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INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
The demand of energy is increasing day by day and the supply is limited, so it has
pronounced negative impacts such as depletion of natural resources, environmental
degradation, etc. This causes depletion in non-renewable and exhaustive sources of
energy, which may invite energy crisis in future. Also, it is essential to meet the concept
of sustainable development .So, energy consumers should keen on using of non
exhaustive and renewable sources of energy. Hydropower, one of the most reliable and
common renewable sources of energy is abundantly available in the hilly regions of
Nepal. Again, hydraulic conveyance circuit can be beneficial for multipurpose use
(irrigation, water supply etc.). Hydropower production does not consume water, so it is
considered as renewable source of energy. Consumption of this energy is environmental
friendly because it uses water as fuel and no harmful byproducts are produced. It does not
emit green house gases that cause ozone layer depletion and global warming.
Because of abundant water resources and potential hydropower sites available, there is
huge possibility of hydropower production. Large projects involve huge amount of funds
and the development period is large hence activities regarding development of Small
Hydropower Projects are accelerating in these days which is technically, financially and
environmentally sustainable at the present scenario.
Use of energy generated from water has been started since the very beginning of human
civilization. There are evidences of it in Greek and Roman civilization. Though, Michael
Faraday demonstrated that mechanical energy could be converted into electrical energy
and vice versa, in 1831, development and use of electrical energy began gaining
momentum after 1890. By 1900, hydropower plants had become a common source of
obtaining electricity. In the early 19th century, progress in the hydropower development
was slow because of less efficiency in power transmission over the long distance. The
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pace of hydropower development increased dramatically after 1930. United States made a
policy to invest in water based projects to create jobs for unemployed and to stimulate
economic recovery in the country when it faced severe economic hardship in 1929. In the
former Soviet Union, hydropower was considered synonymous with industrialization and
economic prosperity after 1920.
After 2nd world war, leaders of African and Asian nations has replicated the western US
model to meet energy and water needs of their own countries and many large scale
hydropower projects were built in India, Pakistan and Egypt between 1950 and 1980.
None of the projects in US, former Soviet Union and India had the objective of exporting
energy to its neighboring to earn revenue for the country. In recent decades, the concept
of production of electrical energy has been changed. Now, it has been traded between two
or more nations after agreement upon certain terms of trade. Exporting electricity to a
neighboring country to earn revenue for the government is one of the stated objectives of
developing large scale hydropower projects in Nepal.
Nepal entered into hydropower development field almost a century ago. The first in this
region was the construction of 500KW Pharping hydropower project, commissioned in
1911 AD followed by Morang Hydro 1918 and Sundarijal Hydro in late thirties. The
planned development approach was initiated in late fifties with the First Five Year Plan.
In about a century only 450MW has been developed through government agency. On the
other hand after liberation (1990), IPPs have developed about 125MW in less than a
decade.
First approach in hydropower development in Nepal was the power generation from the
construction of Pharping Hydropower station (500 KW) in 1911. But the progressive
development was gradual only after the Sundarijal (600 KW) and Panauti (2400 KW)
Hydropower Stations came into operation after long interval of 23 and 29 years.
The completion of Dhankuta Hydropower station (240 KW) in 1971 was regarded as the
bench mark of small hydel development of Nepal. The establishment of small hydel
development board in 1975 was another milestone under which several small hydro
schemes such as Jhupra (345 KW), Doti (200 KW), Jumla (200 KW) etc. were made
during 1975 to 1985. Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA), established 1985, responsible
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for generation, transmission and distribution of electric power brought the revolution in
hydropower development. Many potential sites for hydropower generation had identified
by private consultancies and companies in collaboration with NEA.
Prior to 1960, all the hydropower stations were constructed through grant aid from
friendly countries like the USSR (Panauti), India (Trishuli, Devighat, Gandak, Surajpura-
Koshi) and China (Sunkoshi). Since 1970, hydropower development took a new turn with
the availability of bilateral and multilateral funding sources. The major donor countries in
the period were Japan, Germany, Norway, South Korea, Canada, Finland, Denmark,
Sweden and USA. The financial lending agencies were the World Bank, ADB, JBIC,
Saudi Fund for Development, Kuwait Fund and others.
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Marsyandi 75.00 Upper Modi 14.00
(Source: http://www.fncci.org/text/pp-eup.pdf)
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1.1.4 Hydropower potential of Nepal
Due to the steep topography, abundant precipitation and perennial nature of most of the
rivers which originate from the Himalayas of Tibetan plateaus; there exist a tremendous
hydropower potentiality in Nepal. The theoretical potential is estimated to be about 83
GW out of which 42 GW has been considered as financially viable and 44 GW as
technically viable. Approximately 6000 big and small rivers have been identified in
Nepal's territory carrying about 174×109m³ of surface run-off annually (0.5% of total
surface run off of the world).
NEA has classified the hydropower projects according to the power output into the
followings groups:
A small hydropower plant is found to be most feasible than both the micro hydro and
large hydropower in context of Nepal. A small hydro ranges from 1- 10 MW for which
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corresponding head and discharge is easily available than the other hydro electric project.
Investment required for small hydro is affordable to the countries like Nepal.
In remote mountainous area large hydro power seems to be not easy to serve for local
community because power produced from the plant could not get sufficient load to meet
the produced power. Again large hydropower needs heavy capital investment which can't
be solely invested by government. Also cost of transmission line and preliminary works
in large hydropower project is high and not economically viable in Nepal in many cases.
In case of micro hydro, the loss is heavy and cost per unit production is high. Micro hydro
projects are launched as a support to the villagers and are not treated as a revenue
generating projects to the nation. They have been constructed under government's
subsidy. Also, being community based projects, micro hydro projects cannot be launched
in all community.
Small hydro power project is independent to the local community in regards to its
investment and incurs little problems regarding social and community matters. Work
quality in small hydro power project is of intermediate type, thus, it is easy to plan,
construct, monitor and maintain than large projects. The capacity of Nepalese
entrepreneurs to invest is not comparable to those of foreign investors. This motivates
national investors to focus on small hydropower sector. Hence, small hydropower plant is
better suited and justified to generate electricity in Nepal.
1.2 OBJECTIVE
To fulfill the partial requirement of the final year project for the completion of
Bachelor Degree in Civil Engineering.
To study & analyze the geo-hydrological situation of the site.
To design the hydraulic components of the hydropower plant at the site.
To design the structural components of the hydropower plant at the site.
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To work throughout the project under the supervision of BPC.
To design all the relevant civil structures for the hydropower plant.
Due to time constraint (90 working days), detailed survey was not possible
and geo-hydrological data were also taken from BPC.
The detailed estimation and rate analysis is beyond the scope.
The designs were carried out referring several materials due to lack of unified
guideline. Hence, the design output may not fulfill all the standards.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
The present total installed capacity of the INPS, including capacity added through IPPs
amounts to nearly 614MW; of which ,the capacity of ten major NEA hydro plants is
389.150MW while that of the grid connected ten small hydro plants (SHP) is 12.792MW.
Isolated thirty SHP have capacity of 6.176MW and ten IPPs contribute 148.683MW of
power to the system. Similarly, six NEA thermal plants have capacity equal to
56.756MW while two solar plants provide 100 kW of electric power in total.
Besides, during the time of deficit, power up to 50MW is imported from India as per the
Indo-Nepal Power Exchange Agreement. Nepal and India have agreed in principle to
increase this level of exchange from the existing 50 MW to 150MW. Nepal is also
entitled to receive 70 million units of energy annually from Tanakpur in the far west
under the Mahakali Treaty and 10MW power according to Koshi Contract. Power is also
exported to India through some sections of the INPS according to the exchange
agreement. Although the present integrated grid has a total of about 550MW installed
capacity without considering capacity of thermal plants and that available through
Mahakali treaty and Koshi Contract, only about 425MW can be generated from hydro
power stations during the winter season when the power demand is at its peak.
In the area of transmission and sub-transmission of electricity, the INPS has grown to a
network of more than 1800 km of 132kV, more than500 km of 66kV and around 2500 km
of 33 power lines. In order to accelerate the pace of expansion and conduct management
of rural distribution systems in a sustainable manner, NEA has adopted a concept of
community participation in rural electrification schemes.
The electricity demand forecast to the year 2019/20 is prepared by NEA during the
preparation of its Corporate Development Plan for the year 2004/05-2008/09 in 2005.
This forecast is based on the power consumption data of FY 2004/05. Total energy
requirement in Nepal is projected to go upon by an average of about 8% per annum over
the forecast period, from 2,299.9 GWh in FY 2003/04 to 7894 GWh in FY 2019/20 while
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peak demand is projected to grow from 512.2MW in FY 2003/04 to 1733 MW in FY
2019/20.After the year 2008, the peak power deficit will continue to increase unless
projects of reasonable sizes are not constructed without any further delay.
The load forecast for INPS made by NEA according to the power system master plan
studies is presented here under table. The load has been forecasted considering the
country's macro- economic indicators and rural electrification expansion programs. The
forecast revealed that the energy and peak demand is expected to grow more than three
times between 2005 and 2020.
Load Forecast
Fiscal Total System Peak Peak Load
Year Generation Load Growth %
Requirement
GWh
2005-06 2774 603.28
2006-07 2897.1 642.2 6.5
2007-08 3136.6 695.3 8.3
2008-09 3428.1 759.9 9.3
2009-10 3698.4 819.8 7.9
2010-11 4057.1 890.6 8.6
2011-12 4423.3 971 9
2012-13 4815 1057 8.9
2013-14 5231.2 1148.4 8.6
2014-15 5673.8 1245.6 8.5
2015-16 6144.7 1336.1 7.3
2016-17 6645.9 1445.1 8.2
2017-18 7179.6 1561.1 8
2018-19 7719.4 1678.5 7.5
2019-20 8296.7 1804 7.5
Average Growth 8.14
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Figure 2.1 Load Forecast
In Nepal traditional energy sources are the biggest contributors having share of 87.7% in
the total energy. These sources comprise of fuel wood (78.1 %), agricultural residues and
animal wastes (9.6 %). Commercial energy sources share 10.5 % having rest to other non
conventional sources. Electricity contributes about 1.8 % of the total energy needs.
