JTTEE5 25:920–932

DOI: 10.1007/s11666-016-0407-7
1059-9630/$19.00 Ó ASM International
Peer Reviewed

Modeling Multi-Arc Spraying Systems

K. Bobzin and M. Öte

(Submitted November 20, 2015; in revised form March 28, 2016)

The use of plasma as energy source in thermal spraying enables among others the processing of feed
stock materials with very high melting temperatures as coating materials. New generation multi-arc
plasma spraying systems are widely spread and promise several advantages in comparison to the con-
ventional single-arc systems. Numerical modeling of multi-arc plasma spraying offers the possibility to
increase the understanding about this process. This study focuses on the numerical modeling of three-
cathode spraying systems, introducing the recent activities in this field and discussing the numerical
aspects which influence the prediction power of the models.

Keywords CFD, modeling, multi-arc spraying, net emission

coefficient, numerical analysis, plasma spraying,
turbulence
1. Introduction
Thermal spraying consists of a number of different
process variants whose common feature is a concentrated
high-energy heat source in which the spraying material is
incorporated and deposited onto the surface of the sub-
strate in the form of molten and semi-molten spray par-
ticles with high velocity. Air plasma spraying is part of
thermal spraying and its basic characteristic is high plasma
temperatures of up to Tp = 20,000 K, allowing the pro-
cessing of even materials with very high melting points in
ambient air (Ref 1). The use of plasma as an energy source
goes back to the developments from 1920s to 1930s and
found first industrial application in thermal spraying in
1950s and 1960s (Ref 1, 2). Since then several ongoing
developments regarding the design and working principle
of the plasma torches have been realized. The 1990s were
mainly devoted for the development of new direct current
(DC) and radio frequency (RF) torches (Ref 2). One of
the main driving forces for the development of new DC
torches was increasing the process stability by reducing the
plasma fluctuations.
In order to minimize the fluctuations in DC torches,
increase the spraying efficiency as well as reduce the
electrode heat load, Klaus Landes has developed a novel
plasma spraying system with three independent cathodes
using a cascaded design (Ref 3-5). The generation of the
multi-arc systems is therefore one of the latest evolutions
of plasma torches and realized preferably with three
cathodes (TriplexPro-210, Oerlikon Metco Ltd.; Axial III,
Northwest Mettech Corp.) or three anodes (Delta Gun,
GTV Verschleißschutz GmbH) allowing the formation of
K. Bobzin and M. Öte, Surface Engineering Institute, RWTH
Aachen University, Kackertstr. 15, 52072 Aachen, Germany.
Contact e-mail: oete@iot.rwth-aachen.de.
independent arcs with lower fluctuations. Multi-arc sys-
tems together with new torch designs promise an increase
in the reachable deposition efficiencies as well as an
enlargement of the process window with respect to parti-
cle temperatures and velocities in comparison to the
conventional single-arc systems.
In spite of the impressive developments in the last
decades, some of the underlying fundamentals of the
multi-arc plasma spraying are still poorly understood. The
intensive research in the field of single-arc technology
through both experimental measurements and numerical
modeling have allowed a much better understanding of
the process with respect to plasma fluctuations, particle-
plasma interactions, and so on (Ref 2, 6-13). However,
apart from recent research activities this does not apply to
multi-arc plasma spraying. In particular, there is still a
need for investigations regarding the characteristics of the
plasma columns in the plasma torch as well as with respect
to the interaction of powder particles with the plasma jet.
The former will be the subject of this paper. An overview
about the recent activities to model three-cathode spray-
ing systems will be given and numerical aspects influenc-
ing the prediction power of the numerical models will be
discussed.
2. State of Art
The energy source in plasma spraying, which is
responsible for the acceleration and heating of the feed-
stock particles up to their melting temperatures, is based
on electrical energy. The conversion of the electrical en-
ergy into heat and kinetic energy is realized in a plasma
torch by changing the state of a gas or a mixture of gases
into the plasma state. As a result of reached high tem-
peratures (T > 10.000 K), the operating gas expands and
leaves the torch with high velocities (v > 1000 m/s). The
plasma state is achieved through the application of an
electric current between the electrodes of the plasma
torch.
Since interior of plasma torches is not easily accessible
for optical measurement equipment, and harsh process

920—Volume 25(5) June 2016 Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

conditions, i.e., extremely high temperatures and veloci-
ties, hinder the mounting of measuring devices into the
plasma chamber, experimental examination of plasma arc
in plasma spraying systems is extremely difficult. There-
fore, many authors make use of numerical analysis in or-
der to increase the understanding about the process and
plasma behavior in it.
The most precise approach to describe plasma is the
implementation of a kinetic plasma model. This model is
based on a distribution function that describes the velocity
of each species (electrons, heavy ions) at a given location
and a given time (Ref 14). Although by using kinetic
plasma model a very detailed description of the plasma
can be reached, its use is extremely limited due to the high
computational demand imposed.
Another method, which is widely used by several au-
thors in order to describe the plasma, is based on contin-
uum approach. In this case, the plasma is modeled as a
fluid with corresponding thermodynamic and transport
properties. These properties are calculated using the
temperature- and pressure-dependent mean density, mean
velocity, and mean energy of the species in the plasma gas.
Since this method deals with macroscopic quantities of the
plasma flow and neglects the local differences of the
properties of plasma species, it needs significantly less
computational effort in comparison to the kinetic plasma
model (Ref 14). However, the precision of this method is
limited to the fulfillment of local thermodynamic equilib-
rium (LTE) assumption, which is also coupled with the
assumption of local chemical equilibrium (LCE). While
LCE assumption implies that the plasma composition does
not exhibit local differences, LTE assumption implies that
the velocities or energies of plasma species, resulting from
elastic collisions, follow a particular distribution and can
be characterized by a single temperature (Ref 15). High
collision frequencies in plasma spraying lead as a general
rule to a state for which LTE assumption holds. Excep-
tions to this approximation occur at the boundaries of
plasma, which interacts with the electrodes or with the
surrounding process gas flow (Ref 13). In most cases, the
models relying on LTE approximation have been em-
ployed in the literature in order to analyze the plasma
spraying. A more detailed modeling of the plasma allow-
ing the consideration thermodynamic non-equilibrium
(NLTE) conditions can be realized using so-called two-
temperature models (Ref 16). In this case, the velocities or
energies of plasma species are characterized with two
temperatures: the electron temperature und heavy species
temperature. This model is based on the assumption that a
thermodynamic non-equilibrium exists merely between
the electrons and heavy ions in the plasma and neglect-
s—in contrast to kinetic plasma model—the NLTE con-
ditions between individual plasma species.
