fires are associated with Zone
1, with statistics that are similar to those reported by Eaton’s Cutler-Hammer business is a worldwide leader in electrical control, power distribution,
CPSC. In addition to detecting and interrupting potentially and industrial automation products and services. Through advanced product development,
dangerous parallel arcs in Zone 1, the AFCI detects paral- world-class manufacturing methods, and global engineering services and support, the Cutler-Hammer
lel arcs in Zones 2 and 3. Also series faults are mitigated, business provides customer-driven solutions that serve the changing needs of the industrial, utility,
as they tend to escalate either into a parallel arcing fault or light commercial, residential, and OEM markets. To learn more about Eaton’s innovative Cutler-Hammer
a ground leakage fault. This is a major safety improve- products visit www.cutler-hammer.eaton.com.
ment over conventional circuit breaker technology. Figure 4 I Percentage of electrical fires associated with
It must be noted, however, that AFCIs will mitigate the Zones defined in Figure 3.
Eaton Corporation is a global $7.3 billion diversified industrial manufacturer that is a leader
the effect of arcing faults but will not eliminate them
completely. Even under optimum conditions there will in fluid power systems; electrical power quality, distribution and control; automotive engine air
always be at least one arcing half cycle and, in certain management and fuel economy; and intelligent truck systems for fuel economy and safety.
environments, this could cause ignition at high currents. Eaton has 49,000 employees and sells products in more than 50 countries. To learn more
about Eaton Corporation visit www.eaton.com.
AFCIs and the NEC ®
Six AFCI proposals were submitted for the 1999
National Electrical Code ®, four from two manufacturers
and two from the Electronics Industries Alliance. The
code was subsequently updated to require the installa-
tion of AFCI protection on all branch circuits supplying
15A or 20A single-phase 125V outlets installed in
dwelling unit bedrooms as of January 1, 2002.
Arc-Fault Interrupters
Bringing a new level of electrical
References
[1] 1999, National Fire Data Center protection into the home
[2] Section 240-1 (FPN) of the 1996 National Electric Code

[3] “Technology for Detecting and Monitoring Conditions

That Could Cause Electrical Wiring System Fires,”
report Prepared by Underwriters Laboratories (UL
Project Number NC233, 94ME78760) for the 1000 Cherrington Parkway
Consumer Product Safety Commission (Contract Moon Township, PA 15108
Number CPSC-C-94-1112), September 1995 www.cutler-hammer.eaton.com
[4] “An Evaluation of Circuit Breaker Trip Levels,” Fact
1-800-525-2000 Each year in the United States, residential electrical fires result in more than 700
Finding Report Prepared by Underwriters Laboratories RE00402001E deaths, 3,000 injuries and $700 million in property damage1. A number of these
for the Electronic Industries Association under UL June 2002
Project 92ME51901, October 25, 1993 Printed in U.S.A.
fires begin with little warning, kindled by sputtering arc faults in damaged or dete-
[5] Memorandum from the United States Consumer riorated wiring. The arc fault creates a spark, generates heat, and eventually
Products Safety Commission, 1992 Estimated Fire ignites nearby combustible material.
Losses involving Electrical Equipment

5
necdigest.org feb/mar 2002 necdigest