(Source: WECS,2006)
At present, the INPS consists of 1,132 Km of 132 KV single circuit, 412.1 Km of 132 KV
double circuit, 231.46 Km of 66 KV single circuit, 161.3 Km of 66 KV double circuit, 22
Km of 66 KV and 132 KV double circuit, 3.37 Km of 66 KV four circuit and 2,362 Km
of 33 KV single circuit transmission line. Total substation capacity of the system is
902.45 MVA. In the field of transmission, NEA is operating at system voltage levels of
132 KV and 66KV.
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Rising load demands have created load saturation in some sectors of these transmission
lines leading to poor regulation and reliability at supply terminals resulting in increase in
technical losses. The completion of projects like the Middle Marshyangdi would require
augmentation in the current carrying capacity of the major 132 KV network and
construction of some 220 KV lines. The urgently needed 220 KV sections are Hetauda -
Bardghat and Khimti – Dhalkebar. The Khimti – Dhalkebar 220 KV transmission line is
going to be constructed with loan assistance of the World Bank, while efforts are
underway with donors for implementation of the 220 KV Hetauda – Bardghat section.
NEA is also constructing three power exchange links namely Butwal – Sunauli,
Parwanipur – Birgunj and Dhalkebar – Bhirttamod at the 132 KV level to enhance the
transfer capability of Nepal – India crossborder interconnections. This will enhance the
quality of grid connected supply to 34,000 consumers including 17,000 new connections.
In the area of distribution system expansion in Mid and Far Western regions of the
country, Swedish Government has conveyed its commitment to provide concessionary
credit of about US $ 20 million. The Rural Electrification, Transmission and Distribution
Project aided by ADB and OPEC has five different components that will in addition to
providing transmission and institutional support, develop the distribution system to
connect about 123,000 rural households of 277 Village Development Committees.
The need to extend distribution over the country is reflected from the fact that 85%
population of the country is not getting electricity as a source of energy. So, the
distribution of electricity should be done strategically. NEA has taken systematic studies
of carrying out rural electrification and distribution system reinforcement feasibility on
district-wise basis. NEA intends to undertake these works with multi-source financing.
Also, Nepal Government contributes to rural electrification scheme on an annual basis
with an increasing magnitude in the year, 1999/2000, outlay being approximately 4.5
million US dollar. NEA and Nepal Government are jointly working for the electrification
of rural areas. To cope with this objective, micro and small hydropower are the better
options in the present scenario. The total capital investment in distribution system
expansion and reinforcement for the fiscal year 1999/2000 to 2007 is estimated at 9,349.2
million NRS.(Source:NEA,2006)
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2.7 LEGAL PROVISION TO INVEST IN HYDROPOWER SECTOR IN NEPAL
Hydropower industry is one of the major industries with wider scope in Nepal. For an
industry to prosper there should be support of government policies and legal provisions.
Only the potential cannot do the development of a nation if the policies cannot be
harnessed. Clearly defined conditions and attractive policy are always essential to harness
the innumerous resources. Realizing this fact, Nepal Government has developed certain
policies.
c. Legal Framework:
Survey License issued within 30 days
Survey License Period up to 5 years
Project License issued within 120 days
Project License period up to 50 years
Exclusive Water Rights
Public Consultation before issuance of Project License
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Government land available on lease
f. Import Facilities :-
Plant and Equipment including Construction Equipment
1% Custom Duty on items not manufactured in Nepal
import License Fee and sales tax exempted
effective from the date of commercial operation
h. Royalty Payments:
For first 15 years
Installed Capacity/annum - NRs. 100/KW
Energy Generated - 2% of energy sales
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i. Market:
Domestic: Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA)
Foreign: India
Under Power Exchange Agreement
Under Power Trade Agreement between two countries
Regional: Government
Probably under the Regional Cooperation especially
Quadrangle concept within SAARC
The private sectors should do the Power Purchase Agreement (PPA) with NEA to sell the
energy produced. To promote the private sectors in national level and to provide the
opportunity to invest in the hydropower sectors for the Nepalese people, NEA has the
provision to purchase the energy of small hydropower plants with first priority.
k. Export Opportunities:
Existing Power Trade Agreement between Nepal and India
Existing Interconnection Facilities with India
Power Deficit in India
Oriented Projects in Nepal
2.8.1.1 General
Weir is a structure constructed at the head of canal, in order to divert the river water
towards the canal so as to ensure a regulated continuous supply of silt free water with
certain minimum head into the canal. The types of weir and its use depend upon the
topography, geology, discharge, river morphology etc. If the major part or the entire
ponding of water is achieved by a raised crest and smaller part or nil part of it is achieved
by the shutters then it is called weir.
Undersluice is the structure constructed side by the weir for the purpose of flushing the
deposited silt by providing
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Opening provided on the weir portion with crest level positioned at lower level than the
crest of the weir. It creates comparatively less turbulent pocket of water near intake.
Undersluiced length of weir is divided into no. of ways by piers and regulated by gate.
Opening helps in scouring and removing the deposited silt from undersluiced pocket
hence is also called the scouring sluices. Gate-controlled undresluice helps regulating
flow in intake at the dry weather flow and low flow and periodic flushing.
Spillway is a structure constructed at the weir side for effectively disposing of surplus
water from u/s to d/s channel. It doesn’t let the water rise above maximum reservoir level
and prevents the weir from damage. Spillway is essentially a safety value for weir. Types
of spillway according to location, operation, structures etc. are Straight drop, Overflow or
Ogee, Chute, Side Channel, Shaft, Siphon, Orifice, gated etc. Ogee Spillway is an
improvement upon the free overfall spillway and is widely used with concrete, masonry,
arch and buttress dams. Ogee spillway works effectively only on one particular head
called designed head.
The design of weir includes computing the elevation of weir crest, length of weir,
computing the forces acting on the weir and checking the safety of the weir from all
aspects like overturning, sliding, crushing etc. They all are explained in the following
articles.
There are various factors that affect the elevation of the crest, but in our case, diversion of
water is the purpose and the height should be sufficient to pond the water at a level that
can facilitate design flow in the intake. The height of the weir is governed by the height of
intake sill, depth of intake orifice and depth of the river at the intake site.
Four other important considerations to be considered for fixing the crest level of the weir
are as follows:
The height of the crest affects the discharge coefficient and consequently the
water head above the weir as well as the back water curve.
The elevation of the weir crest has to be fixed such that the design flood is
safely discharged to the downstream without severe damage to the
downstream.
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The elevation of the weir determines the head of the power production.
The height of the weir crest affects the shape and location of the jump and
the design of the basin.
The height of the weir crest affects the discharge that can be diverted into
the canal.
The bed level of the river at the headwork is 950.00m. The crest level of weir
provided is 952.00m
The length of the weir depends upon the width of the waterway at the intake site. Crest
length should be taken as the average wetted width during the flood. The upstream and
downstream should be properly examined for the protection consideration.
Rise in water level on the upstream of the structures after construction of the weir is
called afflux. Fixation of afflux depends on the topographic and geomorphologic factors.
A high afflux shortens the length of the weir but increases the cost of the river training
and river protection works. For alluvial reaches it is generally restricted to 1m but for
mountainous region it may be high. The water way must be sufficient to pass high floods
with desired afflux. A weir with crest length smaller than the natural river width can
severely interfere the natural regime of flow thus altering the hydraulic as well as the
sediment carrying characteristics of the river.
Generally, the spillway and undersluice lengths are designed so as to safely pass 80 %
and 20 % of the design flood respectively. In our particular design, the spillway and
undersluice is so accommodated that from total water way, 6.2 m is given to undersluice
and remaining 28.8 m is given to spillway. The spillway is so designed that it can
accommodate total flood design. The undersluice portion is designed only for sluicing the
bed load. Hence, the undersluice is design taking for 183.634 m³/sec This will economize
in the construction of energy dissipaters.
The spillway has been designed as free over fall Ogee shaped weir. The discharge
capacity of Ogee shaped spillway is maximum as compared to that of other type of weirs.
Ogee shaped weir increases hydraulic efficiency and prevent cavitations. The profile of
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the spillway is made similar to the nappe profile of the free overfall weir to ensure that
there is minimum possibility of negative pressure development along its length.
The provisions of the sheet piles, cutoff walls, impermeable concrete floor and protection
works including launching apron has been designed considering various factors as
presented in the detailed design of the weir structure. The parameters under consideration
are
Seepage Pressure
Erosion characteristics
The main forces which are acting on the weir when it will be operation are: Water
Pressure, Uplift Pressure, Slit Pressure and Weight of the weir.
It is the major external force acting on the weir. This is called hydrostatic pressure force
and acts perpendicular on the surface of the weir and its magnitude is given by:
Water seeping through the pores, cracks and fissures of the foundation material, seeping
through the weir body itself and seepage from the bottom joint between the weir and its
foundation exerts an uplift pressure on the base of the weir. The uplift pressure virtually
reduces the downward weight of the weir hence acts against the dam stability. The
analysis of seepage is done using Khosla's Theory. Khosla's Theory is the mathematical
solution of the Laplacian equation and it is easy and accurate method for seepage
analysis.
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The silt gets deposited on the upstream of the weir and exerts the horizontal and vertical
pressure as exerted by the water. So, flushing of the silt should be done regularly to
reduce its effect of destabilizing the weir. It is done by the use of undersluice gate. The
silt pressure is given by the relation: P silt 0.5 sub H2 Ka . Where, γsub=Submerged
unit weight of silt; H= Depth of silt deposited and Ka= Coefficient of Active earth
1 sin
pressure and is given by, K a , Angle of internal friction of silt. The silt
1 sin
The weight of weir and its foundation is the major stabilizing/ resisting force. While
calculating the weight, the cross section is splited into rectangle and triangle. The weight
of each along with their C.G. is determined. The resultant of all these forces will represent
the total weight of dam acting at the C.G. of dam. Simply, when the sectional area of each
part is multiplied by unit weight of concrete, weight of that part is obtained.
The weir is designed with ogee profile for spilling over its length. Hence weight is
calculated by knowing its section and multiplying by its unit weight.
If resultant of all the forces acting in the weir passes outside, the weir shall rotate and
overturn about the toe. Practically, this condition will not arise because the weir will fail
much earlier by compression. The ratio of resisting moment to the overturning moment
about the toe is the factor of safety against overturning and it should greater than1.5 for
safety.
While designing the weir section it should be so design that the resultant should pass
through middle 3rd part of the section to avoid the possible tension on the weir section.
The section should be totally in compression. So, weir should be checked against the
failure by crushing of its material. If the actual compressive stress may exceed the
allowable stress, the dam material may get crushed. The vertical combine stress at the
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V e B M
base is given by: max/ min 1 6 , where e x, x ,e= eccentricity of
B B 2 V
the resultant force from the centre of the base.
