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Mayer-Jensen shell model and magic numbers

Article  in  Resonance · September 2007

DOI: 10.1007/s12045-007-0121-3

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 GENERAL  ARTICLE

Mayer–Jensen Shell Model and Magic Numbers

An Independent Nucleon Model with Spin-Orbit Coupling

R Velusamy

M a n y n u c le a r m o d e ls h a v e b e e n p u t fo rw a rd sin c e
1 9 3 2 . A m o n g th e m th e c o lle c tiv e m o d e l p ro -
p o se d b y A a g e N ie ls B o h r a n d B e n R o y M o t-
te lso n a n d th e n u c le a r sh e ll m o d e l p ro p o se d b y
M a r ia G o e p p e rt M a y e r a n d J o h a n n e s H a n s D
J e n se n a re th e tw o m o s t su c c e ssfu l m o d e ls. A
R Velusamy is the Head of
n u m b e r o f e x p e rim e n ta l fa c ts lik e th e e x iste n c e
the PG Department of o f m a g ic n u m b e rs c o m p ile d b y M a ria M a y e r le d
Physics, Ayya Nadar to th e d isc o v e ry o f th e n u c le a r sh e ll m o d e l. T h e
Janaki Ammal College, a d d itio n o f a n u c le a r sp in -o rb it c o u p lin g fo r c e
Sivakasi, Tamilnadu. His
to th e m e a n ¯ e ld o f th e n u c le o n s su c c e ssfu lly
current interests are in
quantum dots and wave
p r e d ic te d th e n u c le a r m a g ic n u m b e rs a n d m a n y
packet dynamics. o th e r p r o p e r tie s o f n u c le i.
1 . In tro d u c tio n
O n e ca n leg itim a tely cla im th a t n u clea r p h y sics b eg a n
w ith th e d iscov ery o f ra d io a ctiv ity in 1 8 9 6 b y B ecq u erel
th o u g h R u th erfo rd a n d h is co llea g u es d iscov ered th e n u -
cleu s o n ly in 1 9 1 1 fro m th e resu lts o f th eir ex p erim en ts
o n sca tterin g o f ® -p a rticles b y a g o ld fo il. R u th erfo rd
im m ed ia tely p ro p o sed h is m o d el fo r th e a to m in w h ich
th e p o sitiv e ch a rg es a re co n cen tra ted in a v ery sm a ll re-
g io n , th e d im en sio n o f w h ich is n ea rly h u n d red th o u sa n d
tim es sm a ller th a n th a t o f th e a to m ic ra d iu s a n d elec-
tro n s o rb itin g a ro u n d th is co re, w ell o u tsid e it, ju st lik e
th e p la n ets th a t o rb it a ro u n d th e su n .
A cco rd in g to cla ssica l electro d y n a m ics, a n y a ccelera ted
ch a rg e m u st em it ra d ia tio n . S in ce th e o rb itin g electro n
is a ccelera ted d u e to th e C o u lo m b fo rce b etw een it a n d
Keywords th e p o sitiv ely ch a rg ed n u cleu s, it sh o u ld co n tin u o u sly
Nuclear shell model, magic num- em it electro m a g n etic ra d ia tio n , th ereb y lo sin g en erg y,
bers, spin-orbit coupling.
a n d sh o u ld th erefo re sp ira l in clo ser a n d clo ser to th e

12 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

n u cleu s u n til it co m es in to co n ta ct w ith it. T h e R u th er- The Rutherford

fo rd a to m ic m o d el w a s th u s in co m p a tib le w ith cla ssica l atomic model was
p h y sics. F u rth er, it d id n o t a cco u n t fo r th e ex p erim en - incompatible with
ta lly o b serv ed d eta ils o f th e a to m ic sp ectra .
classical physics.
T h e n ex t m a jo r step to ex p la in th e a to m ic stru ctu re
ca m e in 1 9 1 3 w ith N iels B o h r's q u a n tu m th eo ry o f th e
h y d ro g en sp ectru m b a sed o n R u th erfo rd 's m o d el o f th e
a to m . B o h r's fa m o u s a ssu m p tio n s, w h ich led h im to a
su ccessfu l ex p la n a tio n o f th e sp ectru m o f a to m ic h y d ro -
g en , a re:

1 . T h e o rb ita l a n g u la r m o m en tu m o f th e electro n is
restricted to b e a n in teg ra l m u ltip le o f h = 2 ¼ .

2 . A q u a n tu m o f en erg y is em itted w h en th e electro n

ch a n g es fro m a n o rb it o f h ig h er en erg y to a n o th er
o f low er en erg y, th e en erg y h º ca rried b y th is q u a n -
tu m b ein g eq u a l to th e d i® eren ce in th e en erg y o f
th e tw o lev els.

3 . A n electro n in its o rb it o f low est en erg y d o es n o t

ra d ia te.