In order to model the plasma spraying process, it is
necessary not only to describe the plasma by means of
numerical methods but also the interaction between the
plasma and surrounding cold gas flow. This is realized by
coupling the mass, momentum, and energy conservation
equations (Navier-Stoke equations) with the MaxwellÕs
equations which describe the evolution of the electro-
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
magnetic fields. The set of above-mentioned equations is
Peer Reviewed
called magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) equations
and—together with the consideration of the turbulences
occurring in the flow—can describe the velocity and
temperature fields inside the plasma torch with relatively
high precision (Ref 2, 13, 17).
The dynamics of the arc in the torch is determined by
the imbalances between the electromagnetic forces and
flow drag. Several design factors, i.e. the geometry of
plasma chamber and electrodes, inner diameter of the
nozzle etc., influence the magnitudes and directions of the
above-mentioned forces, leading to different behaviors of
the electrical arcs in different plasma spraying torches.
Main characteristic geometrical feature of the so-called
non-transferred single-arc torches is that the outer surface
of the plasma chamber works as anode, along which the
arc root attachment can theoretically move freely.
Therefore, the variation of the arc length and change in
the spatial position of the arc root attachment on the an-
ode cannot be excluded (Ref 18). Strongly simplified, the
time-dependent imbalances between flow drag, which
tends to drive arc root attachment along the anode
downstream, and the electromagnetic forces, which acts
after SteenbeckÕs minimum energy principle in contrary
direction leading the arc root attachment to a thermody-
namically more favorable position, cause that plasma
fluctuations occur. Please note that the electromagnetic
forces can act locally in the opposite or same direction of
the drag force exerted by the cold gas on the anode arc
attachment depending on the curvature of the thin column
linking the arc column to the anode.
The new generation multi-arc systems consist of either
three cathodes or three anodes and a single-counter
electrode depending on the design type. In industry, the
three-cathode variant has already been established as the
most prominent example of multi-arc systems. In Fig. 1,
the design concept of this system is presented schemati-
cally. In this system, the arcs are generated in a long
plasma chamber between three mutually electrically
insulated cathodes and an anode ring located at the outlet
of the torch. Since the axial movement of arc attachment
Fig. 1 Representation of a three-cathode/one-anode spraying
torch schematically
Volume 25(5) June 2016—921
 point is restricted with small axial dimension of the anode
Peer Reviewed
ring, the variation of the arc length is not pronounced.
Moreover, the circumferential movement of the arcs is
also limited because of the off-center positioning of the
cathodes. This means, for each cathode there is a specific
circumferential position at the side of the anode with the
closest path distance to the cathodes. Each arc tends to
attach to the closest point at anode after SteenbeckÕs
minimum energy principle. The measured voltage be-
tween the electrodes is directly proportional to arc length
and its variation to the arc stability. In case of this plasma
spraying system, the instant voltage values read on the
user interface fluctuate around the measured mean volt-
age only slightly. The shown deviations correspond to
values which are less than a few percentiles of the mea-
sured mean voltage. This supports the assumption that the
positions of the electric arcs inside the torch do not change
significantly.
Intensive research and progress in the field of modeling
the single-arc plasma spraying have helped to achieve a
better understanding of the process. This applies to prin-
ciples of arc re-attachment process, modes of plasma
fluctuations, and so on. However, these models still lack
complete predictive power, especially with respect to
calculating the process temperatures and velocities pre-
cisely over a large range of time period. Mainly, the
complexity of physics involved in arc re-attachment pro-
cess, generally speaking during plasma fluctuations, is the
limiting factor for more accurate simulations.
Multi-arc spraying promises an increase in deposition
efficiencies, longer electrode life times and a wider process
window, which have already been reported by several
authors (Ref 19-22). Yet, this has not been investigated by
means of numerical simulations intensively in order to
achieve a better understanding of the process as well as
that of its limits and possibilities. Unlike single-arc plasma
spraying, where the complexity of the arc fluctuations in-
volved in process mainly limits the predictive capability of
numerical models, in multi-arc plasma spraying the posi-
tions of the electric arcs inside the torch do not change
significantly. This allows a steady-state numerical analysis
of the multi-arc plasma process, enabling a better predic-
tive power for the simulations regarding the calculated
velocities and temperatures. The first research activity
published aiming to model the operating principle of a
three-cathode torch was conducted by Muggli et al. (Ref
23) in 2007. In the previous works, the authors showed
that the calculated temperature profiles at the outlet of a
three-cathode torch exhibit a characteristic triangular
distribution. By means of advanced computer tomogra-
phy, 3D representation of the plasma plum downstream of
the torch exit is reconstructed. The measurements confirm
with numerical results (Ref 17, 24). In a further study,
authors investigated among others the influence of pres-
sure dependency of thermodynamic and transport prop-
erties of plasma gases on the results. It was shown that
with the consideration of pressure dependency, the tem-
perature, and velocity profile calculated at the torch outlet
change significantly (Ref 25). In a further investigation,
the influence of the selected turbulence model on the re-
922—Volume 25(5) June 2016
sults was investigated and discussed (Ref 26). In the fol-
lowing, the developed numerical model in these studies
will be presented. The influence of numerical assumptions,
which are usually employed to define boundary conditions
and to describe the plasma gas properties, on to the results
will be analyzed and discussed. Furthermore, the predic-
tion power of the simulations with respect to the employed
turbulence and radiation models will be discussed.
3. Flow Characteristics, Mathematical
Model, and Boundary Conditions
In this study, plasma is described as an electromagnetic
reactive fluid in LTE using temperature-dependent ther-
modynamic and transport properties. Although, it cannot
be excluded that the NLTE conditions exist in some re-
gions of whole calculation domain, especially at the near
proximity of the electrodes and plasma boundaries, it can
be assumed that because of stable positions of the arcs in
multi-arc systems, these should be less pronounced in
comparison to single-arc systems. The mass, momentum,
and energy conservation equations are coupled with
electromagnetic field equations, in order to describe the
magnetohydrodynamic flow. The model accounts also the
turbulent character of the flow. The radiation within the
torch cannot be neglected due to the very high tempera-
tures. In this study, the radiation is treated using the net
emission coefficient model. A user-defined subroutine is
implemented as a temperature- and pressure-dependent
net energy term into the energy conservation equation.
The set of equations which are used for modeling plasma
spraying system in order to describe the plasma, plasma
flow, interaction of plasma with cold gas flow, turbulences,
and radiation will not be listed in this publication. For an
overview, please refer to (Ref 17, 24).
In Fig. 2, the interior geometry of a three-cathode
spraying system is presented. The geometry of the torch
nozzle shows a threefold axial symmetry. Therefore, a
one-third section of the whole geometry is used as the
calculation domain by defining periodic boundary condi-
tions at the cutting planes which are intersecting each
other with an angle of 120°. The calculation domain to-
gether with the included solid domains is depicted at the
right side of Fig. 2. In this torch, the feeding of plasma gas
successes over 24 inlets into the convergent chamber
where three water-cooled cathodes are placed. Behind the
chamber throat there is a long tubular section with neu-
trode rings, which is followed by the anode ring located
next to the torch outlet.