2.8.1.2.5.3 Sliding
Sliding will occur when the net horizontal force above any plane in the weir or at the base
of the weir exceed the frictional resistance developed at that level. Factor of safety against
the sliding is measured as Shear Stability Factor (SSF) and is given by:
V Bq
SSF
H
For safety against sliding, SSF should be greater than 3-5. To increase the value of SSF,
attempts are always made to increase the magnitude of q, which is achieved by providing
the stepped foundation, ensuring the better bond between the dam base and rock
foundation etc.
The weir should be well protected from the flowing river to avoid creep effect. For this,
the wing wall is essential to construct. It should be well anchored into the bed. Similarly,
to protect the channel bed from being eroded, launching apron is used. To protect the weir
body riprap is usually placed. In the site both the banks are rocky hence not any especial
protection shall be introduced. Some sorts of works to protect banks and to confine the
river at up stream may be required. Gabion walls are used as protection works for the
banks which ultimately protect the degradation of the weir. In the downstream side of the
spillway, energy dissipater is designed to the excessive energy of the flood water. Divide
wall is constructed to prevent the cross flow of the weir spillway portion and the
undersluice portion. The undersluiced portion is designed as for the flood flow with
limited opening of maximum 2.5 m and energy dissipators as the submerge flow. To
prevent the seepage effect, sheet piles are inserted at the upstream and downstream.
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2.8.2 INTAKE STRUCTURE
2.8.2.1 General
An intake can be defined as a structure that diverts water from river or other course to a
conveyance system downstream of the intake. The intake structure is used to trap the
required amount of water for the specific purpose with or without storing. An intake
structure should control the flow of water and prevent the heavy sediment load of the
river from entering the conveyance system. For this purpose, proper selection and sitting
of intakes must be chosen to evacuate necessary amount of water at any regime to the
channel. The peak discharge must be safely evacuated without any damage. To achieve
this, hydrological data must be collected and evaluated and the structures should be
designed accordingly.
The course of the river should be relatively permanent at the intake site, i.e.
the river should not change its course at the intake location at the time.
The river should not have a large gradient at the intake site.
In case there is a confluence of two rivers in the selected site, the intake
should be located downstream of the confluence to take advantage of the
flow of both rivers.
The intake should be located at the outer bend where flow is deeper and
clearer and towards the downstream end of the bend where the effect of the
secondary currents has fully developed. This limits sediment deposition at
the intake area and also ensures the flow availability during the dry season.
The intake structure is designed for 20% more than design discharge, 10% for flushing in
gravel trap, 10% for settling basin i.e. Qdesign(intake)= 1.2*Qdesign. The three orifice type
intake of width 2.4 m and height of 1.5m is designed which allows the design flow to pass
through it under normal condition but restricts higher flows during floods.
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2.8.2.2 Design Consideration of Intake Structures
For small hydropower projects it is general practice to use 100 years return period from
probabilistic analysis of flood. A simple and moderately priced construction should be
used to minimize maintenance and repairs. For the small projects with no automation
facilities, hydraulically controlled structures become more feasible than mechanically
controlled units. There must be adequate provision to remove the suspended and bed load
deposited upstream behind the weir. This may be done using intermittent flushing using
sluice gates or allowing some water to flush it continuously. It has been found that entry
of bed load towards diverted canal will be minimum if the intake is located just
downstream of concave bank of the river bend. It not only restricts the bed load, but also
ensures sufficient water depth even at low water condition.
Topography, geology, height of bank, ratio of water diverted to that available, channel
width, routing of diversion canal, ease of diversion of river during construction, stability
of river bank and sides, river protection works governs the selection of the intake location
and type. For steeper gradients with straight reaches of river bottom rack intake is more
suitable. But in rocky banks, winding river, considerable suspended load it is not
desirable. The lateral side intake functions well in such case. Intake sill with 2 m is used
not to allow bed loads to enter the canals. Trash rack is used to prevent the entry of tree
branches, leaves and other coarse materials in the canal. Head is extremely valuable in
hydropower projects so that trash rack should be designed with minimum head loss.
Suitable factor of safety should be employed to design height of intake sill, to ensure
sufficient withdrawal capacity in the future.
Protection works are the river protection and river training works to safeguard the intake
structure against flood, debris and sediment. The skimmer wall is constructed to protect
the entry of flood water in the canal at the time of high flood. Trash racks are used to
prevent the entry of trash matters in the canal. To prevent adverse effect of seepage, sheet
pile is used inside the ground below sill.
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2.8.3 GRAVEL TRAP
2.8.3.1 General
Gravel trap is a basin (pond) close to the intake where gravel and other coarse materials
are trapped and then removed. In the absence of this structure, gravel can settle along the
gentler section of the head race or in the settling basin and reduce the discharge capacity
of canal and ultimately cause the wearing and chocking of the turbine units. The main
design principle for a gravel trap is that the velocity through it should be less than
required to move the smallest size of gravel to be removed. In general gravel trap should
settle coarse particle (>2mm dia). During the high flood season, the river carries
appreciable amount of gravel hence a gravel trap should be provided to trap the design
size of gravel entering through intake.
The gravel trap is designed for maximum discharge of 8.64 m³/sec with continuous
flushing of sediment ≥ 2mm through flushing orifice The flushing channel size is 0.5×0.5
m with flushing velocity of 4.03 m/s and slope 1:25.
Gravel trap should be located either close to intake as possible to minimize blockage of
the headrace and damage due to abrasion in headrace or at a safe place. The dimension of
gravel trap should be sufficient to settle and flush the gravel passing through upstream.
The flow velocity is limited to 0.51m/s so that it does not affect the settling velocity of the
particles. For construction easiness, depth is generally limited to 3m; width is calculated
to satisfy the velocity of flow and length is calculated to ensure desirable efficiency of
settling.
Generally continuous flushing is adopted for gravel trap as the sediment load is high.
Gates are used to control flow at flushing orifice at outlet. The flushing orifice is designed
on the basis of the head to cause flow. Sufficient bed slope and cross slope is required to
make the flushing effective. Standard methods such as Vetter's equation to calculate
efficiency, Camp’s formula to calculate the transit velocity and Newton's formula to
calculate the settling velocity are used.
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2.8.3.3 Protection Works
Gates are used to control the flow across the gravel trap. Flushing gates are used to flush
the settled matters. The flushing orifices are controlled using the flushing gates. Flushed
water and the excess water are safely diverted to the river using open channel. The side
protection works fencing etc. are carried out.
2.8.4 General
Suspended particle that is not settled in the gravel trap is trapped in the settling basin. The
basic principle behind settling is that the greater the basin surface area and lower the
through velocity, the smaller the particles that can settle. The geometry of settling basin
must be such as to cause minimum turbulence, which might impair the efficiency. To
ensure uniform flow, transitions are provided at inlet and outlet. Selection of width and
length also depends upon land available. For more reliable operation, more than one
chamber is employed to make whole system running even if one of the chambers has to
be stop for maintenance.
Flushing of deposited matters is essential for smooth operation of settling basin. The
lateral and longitudinal slope may be provided for this purpose. For control of flow in and
from settling tank, gates can be used. Generally periodic flushing system is adopted for
settling basin since e the sediment load is not as high as in gravel trap.
The design discharge for settling basin is taken as 7.92 m³/sec. Settling basin is 14.2m
wide, 4m deep and 86.1m length (30 transition length and 56.1 m settling length).
The settling basin is designed following standard practices. The geometry of inlet, the
width of basin and any curvature must be such as to cause minimum turbulence which
might impair the efficiency. Concentration approach is used to design it. Trap efficiency
is selected as 90% removal of 0.2 mm sized sedimentary particles. Vetter's equation is
used for efficiency calculation. Hazen's equation and various charts are used to compute
the transit velocity and the settling velocity.
23
2.8.4.3 Protection Works
Gates are used to control the flow across the settling basin. Flushing gates are used to
flush the settled matters. The flushing orifices are controlled using the flushing gates.
Flushed water and the excess water are safely diverted to the river using open channel.
The side protection works like fencing etc. are carried out.
2.8.5.1 General
The water diverted from the intake to the desilting basin of inlet chamber through the
conveyance system is termed as headrace. A high head diversion plant is generally
associated with tunnel to divert water where as a medium head to low head diversion
plants generally employ canal diversion. Geology, topography and hydrology are major
factors to select such options. For small plants with low heads intra basin diversion
having fairly straight reaches of river, canal is the best option. Headrace has to convey
extra discharge for continuously flushing the settling basin.
The conveyance system used could be non-pressurized (free gravity flow) or pressurized
flow. Depending upon the flow condition inside the tunnel, it could be either pressure
tunnel or the non-pressure tunnel. Flow through canal is non-pressurized. The conveyance
of flow could be made through pipe as pressurized flow where head loss is minimum.
The canal alignment should be sufficiently diverted away from the river so
that the risk of flood damage is minimum.
The alignment should be along the level to slightly sloping ground, pass
through stable terrain and follow the shortest reasonable route with a
minimum crossings and a minimum of head loss and minimum seepage loss
because loss in head or discharge is the loss in power production.
24
Manning's equation is the most widely used formula in open channel flow. From
economic point of view, size should be smallest possible and channel section should be
most economical. But, from constructional feasibility the most economical channel
section obtained by minimizing perimeter may not be always economical. Size and bed
slope have inverse relationship. So, choice of bed slope is dependent on the size of canal.
A power canal is generally of rectangular shape and is rigid boundary channels. Lining is
used to reduce roughness and seepage. A larger size not only incurs cost but also
increases the cost of cross drainage works and cost of operation and maintenance and the
risk of failure. The canal should be shortest possible and as straight as possible.
The velocity should be non-scouring and non-silting. To get small sections, a high
velocity which does not scour the lining material is usually desired but to save head, a
mild is preferred. The slope is limited by non-settling criteria. Tractive shear approach is
always used to ensure sufficient shear stress to cause scouring of particle transported by
it. The shear stress induced by water on the particles should be greater than critical
tractive shear stress of the particles.
Or, o c ;or, w RS w Ss 1 F Re
d
R S
11
The alignment of the canal is selected to ensure maximum stability as far as possible. As
the canal follows the contour and the area is flat at most of the sections, not heavy
protection works would be required.For closed flow there is not any risk of failure as
canal section damage, seepage loss, heavy cross drainage work and its protection etc. The
pipe should be anchored at the every change in horizontal and vertical alignment. At cross
drainage, pitching and concreting around the pipe should be done to secure at its position.