B o h r tried to u se th ese p rin cip les to ex p la in th e a to m ic

stru ctu re o f h eav ier elem en ts, b u t w ith little su ccess.
E v en fo r h y d ro g en , B o h r's th eo ry co u ld n o t ex p la in th e
¯ n e stru ctu re lin es.
F u rth er d ev elo p m en ts in o u r u n d ersta n d in g o f th e a to m ic
stru ctu re ca m e th ro u g h th e d e B ro g lie w av e-p a rticle d u -
a lity. F o llow in g th is id ea o f w av e-p a rticle d u a lity, H eisen -
b erg , B o h r, S ch rÄo d in g er a n d D ira c esta b lish ed Q u a n tu m
M ech a n ics w h ich co u ld ex p la in th ese m icro sco p ic p h e-
n o m en a a t th e a to m ic lev el w ith th eo retica l m eth o d s Quantum
w h ich u se id ea s o f p ro b a b ility. B y 1 9 2 8 , a th eo ry w h ich Mechanics can
co u ld ex p la in th e a to m ic stru ctu re w a s w ell fo u n d ed , b u t explain the atomic
a th eo retica l d escrip tio n o f n u clea r stru ctu re w a s still in structure
its in fa n cy. completely.

RESONANCE  December 2007 13

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

The nature of the 2 . N u c le a r M o d e ls

strong nuclear force E v en a fter th e ex p erim en ta l d iscov ery o f th e n eu tro n b y
acting between the C h a d w ick in 1 9 3 2 , th e ex p erim en ta l in fo rm a tio n ava il-
neutrons and protons a b le a b o u t th e n u clei, d iscov ered so fa m o u sly b y R u th er-
inside the nucleus fo rd , w a s ra th er sp a rse. T h e p h en o m en o n o f n u clea r
was not completely ra d io a ctiv ity, a n o t to o a ccu ra te ch a rt o f a few k n ow n
understood and a iso to p es (n u clei w ith th e sa m e n u m b er o f p ro to n s Z b u t
unique, closed form d i® erin g n u m b er o f n eu tro n s N ), a n estim a te o f th e n u -
expression for this clea r ra d iu s (p ro p o rtio n a l to A 1 = 3 , w h ere A is th e m a ss
force such as is n u m b er) a n d a few n u clea r rea ctio n s w a s a ll th a t w a s
available for the k n ow n . A s tim e w en t o n , ex p erim en ts p rov id ed m o re a c-
Coulomb force cu ra te in fo rm a tio n o n n u clea r sizes, a p p rox im a tely g iv en
between the electron b y 1 :4 £ A 1 = 3 fm , (1 fm = 1 0 ¡ 1 5 m ) a n d th e n u clea r sp in s
and the nucleus in the a s w ell a s m a g n etic m o m en ts o f th e n u clei. F u rth er,
atomic case, was not th e n a tu re o f th e stro n g n u clea r fo rce a ctin g b etw een
known. th e n eu tro n s a n d p ro to n s (co llectiv ely ca lled n u cleo n s),
in sid e th e n u cleu s w a s n o t co m p letely u n d ersto o d a n d
a u n iq u e, clo sed fo rm ex p ressio n fo r th is fo rce su ch a s
is ava ila b le fo r th e C o u lo m b fo rce b etw een th e electro n
a n d th e n u cleu s in th e a to m ic ca se, w a s n o t k n ow n . T h is
m a d e th e p ro b lem o f ex p la in in g th e n u clea r stru ctu re
m u ch m o re d i± cu lt th a n in th e a to m ic ca se.
In a to m s, in tera ctio n o f th e electro n s w ith ea ch o th er
a ® ects th eir m o tio n a ro u n d th e n u cleu s o n ly in a sm a ll
w ay. H ow ev er, it is th e stro n g in tera ctio n a m o n g th e
m a n y n u cleo n s in th e n u cleu s th a t h o ld s th e n u cleu s to -
g eth er. T h erefo re, it is n o t p o ssib le to u n d ersta n d th e
stru ctu re o f a n u cleu s in a sim p le m a n n er, a s is th e ca se
fo r a to m s. T h ere w e ju st h av e to so lv e, u sin g th e to o ls o f
q u a n tu m m ech a n ics, a sim p le tw o -b o d y C o u lo m b fo rce
p ro b lem in v o lv in g th e electro n a n d th e n u cleu s in th e
It is not possible to
a to m . In fa ct, th e n u cleu s is a u n iq u e, m a n y b o d y sy s-
understand the
tem . N eith er d o es it h av e sm a ll en o u g h n u m b er o f p a r-
structure of a
ticles, lik e th e electro n s a n d n u cleu s in a n a to m , w ith
nucleus in a simple
p recisely k n ow n law s d escrib in g th e fo rce a ctin g a m o n g
manner, as is the
th em , h en ce a m en a b le to a n a ly sis in term s o f th is tw o
case for atoms. b o d y fo rce; n o r d o es it h av e a h u g e n u m b er o f p a rti-