In Fig. 3 the general behavior of the plasma columns in
plasma chamber is presented. Because of the inclination of
the inletting pipes, the flow exhibits a clear swirling
behavior at the rear side of the chamber. As a result of the
pronounced swirling flow and limited interaction of the
cold gas flow with the plasma columns at the converging
part of the chamber, three clearly separated plasma col-
umns, which are driven by the gas flow in counter-clock
direction, can be observed. As the flow evolves along the
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

Fig. 2 Interior geometry of the TriplexProTM-210 torch from Oerlikon Metco GmbH (Hattersheim, Germany) and calculation domain
Fig. 3 General characteristics of plasma columns in a multi-arc plasma spraying system for different process para
tubular section, the temperatures and velocities get higher.
On the one hand, the separated plasma columns tend to
merge together due to the electromagnetic forces and
turbulent mixing. On the other hand, the cold gas flow
drives them apart from each other. In case of a high vol-
umetric gas flow and a low electric current, the separation
of the single plasma columns along the plasma chamber
even up to nozzle outlet can be recognized (Fig. 3, right).
Contrarily, when the volumetric flow rates are not suffi-
cient enough to drive the plasma columns apart from each
other by overwhelming the electromagnetic forces, the
plasma columns designated with T = 12,000 K Iso-surfaces
form a bundle, and separated iso-surfaces are not any
more recognizable along the tubular section (Fig. 3, left).
Moreover, it can be seen that, as the velocities increase
along the tubular section in longitudinal direction, the
swirling behavior of the flow is significantly suppressed.
Temperatures and velocities as well as their spatial
distribution at the outlet depend on the plasma behavior
in the chamber with respect to different process parame-
ters. While a triangular occurrence of the profiles with
radially decreasing values toward the anode is common for
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
Peer Reviewed
process parameters with low volumetric flow rates; in case
of high volumetric gas flow rates, it is likely that a colder
region forms at the middle of the torch outlet as a result of
apparent separation of the plasma columns. In (Ref 26),
the correlation between the results and the process
parameters has been analyzed. It has been pointed out
that, the temperatures at the outlet increase with
increasing electrical current and decreasing volumetric gas
flow. Moreover, a positive proportionality between the
velocities at the torch outlet and volumetric gas flow and
electrical current has been identified.
Although the inflow into the plasma torch might be
assumed to be incompressible due to the very low Mach
numbers, the flow certainly reaches higher Mach numbers
along the plasma chamber and leaves the torch out-
let—depending on the process parameters—subsonic or
supersonic. Depending on the Mach numbers of the flow,
it should be evaluated whether the compressibility effects
need to be considered in analyses by employing full en-
ergy equation.
In Fig. 4, the difference between the results of the
simulations with and without the compressibility effects is
Volume 25(5) June 2016—923
Peer Reviewed
Fig. 4 Velocity profiles at the outlet of the TriplexProTM-210 torch
illustrated. Average velocity and temperature values cal-
culated at the torch outlet deviate from each other at
about 6 to 8%. This is valid for the process parameters
which are listed in Fig. 4. The flow reaches up to relatively
high Mach numbers (Ma  1.06) in case of these process
parameters. The deviation between the simulations with
and without compressibility effects is less pronounced in
case of lower volumetric gas flow rates and higher electric
currents. In case of a volumetric gas flow rate of 50 SLPM
and an electric current value of 500 A, the deviation
amounts to <1%. Mach number at torch outlet results in
a value of around 0.7 in this case. As a thumb of rule, it
can be stated that the incompressibility assumption might
lead to considerable errors if the flow reaches to the
supersonic velocities along the plasma chamber. For
slower process parameters, it seems to have an insignifi-
cant effect. In our further numerical analysis, the full en-
ergy equation is employed for a better accuracy.
Another very important point is the definition of the
plasma gas properties. The prediction power of the sim-
ulations depends strongly on the use of accurate thermo-
dynamic and transport properties. A large volume of data
is available for the properties of different plasma gases in
the literature. In this study, plasma gas properties com-
puted by Murphy are used (Ref 26, 27). For the calcula-
tions and assumptions used for determining these
properties, please refer to the works of this author (Ref 27,
28). In most of the cases, the published data include the
temperature-dependent thermodynamic and transport
properties, but neglects the pressure dependency. There-
fore, it is a common practice that the models of plasma
spraying systems usually do not rely on gas properties
which considers the pressure effects. This leads to signifi-
924—Volume 25(5) June 2016
cant errors in simulations. In case, the thermodynamic and
transport properties implemented in the simulations do
not consider the pressure dependency, the compression of
the plasma gas with increasing pressure will not be cal-
culated during simulations. This would lead artificially
high specific volumes and velocities of the plasma gas
especially at the rear side of the plasma chamber where
pressure reaches up to 300 kPa for high volumetric gas
flow rates. In case of high volumetric flow rates and high
pressures, numerical calculations would not converge and
terminate abruptly due to non-physical definition of the
plasma gas. The deviation between the results of simula-
tions with and without pressure-dependent gas properties
is illustrated in Fig. 5 for a process parameter set for which
the resulting pressure is relatively low (p  140 kPa). In
this case, average velocities at the torch outlet differ from
each other with an amount of about 5%, whereby for
calculated maximal velocities this amounts to about 18%.
In order to resolve the temperatures and velocities in
an air plasma spraying torch accurately, the size of the
elements needs to be sufficiently small. However, a mesh
model consisting of too fine elements might in some of the
cases lead to numerical instabilities and in most of the
cases would be too expensive regarding the computation
time. Therefore a systematical analysis, which is usually
called mesh independence analysis, is required in order to
find a compromise between the spatial accuracy of the
model and the computation time (Ref 26).
The calculations are carried out parallel on multi-pro-
cessor workstations (up to 24 processors) with the com-
mercial CFD software package ANSYS CFXÒ Release
15.0. The following convergence criteria applied to simu-
lations:
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

Fig. 5 Influence of the definition of gas properties on the calculated velocity profiles at the torch outlet
– Root mean square (RMS) residual errors must be
<10 5.
– Maximum residual errors must be <10 3.
– Global flow imbalances must be <1%.
– Temperature, velocity, and pressure values at monitor
positions of interest must reach a steady solution.
