Escuela de Idiomas Modernos

Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

M01 - Formal Elements (1)

Parallelism

This principle, that of parallel construction, requires that expressions of similar content and
function should be outwardly similar. The likeness of form enables the reader to recognize more
readily the likeness of content and function. Familiar instances from the Bible are the Ten
Commandments, the Beatitudes, and the petitions of the Lord's Prayer.
Unskillful writers often violate this principle, from a mistaken belief that they should
constantly vary the form of their expressions. It is true that, in repeating a statement in order to
emphasize it, writers may need to vary its form. Apart from this, writers should follow carefully
the principle of parallel construction. In the following example, the left-hand version gives the
impression that the writer is undecided or timid; he seems unable or afraid to choose one form of
expression and hold to it. The right-hand version shows that the writer has at least made his
choice and abided by it.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

Formerly, science was taught by Formerly, science was taught by

the textbook method, while now the textbook method; now it is
the laboratory method is taught by the laboratory method.
employed.
(Passive voice only)
(active and passive voice)

By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of a series must
either be used only before the first term or else be repeated before each term.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

The French, the Italians, The French, the Italians, the

(Ø)Spanish, and (Ø) Portuguese Spanish, and the Portuguese

In spring, (Ø) summer, or in In spring, summer, or winter

winter or
In spring, in summer, or in
winter

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

Correlative expressions (both… and; not…, but; not only…, but also; either…, or; first…,
second…, third…; and the like) should be followed by the same grammatical construction. Many
violations of this rule can be corrected by rearranging the sentence.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

It was both a long ceremony and The ceremony was both long
very tedious. and tedious.

A time not for words, but action A time not for words, but for
action

Either you must grant his request You must either grant his
or incur his ill will. request or incur his ill will.

My objections are, first, the My objections are, first, that the

injustice of the measure; second, measure is unjust; second, that it
that it is unconstitutional. is unconstitutional.

When making comparisons, the things you compare should be couched in parallel structures
whenever it is possible and appropriate.

Faulty Parallelism Corrected Version

My income is smaller than my My income is smaller than my

wife. wife's.

 Exercise:

-Select the sentence that illustrates the use of proper parallel construction.

___John has wit, charm, and she has an extremely pleasant personality.
___John has wit, charm, and a pleasing personality.

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

___In English class, Jessica learned to read poems critically and to appreciate good prose.
___In English class, Jessica learned to read poems critically and she appreciated good prose.

___Raoul's IQ is higher than Ralph.

___Raoul's IQ is higher than Ralph's.

___He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to make good friends, and to learn
about life.
___He wanted three things out of college: to learn a skill, to make good friends, and learning
about life.

___Coach Smith was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor, and a wise friend.
___Coach Smith was a brilliant strategist, a caring mentor, and friend.

___We found the film repulsive, offensive, and we thought it was embarrassing.
___We found the film repulsive, offensive, and embarrassing.

___Mr. Robins kept his store clean, neat, and he made it conveniently arranged.
___Mr. Robins kept his store clean, neat, and conveniently arranged.

___Professor Ali rewarded his students for working hard on the final project and going beyond
the call of duty.
___Professor Ali rewarded his students for their hard work on the final project and going beyond
the call of duty.

___There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream, setting up camp, and spending a
couple of days fishing.
___There's nothing I like better than finding a good trout stream, setting up camp, and to spend a
couple of days fishing.

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 Escuela de Idiomas Modernos
Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

-Rewrite the following sentences so that all the structures are parallel.

1.- Espinoza's style was remarkable for its dexterity, grace, and she could play any position.
2.- Raoul's motivation to succeed in this program seems to be greater than his sister.
3.- Three of the great Indian nations in the Central Plains are the Cherokee, the Choctaw, and
Comanche.
4.- Either you will begin to study now or risk failing the exam.
5.- The college has space for a new computer lab but not a faculty lounge.
6.- Her conditions for signing the contract are, first, the commissioner has to approve the terms;
second, that the other players must sign as well.
7.- Carlos wasted his first year at college by not studying enough and spending too much time at
parties.
8.- We have no doubt about her care and interest in the proposal.
9.- The students prepared for their exams at home, they spent extra hours with their tutors, they
did the necessary research in the library, and asked questions in their classrooms.