14 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

cles, lik e a m o le o f g a s, w h ere w e k n ow fo r su re th a t

sta tistica l m eth o d s ca n b e a p p lied to u n d ersta n d th e
m a cro sco p ic p ro p erties o f th e m a n y -b o d y sy stem . A s
a resu lt o f th ese th eo retica l d i± cu lties, a t lea st in th e
ea rly d ay s, th e m o tio n o f n u cleo n s in sid e a n u cleu s a n d
th e n u clea r stru ctu re, co u ld o n ly b e m o d eled in a n a p -
p rox im a te m a n n er. T h is w a s th e g en esis o f th e d i® eren t
n u clea r m o d els th a t w ere p ro p o sed h isto rica lly.
M a n y n u clea r m o d els h a d b een p ro p o sed sin ce 1 9 3 2 .
T h e liq u id d ro p m o d el w a s h isto rica lly th e ¯ rst to su c-
cessfu lly d escrib e m a n y o f th e o b serv ed n u clea r p ro p er-
ties. It is b a sed o n th e a n a lo g y o f a n u cleu s to a d ro p
o f in co m p ressib le ° u id . In p a rticu la r, it w a s a b le to ex -
p la in w h y th e n u clea r b in d in g en erg y is p ro p o rtio n a l to
th e n u cleo n n u m b er (A ). N iels B o h r a n d J o h n W h eeler
u sed it to ca lcu la te su ccessfu lly n u clea r rea ctio n cro ss-
sectio n s a n d to ex p la in n u clea r ¯ ssio n . T h e m o st su c-
cessfu l o f th e n u clea r m o d els a re:
² T h e sp h erica l n u clea r sh ell m o d el.
² T h e n u clea r co llectiv e m o d el.
T h e fo rm er w a s p ro p o sed in d ep en d en tly in 1 9 4 9 b y M a ria
G o ep p ert M ay er a n d b y J H a n s D J en sen a n d cow o rk -
ers. T h is w o n th em th e N o b el P rize in p h y sics in 1 9 6 3 . In fact there are six
(F o r th e life h isto ry o f M a ria G o ep p ert M ay er see th e father-son pairs
p rev io u s a rticle in th is issu e o f R eson an ce. A sh o rt b i- (Thompson, Bragg,
o g ra p h y o f J H D J en sen is g iv en in B ox 1 ). T h e la tter Bohr, Siegbahn, von
w a s d ev elo p ed in 1 9 5 2 b y A a g e B o h r (so n o f N iels B o h r) Euler, Kornberg)
a n d B en R oy M o ttelso n fo llow in g a n ea rlier su g g estio n winning the Nobel
b y J a m es R a in w a ter a n d w o n th em th e N o b el P rize in Prize, the Braggs
p h y sics in 1 9 7 5 . In terestin g ly, b o th N iels B o h r a n d h is
winning it together,
so n A a g e B o h r w o n N o b el P rizes.
one father-daughter
3 . M a g ic N u m b e r s pair (the Curies) and
one mother-daughter
T h e a to m ic sh ell stru ctu re is essen tia l in ex p la in in g th e pair winning it
ch em ica l p erio d icity o f th e elem en ts. In th e p erio d ic together (the Curies).

RESONANCE  December 2007 15

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

Box 1. Biography of J.Hans D Jensen

J H D Jensen was born on 25 June 1907 in Hamburg, Germany. His father Karl Jensen was a gardener and
mother was Helene Ohm Jensen. His outstanding performance in school won him a scholarship. He
studied physics at the University of Hamburg. In 1932 he was awarded PhD degree by the University of
Hamburg and obtained DSc from the same university. He was appointed lecturer in the university in 1937.
In 1941 he moved to Hannover and joined as professor of theoretical physics at the Technische
Hochschule. Jensen became professor at the University of Heidelberg in 1949. From 1955 he served as
the co-editor of the journal Zeitschrift für Physik. Jensen, H E Suess and O Haxel, and Maria Goeppert
Mayer proposed the shell model independently in 1949. Jensen told he got the idea of the spin-orbit
coupling, as explanation for the magic numbers, one day while shaving!

Jensen first applied quantum theory to the study of crystals and investigated the properties of crystals under
high pressure. He then became interested in building a theoretical model of the atomic nucleus. He later
also showed that rays or particles discharged by the nuclei of radioactive atoms are caught within a crystal
in a backward movement similar to the recoil of a rifle. Jensen died on 11 February 1973 in Heidelberg,
Germany.