3.1 Gas Inlets
Although implementation of inflow boundary condi-
tions is relatively straight forward, there are several issues
which need to be considered for setting these boundary
conditions; especially if the gas temperatures and veloci-
ties over the inlet regions are not known. Plasma spraying
systems usually do monitor the volumetric flow rate of
inletting plasma gas which is corrected according to stan-
dardized conditions, but do not deal with the temperatures
and velocities of this. Therefore imposing temperature
and velocity values of inflowing gas to the calculation
domain might require installation of further measuring
equipment to the regions of interest. To overcome this
issue, the inflow boundary conditions are defined using
mass flow rates over gas inlets (Fig. 2). These are calcu-
lated using the volumetric flow rates and known plasma
gas densities at standard conditions (T = 0°C,
p = 101.325 kPa). A well-posed formulation of the com-
pressible flow problem is assured by specifying atmo-
spheric pressure as outflow condition. Furthermore, inflow
boundary conditions need to be described regarding the
direction of gas movement. Plasma gas is usually fed in to
the chamber with a swirl angle resulting from the
arrangement and inclination of feeding pipes. The feeding
pipes are not included in the calculation domain as it is
desired considering the calculation costs and element
quality. The flow direction of inflowing gas is described by
imposing the flow direction over a direction vector. Fur-
thermore, a static temperature value of T = 300 K is set for
incoming flow. Electrical current flow through this
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
Peer Reviewed
boundary is not allowed by setting a ‘‘zero flux’’ boundary
condition. Assuming that magnetic fields induced by the
arcs are negligible at inlet positions, the Cartesian mag-
netic vector potentials are set to be zero.
3.2 Outlet
The outflow boundary conditions are described at torch
outlet (Fig. 2). An average atmospheric pressure of
p = 101.325 kPa is set. Analog to inflow boundary condi-
tions, a ‘‘zero flux’’ boundary condition is defined for
current flow and the Cartesian magnetic vector potentials
are set to be zero.
Ideally, the calculation domain should be extended in
downstream direction in order to set the boundary con-
ditions far enough from plasma jet. Depending on flow
characteristics, this might be necessary in order to ensure
that the flow is not largely disturbed or interrupted by the
outflow boundary. In the current study, the influence of
the region downstream the torch outlet on the results
obtained at the outlet boundary condition is investigated.
Several simulations with different process parameter sets
have been conducted with an extended domain. The
profiles at the nozzle outlet are compared with the results
of the simulations conducted with the calculation domain
shown in Fig. 2. Based on this comparison, it has been
pointed out that the influence of the domain extension on
the results is negligible. Considering the computational
cost, the region downstream the torch outlet is not in-
cluded to the calculation domain for the further analyses
in the course of this study.
3.3 Neutrodes, Ceramic Rings, and Housing
With the exception of anode and cathodes, the outer
surface of the plasma chamber is defined as non-con-
ducting, ‘‘no-slip’’ walls. This includes the neutrodes,
which come into use during the ignition phase of the
plasma spraying system, and ceramic rings used to isolate
these from each other (Fig. 2). Convenient with the
Volume 25(5) June 2016—925
 measured temperatures of cooling water, which vary at
Peer Reviewed
most between T = 293 K and T = 311 K, a constant static
temperature of T = 300 K is assigned to the walls of the
chamber as boundary condition. The direction of the
magnetic fields induced by the arcs is specified to be in the
normal direction to the wall surfaces.
Ideally, a solid domain surrounding the plasma cham-
ber should be included into the calculation domain in
order to calculate the magnetic fields evolving beyond the
flow boundaries. The evolvement of the magnetic fields in
solid region of neutrodes and ceramic rings might have an
influence on the calculated magnetic fields within the flow
domain. The significance of this effect has not been
investigated in this study.
3.4 Anode and Cathodes
The definition of boundary conditions at electrodes
(anode and cathodes) can be configured with varying
complexities depending on the purpose of the simulation
as well as depending on the physics and scales, which were
to be resolved using the implemented models. Aiming the
determination of electrode erosion using numerical
methods, one needs to calculate the heat transfer on to the
electrodes very accurately. This requires the incorporation
of several physical phenomena, i.e. electron condensation,
ion recombination, evaporation of electrode material, and
so on. Therefore, the simulation cannot be conducted
under the LTE assumption any more. Plasma sheaths are
particularly important for determining the electrode ero-
sion because their properties determine how charged
species interact with the electrodes. Sheath regions are
formed as a result of electrons leaving the bulk plasma at
the near proximity of the electrodes much more rapidly
than the positive ions. This results in a higher number of
heavy ions than that of electrons remaining in the sheath
region. The net positive charge in plasma sheath balances
an opposite negative charge on the surface of electrode
with which it is in contact. The erosion of the electrodes
depends strongly on the energy and direction of ions
striking on to electrodes by their fall through sheath re-
gion. Plasma sheaths have very small thicknesses in the
order of magnitude of several DebyeÕs lengths.
The complexity of the above-mentioned physical pro-
cesses together with very small time scales and lengths of
the sheath regions in comparison to those of bulk plasma
makes it difficult to incorporate these regions to the sim-
ulations, especially considering the increased computa-
tional cost. Furthermore, this might not be necessary, if
the determination of the electrode erosion is not the focus
of the analysis. On the other hand, it is necessary to assure
that the electrical current flowing through the bulk
plasma/electrode interface is not interrupted. In a LTE
model which does not incorporate a sheath model, the
temperatures of electrons and heavy ions are assumed to
be equal to each other. At the near proximity of the
electrodes, where the temperatures are low due to the
intense cooling, the electrical conductivity of the plasma
gas becomes very low due to this assumption, causing that
the current flow is broken. In order to overcome this issue,
926—Volume 25(5) June 2016
letting the temperatures remain artificially high enough
(T > 7000 K) at the near proximity of the electrode is a
common practice in literature (Ref 9, 29, 30). An alter-
native approach is the specifying of an artificially high
electrical conductivity to the plasma gas in the regions
close to the electrodes (Ref 7, 31).
As it mentioned above, the arc breaks and reattaches
somewhere upstream due to the stretching of the plasma
column as a result of imbalances between flow and elec-
tromagnetic forces. In literature, the main approach to
model the re-attachment process relies on the fact that the
dragging of the arc by the flow field causes the local
electric field around the arc to increase (Ref 13). This
approach is based on the assumption that the electric field
overcoming a certain threshold value causes that a new
attachment point occurs and the existing attachment point
disappears. In case of multi-arc systems, the modeling of
the re-attachment process is not practicable and also not
inevitable to determine the general behavior of the plasma
columns in the chamber. This can be justified with the fact
that, in case of multi-arc systems, the time and spatial
scales in which the re-attachment process occurs are sig-
nificantly smaller than those occurring in conventional
plasma spraying systems. In case of multi-arc systems, the
arc between the plasma columns and the anode is driven
with very high velocities over a small-dimensioned anode.