Articles

The three articles – a, an, the – are a kind of adjective, as both are modifiers. The is called
the definite article because it usually precedes a specific or previously mentioned noun; a and an
are called indefinite articles because they are used to refer to something in a less specific manner
(an unspecified count noun). These words are also listed among the noun markers or determiners
because they are almost invariably followed by a noun (or another syntactic unit acting as a
noun). Bellow, you can find, first, a general explanation of the use of each type of article and,
after, an detailed explanation of some specific cases of the use, or absence, of the articles.
The:
1. It is used with specific nouns: The lion king, the beauty and the beast, the day after
tomorrow.
2. It is required when the noun represents something that is one of a kind: The moon
circles the earth.
3. It is required when the noun represents something in the abstract: The United
States has encouraged the use of the private automobile as opposed to the use of
public transit.

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

4. It is required when the noun represents something named earlier in the text: After
doing some research, we were able to collect some relevant data. The data
revealed very interesting information.
A/An:
1. Use A before singular count-nouns that begin with consonants (a cow, a barn, a
sheep) and an before singular count-nouns that begin with vowels or vowel-like
sounds (an apple, an urban blight, an open door).
2. Words that begin with an /h/ sound often require an a (as in a horse, a history
book, a hotel), but if an h-word begins with an actual vowel sound, use an an (as
in an hour, an honor). We would say a useful device and a union matter because
the u of those words actually sounds like/ju/ – a semivowel followed by a vowel
sound – (as opposed, say, to the u of an ugly incident, as the u of ugly sounds like
/ʌ/). The same is true of a European and a Euro (because the semivowel /j/ is the
first sound of these words). We would say a once-in-a-lifetime experience or a
one-time hero because the words once and one begin with the semivowel /w/, such
as Washington and win.

 First and subsequent reference

When we first refer to something in written text, we often use an indefinite article to
modify it: A newspaper has an obligation to seek out and tell the truth.
In a subsequent reference to this newspaper, however, we will use the definite article: "I'd
like a glass of orange juice, please," John said. "I put the glass of juice on the counter already,"
Sheila replied.
Exception: when a modifier, such as an article, appears between the article and the noun,
the subsequent article will continue to be indefinite:
"I'd like a big glass of orange juice, please," John said.
"I put a big glass of juice on the counter already," Sheila replied.

 Generic reference
We can refer to something in a generic way by using any of the three articles. We can do
the same thing by omitting the article altogether:
- A beagle makes a great hunting dog and family companion.
- An airedale is sometimes a rather nervous animal.
- The golden retriever is a marvelous pet for children.
- Irish setters are not the highly intelligent animals they used to be.

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

The difference between the generic indefinite pronoun and the normal indefinite pronoun
is that the former (―A beagle makes a great hunting dog‖) refers to all members of that class (all
beagles alike), whereas the latter refers to any of that class ("I want to buy a beagle, and any old
beagle will do").

 Proper nouns
We use the definite article with certain kinds of proper nouns:
- Geographical places: The Sea of Japan, the Mississippi, the Smokies, the Sahara (but
often not when the main part of the proper noun seems to be modified by an earlier attributive
noun or adjective: We went swimming at the Ocean Park).
- Pluralized names (geographic, family, teams): The Netherlands, the Bahamas, the
Hamptons, the Johnsons, the New England Patriots, the United Stated, the United Kingdom.
- Public institutions/facilities/groups: The Wadsworth Atheneum, the Sheraton, the White
House, the Presbyterian Church.
- Newspapers: the Hartford Courant, the Times.
- Nouns followed by a prepositional phrase beginning with "of": the leader of the gang,
the president of our club.

 Abstract nouns
Abstract nouns—the names of things that are not tangible—are sometimes used with
articles, sometimes not:
- The storm upset my peace of mind.
- He implored the judge to correct the injustice.
- Her body was racked with grief. It was a grief he had never felt before.

 Zero articles
Several kinds of nouns never use articles. We do not use articles with the names of
languages ("He was learning Chinese" - but when the word Chinese refers to the people, the
definite article might come into play: "The Chinese are hoping to get the next Olympics."), the
names of sports ("She plays badminton and basketball."), and academic subjects ("She's taking
economics and math").
When they are generic, non-count nouns and sometimes plural count-nouns are used
without articles. We like wine with our dinner; we adore Baroque music; we use roses for many
purposes.