25
2.8.6 FOREBAY
2.8.6.1 General
Regulates the flow into the penstock, particularly through the excess water into a
spillway
Release the surge pressure as the wave travels out of the penstock pipe
Serve as secondary or final settling basin and trap some particles that enter the
head race downstream of settling basin
Forebay is 15m long, 5.6m deep and 14.4m wide. The inlet chamber is followed by
Penstock pipe of 1.9m dia. with inlet velocity of 2.54m/sec.
The design of forebay is similar to that of design of settling basin, in general, except that
exit portion is replaced by a trash rack and penstock entrance area. The entrance to the
penstock should fully submerge in its design. The different parts of inlet chamber:
Entrance bay or basin, Spillway, Flushing sluice, Screens, Valve chamber or gate
chamber and Conduit or penstock gate.
It is designed such that 15 secs to 3 mins of the design can be safely stored in the storage
above the minimum pipe submergence level. The limiting velocity in the inlet chamber
should be adopted in between 0.2m/sec to 0.8m/sec and the submergence depth (S)
should be greater than 0.7D; where D= Diameter of penstock. Then total depth of tank =
Free Board + S + D + Settling Zone; where, S = Submergence head and setting zone > 0.3
v2
1.5
D. The submergence head should be more than 2g . The width of tank can be found by
Q
B=
using the relation: h v ; where, v = Limiting velocity adopted and h = S + D.
26
The volume of inlet chamber is calculated by quantifying the volume of water stored
within the plant startup time such that the depth of the inlet chamber should be enough to
dissipate the overflow during upsurge and drawdown. And effective volume of the inlet
V
L=
And the length of the tank can be calculated as: B h.
The length of the spillway in the inlet chamber is designed by simple weir formula.
The forebay is located at a flat area nearby river side. Fencing is done around the inlet
chamber so that no one could enter. The excess water from the inlet chamber is allowed
to spill from the spillway structure constructed on it. This water is safely discharge to the
river using on open channel constructed for the purpose. Gates are used at inlet and outlet
for its safe operation.
2.8.7 PENSTOCK
2.8.7.1 General
The potential energy of the flow at the inlet chamber is converted into the kinetic energy
at the turbine of a hydropower plant via the pipe known as penstock. It has to bear a very
high pressure caused due water hammer effect at the sudden closure of the gate by
governing mechanism of the turbine. Penstock should be smooth enough so as to result
minimum head loss while flowing water and it corrosion resistance from durability
aspect. The thickness should be sufficient to resist hoop stress developed by water
hammer pressure and normal pressure not exceeding the allowable stress. Penstock
alignment must be straight to avoid head loss at bents and the extra cost of anchor block
unless it is mandatory by site condition. The penstock may be either embedded or
27
exposed as per topography, location of inlet chamber/ Surge Tank, Powerhouse and
construction easiness etc. The penstock alignment should start where the ground profile
gets steeper. An ideal ground slope would be between 1:1 and 1:2 (V: H).
For a particular head and discharge, there may be several options for the size of penstock
according to continuity equation (Q=AV). Also, head loss increases squarely with
flv 2
hl
increase in velocity as per Darcy-Weishbach equation: 2gd .
So, a smaller size penstock saves cost of construction material but the loss of energy due
to loss of head takes place and vice versa. Due to this fact, we need to deduce optimum
diameter which has minimum cost and minimum loss of energy. Water hammer pressure
in excess of normal water pressure can be expressed in equivalent water column height
Vo
hm = Vc ×
as, g , Where Vo= Velocity of water in penstock,
Vc = Velocity of wave
Km 1
;K m
1 D
K tE , Where K = Bulk
Modulus of water, D = Diameter of penstock, t = thickness of penstock, E = Young's
Modulus of elasticity of steel, ρ = density of water.
P d
t
2 ; Where, P = total pressure in pipe and σ = Permissible
hoop stress of steel in pipe.
For small hydro project, wave velocity is calculated as a = 1440/ √ (1 + (2150*D/ (E*t)))
m/s, and surge head is calculated as, K = (L*V/ (g* h(gross) * T))2 and h surge = (k/2 ±
√ (K+ K2/4))* h (gross)
If the penstock has to feed more than one turbine, various factors govern whether use
independent pipes in number equal to the equal to the no. of turbine or use one pipe and
28
bifurcate it at turbine inlet. Length from inlet chamber to powerhouse, construction
feasibility, reliability, transportation and fabrication feasibility are some important factors
to be considered for this.
2.8.7.3 Optimization
Penstock is one of the costly and important structures in hydropower plant. The larger
size incurs more cost of the structure and a smaller size saves the cost of structure but is
associated with increased head loss (which is ultimately the power loss). So, there is
always an optimum size of penstock for which the total cost of loss and the material is
minimum. To seek this size, optimization technique is used. Increase in size tends to
increase the thickness, as thickness is directly proportional to diameter but this relation is
no more valid as the water hammer pressure decreases with increase in size. The
optimization is carried out considering these aspects.
Penstock is very sensitive structure and its failure is of fatal nature. Exposed penstock is
susceptible to temperature stress and hence, should be provided with expansion joints.
Anchor blocks are used to resist vertical and horizontal forces in the penstock. They
prevent the yielding of penstock. Expansion joints are provided adjacent to them. To
support at intermediate locations and prevent bending stresses, slide blocks are used. The
inner surface of penstock is galvanized and the outer surface is frequently painted to
prevent from corrosion. Frequent checking of the penstock should be done to ensure its
safe operation and to foresee the faults before failure.
2.8.8.1 General
An anchor block is and encasement of penstock designed to restrain the pipe movement
and to fix the pipe in place during installation and operation. Anchor blocks tend to
prevent the movement of the penstocks due to steady or transient forces including
expansion and contraction forces and water hammer pressures. They provide necessary
reaction to the dynamic forces at the bends. To provide the necessary degree of stability
to the pipe assembly, anchor blocks find their significance. Anchor blocks are provided at
all horizontal and vertical bends of the pipe.
29
Slide blocks are used to support the pipes at intermediate points so as to prevent excessive
bending stresses in the pipe. They resist the weight of the pipe and water and resist the
lateral movement but allow the longitudinal movement of the pipe. So, these blocks are
lighter in weight than anchor blocks and save the overall cost of the support action.
Water flowing under pressure when diverted from straight path exerts pressure as the
bends. To resist various forces these blocks are designed. The blocks act as the massive
structures and work as the gravity dams. Sliding, Overturning, tension and crushing are to
be checked for the blocks.
The support engages less than the full perimeter of the penstock, generally between 90
and 180 degrees of arc, and typically 120°. These are simpler to construct than full
perimeter ring girder supports, but generally are spaced closer together than the ring
girders. It is usually spaced between 6 to 8 m between the anchor blocks. It is constructed
of concrete 1:3:6. Design procedure is same as that of the anchor blocks but only the
combination of load is different.
Mechanical joints either expansion joint or bolted sleeve type coupling is used in both
exposed and buried penstocks to accommodate the longitudinal movement caused by the
temperature changes and to facilitate the construction. The joints shall allow for
movement where differential settlement or deflections are anticipated.
Expansion joint permit only the longitudinal movements. The joints are used primarily
with aboveground installations and are located between the supports at the points where
the penstock deflections are of equal magnitude and direction. These joints divide the
barrel shell into separate units, which are watertight, but structurally discontinuous. It
should be provided just below the anchor block. Length of the expansion joints tL
2.8.8.3 Construction
Anchor blocks are the support of the penstock and are constructed to meet this purpose.
As the penstock is circular, the anchor blocks are made to fit the curve surface. Saddle
30
supports are used in it and a sufficient cover is provided above the pipe for adequate
fixity.
Anchor blocks are designed similar to the gravity dam. The blocks are to be designed to
resist overturning, sliding, crushing and tension failure. A firm foundation is required for
the blocks. The blocks should be prevented from gulley erosion due to rain water.
2.8.9.1 General
Power house size mainly depends on the discharge, head, type of turbine and generator,
number of units and the general arrangement in the power house. The size of the power
house should be sufficient to house all the components. Sufficient clear space should be
available for installation of various components and for maintenance purpose.
Height of power house is fixed by the dimensions of lower turbine block and its
superstructure. Height of the lower turbine block from the foundation to the floor of the
31
machine hall is to be determined by the dimensions of the turbine. The height of the
power house should be sufficient for the installation of turbine, generator and shaft and
gear mechanism. There should be sufficient space for removal and overhaul of any of the
components without disturbing other components. Sufficient clear space is also provided
for crane operation etc.
2.8.10 TAILRACE
2.8.10.1 General
Tailrace is the channel into which the water is discharged after passing through turbine. If
the power house is close to river, the outflow may be discharged directly into the river.
But when the river is far off from the power house, one may have to construct a channel
or pipes according to topography of the site between the power house and the river. The
tailrace should be designed and maintained properly so that excessive aggravation and
degradation is avoided.
Design of the tailrace is similar to that of headrace channel except that higher velocity can
be allowed in the design without caring for head loss in the channel. High grade of
concrete is required to resist erosion of tailrace channel due to higher velocity. The
downstream end of tailrace must be protected to prevent the river by erosion or by flow
from the tailrace. The discharge should be disposed off over rock or large boulders. If
erodible slopes exist in the vicinity, a stilling basin may be required to dissipate energy.
2.8.11.1General
A hydropower plant requires a great deal of mechanical and electrical equipment. The
major electrical components are: Generator, Exciters and Voltage regulators,
Transformers, Switchgear, Control room equipment including switch boards. Similarly,
mechanical components are: Shaft, bearing coupling etc for generators, oil circuits and
pumps, compressors and air ducts, braking equipments. The arrangements for lighting,
water supply and drainage should also be provided.
2.8.11.2 Turbine
32
2.8.11.2.1 General
Hydraulic turbines are machines which convert hydraulic energy into mechanical energy.
The mechanical energy developed by turbine is used in running an electric generator
which is directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine which in turns converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy. Based on the energy conversion, turbines are classified as
Impulsive or Active and Reactive Turbines.
Impulse Turbine
The turbine, in which pressure head or potential energy of water is converted into the
kinetic energy of water in the form of jet of water issuing from one or more nozzles and
hitting a series of buckets mounted on the periphery of the wheel, at atmospheric pressure
is called impulse turbine. It is used for high head and low discharge. Pelton and Turgo
turbines are the examples of the impulse turbine.