A gas flow between the plasma column and the anode
surface with a longitudinal velocity of, i.e., about
v = 1000 m/s and relatively low temperature of T = 6000 K,
for which the gas exhibit relatively low electrical conduc-
tivity, causes that the arc between the plasma column and
anode surface is driven out of the plasma chamber over a
1-cm-long anode within almost t = 0.01 ms. In order to
resolve the re-attachment process in a multi-arc systems,
depending on the process parameters and anode dimen-
sions, a magnitude order of time scale which is signifi-
cantly less than about one-hundredth milliseconds needs
to be defined in a non-steady simulation. On one hand, a
time resolution with this magnitude of order would not be
practicable considering the computational costs involved.
On the other hand, continuity of the current flow needs to
be assured between plasma column and the anode surface.
In this study, the interruption of the current flow at the
anode side is avoided by assigning an artificial electrical
conductivity to the elements which are located close to the
anode surface. Here it must be noted that, by applying this
measure one does not resolve the arc attachment, rather
assume that the arc forms somewhere between the plasma
column and anode within this region. Therefore, the
thickness of this layer and the magnitude of the artificial
electrical conductivity assigned to this layer are varied
systematically to investigate the influence of these values
on the results. Here it has been pointed out that, assigning
an electrical conductivity value of S = 1000 S/m is suffi-
cient to ensure the flow of electric current from plasma to
the anode. This value corresponds approximately to the
electrical conductivity of argon at T = 8000 K. Further
increase in this value reveals no significant difference. In
Fig. 6, the deviations of the temperature profiles at torch
outlet, which are calculated with different electrical con-
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

Fig. 6 Calculated temperature profiles at torch outlet with different electrical conductivities assigned to the elements close to the anode
surface
ductivities, are illustrated. The contour plots in this fig-
ure show almost identical temperature profiles. For this
parameter set, increasing the assigned electrical conduc-
tivity 100 times revealed to a difference of <4% for
average values and <1% for the maximal values of tem-
perature and velocity. Although having an artificially
generated conductive region at the proximity of the whole
inner surface of the anode restricts the determination of
the arc attachment position at the anode side, it is very
likely that the arc forms at a position that the plasma
column nearest to the anode surface. Furthermore, the
thickness of the layer with artificial electrical conductivity
is varied as well. In this case, the smallest thickness, for
which a steady current flow could be assured, was 0.2 mm.
Increasing this value to 0.5 mm and further to 1 mm re-
vealed only to differences <1% regarding both maximal
and average values of temperature and velocity and
showed no significant changes in profiles. As a result, it
can be stated that although assigning an artificial electrical
conductivity to the elements close to the anode surface
limits the ability of the simulation to predict the exact
position of arc attachment at the anode boundary; this
does not influence power of the simulations regarding the
prediction capability of the general flow characteristics.
Furthermore, it is evident that the results are not sensitive
to assigned magnitude of the artificial electrical conduc-
tivity as well as to the thickness of the conductive layer
within the investigated ranges. The variation in the mag-
nitude of the artificial electrical conductivity and thickness
of the conductive layer would mostly affect the calculated
frequency of the arc re-attachment process which is
occurring locally in a very small area within extremely
small time scales. This phenomenon cannot be predicted
by a steady-state model.
At the cathode side, no further measures were neces-
sary because of the calculation elements at cathode
interface being large enough to let the temperatures re-
main high enough at the cathode boundary. Moreover, the
high volume flow of inletting cold gas cares of the stability
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
Peer Reviewed
of the arc attachment spot at the surface of cathode. As
the swirling gas blows around the cathodes letting the
cathode surface in the direction of swirling flow gets cold,
at the other side of the cathode a thermodynamically
favorable position for arc attachment evolves.
In this study, solid calculation domains for cathodes
and anode, which allow the solving of the energy conser-
vation and electromagnetic equations beyond the flow
boundaries, are included in the simulations. The cathode
inclusion into the computational domain allows a better
description of the dynamics of the arc, as the coupling
between arc and cathode enables the calculation of the
current density at the cathode tip rather than imposing it
as a Gaussian-like boundary condition profile over the
cathode tip surface (Ref 32).
An electrical potential value of U = 0 V and tempera-
ture value of T = 300 K are assigned to the outer surface of
the solid calculation domain of anode. The total amount of
electric current flowing into the calculation domain is
defined by assigning a uniform current flow density normal
to the outer surface of the cathode domain (see Fig. 7).
The assigned temperature at this boundary amounts to
T = 300 K as well. The direction of the magnetic fields is
specified to be normal to the outer surfaces of the elec-
trodes. In Fig. 7, the flow of electric current density in the
calculation domain is shown exemplarily for the process
parameter set depicted in this figure.
It must be noted that, without including the solid do-
mains to the calculation domain, numerical singularities
occur. Especially for high gas flow rates, the incorporation
of the cathode electrode to the calculation domain seems
to be critical regarding the numerical stability. On the
other hand, it is possible to exclude the coupling of mag-
netic fields induced in the solid domains from the calcu-
lations without causing numerical instabilities. In this case,
however, the converged results using the models with and
without consideration of magnetic fields in the cathode
electrode differs from each other in some cases depending
on the process parameters significantly. In Fig. 8, the
Volume 25(5) June 2016—927
Peer Reviewed
Fig. 7 Representation of the electric current density in calculation domain
deviation of the temperature profiles at the torch outlet is
illustrated exemplarily using the process parameter listed
in this figure. It can be seen that, the temperature profiles
differ from each other significantly. For this process
parameter, the deviation of the results amounts to 5-7% in
case of average temperature and velocity values. For
maximal values of temperature and velocities, the differ-
ence corresponds to about 8%. Apparently, not only the
shape of the arc attachment point but also the position of
it on the anode surface is influenced by the incorporation
of the cathode bodies to the calculation domain. This
seems to have a considerable effect on the characteristics
of the flow downstream, resulting in the above-mentioned
differences in the velocity and temperature profiles of
nozzle outlet. Based on the discussion conducted above
regarding the numerical instabilities and accuracy of the
results, it is recommended to incorporate electrode do-
mains to the calculation domain.
4. Turbulence Model
Due to the high temperature and velocity gradients in
the torch and due to respective high shearing forces
occurring, the flow in the torch is unstable and turbulent.
Since resolving the eddies occurring in a plasma spraying
process by means of a so-called direct numerical simula-
tions (DNS) is extremely challenging—if it is not feasi-
ble—due to their large range of time and length scales and
required computational power, many authors make use of
the so-called turbulence models to describe turbulences
(Ref 13). Although attempts to use of sophisticated tur-
bulence model such as large eddy simulations (LES) have
been conducted by some authors for this purpose (Ref 33),
by far Reynolds-averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) models,
928—Volume 25(5) June 2016
which are based on the solutions of the approximations of
the time-averaged Navier-Stokes equations, dominate the
plasma spraying literature due to their robustness and low
computational costs (Ref 13). Mostly, two-equation
models such as the k-e and RNG k-e are used to calculate
momentum and heat dissipation due to the turbulences in
plasma torch.