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

However, if a prepositional phrase that starts with of comes after the noun, we use an
article: We adore the music of the Baroque.
Additionally, when a generic noun is used without an article and then referred to in a
subsequent reference, it will have become specific and will require a definite article: The Data
Center installed computers in the Learning Center this summer. The computers, unfortunately,
don't work.
Common count nouns are used without articles in certain special situations:

idiomatic
We'll go by train. (as opposed to "We'll take the train.)
expressions
He must be in school.
using be and go

with seasons In spring, we like to clean the house.

with institutions He's in church/college/jail/class.

Breakfast was delicious.

with meals
He's preparing dinner by himself.

He's dying of pneumonia.

Appendicitis nearly killed him.
with diseases She has cancer
(You will sometimes hear "the measles," "the mumps,"
but these, too, can go without articles.)

with time of We traveled mostly by night.

day We'll be there around midnight.

 Exercise:

-Fill in the blanks with a, an, the or ø (nothing) where corresponds.

1.- We need to get ___ new phone.

2.- Alex, would you please answer ___ phone?

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

3.- ___ people use ___ plants in ___ many different ways. Plants supply us with oxygen. They
are a source of ___ lifesaving medicines. We use plant products to build ___ houses and to make
___ paper and ___ textiles.
4.- When you look at ___ sandy shore, it might seem practically empty of ___ animals. This
appearance is deceptive, however. Beneath ___ surface, the sand is full of ___ life. It is teeming
with ___ crabs, ___ shrimp, ___ worms, ___snails, and ___ other kinds of ___ marine animals.
5.- Our children enjoyed going to ___ beach yesterday. When they dug in ___ sand, they found
various kinds of ___ animals. Susie found___ crab, and so did Johny. ___ crab Johny found
pinched him, which made him cry. But he had ___ good time at ___ beach anyway.
6.- ___ biggest bird in the world is ___ ostrich. It eats just about anything it can reach, including
___ stones, ___ glass, and ___ keys. It can kill ___ person with one kick.
7.- Do you ever gaze into ___ space and wonder if ___ other life forms exist in ___ universe?
8.- ___ most mirrors are made from ___ glass to which ___ thin layer of ___ silver or ___
aluminum has been applied.
9.- In ___ recent newspaper article, I read about ___ Australian swimmer who was saved from
___ shark by ___ group of dolphins. When ___ shark attacked ___ swimmer, ___ dolphins
chased it away. They saved ___ swimmers´ life.
10.- I heard on ___ radio that there is ___ evidence that ___ dolphins suffer in captivity. ___
dolphins that are free in ___ nature live around 40 years. ___ captive dolphins live ___ average of
12 years. It is believed that some captive dolphins commit ___ suicide.
11.- ___ phonograph records have become old-fashioned. They have been supplanted by ___
compact discs.
12.- John Roebling is ___ name of ___ engineer who designed the Brooklyn Bridge. He died in
1869 from ___ infection before ___ bridge was completed.

Capitalization

The following elements must be capitalized:

1.- The first word of every sentence.
2.- The first-person singular pronoun: I.
3.- The first and other important lexical elements in a title. The concept lexical elements
does not include articles, short prepositions (which means you might want to capitalize towards
or between), the "to" of an infinitive, and coordinating conjunctions. This is not true in APA
Reference lists (where we capitalize only the first word), nor is it necessarily true for titles in