Reactive Turbine
The turbine, in which both kinetic energy and potential energy of water is utilized to
rotate the runner or the turbine is called the reactive turbine. The water flows through the
runner under kinetic and potential energy. The turbine runner is submerged and water
enters all around the periphery of the runner. Water is taken up to the tailrace by means of
a closed draft tube and thus whole passage of water is totally enclosed. Francis, Kaplan,
Propeller, Deriaz turbine etc are the examples of reactive turbines.
Selection of suitable type of turbine for the project depends upon several factors like
head, discharge, power production, load condition and corresponding efficiency, quality
of water, tail water level, size, construction feasibility etc. Selection of turbine is essential
for the layout of the powerhouse, approaching and discharging pipes, conditions of
construction and exploitation and techno economic parameters. The turbine is selected
from the following basic criteria:
33
Low head and high discharge - Kaplan turbine
Specific speed:
10 to 50 - Pelton turbine
80 to 400 - Francis
For Tadi Small Hydropower Project, Francis Turbine is selected. The selection was made
by using the head vs discharge graph, which is attached in annex. Because of medium
head of 74.12m, we have selected Francis turbine as it has better efficiency than other in
part load operation. Discharge variations in the river would happen as per FDC. For at
least four months, FDC shows that discharge is nearly equal to or less than half of design
discharge. Because of this reason we used two turbines of same capacity so that one will
be operated at part loads not by reducing the efficiency to practically low level. Also, two
sets of turbines increases the degree of reliability. In our project, two Francis turbines are
used with equal capacity. The runner diameter of the turbine is 0.675m.
2.8.11.3 Generator
Generator is 3-phase synchronous machine having the speed range of 70 to 1000 rpm. It
may have either vertical shaft alignment or horizontal shaft alignment. The vertical shaft
alignment is usually preferred for medium and large installation. The stator of generator is
manufactured in a number of segments which are then joined at the site. The entire stator
assembly is embedded firmly in concrete foundation. The generator voltage depends upon
the electrical design (which is bounded by the scope) but the normal range is between 6 to
18 KV.
2.8.11.4 Exciters
The poles of the rotor have to be fed with field current, which is achieved through
excitation system. This is known as a static excitation scheme. The generator bus bars
feed current to a step-down transformer to bring down its voltage 230 V which is
34
converted into d.c. current with the help of thyristors converters. The main requirement of
the exciters is the reliability with a steady and stable excitation current. The whole
excitation system is made automatic to achieve quick and accurate control.
The generator cooling can be achieved by air circulation through the stator ducts. This
may be a closed circuit air cooling system which feeds air to the blades of fan provides on
the rotor. In such cases about 3 m³/min. of air per KW of the generator loss will be
needed. Cooling by water is the common process. There is an elaborated lubrication
arrangement to provide lubrication to the bearing. It consists of a main and stand by oil
pump which are driven by induction motor. The lubrication circuit is provided with
circulating pumps.
2.8.11.6 Transformer
The generator voltage (6.6 to 11 KV) has to be step up to the transmission voltage level
(33 KV) to minimize loss. This is achieved by the use of step up transformer. The
transformers are oil filled for insulation purpose as well as for cooling purposes.
Transformer problems need a very close scrutiny. It is also a great fire susceptible in view
of the substantial quantity of oil in such a close proximity to power cables. A specially
designed firefighting equipment is always included at the transformer site. The location of
the transformer can be either indoors or outdoors. For surface power stations, outdoor
locations are common. The outdoor location may prove to be more economical and less
hazardous hence the outdoor location is preferred. The numbers of transformer may be as
many as the generating units. Each transformer is sufficiently isolated from other so as to
contain the fire in case of accidents. Besides the main transformer, there should be
auxiliary transformer (step down) for power house lighting and other use.
The modern hydroelectric stations have a centralized control for its various components
such as machine starting and stopping, machine loading and frequency control, Generator
and system voltage control, machine running supervision and Hydraulic control. All these
components are controlled entirely from a control room.
35
2.8.11.8 Switchgear
The term switchgear is a general term applied to all the variety of the apparatus in the
power house employed for making and breaking the circuit. It may consist of switches,
isolators, surge arresters and circuit breakers. The cost of switchgear depends upon the
cost of bus bar voltage. The bus bars and switches can be provided at the generating
voltage before the transformers or at the transmitting voltage or after the transformers.
The choice depends up on the current and fault rating which in turn influence the design
and cost of the switchgear. If the switchgear is at the generating voltage, it is normally
preferred to locate it indoors. If it is at transmitting voltage, it is usual to locate it outdoors
in the area known as switchyard. The high voltage circuit breakers usually use oil for
insulation. The size of the switchgear assembly depends up on the individual machine
size as well as the electrical clearance of the air, specified in the standards. Both the
switchgear and transformers, particularly located outside, have to have adequate light
protection.
2.8.12.1 General
Energy generated at the power station has to be carried to the consumer's premises
through a network of transmission and distribution lines. Transmission lines transmit bulk
electrical power from power stations to load centers in the form of either underground
cables or overhead lines. Transmission system of an area is known as grid. The different
grids are interconnected through tie lines to form a national grid. Transmission voltages in
Nepal are 33 KV, 66 KV and 132 KV and planning to transmit at 220 KV. The high
voltage transmission lines transmit electrical power from the sending end sub-station
(Power Station) to the receiving end stations. The transmission facilities affect the cost
and reliability of energy supplied to the consumers to a great extent.
The choice of the most economical voltage for transmission line requires a detailed study
of many technical and economical factors. The power capacity and distance of
transmission are specified. The detail design includes the line voltage, size of phase
conductor, span, spacing and configuration of the conductors, numbers and size of earth
wires, number of insulators, clearance, sag under operating and erecting condition etc.
36
The transmission line for the purpose of economy is required to be constructed at lowest
cost. This is achieved by optimizing the tower height and the span length. This will
reduce the overall cost of line. While deciding the length various factors such as voltage,
public safety and Government's regulation must be considered.
Once these design features are available, the voltage regulation and efficiency can be
calculated. In case these quantities are not within the prescribed limits, a revision of the
design is necessary. Most of the parameters mentioned above are beyond the scope of this
project work. The cost and performance of the line depend, to a great extent, on the line
0.5
L P
V = 5.5 +
voltage. An empirical formula for the optimum voltage is: 1.6 100 ; Where,
V = Line voltage in KV; L = Distance in Km; P = Power in KW. A standard voltage
nearest to this value should be adopted. The above formula gives only a preliminary
estimate.
37
CHAPTER 3
DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT
The proposed project “Tadi” is located in Thaprek VDC of Nuwakot district in the central
development region of Nepal. The proposed site lies between 27º55’36” N to 27º55’0” N
latitude and 85º21’08”E to 85º19’15” E longitude. The elevation of the proposed site area
is within 796.5 m – 725 m. Tadi khola is one of the snow fed river and there are large
number of rounded boulders deposited in either side of the bank of the proposed site. It
finally merges to Trishuli river.
The catchment area of the river basin at intake site is approximately 247 sq. km. The
hydraulic structures like intake, approach canal and power house is proposed to run
through the right bank of the river. The intake site is located at Chamate-Kavre Dovaan
and the powerhouse site is located near the intake of Simara Irrigation Scheme.
3.2 ACCESSIBILITY
There is direct transportation from Kathmandu to Trishuli Bazar which branches off from
Ganagate to the project site. There is a motorable road(earthen and partially graveled) of
about 24 km from Ganagate to the project site. It takes about 6 hours from Kathmandu
and about 3 hours from Trishuli to reach the project site.
The Tadi khola catchment lies within the Gandaki river basin. About, 3% of the
catchment is covered by snow whereas 26% is covered by rock and meadow. Similarly,
about 46% of the area is of agriculture land whereas 25% of the catchment area is covered
by forest. The Tadi khola flows with an average river slope of about 1 in 33. However, it
is about 1 in 20 in the project corridor.
3.4 CLIMATE
The average annual rainfall at the region is estimated about 2755 mm from Theissen
Polygon Method. The project area experiences hot and humid climate during June to
38
September and cold climate during November to January. The mean monthly temperature
varies from 14oC to 25.4 oC. The relative humidity varies from 33% to 93% over the year.
Local construction materials like sand, stones, aggregates etc. are available on the
construction site. Other construction material like cement, steel can be brought from
Kathmandu.
The design of any hydropower project primarily depends upon an accurate assessment of
hydrological data. Hydrology is of great importance throughout all the project phases:
from the preliminary planning to the technical design, to the final management. In each
phase of the project the hydrological contribution is never a standard approach, but is a
result of a fine calibration of methodologies according to the requested degree of
approximation and the available data. The longer the hydrological data the more reliable
is the estimation of design parameter for the project.
The collection of hydrological data mainly includes:
Tadi Khola is of the main tributaries of Trisuli River. The catchment area of the river lies
mainly in dense mixed forest. The Tadi Khola is gauged river whose gauging station
number is 448 located at Tadi pul, Belkot, Nuwakot. The distance between the gauging
station 448 & the proposed intake area is about 20km.Since,the catchment area
characteristics of the intake site is more or less similar to the gauge station number 448.
39
So the hydrological data for the proposed hydropower station can be taken from the above
station.
3.6.2 Precipitation
Precipitation data acts as a guide for hydrological data. The record of precipitation is
important to understand the nature of catchment and flow of the stream. The precipitation
can be measured by two types of Rain Gauge, viz: Recording Type Rain gauge & Non
Recording Type Rain gauge.
The average precipitation of the catchment area was derived by taking rainfall data from
all the marked station spread around the Tadi catchment by using Theissen Polygon
Method.
3.6.3.1 Discharge
The measurement of stream flow i.e. discharge is amenable to fairly accurate assessment
of hydrological data. Moreover, stream flow is the only parts of hydrological cycle that
can be measured accuratey. There are various methods for determining discharge of river,
viz:
Direct method
Further, there are several ways of measuring discharge by direct method. They are:
Indirect method
Also, there mainly two ways of measuring discharge by indirect method. They are:
40
Hydraulic structures, such as weir, flumes and gated structures.
Slope area method.
The discharge of Tadi khola was measured using Area velocity method.
The stage of a river is the elevation of top water surface above any arbitrary datum.
The water level of Tadi khola was measured by using manual method.
Where,
Q =storm discharge.
G=gauge height.
α=gauge reading to zero discharge.
Cr & β are rating curve constant.
3.6.4 Peak discharge calculation:
The design and projection of hydraulic structures of hydropower plant depends on peak
flow. Basically, such flow is considered for the design of diversion weir, settling basin,
gravel trap, drainage work, canal crossing, tailrace canal and power house. The flood flow
value acts as a safety measure for the design and location of hydraulic structure as well as
superstructures.