In order to describe the turbulent behavior of various
flow types, a wide variety of approaches have been
developed, of which the most important ones are men-
tioned above. Despite all efforts, it has not been yet pos-
sible to be able to describe any kind of turbulent flow with
a single model. All turbulence models underlying
Boussinesq approximation loses namely its validity as
soon as the relationship between the Reynolds stresses
and the viscosity forces is no longer linear. Flows over
curved surfaces, flows with boundary layer separation,
swirling flows and three-dimensional flows are some
examples where the above-mentioned assumption does
not hold. The models therefore need to be adjusted con-
sidering the flow type by means of correction terms or
extensions for each respective problem. The main prob-
lem here is that the models are very sensitive and the
changes need to be validated experimentally when possi-
ble. Considering the above-mentioned argumentation, the
question arises: Which turbulence model is suitable for
plasma spraying systems? Generally speaking, the two-
equation models can be regarded to be more accurate than
zero or one-equation models. The k-e model has proved
its worth in fully turbulent flows at high Reynolds num-
bers. It is known that it produces in stagnation points too
much kinetic energy and separation layers can only be
predicted inaccurately or not at all using this model.
The realizable and the RNG k-e model represents a
further development. The turbulent kinetic energy in the
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology

Fig. 8 Influence of the magnetic fields induced in the cathode domain on to the calculated temperature profiles at the torch outlet
stagnation points is reduced in this case. The k-x model
provides good results in the near-wall region, because it
includes modifications for shear flows. It is also suit-
able for small Reynolds numbers and is numerically very
stable, and reacts however sensitively to small changes in
the turbulence quantities at the edge of the flow area.
The SST model combines the advantages of the k-e
model and the k-x model. It switches between k-e model
and the k-x model automatically through an additionally
introduced function depending on the local Reynolds
numbers. As the Reynolds numbers get smaller at the wall
boundaries, the k- x model comes into effect. Otherwise,
k- e model is used as the turbulence model. Therefore, this
model has been rated to be the more accurate than other
two-equation turbulence models (k-e and k-x) for a wide
range of flows (Ref 34). As already shown in (Ref 26) the
turbulence model has a very significant effect on the
simulation results in case of plasma generator simulations.
Although the absolute values of the results shown in (Ref
26) might differ from the absolute values shown in this
paper due to the fact that the model is further developed
with respect to the mesh model and incorporation of
electrode domains in to the calculation domain, the
statement that the turbulence model has a significant ef-
fect on the results preserves its validity. Further analysis
referring to influence of different turbulence models on to
the results with respect to different process parameters
needs to be conducted and will be the subject of another
study. In this study, Shear Stress Transport (SST) turbu-
lence model has been implemented considering the above-
mentioned theoretical advantages for the simulations.
5. Radiation Model
Another important factor which needs to be taken into
consideration in order to model the plasma spraying
appropriately is the radiative transport. Discussion about
the different radiation mechanisms and direct solution of
the radiative transfer equation in numerical models will go
beyond the scope of this study. For an excellent overview
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
Peer Reviewed
about different sophisticated models which include for
example diffusion-like approaches (P1 approximation) or
Monte Carlo methods, please refer to (Ref 13). Since a
numerical description of the radiative transfer is as a rule
computationally very expensive, net radiative flux in
plasma spraying is usually approximated using net emis-
sion coefficients and implemented in the energy equations
as a source term. Net emission coefficient is the power
radiated per unit volume. Employing this approximation,
the energy loss due to the radiative emission can be cal-
culated in different positions of the calculation domain
depending on the temperature and pressure distributions
in these regions. However, this model neglects the radia-
tive transport within the calculation domain. This means
the model relies on the assumption that a particular point
in plasma column has a form of an imaginary sphere with a
predefined radius in which the emitted radiation can be
reabsorbed. Outside of this sphere, the radiation evolves
through the calculation domain without interacting with
the cold gas flow.
Radiative media are often characterized according to
their optical thickness. In addition to the local parameters
of the plasma i.e., temperature, pressure, the emission
coefficient depends on the thickness of the plasma. The
emitted radiation from the central region which is the
hottest part will be reabsorbed as it crosses the plasma.
Optically thin means that the plasma column has a theo-
retical absorption radius of L = 0 mm and implies that no
reabsorption takes place. However, reabsorption of emit-
ted radiation can play an important role in modeling of
plasma spraying in order to determine the temperature
and velocity profiles accurately. An appropriate charac-
teristic length needs to be defined prior to the calculations
depending on the thickness of the plasma column which is
subject of interest. The choice of this length scale is
however rather arbitrary and is one of the challenges in-
volved in using net emission coefficients (Ref 35).
In literature, net emission coefficients of common
plasma gases and gas mixtures are published by several
authors (Ref 35-38). For Argon gas, the published data
differ only insignificantly from each other. In this study,
Volume 25(5) June 2016—929
Peer Reviewed
Fig. 9 Net radiative flux of pure Ar with respect to temperature
Fig. 10 Calculated temperature profiles at the torch outlet using radiation models with different path lengths
the available data from the work of Menart and Malik
(Ref 35) have been employed. Net radiative flux with re-
spect to temperature which is calculated by multiplying
the net emission coefficients with 4p is presented in Fig. 9.
The simulations are conducted with net emission
coefficients for two different path lengths (L = 1 mm and
L = 10 mm) in order to investigate the sensitivity of the
simulation results to this. Since the nozzle outlet exhibits a
diameter of 9 mm, it is likely that the plasma column(s)
forming between cathodes and anode in plasma chamber
has a theoretical absorption radius between 1 mm and 10
mm. Although it cannot be ruled out that along the plasma
chamber the thickness of the plasma column(s) does not
change, the radiative flux is approximated using a constant
characteristic length for the sake of simplicity. In Fig. 10,
the temperatures profiles, which are calculated using dif-
ferent path lengths for net emission coefficients, are pre-
sented. Here it can be seen that, the profiles exhibit a
930—Volume 25(5) June 2016
similar temperature distribution. For the process param-
eters listed in this figure, the average and maximal values
of temperatures and velocities differ from each other
maximally about 6%. Since the difference between net
radiative fluxes for different length scales is more pro-
nounced in case of higher temperatures (see Fig. 8), the
differences between the simulation results which are cal-
culated using different length scales will be higher in case
of process parameters for which the process temperatures
are rather high. In other words, the results are more sen-
sitive to the chosen length scale when the process tem-
peratures are high. In case of process parameters 180
SLPM volumetric flow rate and 350 A electric current
with in other respects persistent process parameters, the
calculated difference due to the choice of length scales
remains under 3%. For a volumetric gas flow of 180 SLPM
and an electric current of 200 A, the difference amounts to
even around 1%.