ta b le, th e a p p ea ra n ce o f a n in ert g a s in d ica tes th a t a

p a rticu la r electro n sh ell o r su b -sh ell is clo sed , to g iv e
th is a to m its sp ecia l sta b le ch a ra cter. W h en th e a to m ic
n u m b er Z is eq u a l to 2 (H e), 1 0 (N e), 1 8 (A r), 3 6 (K r),
5 4 (X e),... th e ch em ica l elem en t is m o st sta b le a n d d o es
n o t in tera ct w ith o th er a to m s to fo rm m o lecu les. In th e
a to m ic sh ell m o d el, th e ¯ llin g o f sh ells a n d su b -sh ells
a n d th e a p p ea ra n ce o f g a p s in th e en erg y sp ectru m o f
th e sh ells (sig n i¯ ca n t ju m p s in th e electro n en erg y in
g o in g fro m o n e sh ell to th e n ex t) a re u sed to ex p la in
th ese m a g ic n u m b ers.
A fter 1 9 3 2 , ex p erim en ta l d a ta o n n u clei rep ea ted ly re-
v ea led th a t in th e n u clea r ca se a lso , th ere ex ist a series
o f m a g ic n u m b ers, ca lled so , b eca u se n u clei w ith th ese
va lu es fo r th e a to m ic n u m b er Z a n d / o r n eu tro n n u m -
b er N , sh ow ed ex cep tio n a l sta b ility. It w a s fo u n d th a t
w h en th e p ro to n n u m b er a n d / o r th e n eu tro n n u m b er
w a s eq u a l to o n e o f th ese m agic n u m bers:
2 , 8 , 2 0 , 2 8 , (4 0 ), 5 0 , 8 2 , 1 2 6

16 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

th en th e n u cleu s is p a rticu la rly sta b le a n d h a s a sp h er- A nucleus whose

ica l sh a p e. T h e ev id en ce fo r th e n u m b er 4 0 is w ea k er, atomic number Z
th a t is w h y it is sh ow n in p a ren th esis. T h ese n u m b ers and/or neutron
a re ca lled m a g ic fo r n u clei b eca u se o f th e sta b ility o f number N is equal
su ch n u clei. A lth o u g h th e m ag ic n u m b ers a re d i® eren t to one of the
fo r th o se in a to m , th e p resen ce o f n u clea r sta b ility su g - magic numbers,
g ests so m e ty p e o f sh ell stru ctu re a n d sh ell clo su re a s shows exceptional
fo u n d in a to m s. M a g ic n u m b ers a n d m a n y o th er ex -
stability.
p erim en ta l fa cts led to th e d evelo p m en t o f n u clea r sh ell
m o d el. W e list th ese b elow in th e n ex t sectio n .
4 . F a c ts S u p p o rtin g N u c le a r S h e ll M o d e l
T h e fo llow in g ex p erim en ta l facts o b serv ed in th e n u clei
stro n g ly su g g est a sh ell stru ctu re fo r th e n u cleo n s in
n u cleu s.

1 . B eg in n in g w ith H , C a (Z = 2 0 ) is th e ¯ rst elem en t

w ith m o re th a n fo u r sta b le iso to p es in clu d in g 42 00 C a
a n d 42 80 C a in d ica tin g th a t Z a n d N o f 2 0 a n d 2 8
h av e sta b ility.
2 . T h e elem en t S n (Z = 5 0) h a s 1 0 sta b le iso to p es,
w h ich is m o re th a n a n y o th er elem en t. T h e ele-
m en t 2 08 93 B i (N = 1 2 6 ) is th e la st sta b le iso to p e.
3 . F o r N = 2 0 , th ere a re ¯ v e sta b le iso to n es (sa m e N
b u t d i® eren t Z ): 13 66 S r, 13 77 C l, 13 88 A r, 13 99 K a n d 24 00 C a .
4 . In th e ev en Z (Z > 2 8 ) n u clid es, n o iso to p e h a s
a n a b u n d a n ce o f m o re th a n 6 0 p ercen t, w ith th ree
ex cep tio n s: 83 88 S r (N = 50 ), 1 35 86 B a (N = 8 2 ) a n d
140
2 8 C e (N = 8 2 ) in d ica tin g th a t th e n u clei w ith
n eu tro n n u m b er 5 0 o r 8 2 a re m o re sta b le.
5 . T h e sep a ra tio n en erg y for o n e p ro to n o r o n e n eu -
tro n is v ery la rg e fo r a n u cleu s w ith Z o r N m a g ic.
6 . T h e p ro b a b ility o f n u clei w ith n eu tro n n u m b ers
2 0 , 2 8 , 5 0 , 8 2 o r 1 2 6 ca p tu rin g a n eu tro n is m u ch
less th a n th a t o f th eir n eig h b o u rin g n u clei.

RESONANCE  December 2007 17

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

7 . U n u su a lly h ig h ¯ rst ex cited sta te en erg y is o b -

serv ed fo r th e d o u b le m a g ic n u clei 42 H e, 1 68 O , 42 00 C a ,
48 90 128
2 0 C a , 4 0 Z r a n d 8 2 P b . B ox 2 g iv es th e m a g ic n u m -
b er n u clid es.