The annual maximum instantaneous peak flow of the Tadi khola for the period of 1969-
1995 for station 448 tadi khola was obtained from department of hydrology and
41
metrology (DHM) and those data are used to calculate flood frequency analysis for
different return period.
Frequency analysis is used to calculate the peak flow of a stream for any number of return
periods. It is a statistical method which is used for prediction of peak flow. For any
predetermined return period, the general equation of hydrologic frequency analysis:
Where,
xt=value of variate (discharge).
= mean of variate.
K= frequency factor depends upon the period T.
σ= standard deviation of variate.
The commonly used frequency distribution functions for the prediction of extreme peak
flow values are:
Gumbel’s Method
Normal
Log-normal II
Log –normal III
Pearson type II
Log Pearson Type III
The annual maximum instantaneous flood discharge of the Tadi Khola for the period of
1969- 1995 for Station 448 . Tadi Khola , a tributary of the Trishuli River , which is
available from DHM . These data are used to calculate flood frequency analysis for
different return period by using the computer programming FREQ. In FREQ , the
following 6 types of statistical distribution area used and the result drawn thereon is
present below :
Table 3.1 Estimation of peak flow at proposed intake by different methods
42
LN II 85.6 352.15 413.81 496.27 560.57 716.04 786.77
LN III 76.6 358.58 430.83 531.45 612.77 819.68 918.02
Gumbel 102.1 336.27 425.91 454.66 504.97 620.34 670.27
Pearson II 82.4 357.45 419.48 499.3 559.06 695.61 754.62
Log P III 79.8 353.29 425.16 528.8 614.66 844.26 958.5
From the above table, it can be seen that the lowest standard error is in LN III. Therefore,
the design flood level at proposed headwork is taken as 612.77m3/s for a return period of
100 years.
The catchment area from the available map shows that there is only 9 km2 added on top
of the catchment area with respect to proposed headwork and there are no rivulets that
can contribute significant amount of flash flood . However, the flood flow as determined
using catchment correlation for 100 years return period is 635.1m3/s.
The major approaches for assessing water availability of hydropower projects are mean
monthly flow and flow duration curve.
These curves give realistic estimation of flow and ascertain economic viability of a
project.
MIP method
Catchment Correlation Method
Hydest and Modified Hydest Method
MHSP
The MIP method is used for estimating the distribution of monthly flow throughout year
for un gauged locations. The MIP methodology uses a database consisting of DHM spot
measurements. MIP presents non dimensional hydrograph of mean monthly flows for 7
43
different physiographic regions. These hydrographs presents monthly flow as ratio of
flows. The measured flow is then used with the regional non- dimensional hydrograph.
The mean monthly flow derived at the proposed intake using gauge station no 448 data
and then transferred to station 447.4 at Ruwatar gauging station which is very close to the
proposed power house area. Correlation factor as derived using time series data of station
447.4 and 448 are used to develop mean monthly flow at Ruwatar station 447.4.
The Hydest method has been used to estimate mean flow series at the proposed intake.
The method was developed by WECS/DHM in 1990 for evaluating the hydrologic
characteristics of ungaged catchments. For the complete hydrological analysis by this
approach, the catchment area and its distribution in altitude are essenential along with
monsoon wetness index (MWI) of the catchment s. the monsoon wetness index from the
isoheytal map for the project area is taken as 1800 mm. In the present study , this
approach is used to compute long term hydrology and extreme hydrology of the Tadi
khola at the proposed intake. Modified version of HYDEST is also used to analyze the
hydrological parameters of the project.
3.6.6.4 MHSP
The Medium Hydropower study project(MHSP) under NEA in 1997 developed a method
to predict long-term flows, flood flow and flow duration curves at ungauged sites through
regional regression technique. The MHSP method has been used to estimate mean
monthly flow series at the proposed intake site. Daily flows, maximum and minimum
instantaneous flows of 66 hydrometric stations obtained from the DHM are used in the
regression. The input variables are similar to those used in WECS/DHM method.
This approach used both MWI and average precipitation of the area along with the
catchment area of the river.
44
Feb 6.75 5.33 2.65 3.73 3
Mar 4.95 4.88 2.4 3.28 2.77
Apr 3.59 4.41 2.5 3.28 3.45
May 6.75 8 3.42 4.55 3.95
Jun 11.23 16.66 11.92 14.25 12.97
Jul 48.59 41.58 36.58 39.76 38.62
Aug 89.72 75.4 43.95 55.47 45.71
Sep 74.75 54.75 33.79 39.76 35.49
Oct 37.39 24.42 14.73 17.99 16.45
Nov 17.94 13.02 6.55 8.02 7.92
Dec 13.46 6.81 4.24 5.44 5.12
Annual 27.05 21.76 13.82 16.61 14.93
100
90
80
Mean Monthly Flow(m3/s)-->
70
60 Catchment Correlation
50 MIP
40 HYDEST
30 MODIFIED HYDEST
20 MHSP
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Months-->
Conclusion of graph
The dry monthly flow as obtained using catchment correlation method has given
relatively high value. Thus, this method is preferred.
The flow duration curve is a probability discharge curve that shows the percentage of
time ; a particular flow is exceeded or equaled. In a runoff river hydropower project, it is
useful to know the variation of flow over the year so as to make ease to select the most
45
appropriate turbine configuration as well as for project optimization. Flow duration Curve
at different probability of exceedence is presented in table 4.2 and in figure 4.2.
80
70
60
Discharge(m3/s)-->
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
Probability of exceedence(%)-->
46
Catchment Probability of Design
Descendin Power(MW Energy(GW-
Mont Correlatio exceedence(% Discharge(m3/s Remark
g Order ) H)
h n ) )
5.82
Jan 75.4 8.333 7.2 4.140 3.020
5.33
Feb 54.75 16.667 7.2 4.140 3.020
4.88 WET
Mar 41.58 25.000 7.2 4.140 3.020
ENERG
4.41
Apr 24.42 33.333 7.2 4.140 3.020 Y
8
May 16.66 41.667 7.2 4.140 3.020
16.66
Jun 13.02 50.000 7.2 4.140 3.020
41.58 21.142
Jul 8 58.333 7.2 4.140 3.020
75.4
Aug 6.81 66.667 6.81 3.915 2.857
54.75 DRY
Sep 5.82 75.000 5.82 3.346 2.441
ENERG
24.42
Oct 5.33 83.333 5.33 3.064 2.236 Y
13.02
Nov 4.88 91.667 4.88 2.806 2.047
6.81 11.431
Dec 4.41 100.000 4.41 2.535 1.850
Total 32.572
Table 3.4 Annual Energy Calculation
3.7.1 General
The sediment transport in the river is a complex phenomenon. A careful study of the
sediment inflow and assessment of deposition is of major importance in planning of any
hydropower project. The mineralogical analysis of the sediment sample is necessary to
determine the presence of hard and soft material contents. The sediment collected from
samples of fine and coarse deposits are generally used for mineralogical analysis.
The size of the sediment greater than 100mm is taken as bed load. The sediment having
size less than 100mm is taken as suspended matter. The major effects of sediment and
minerals for run off river projects are:
47
Degradation of river downstream of the dam resulting in instability on either
side of banks.
The concentration of bed load for any hydropower plant is approximately taken as 30% of
the maximum discharge which is used for sluice gate design. Similarly, the concentration
of suspended matter is taken as 10-20% of the maximum discharge of the river which is
used for the design of settling basin. The realistic and objective assessment of
sedimentation is necessary for both project economic and environment consideration.
The size of the sediment in the river system of our country usually varies from fine sand
to big boulders. Tadi khola is one of the snow fed river and there are large number of
rounded boulders deposited in either side of the bank of the proposed site. At the
meandering section of the Tadi khola, high deposition of sediments takes place on either
side of the river. The bed characteristic of the river is rocky and mobile. The slope of the
river is relatively high as it is in the hilly region and the sediments are transported to a
larger distance.
The estimation of the sediment is not an exact science, largely due to various processes
which produce the sediment. The best measure of sediment yield from a catchment is:
Since there are no reservoir in the river so one has to visualize the sediment type and
nature from outer bend of meandering section of the river.
Tadi khola has a sediment measurement station located some 45km upstream from the
proposed intake. Sediment transport rate are high in Himalayan River and specific
sediment transport rates exceeding 10000t/km2/year have been reported (WEC, 1987).The
average monthly sediment load in the river as recorded in gauging station 447 Betrawats,
Nuwakot which is in close proximity of the project is shown in the table below.
48
Table 3.5 Average Sediment Loads at station 447 (ton/km2)
Area Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Annual
(km2)
4110 19 24 18 41 158 897 2995 4362 74 362 57 28 4
The catchment area of station 447 partly lies in Tibet and thus difficult to estimate
sediment influx. The above table can be used only to make reference for establishment of
sediment load at the proposed project.
A tentative estimation of the sediment transport at proposed site is made using empirical
formula as suggested for Hill Irrigation System.
Where,
Considering the density of sediments as 1.5ton/m3, the annual sediment load for Tadi
khola at the proposed headwork is tentatively estimated as 1.8 million ton. The average
sediment concentration for the design of settling basin to make the project is taken as
5000ppm or 5kg/m3.
As per DPR, for mineralogical analysis two samples from the river bed were taken.
3.7.4.1 General
Geological and geo-technical study plays an important role in hydropower projct. The
geo-technical issues carries a greatest risk in construction and investigation are necessary
to clarify the magnitude of the risk and how they can be reduced or managed.
49
Geologically and Geomorphlogically, Nepal is divided into five principle morphologic
regions, which reflect the underlying geology, and are continuous as linear belts
throughout the length of the entire country. These five regions are:
Tibetan Plateau
Higher Himalayas
Lesser Himalayas
Sub-Himalayas (Siwalik)
Among these region, Tadi Khola is situated in Nuwakot District which lies on Lesser
Himalayas Region .
The broad belt of Lesser Himalayas lies in South of the Higher Himalayas and separated
from them by the Main Central Thrust (MCT) to the north and Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT) to the south, lies. The MCT and MBT, the two major structures separate younger,
weaker rocks in the Siwalik range from the stronger metamorphosed rocks of the Higher
Himalayas. The average width of the zone is 60 kilometer and is characterized by the
mountains of Mahabharat range in the south.
It consists of meta-sedimentary rocks between which thrust slabs of gneiss and high
grade metamorphic rocks are present as observed in the project area. The zone is folded
and faulted and terminated in the south by the MBT, along which it has been moving
southwards since the Pliocene time.