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
 Since the results are rather insensitive to the choice of
the length scale as the process temperatures are low, the
definition of the length scale shall rather be based on the
characteristics of the processes with higher process tem-
peratures. As a thumb of rule, higher process tempera-
tures imply a flow with thicker plasma columns (see
Fig. 3). Therefore, the choice of a characteristic length
scale of the flow which is appropriate for the geometry of
the plasma chamber, i.e., nozzle diameter, would depict
the best practice.
6. Conclusion
Although multi-arc systems promise several advantages
regarding the deposition efficiencies and coating qualities
in comparison to the conventional single-arc systems, the
research in the field of modeling multi-arc plasma spraying
systems is still not as intensive as that for the conventional
single-arc spraying systems. In this paper, starting with the
state of the art of plasma modeling, recent activities con-
ducted in this field have been introduced. General flow
characteristics in a multi-arc spraying system, which are
determined based on the numerical analysis, are discussed.
Furthermore, the numerical aspects and approaches
influencing the prediction power of the numerical models
have been analyzed and discussed. These are summarized
in the following:
 The flow reaches along the plasma chamber to higher
Mach numbers. Incompressibility assumption might
lead to considerable errors if the plasma gas reaches
to the supersonic velocities. This is especially the case
for high gas flow rates. For slower process parameters,
assuming the gas as incompressible fluid would not
lead to significant errors.
 The pressure dependency of the thermodynamic and
transport properties of plasma gas should not be ne-
glected. Otherwise, artificially high specific volumes and
velocities of the plasma gas would lead to erroneous
results and in some cases to numerical instabilities.
 Through assigning artificial electrical conductivity to
the elements close to the anode surface, the continuity
of the current flow between plasma column(s) and
anode surface can be assured, limiting the ability of
the simulation to predict the exact position of arc
attachment at the anode surface. Prediction power of
the general flow characteristics is not influenced by
this measure. Results are not sensitive to assigned
magnitude of the artificial electrical conductivity as
well as to the thickness of the conductive layer.
 It is recommended to incorporate electrode domains
to the calculation domain. This is critical for the
numerical stability. Resolving the magnetic fields in
cathode electrode by incorporating cathode domain
improves the prediction power of the model.
 The simulations results are very sensitive to the
implemented turbulence model. Regarding the theo-
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology
retical advantages of the SST turbulence model, this
Peer Reviewed
model seems to be appropriate for the calculation of
the plasma spraying systems.
 The results are sensitive to the chosen length scale
when the process temperatures are high. In case of
lower process temperatures, the results are rather
insensitive to this.
The results obtained under consideration of the above-
mentioned numerical aspects together with the verifica-
tion of these results by means of advanced computer
topographical experiments will be the subject of the fur-
ther work. The above-mentioned conclusions and discus-
sions conducted in this paper shall serve as a guideline and
aid for the further modeling activities, which will be con-
ducted to investigate the underlying fundamentals of
multi-arc plasma spraying.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
port of the German Research Foundation (DFG) within
the Project ‘‘Homogenization of Coating Properties in
Atmospheric Plasma Spraying’’ (PAK 193/BO1979/7-2).
References
1. K. Bobzin, Oberflächentechnik für den Maschinenbau, Wiley-
VCH Verlag, Germany, 2013, p 293-321, (in German)
2. P. Fauchais, Topical Review: Understanding Plasma Spraying, J.
Phys. D, 2004, 37, p 86-108. doi:10.1088/0022-3727/37/9/R02
3. K. Landes, J. Zierhut, and G. Barbezat, Triplex—A High Per-
formance Plasma Torch, Tagungsband Conference Proceedings,
E. Lugscheider and R A. Kammer, Ed., March 17-19,
1999(Düsseldorf, Germany), DVS Deutscher Verband für Sch-
weißen, p 271-274
4. J. Zierhut, P. Halsbeck, K. Landes, G. Barbezat, M. Müller, and
M. Schütz, Triplex—An Innovative Three-Cathode Plasma
Torch, Thermal Spray: Meeting the Challenges of the 21st Cen-
tury, C. Coddet, Ed., May 25-29, 1998 (Nice, France), ASM
International, 1998, 1693 p 1997 (Indianapolis, IN), ASM
International, 1998
5. K. Landes, M. Dzulko, E. Theophile, and J. Zierhut, New
Developments in DC-Plasma Torches, Progress in Plasma Pro-
cessing of Materials, 2003, ISBN Print: 978-1-56700-192-1
6. J.J. Gonzalez, P. Freton, and A. Gleizes, Comparisons Between
Two- and Three-Dimensional Models: Gas Injection and Arc
Attachment, J. Phys. D, 2002, 35, p 3181-3191
7. H.-P. Li, E. Pfender, and X. Chen, Application of SteenbeckÕs
Minimum Principle for Three-Dimensional Modeling of DC Arc
Plasma Torches, J. Phys. D, 2003, 36, p 1084-1096
8. C. Baudry, A. Vardelle, G. Mariaux, C. Delalondre, and
E.Meillot, Three-Dimensional and Time-Dependent Model of
the Dynamic Behavior of the Arc in a Plasma Spray Torch,
Thermal Spray 2004: Advances in Technology and Application,
ASM International, May 10-12, 2004 (Osaka, Japan), ASM
International, 2004
9. C. Chazelas, E. Moreau, G. Mariaux, and A. Vardelle,
Numerical Modeling of Arc Behavior in a DC Plasma Torch,
High Temp. Mater. Process., 2006, 10, p 393-406
10. J.F. Coudert, M.P. Planche, and P. Fauchais, Characterization of
D.C. Plasma Torch Voltage Fluctuations, Plasma Chem. Plasma
Process., 1996, 16(1), p 211s-227s
Volume 25(5) June 2016—931
 11. J.-L. Dorier, M. Gindrat, C. Hollenstein, A. Salito, M. Loch, and
Peer Reviewed
G. Barbezat, Time Resolved Imaging of Anodic Arc Root
Behavior During Fluctuations of a DC Plasma Spraying Torch,
IEEE Trans. Plasma Sci., 2001, 29(3), p 494-500
12. K. Ramachandran, N. Kikukawa, and H. Nishiyama, 3D
Modeling of Plasma-Particle Interactions in a Plasma Jet Under
Dense Loading Conditions, Thin Solid Films, 2003, 435(1-2),
p 298-306
13. J. Trelles, C. Chazelas, A. Vardelle, and J. Heberlein, Arc
Plasma Torch Modeling, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 2009, 18(5-