5 . N u c le a r S h e ll M o d e l
T h e ex isten ce o f m a g ic n u m b er m ay b e ex p la in ed b y
a n in d ep en d en t-p a rticle m o d el. In th is m o d el, th e n u -
cleo n s d o n o t in tera ct w ith ea ch o th er; th e e® ect o f a ll
o th er n u cleo n s in th e n u cleu s is rep la ced b y a n av era g e o r
m ea n ¯ eld th a t b in d s in d iv id u a l n u cleo n s to th e n u cleu s.
W h en o n e ca lcu la tes in th is p ictu re, u sin g q u a n tu m m e-
ch a n ics, th e a llow ed en erg y lev els th a t a sin g le n u cleo n
m ay o ccu p y, o n e ¯ n d s th a t th ere ex ist g ro u p s (sh ells) o f

Box 2. Table of Magic Number Nuclides

Number of protons 2 8 20 28 50 82 126

4 16 40 58 112 204
He O Ca Ni Sn Pb
17 42 60 114 206
O Ca Ni Sn Pb
18 43 61 115 207
O Ca Ni Sn Pb
44 62 116 208
Ca Ni Sn Pb
46 64 117
Ca Ni Sn
48 118
Ca Sn
119
Sn
120
Sn
122
Sn
124
Sn

Number of neutrons 2 8 20 28 50 82 126

4 15 36 48 86 136 208
He N S Ca Kr Xe Pb
16 37 50 87 138 209
O Cl Ti Rb Ba Bi
38 51 88 139
Ar V Sr La
39 52 89 140
K Cr Y Ce
40 54 90 141
Ca Fe Zr Pr
92 142
Mo Nd
144
Sm

18 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

clo sely sp a ced a llow ed lev els w ith la rg e g a p s b etw een The existence of
th ese g ro u p s. T h e n u m b er o f th ese clo sely sp a ced lev els magic numbers
w ith la rg e g a p s, th u s p rov id es a n u n d ersta n d in g o f th e can be understood
ex isten ce o f th e ex p erim en ta lly o b serv ed m a g ic n u m b ers. in terms of the
existence of large
If th e n eu tro n s o r p ro to n s ¯ ll co m p letely th e sh ell (clo sed
energy gaps
sh ell) th en th e en erg y req u ired to ex cite th e n u cleu s, b y
between groups of
tra n sitio n o f so m e o f th e n u cleo n s to a h ig h er en erg y
lev el, is m u ch la rg er th a n o th erw ise. In fa ct so m e k n ow l- single particle
ed g e a b o u t th e fo rce b etw een tw o n u cleo n s (o r a ltern a - states.
tiv ely th e in ter-n u cleo n p o ten tia l) w a s o b ta in ed b y ex -
p erim en ta l stu d y o f th e p ro to n -n eu tro n b o u n d sta te (th e
d eu tero n ) a s w ell a s fro m p ro to n -p ro to n a n d p ro to n -
d eu tero n sca tterin g ex p erim en ts. T h e ex p erim en ta l re-
su lts ca n b e eq u a lly w ell ex p la in ed b y d i® erin g fu n c-
tio n a l d ep en d en ce o f th is p o ten tia l o n th e in ter-n u cleo n
d ista n ce a n d th u s d o n o t d eterm in e it u n iq u ely. T h e
av era g e p o ten tia l o f th e n u clea r sh ell m o d el ca n th u s b e
ta k en to h av e a n y fo rm fro m a sim p le sq u a re-w ell p o ten -
tia l to th e m u ch m o re co m p lica ted d efo rm ed p o ten tia l.
S o lv in g th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n w ill th en g iv e th e a l-
low ed en erg y lev els th a t a n u cleo n m ay o ccu p y. T a k in g
th e av era g e p o ten tia l o f th e n u cleo n in sid e th e n u cleu s
to b e th e iso tro p ic, th ree-d im en sio n a l sim p le h a rm o n ic
p o ten tia l, th e n u m b er o f n u cleo n s n eed ed to g et a clo sed Taking the average
sh ell a re th en fo u n d to b e potential of the
nucleon inside the
2 , 8 , 2 0 , 4 0 , 7 0 , 1 1 2 , 1 6 8 , ... nucleus to be the
T h u s o n e sees th a t th e h a rm o n ic o scilla to r p o ten tia l a c- isotropic, three-
co u n ts fo r th e m a g ic n u m b ers 2 , 8 , 2 0 a n d 4 0 . B u t a d e- dimensional simple
v ia tio n is o b serv ed b ey o n d th ese n u m b ers. In fa ct, n o n e harmonic potential,
o f th e p o ten tia ls in d ica ted b y th e tw o n u cleo n d a ta w a s the number of
fo u n d to b e ca p a b le o f ex p la in in g a ll th e m a g ic n u m b ers. nucleons needed to
get a closed shell
6 . S p in -O rb it E n e rg y are then found to be
T h e d ep a rtu re o f th e ex p erim en ta lly o b serv ed seq u en ce 2, 8, 20, 40, 70, 112,
o f m a g ic n u m b ers fro m th o se ca lcu la ted in th e sim p le 168, ...