The varied geologic structures and rock types give rise to irregular high relief terrain
showing short ridges, deep gorges and dissected mountains. River terraces are particularly
conspicuous, especially in the long strike valleys, such as the Arun Valley.
The area under consideration lies in Lesser Himalayan Metamorphic rock with slate and
intercalation of Phyllite and occasional band of Quartzite Lenses. The dip direction of the
50
rock is N or NE and is bounded by Dorkhu some 10-15 km in the west and Likhu thrust
in SE about 20-30 km.
Physiographically, the project area lies in the Midland hills bounded by the Great
Himalayan and has elevation of 200 m to 3000 m. Vertical cliffs can be seen in both
banks. It consist of low hills, river valleys and tectonic basin. The topography is less steep
to gentle. The Tadi khola flows from East to West and minor tributaries joins with Tadi
Khola almost perpendicular flowing from North and South direction. The valley is deeply
incised due to high current flowing rivers. The vegetation cover is high at the left bank as
compared to right bank. The slopes are covered with thin colluvial soil deposit while the
bedrock outcrops are exposed at base of the slopes along banks of river. Slope of the
khola at the proposed headworks and powerhouse area is sloped in the order of 1 in 30 or
so.
3.7.5 Conclusion
The project site consists of bedded schist, phyllites and meta-sandstones with few
quartzite band. The bed rocks are exposed at few locations especially along the river bank
and foot hill.
51
CHAPTER 4
4.1.1 Intake
1. Qdesign= 7.2m3/s
3. From DPR,
Assuming, n = 0.065
Since, the river reach is weedy containing deep pools & sludge.
Also, the river cross section is assumed to be rectangular, as the river is bound by rocky
topography on either side.
Q = A×V
Q = b × h× ×R2/3×S1/2
8.64×0.065×(20)1/2 =
2.511 =
52
From iterative calculation,
h=0.57 0.6m
For width,
A = Q/V
A = 8.64/0.8
= 10.8m2.
Again, Q = A×V
B= = 10.8m.
Now,
H= = = 1.542m
No of bays
4. A single bay cannot be used as the gate of 7.2m is difficult to operate (design, maintenance
& transport).
53
Again the gate of 3.6m width is also very large to operate.
Size: 3×(2.4×1.5)m
5. Pier
6. Track Rack
Using 25mm bars @25mm clear spacing at an inclination 80 with horizontal direction.
= 1.67(0.025/0.025)4/3( sin80 .
= 0.053
Where,
b=clear spacing
7. Pond Level
54
Pond Level =RL of bed level + ht. of sill of intake +
=794+2.5+1.5+0.5
=798.50m.
1. Weir height
W= 4.75
= 4.75
= 143.91m.
But a diversion weir of 143.91m is not feasible as there is a narrow gauge having width of
35m with rocky base where abutment can be anchored.
So,
L (width) = 35m.
R.L. of weir crest level = Sill level of intake + height of intake opening + free board
= 796.5+1.5+0.5
55
= 798.5m.
= 4.5m
Q100 = 613m3/s
0.8*Q100 = CL
0.8*613 = 2.1*35*
He = 3.54m.
Now,
Since, the ratio is equal to 1.33. So, the velocity head is neglected. Thus,
He = Hd = 3.54m
Eo = h + Hd
= 4.5+3.54
= 8.04m
= 613/35
= 17.514 m3/s.
56
q= S1/2/n
17.514 = 201/2/0.065
yo = 2.7m
As 20% of discharge goes through sluice and so energy dissipation for remaining 80% of
discharge is required to be designed.
H + Hd = y1 +
4.5+3.54 = y1 +
y1=1.789m
Now,
Froude number, ( )=
=1.87
As F<2.5, the jump is weak and energy loss is low. No devices are used to dissipate the
energy.
3. Design of weir
i. Weir Profile
Upstream profile
On Solving,
57
Table 4.1Weir Upstream Profile.
Y X
0 0
0.0985 0.62
0.246 0.998
Downstream profile
Xn = kHd(n-1)y
K=2.0 , n=1.85
X=2.6Y0.5405
On Solving,
Y X
0 0
0.5 1.78
1.00 2.60
1.50 3.23
2.0 3.78
2.50 4.266
3.00 4.71
3.50 5.12
4.0 5.50
4.50 5.86
58
ii. Weir length
= 8.94m
= 9*8.94
= 80.46m
= 2.21*9*
= 18.806
= 18.81m
L3 = 47.40m
L4 = L3/2 = 23.7m
B = 6.9m
59
1/3
Lacey’s scour depth (R) = 1.35(
1/3
= 1.35*(
= 7.845 7.85m
= 1.5*R
= 1.5*7.85
= 11.775 11.78m
= 802.04-11.8 = 790.26m
Therefore, Depth of upstream sheet pile from upstream bed = R.L. of u/s bed –R.L. of
bottom of sheet pile
= 1.5*7.85 11.78m
= 793.10-11.78
= 781.32m
= 790.4-781.32
= 9.08m
60
= 80.46-18.81-6.9-2*3.74-2*9.08
= 29.19m
= *8.94
= 2.51m
= = 1.57m
For U/S,
Provide pucca floor of minimum 1m thickness U/S of the weir body and 1.5m thickness
below the weir.
= = = 6.037
Λ=
= 3.56
61
4. Sluice way:
Q100 = 613m3/s.
= 0.2×918.02 = 183.634m3/s.
Assuming, size of sluice gate opening to be 2.5m, to pass boulder of maximum size
greater than 2m.
R.L. of bed level of sluice way = sill level of intake – height of sluice way
= 796.5-2.5 = 794m.
= 802.04m.
R.L. of d/s water level = R.L. of bed load sluice (d/s bed level) + depth of water at d/s.
= 790.4+2.7
= 793.1m.
Now,
= 802.04-793.1
= 8.94m.
Then,
Q = c × A (2×g×Δh)1/2
Q100×0.2 = 0.6×A*(2×9.81×8.94)1/2
613×0.2 = 0.6×A*(2×9.81×8.94)1/2
62
A = 15.43m2.
Using h = 2.5m,
1. Given Parameter:
Q = 1.2×7.2
= 8.64 m3/s
Flushing system:
2. Settling Velocity:
Iteration 1:
= (For 1000<R<10000;Cd=0.4)
= 0.323m/s
= = 489.393
63
Cd = + + 0.34
= + + 0.34 = 0.524
Iteration 2:
ω=
= 0.282m/s
R=
= 427.272
Cd = + + 0.34
= + + 0.34
= 0.541
Iteration 3:
ω=
= 0.28m/s (OK)
= 36
= 50.91 51cm/s
4. Vetter’s method:
64
η (efficiency) = 90%
ω = 0.28m/s
Q = 8.64m3/s
0.9 = 1-
0.1 =
ln(0.1)=
As=
As=71.051m2
Let, H=3.5m
= = 7.26m 7.5m
Length (L) =
= 9.78m 10.0m
Size: 11.5×7.5×3.5m
5. Transition design
Inlet length: No inlet transition is provided as gravel trap is constructed immediately after
intake.
Outlet length = /
= 9.5m
65
Overall length = 11.5+9.5
= 21m
6. Flushing discharge
= 10%×7.2
= 0.72m3/s
Longitudinal slope=1in 25
V = R2/3S1/2
= 4.03m/s
Shear stress ( o) = RS
= 9.81×0.166×
= 0.0654KN/m2
= 65.4N/m2
= 0.056×9.81×0.01×(2.6-1)
= 8.78N/m2
66
= 3.7m
Q = Cd A
0.72=0.6×A×
A=0.140m2
h=
h=0.28m
Assume,
= 7.92m3/s
(BH NH 2 )5/3 S
Q=
n[(B 2N (1 N 2 ) ]2/3
By iterative process,
67
Bottom width (B) = 2.4m.
= 2.4+2×1.2×1= 4.8m
= 4.59m2
= 7.92/4.59
Height: 1.5m
= 4.59
= 2.025/3.89
= 0.94.
Check,
= 11×0.94×1/500
= 0.02068m.
68
Spillway Design:
Cw = 1.6
Q = 7.92m3/s
Assume, L = 10m
Now,
Qspillway = CwLspillwayH1.5overtop
7.92=1.6*10*H1.5
H=0.626m
= 7.2×1.1
= 7.92m3/s
1. Particle Approach:
Assumption,
= 19.67cm/s 20cm/s
69
= (2.6-1)
= 0.0264m/s 0.026m/s
= 456.923m2
Assuming, = 8 (4 10)
So,
L×B = 456.923
8B2 = 456.923
B=7.55m 7.6m
B = 7.2Q0.5
B = 7.2×(7.92)0.5
= 20.26m ≰ 7.6m
B = 4.83Q0.5
= 4.83×7.920.5
= 13.59 ≰7.6m
So,
L = 8B
=8×7.6
= 60.8m
70
Then,
Q=A×v
=5.21m 5.3m
2. Vetter’s method:
Q = 7.92m3/s
ω = 0.026m/s
We know,
η=1-
0.9=1-
0.1=
Ln0.1=
As=
As=701.4m2
Again,
As = L×B = 701.402
8B2 = 701.402
B = 9.362m 9.4m ≱ 20.26m (deposition criteria)
B = 9.4m ≱ 13.59 (flushing criteria)
So,
L= 8B = 8×9.4 = 75.2m
Then,
71
Q=A × v
7.92 = B×H×0.2
H=
= 4.21m 4.3m
3. Hazen’s method:
Q = 7.92m3/s
ω = 0.026m/s
η = 90%
m = 0.1(0 m 1)
By Hazen,
η=1-[1+mωA/Q]-1/m
-1/0.1
0.9 = 1-[
0.1 = [1+ ]
=
= (10)1/10
= 0.259
A = 788.953m2
Again,
A = L×B
8B2 = 788.853
B=9.93m 10.0m ≱ 20.26 (deposition)
≱13.59 (flushing)
And,
L= 8B= 80m
72
Then,
Q=A×v
7.92 = B×H×0.2
H=
= 3.96m 4.0m
Size: (80×10×4)m
Number of chambers:
As = l × b = 394.476
8b2=394.476
b=7.022m and l=8×7.022=56.1m
Inlet profile:
Outlet profile:
Since, the approach length of the canal is only 36.90 m & it is not possible to make
forebay separately in such a short distance. So, forebay is kept adjacent to the settling
basin replacing outlet contraction zone.