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

other languages. Also, on book jackets, aesthetic considerations will sometimes override the
rules.
4.- Proper nouns:
 Specific persons and things: George W. Bush, the White House, General Motors
Corporation.
 Specific geographical locations: Hartford, Connecticut, Africa, Forest Park Zoo,
Lake Erie, the Northeast, the Southend. However, we do not capitalize compass directions
or locations that aren't being used as names: the north side of the city; we're leaving the
Northwest and heading south this winter. When we combine proper nouns, we capitalize
attributive words when they precede place-names, as in Lakes Erie and Ontario, but the
opposite happens when the order is reversed: the Appalachian and Adirondack mountains.
When a term is used descriptively, as opposed to being an actual part of a proper noun, do
not capitalize it, as in "The California deserts do not get as hot as the Sahara Desert."
 Names of celestial bodies: Mars, Saturn, the Milky Way. Do not, however,
capitalize earth, moon, sun, except when those names appear in a context in which other
(capitalized) celestial bodies are mentioned. "I like it here on earth," but "It is further from
Earth to Mars than it is from Mercury to the Sun.
 Names of newspapers and journals. Do not, however, capitalize the word the, even
when it is part of the newspaper's title: the Hartford Courant.
 Days of the week, months, holidays. Do not, however, capitalize the names of
seasons (spring, summer, fall, autumn, winter). "Next winter, we're traveling south; by
spring, we'll be back up north."
 Historical events: World War I, the Renaissance, the Crusades.
 Races, nationalities, languages: Swedes, Swedish, African American, Jewish,
French, Native American. (Most writers do not capitalize whites, blacks.)
 Names of religions and religious terms: God, Christ, Allah, Buddha, Christianity,
Christians, Judaism, Jews, Islam, Muslims.
 Names of courses: English IV, Cognitive Psychology. (However, we would write:
"I'm taking courses in biology and earth science this summer.")
 Brand names: Tide, Maytag, Chevrolet.
5.- Names of relationships, only when they are a part of or a substitute for a person's name
(often this means that, when there is a modifier – e.g. a possessive adjective – in front of such a
word, we do not capitalize it).
-Let's go visit Grandmother today / Let's go visit my grandmother today.
-I remember Uncle Arthur. I remember my Uncle Arthur. My uncle is unforgettable.

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

This also means that we don't normally capitalize the name of a vocative or term of
endearment:
-Can you get the paper for me, hon?
-Drop the gun, sweetie. I didn't mean it.

 Exercise:

- Fill in the blanks with the correct form (capital or lower case) of the letter in parenthesis that
precedes it.

1.- Dr. Goldberger traveled through the (s)__outhern part of (p)__ennsylvania to get to the
conference on (v)__ictorian (p)__oetry .
2. Many of the students in the (i)__ntroduction to Microcomputers course at the (u)__niversity of
(h)__artford last (f)__all preferred using (m)__acintosh (c)__omputers rather than the (p)__c's
provided in the (l)__ab .
3. My favorite (u)__ncle , my (f)__ather's brother, wrote a famous book on the role of
(b)__uddha in Herman Hesse's novel (s)__iddhartha .
4. "Wait," (h)__e said, "(u)__ntil the (h)__uskies have won a few games."
5. The (s)__ecretary of the (s)__ociety of (c)__oncerned (s)__tudents wrote to the
(a)__mbassador of (s)__outh (a)__frica .
6. On the (f)__ourth of (j)__uly , we celebrate the (w)__ar of (i)__ndependence ; on (l)__abor
(d)__ay , we celebrate the contributions of (o)__rganized (l)__abor to (a)__merican life.
7. My (m)__other asked (m)__ayor (p)__ete a question about (s)__candinavian immigration.
8. I'll never forget reading (t)__he (l)__ast(o)__f (t)__he (m)__ohicans when I was in (m)__rs.
Turveydrop's (h)__igh (s)__chool (e)__nglish class.
9. Didwell somehow managed to get an (a)__ in his (p)__hysics course, but he failed (h)__istory
104.
10. I think that (l)__ake (s)__uperior is the largest and the most (n)__orthern of the (g)__reat
(l)__akes .
11. Clerihew is a (c)__lassical (s)__tudies major, but his favorite course is in (f)__rench
(h)__istory.
12. News of the grant was announced by (p)__resident Chauncey Bedouin, who used to be
(p)__resident of (b)__readwidth (u)__niversity .
13. Dogsbreath played (b)__aseball until he came down with (m)__easles .

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Departamento de Inglés
INGLÉS IV

14. Last (s)__pring , sometime in late (m)__arch , I believe, Grillbody heard that he had been
awarded a (f)__ulbright (f)__ellowship .
15. Tashonda earned a (m)__aster's (d)__egree in (b)__usiness before she went on for a (p)__h.D.
in (e)__conomics .
16. Most 20th-(c)__entury art leaves me cold, but I love the French (i)__mpressionists and the
(n)__ineteenth- (c)__entury (b)__ritish landscape painters.

Source: http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/index.htm

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