RESONANCE  December 2007 19

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

1
S B McGrayne, Nobel Prize
Women in Science, Joseph
Henry Press, Washington DC,
1998.
p ictu re a b ov e, in ca se o f n u m b ers b ey o n d 4 0 , w a s ex -
p la in ed b y ta k in g in to a cco u n t th e e® ect o f sin g le p a r-
ticle sp in -o rb it en erg y. T h is w a s su g g ested b y M a ria
G o ep p ert M ay er a s w ell a s b y H a x el, J en sen a n d S u ess
in d ep en d en tly, in 1 9 4 9 . T h eir k ey step w a s th e a d d itio n
o f a n u clea r sp in -o rb it co u p lin g fo rce to th e av era g e ¯ eld
felt b y ea ch in d iv id u a l n u cleo n . T h ey a ssu m ed th e n u -
cleu s a s a series o f clo sed sh ells a n d th a t p a irs o f p ro to n s
a n d n eu tro n s p refer to co u p le to g eth er.
M a ria G o ep p ert M ay er d escrib ed h er id ea in th e fo llow -
in g (to h er d a u g h ter)1 : T hin k of a room fu ll of w altzers.
S u ppose they go rou n d the room in circles, each circle
closed w ithin an other. E ach circle correspon ds to an
en ergy level. T hen im agin e that in each circle, you can
¯ t tw ice as m an y dan cers by havin g on e pair goes clock-
w ise an d an other pair goes cou n ter-clockw ise. T hen add
on e m ore variation ; all the dan cers are spin n in g tw irlin g
rou n d an d rou n d like tops as they circle the room , each
pair both tw irlin g an d circlin g. B u t on ly som e of those
that go cou n ter-clockw ise are tw irlin g cou n ter-clockw ise;
the others are tw irlin g clockw ise w hile circlin g cou n ter-
clockw ise. T he sam e is tru e of those that are dan c-
in g arou n d clockw ise; som e tw irl clockw ise, others tw irl
cou n ter-clockw ise .

Nucleons of a given
T h e p o in t is th a t it is ea sier to sp in in o n e d irectio n
th a n in th e o th er d irectio n . T h e co u p les sp in n in g in th e
orbital angular
ea sier d irectio n w ill n eed slig h tly low er en erg y th a n th e
momentum have two
co u p les sp in n in g in th e m o re d i± cu lt d irectio n . T h ere-
possible energies,
fo re, fo r a g iv en circle o f d a n cers, th e en erg y n ecessa ry
depending on
to o rb it w ill b e d i® eren t fo r co u p les sp in n in g in o p p o -
whether their spin is
site sen ses. In th e sa m e w ay, n u cleo n s o f a g iv en o rb ita l
parallel or antiparallel
a n g u la r m o m en tu m h av e tw o p o ssib le en erg ies, d ep en d -
to the orbital motion. in g o n w h eth er th eir sp in is p a ra llel o r a n tip a ra llel to
This splitting of the th e o rb ita l m o tio n . T h is sp littin g o f th e en erg y lev els is
energy levels is ca lled spin -orbit cou plin g .
called
spin-orbit coupling. T h e n u clea r sp in -o rb it co u p lin g fo rce is m u ch stro n g er

20 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

a n d h a s o p p o site sig n to th e sp in -o rb it co u p lin g fo rce in The nuclear spin-