6), p 728-752
14. H.C. Kim, F. Iza, S.S. Yang, M. Radmilovic-Radjenovic, and
J.K. Lee, Particle and Fluid Simulations of Low-Temperature
Plasma Discharges: Benchmarks and Kinetic Effects, J. Phys. D,
2005, 38, p 283-301
15. V. Rat, A.B. Murphy, J. Aubreton, M.F. Elchinger, and P.
Fauchais, Treatment of Non-Equilibrium Phenomena in Ther-
mal Plasma Flows, J. Phys. D, 2008, 41(18). doi:10.1088/0022-
3727/41/18/183001
16. A. Gleizes, J.J. Gonzalez, and P. Freton, Topical Review:
Thermal Plasma Modelling, J. Phys. D, 2005, 38(9), http://
dx.doi.org/10.1088/0022-3727/38/9/R01
17. K. Bobzin, N. Bagcivan, L. Zhao, I. Petkovic, J. Schein, K.
Hartz-Behrend, S. Kirner, J.-L. Marqués, and G. Forster,
Modelling and Diagnostics of Multiple Cathodes Plasma Torch
System for Plasma Spraying, Front. Mech. Eng., 2011, 6(3), p
324-331
18. K. Bobzin, N. Bagcivan, I. Petkovic, F.-W. Bach, K. Möhwald,
K. Hartz, J. Schein, K. Landes, and S. Zimmermann, Homoge-
nization of Coating Properties in Atmospheric Plasma Spraying :
Technical Objectives and First Results of a DFG Funded Re-
search Group, Thermal Spray 2008: Crossing Borders, on CD-
ROM, E. Lugscheider, Ed., June 2-4, 2008 (Maastricht, The
Netherlands), DVS-German Welding Society, 2008, p 153-158
19. F-W. Bach, K. Möhwald, A. Laarmann, and T. Wenz, Modern
Surface Technology, Wiley, New York, 2006, p 171-175
20. C.C. Berndt, K.A. Khor, and E.F. Lugscheider, Thermal Spray
2001: New Surfaces for a New Millennium, C.C. Berndt, K.A.
Khor, and E.F. Lugscheider, Ed., May 28-30, 2001 (Singapore),
ASM International, 2001, p 1272-1276
21. A. Vardelle, C. Moreau, N.-J. Themelis, and C. Chazelas, A
Perspective on Plasma Spray Technology, Plasma Chem. Plasma
Process, 2015, 35(3), p 491-509
22. K. Bobzin, F.B.G. Ernst, J.B. Zwick, K.R.M. Richardt, D.
Sporer, and R. Molz, Triplex Pro 200 : Potentials and Advanced
Applications, Thermal Spray 2007: Global Coating Solutions, on
CD-ROM, B.R. Marple, M.M. Hyland, Y.-C. Lau, C.-J. Li, R.S.
Lima, and G. Montavon, Ed., May 14-16, 2007 (Beijing, China),
ASM International, 2007
23. F. Muggli, R. Molz, R. McCullough, and D. Hawley, Improve-
ment of Plasma Gun Performance Using Comprehensive Fluid
Element Modeling I, Thermal Spray 2007: Global Coating
Solutions, on CD-ROM, B.R. Marple, M.M. Hyland, Y.-C. Lau,
C.-J. Li, R.S. Lima, and G. Montavon, Ed., May 14-16, 2007
(Beijing, China), ASM International, 2007
932—Volume 25(5) June 2016
24. K. Bobzin, N. Bagcivan, and I. Petkovic, Numerical and
Experimental Determination of Plasma Temperature During
Air Plasma Spraying with a Multiple Cathodes Torch, J. Mater.
Process. Technol., 2011, 211(10), p 1620-1628
25. K. Bobzin, N. Kopp, T. Warda, M. Schäfer, and M. Öte, A
Numerical Investigation: Influence of the Operating Gas on the
Flow Characteristics of a Three-Cathode Air Plasma Spraying
System, Thermal Spray 2013: Innovative Coating Solutions for
the Global Economy, Springer, 2013, May 13-15, 2013, p 400-
405
26. K. Bobzin and M. Öte, A Numerical Investigation: Air Plasma
Spraying by Means of a Three-Cathode Spraying Torch, Ther-
mal Spray Bulletin, 2015, 8(2), p 118-125
27. A.B. Murphy, Transport Coefficients of Argon, Nitrogen,
Oxygen, Argon-Nitrogen, and Argon-Oxygen Plasmas, Plasma
Chem. Plasma Process., 1994, 14(4), p 451-490
28. A.B. Murphy, Transport Coefficients of Hydrogen and Argon-
Hydrogen Plasmas, Plasma Chem. Plasma Process., 2000, 20(3),
p 279-297
29. C. Baudry, A. Vardelle, and G. Mariaux, Numerical Modeling
of a DC Non-transferred Plasma Torch: Movement of the Arc
Anode Attachment and Resulting Anode Erosion, High Temp.
Plasma Process., 2005, 9, p 1-15
30. E. Moreau, C. Chazelas, G. Mariaux, and A. Vardelle, Modeling
of the Restrike Mode Operation of a DC Plasma Spray Torch, J.
Therm. Spray Technol., 2006, 15(4), p 524-530
31. J.P. Trelles, E. Pfender, and J.V.R. Heberlein, Modeling of the
Arc Reattachment Process in Plasma Torches, J. Phys. D, 2007,
40, p 5635-5648
32. M. Alaya, C. Chazelas, G. Mariaux, and A. Vardelle, Arc-
Cathode Coupling in the Modeling of a Conventional DC
Plasma Spray Torch, J. Therm. Spray Technol., 2015, 24(1-2), p
3-10
33. E. Ghedini and V. Colombo, Time Dependent 3D Large Eddy
Simulation of a DC Non-transferred Arc Plasma Spraying Torch
with Particle Injection, AUTORI, VARI, 18th International
Symposium on Plasma Chemistry Abstract and Full-Papers CD,
International Plasma Chemistry Society, KYOTO, 2007, p 115
34. J.E. Bardina, P.G. Huang, and T.J. Coakley, Turbulence
Modeling Validation, Testing and Development, 1997, NASA
Technical Memorandum 110446
35. J. Menart and S. Malik, Net Emission Coefficients for Argon-
Iron Thermal Plasmas, J. Phys. D, 2002, 35(9), p 2002.
doi:10.1088/0022-3727/35/9/306
36. A. Gleizes, J.J. Gonzalez, B. Liani, and G. Raynal, Calculation
of Net Emission Coefficient of Thermal Plasmas in Mixtures of
Gas with Metallic Vapour, J. Phys. D, 1993, 26(11), p 1921-1927
37. J. Menart, J. Heberlein, and E. Pfender, Line-by-Line Method
of Calculating Emission Coefficients for Thermal Plasmas
Consisting of Monatomic Species, J. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat.
Transf., 1996, 56(3), p 377-398
38. B. Liani, M. Rahmouni, A.H. Belbachir, H. Riad, and A.
Gleizes, Computation of Net Emission of CH4-H2 Thermal
Plasmas, J. Phys. D, 1997, 30(21). doi:10.1088/0022-3727/30/21/
010
Journal of Thermal Spray Technology