a to m s. T h e fo rce w h ich g iv es rise to th e co u p lin g o f th e orbit coupling does
sp in a n d o rb ita l m o tio n s o f th e n u cleo n s in th e n u cleu s not arise due to
h a s a d i® eren t o rig in fro m th e co u p lin g o f sp in a n d o rb it electromagnetic
m o tio n o f electro n s in a to m s. T h e sp in -o rb it co u p lin g interactions.
in n u clei is rela ted to th e fo rce b etw een th e n u cleo n s
a n d is n o t electro m a g n etic in o rig in a s is th e sp in -o rb it
co u p lin g in a to m s.
H ow ev er, ju st a s in a to m s th e n u clea r sp in -o rb it co u p lin g
w h ich is p ro p o rtio n a l to th e sca la r p ro d u ct o f th e o rb ita l
a n g u la r m o m en tu m o p era to r L~ a n d th e in trin sic sp in
o p era to r S~ , sp lits a n u cleo n en erg y lev el w h ich is la b elled
b y l in to tw o lev els j = l § s (ex cep t fo r l = 0 ) b u t w ith
a d i® eren ce th a t th e j = l ¡ 1 = 2 lies h ig h er in en erg y
(less b in d in g ) a n d j = l + 1 = 2 lies low er in en erg y.
B ox 3 g iv es o rd er o f en erg y lev els o b ta in ed fo r a sq u a re-
w ell av era g e p o ten tia l b y in clu d in g th e sp in -o rb it co u -
p lin g . It is th e p a rticu la r low erin g o f th e j = l + 1 = 2
o rb ita l o f a g iv en N o scilla to r sh ell, w h ich is low ered in to
th e o rb its o f th e (N ¡ 1 ) sh ell, w h ich a cco u n ts fo r th e
n ew sh ell clo su re n u m b ers a t 2 8 (1 f7 = 2 sh ell), 5 0 (1 f5 = 2
sh ell), 8 2 (1 g 7 = 2 sh ell) a n d 1 2 6 (1 h 9 = 2 sh ell).
T h e to ta l n u m b er o f n u cleo n s in a n y lev el w ith q u a n tu m
n u m b er j is 2 j + 1 . C o n sid er th e n u m b er 2 8 . T h e o scil-
la to r sh ell clo ses a t 2 0 . T h e n ex t lev els a re 1 f(l = 3 ) a n d
2 p (l = 1 ). T h e 1 f lev el sp lits in to j = 7 = 2 a n d j = 5 = 2
w ith 7 / 2 low er. B eca u se th e en erg y d i® eren ce is la rg e,
a n d th e 7 / 2 lev el co n ta in s 8 sta tes, w e h av e th e g a p a t If all the levels upto
2 0 + 8 = 2 8 n u cleo n s. F o r th e m a g ic n u m b er 5 0 , th e 1 g 1g9/2 are filled, then
lev el sp lits in to j = 9 = 2 a n d j = 7 = 2 w ith a la rg e g a p we get the magic
a n d j = 9 = 2 h av in g lo w er en erg y. If a ll th e lev els u p to number 50, when the
1 g 9 = 2 a re ¯ lled , th en w e g et th e m a g ic n u m b er 5 0 . S im - levels upto 1k 11/2
and
ila rly, w h en th e lev els u p to 1 k 1 1 = 2 a n d 1 i1 3 = 2 a re ¯ lled 1i13/2 are filled we get
w e g et th e m a g ic n u m b ers 8 2 a n d 1 2 6 resp ectiv ely. It the magic numbers
is seen th a t d u e to th e sp in -o rb it sp littin g , n ew en erg y 82 and 126
lev els a n d g ro u p s w ith g a p s in th eir en erg ies a t m a g ic respectively.

RESONANCE  December 2007 21

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

Another success of n u m b ers a p p ea r. T h u s th e M ay er{ J en sen sh ell m o d el

the nuclear shell ex p la in s th e m a g ic n u m b ers o f n u clei.
model was the
7 . S u c c e ss a n d F a ilu r e o f S h e ll M o d e l
prediction of the
islands of nuclear O n e o f th e m a jo r su ccesses o f th e n u clea r sh ell m o d el
isomerism in w a s th e p red ictio n o f th e sp in s a n d p a rities o f th e g ro u n d
regions around sta tes o f m o st o f th e n u clei rath er w ell. F o r n u clei w ith
the closed shells. o n e n u cleo n o u tsid e o f a clo sed sh ell, o r o n e n u cleo n va -
ca n cy (h o le) in a clo sed sh ell, th e n u clea r g ro u n d sta te
sp in a n d p a rity a re d eterm in ed b y th e ex tra n u cleo n o r
n u cleo n h o le b eca u se th e n u cleo n s in sid e a clo sed sh ell
h av e zero a n g u la r m o m en tu m ju st a s in a to m s. A n o th er
su ccess o f th e n u clea r sh ell m o d el w a s th e p red ictio n o f
th e isla n d s o f n u clea r iso m erism in reg io n s a ro u n d th e
clo sed sh ells. T h e sh ell m o d el a lso co rrectly p red icts th e
sig n a n d ro u g h ly th e m a g n itu d e o f g ro u n d sta te m a g -
n etic m o m en ts o f n u clei. T h e sh ell m o d el p red ictio n s
o f th e q u a d ru p o le m o m en ts are g en era lly in a g reem en t
w ith ex p erim en ts fo r n u clei n ea r th e m a g ic n u m b ers.
H ow ev er, th e sh ell m o d el p red ictio n s o ften d i® er d ra s-
tica lly fro m ex p erim en ta l m ea su rem en ts fo r n u clei in
o th er reg io n s. A lso , th e sh ell m o d el tra n sitio n ra tes fo r
° -ray d ecay b etw een n u clea r en erg y lev els a re v ery d if-
feren t fro m th e ex p erim en ta l va lu es. F u rth er, a d d itio n a l
lev els n o t p red icted b y sh ell m o d el a p p ea r in m a n y n u -
clei.
In th e sh ell m o d el o f th e n u cleu s, it is a ssu m ed th a t n u -
cleo n s m a in ly m ov e in d ep en d en tly fro m ea ch o th er in a n
av era g e (m ea n ) ¯ eld w ith a la rg e m ea n -free p a th . T h e
sin g le p a rticle sh ell m o d el b a sed o n th e a ssu m p tio n o f
th e ex isten ce o f a sp h erica lly sy m m etric p o ten tia l in th e
n u cleu s, p lu s a sp in -o rb it co u p lin g term fa ils to ex p la in
so m e a sp ects o f p ro p erties o f a p o rtio n o f n u clei su ch a s
th eir la rg e q u a d ru p o le m o m en ts in m a n y ca ses. R a in -
w a ter w a s th e ¯ rst scien tist w h o tried to co rrect fo r th is
fa ilu re o f th e sh ell m o d el b y in tro d u cin g th e id ea o f d e-

22 RESONANCE  December 2007

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

Box 3. Order of Energy Levels Obtained from the Square-well Potential by Spin-orbit Coupling

Oscillator number Square-well Spin term Number of states Shells Total number

0 1s 1s1/2 2 2 2

1 1p 1p3/2 4 6 8
1p1/2 2

2 1d 1d5/2 6 12 20
1d3/2 4
2s 2s1/2 2

3 1f 1f7/2 8 8 28
1f5/2 6 22 50
2p3/2 4
2p 2p1/2 2
1g9/2 10

4 1g 1g7/2 8 32 82
2d5/2 6
2d 2d3/2 4
3s 3s1/2 2
1k11/2 12

5 1k 1h9/2 10 44 126
2f7/2 8
2f 2f5/2 6
3p3/2 4
3p 3p1/2 2
1i13/2 14

6 1i 1i11/2
2g
3d
4s

fo rm a tio n in th e sh a p e o f th e n u clea r co re d u e to th e
m o tio n o f th e lo o se o d d n u cleo n o u tsid e th e co re in o d d -
A n u clei. D u e to su ch in tera ctio n , th e n u cleu s a ssu m es
a sp h ero id a l sh a p e, th u s lea d in g to h ig h q u a d ru p o le m o -
m en t. A a g e B o h r a n d M o ttelso n fu th er ela b o ra ted th e

RESONANCE  December 2007 23

 GENERAL  ARTICLE

The Shell model, m o d el b y ca lcu la tin g th e sin g le p a rticle en erg ies in a

which had its origin in d efo rm ed p o ten tia l ra th er th a n th e sp h erica l p o ten tia l
a study of properties u sed in th e sh ell m o d el.
of stable nuclei, while T h e sh ell m o d el w h ich h a d its o rig in in a stu d y o f p ro p -
working very well in erties o f sta b le n u clei, w h ile w o rk in g v ery w ell in th a t
that case, fails in ca se, fa ils in so m e ex o tic p a rts o f th e n u clea r la n d sca p e
some exotic parts of w h ere th e sh ell g a p s a n d m a g ic n u m b ers sh ow d ev ia -
the nuclear landscape tio n s fro m th o se o b serv ed fo r th e ca se o f sta b le n u clei.
where the shell gaps O n e su ch reg io n is th e so -ca lled islan d of in version lo -
and magic numbers ca ted a ro u n d Z = 1 0 ¡ 1 2 a n d N = 2 m a g ic n u m b er,
show deviations from ch a ra cterized b y g ro u n d sta te d efo rm a tio n s, w h ich a re
those observed for the su rp risin g ly la rg e fo r clo sed sh ell n u clei. S u ch b eh av io u r
case of stable nuclei. ca n b e ex p la in ed o n ly b y a co lla p se o f th e u su a l ¯ llin g
o f th e sin g le p a rticle lev els w ith n eu tro n s o ccu p y in g th e
p f sh ell b efo re th e lo w er sd sh ell is fu lly clo sed .
T h e reg io n s n ea r 3 2 M g (N = 2 0 ) co n ta in s sev era l d e-
fo rm ed n u clei. T h is d efo rm a tio n h a s b een a ttrib u ted
to a n in v ersio n o f th e o rd er in w h ich th e f7 = 2 a n d d 3 = 2
o rb ita ls a re ¯ lled . R ecen tly a t th e N a tio n a l S u p erco n -
d u ctin g L a b o ra to ry 's n ew co u p led cy clo tro n fa cility in
U S A , 3 3 A l a n d 3 3 M g h av e b een p ro d u ced b y fra g m en ta -
tio n o f a 1 4 0 M eV / n u cleo n 4 0 A r b ea m in a B e ta rg et.
T h e p rilim in a ry stu d ies o n 3 3 A l, 3 3 M g a n d a lso 3 1 M g
n u clei h av e p rov ed th a t Z = 2 0 is n o t a m a g ic n u m b er
fo r th ese n u clei. T h is tells u s th a t ev en to d ay, th ere is
th eo retica l in terest a n d ex p erim en ta l a ctiv ity rela ted to
th e n u clea r sh ell m o d el.
Suggested Reading

[1] B K Mukherjee and D K Dhawan (Eds.), Encyclopaedia of World Great

Address for Correspondence Physicists, Vol. 3, Nobel Lectures by M G Mayer, p.928 and Nobel
R Velusamy Lectures by J H D Jensen, p.943, Overseas Press, New Delhi, 2006.
Department of Physics [2] K Heyde, The Nuclear Shell Model, Springer, Bristol, 1991.
ANJA College [3] Nuclear Shell Model (http://www.halexandria.org/dward472.htm)
Sivakasi 626 124
Tamilnadu, India
Email:
ajc_ska@sancharnet.in

24 RESONANCE  December 2007

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