73
Sediment Concentration (ss) = 5000 ppm = 5 Kg/m3
We have,
T=
So,
= (7.92×8×60×60)×5/2600
= 438.646 m3
5. Orifice:
Discharge (Q) = A × v
= * *R2/3*S1/2
2/3 1/2
0.36 = * *( *(
D = 0.6m.
Orifice is designed for half flow for better flushing and the discharge for each orifice is
half of 10% of Qdesign.
So,
=1.2m
Height = 0.3+06+0.3
=1.2m
Size: (1.2×1.2)m
74
6. Using two Dufour chamber
h= = 3.15m
Check volume,
1. Volume
= 7.2×2×60
= 864m3
2. Submergence depth
≥ = = 6.8×10-3
75
Adopt, S = 2.85m
=5 .55m
=2.85+1.9 = 4.75m
8. Length (L) =
= =12.63m~13m
9 .Check surge
Surge (Zmax)=V
= 2.539
=4.72m 4.8m
76
p0= = =0.317m
Zup= Zmax(1- +
= 4.8(1- +
= 3.834m.
Zdown=Zmax( )=4.8*
Since, the calculated maximum surge is greater than effective depth. So, effective height
is revised.
Put,
h=4.8m
= 0.3+4.8+0.5
= 5.6m
= =0.88>0.4(OK)
Cw=1.6
Q=7.2m3/s
77
Assume, L=10m
Now,
Qspillway=CwLspillwayH1.5overtop
Or,7.2=1.6*10*H1.5
Or,H=0.588m
20n+100(n-1) =3×103
So, n = 25.83
Take, n = 26nos.
=2.48m.
= 0.96m/s.
Where, k = 1.45-0.45R-R2
Where, R = Anet/Agross
= (2.48×3)/(3×3)
= 0.82
So, k = 0.408
78
So,LT = (0.408×0.962)/(2×9.81)
= 0.019m.
For successful operation the size of the pipe for a given discharge may vary between wide
limits, but there is usually one size that will make the greatest economy design. Hence,
the diameter of the penstock is determined from the consideration of economy and is
checked to see that the acceptance velocities are not exceeded.
251,000,000.00
Cost(Rs)-->
201,000,000.00
151,000,000.00
101,000,000.00
51,000,000.00
1,000,000.00
800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Diameter(mm)-->
Total Cost Cost of Energy Loss Cost of Material
79
Table 4.3 Calculation for Optimization of Penstock
Discharge(Q) 7.2 m3/s Cost of Energy(Rs/Kw-h) 5 Bulk modulus of water 1.962E+09 N/m2
Gross head(Hg) 74.1 m Material Cost(Rs/Kg) 180 Design Pressure(P) 7.271 kg/cm2
Length(L) 2239 m Density(ρ) 7850 Kg/m3 Allowable Stress(σ) 1020 kg/cm2
Life(n) 40 years Young's Modulus(E) 2.10E+11 N/m2 Joint Efficiency(η) 0.9
Interest rate(i) 11 % Ultimate tensile strength(S) 3.50E+08 N/m2 Time of closure 10 s
Density of water 1000 kg/m3
Internal Diameter(d) mm 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Empirical thickness(t) mm 4.68 5.48 6.28 7.07 7.87 8.66 9.46 10.25 11.05 11.85
thickness(t) mm 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00 14.00
Area m2 0.50 0.79 1.13 1.54 2.01 2.54 3.14 3.80 4.52 5.31
Velocity(Vo) m/s 14.324 9.167 6.366 4.677 3.581 2.829 2.292 1.894 1.592 1.356
Frictional Factor 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.012 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01
Head Loss(Hf) m 351.171 115.072 46.245 21.396 10.974 5.075 2.997 1.861 1.204 0.807
Power loss kw 21083.353 6908.593 2776.409 1284.545 658.855 304.681 179.911 111.711 72.302 48.455
Annual Energy Loss kw-h 1.847E+08 6.052E+07 2.432E+07 1.125E+07 5.772E+06 2.669E+06 1.576E+06 9.786E+05 6.334E+05 4.245E+05
Cost of Energy loss Rs 9.235E+08 3.026E+08 1.216E+08 5.626E+07 2.886E+07 1.335E+07 7.880E+06 4.893E+06 3.167E+06 2.122E+06
Wave velocity(Vc) m/s 1130.978 1084.767 1043.794 1007.138 974.092 944.099 916.715 891.585 868.413 846.960
Critical time s 3.959 4.128 4.290 4.446 4.597 4.743 4.884 5.022 5.156 5.287
Surge Head(Hs) m 233.489 149.433 103.773 76.241 58.372 46.121 37.358 30.875 25.943 22.106
Total Head(Ht) m 307.609 223.553 177.893 150.361 132.492 120.241 111.478 104.995 100.063 96.226
Effective thickness(Te) mm 8.606 8.606 8.606 8.606 8.606 8.606 8.606 8.606 8.606 8.606
Safety Factor(S.F.) 2.448 2.695 2.822 2.862 2.842 2.783 2.702 2.608 2.509 2.408
Check reject ok ok ok ok ok ok ok ok reject
Area of Pipe m2 3.580E-02 4.460E-02 5.339E-02 6.219E-02 7.099E-02 7.978E-02 8.858E-02 9.738E-02 1.062E-01 1.150E-01
Weight kg 6.292E+05 7.838E+05 9.384E+05 1.093E+06 1.248E+06 1.402E+06 1.557E+06 1.711E+06 1.866E+06 2.020E+06
Cost of Penstock Rs 1.133E+08 1.411E+08 1.689E+08 1.967E+08 2.246E+08 2.524E+08 2.802E+08 3.080E+08 3.359E+08 3.637E+08
Annual Penstock Cost Rs 1.265E+07 1.576E+07 1.887E+07 2.198E+07 2.509E+07 2.820E+07 3.130E+07 3.441E+07 3.752E+07 4.063E+07
9.361E+08 3.184E+08 1.405E+08 80
7.824E+07 5.394E+07 4.154E+07 3.918E+07 3.931E+07 4.069E+07 4.275E+07
Total Cost Rs
4.1.8 Design of Anchor Block
81
(Source:ITDG,2002)
82
There are altogether 27 anchor blocks in Tadi hydropower plant and among them anchor block
no. 19 is one of the critical anchor block having horizontal bend of 47.26o so its stability has
been checked among all other anchor blocks.
ΣH ΣV
At expansion = -25.921 9310.0
At contraction = -25.921 9310.0
Checking stability:
At expansion:
At contraction:
84
Failure on bearing capacity:
At expansion:
Pressure at base =172 KN/mm2
Allowable bearing pressure in soil =200 KN/mm2 (Safe)
At contraction:
Pressure at base =172 KN/mm2
Allowable bearing pressure in soil =200 KN/mm2
(Safe)
Failure on sliding:
1. Design discharge
(Q) = 7.2m3/s
2. Area
(A) = Q/V=3.6/2.539
A = 1.417m2
D = 1.343m.
85
3. Calculation of thickness
S = 1020kgf/cm2
Efficiency = 85%
=9810×68.95
=6.764kg/cm2
ASME formula,
P*R
t= 0.15
S* 0.6 * P
= 5.31mm 6mm.
4.1.10 Turbine
1. Selection of turbine
So, we select Francis turbine (medium head turbine) with horizontal axis.
86
2. Calculation of losses
i. Wall loss
= 0.2*0.329
= 0.066m
Bend angles
15.45o, 26.28o, 9.29o, 10.68o, 26.51o, 22.59o, 8.37o, 8.59o, 0o, 22.07o,4.87o, 20.21o, 10.3o, 0o,
6.61o, 0o, 0.26o, 0o, 47.26o, 1.42o,40.75o, 3.16o, 0o, 23.66o, 0o, 0o, 0o.
No. α°
1 15.45 3 0.182
2 26.28 3 0.225
3 9.29 3 0.157
4 10.68 3 0.163
5 26.51 3 0.321
87
6 22.59 3 0.305
7 8.37 3 0.153
8 8.59 3 0.154
9 0 3 0.000
10 22.07 3 0.208
11 4.87 3 0.139
12 20.21 3 0.201
13 10.3 3 0.161
14 0 3 0.000
15 6.61 3 0.146
16 0 3 0.000
17 0.26 3 0.121
18 0 3 0.000
19 47.26 3 0.361
20 1.42 3 0.126
21 40.75 3 0.283
22 3.16 3 0.133
23 0 3 0.000
24 23.66 3 0.215
25 0 3 0.000
26 0 3 0.000
27 0 3 0.000
Kbend 3.754
88
= 1.234
3. Turbine Design
Discharge (Q)=3.6m3/s
= 2069.78kw
= 2810.76HP
= 289.03rpm
= 1083.17rpm
= 5.53
Take 8,
Corrected N=750rpm
89
84.6 H
Diameter of runner (D) = where, Φ=0.0211Ns2/3=0.721
N
= 0.675m
4. Cavitation check
2
Ns
σc= 0.0318*
100
= 0.1272
= 10.3-0.3-(0.1272*68.95)
= 1.229m (OK)
Therefore, Q=π*Bi*Di*vi
3.6=π*Di*n*Cv*
3.6=π* *0.98
Di=0.46m
=460mm
Therefore, Bi = 0.069m
= 69.055mm
And, Do = Di/2=230mm
Bo = 34.5mm
90
Tangential velocity (ui) = πDiN/60
= π*0.46*750/60
= 18.064m/s
Speed ratio=u/
= 18.064/
= 0.491
= vfi/( )
= 2.618
α = 69.099o
1. Machine hall
91
For horizontal axis Francis turbine,
Unit size:
L= (4D+2.7) = 5.4m
B = (4D+3.7)×2 = 6.4m
= 5.4m
= 21.2m
Breadth = 12.8m
Height = H1+H2
2. Draft Tube:
= 2.75*0.675m
= 1.856m
= 4.5*0.675
= 3.037m
= 3*0.675
92
=2.025m
Now,H2 = Lt+h+k
h=K√Df
=0.65√Do+1.2
=0.65√(0.23+1.2)
=0.777
K = (5.5 to 7.0)m
= 6m.
H2=20.437m
Therefore,
H=1.856m+20.437m
=22.293 22.3m
Discharge=3.6 m3/s
93
Take R.C.C canal (1:1.5:3)(higher velocity can be considered as head loss need not be
minimized, RCC resists erosion due to higher flow velocity)
n=0.020
= 1.44/2.4
= 0.6 m
= 3.6/1.44
= 2.52.5<3(OK)
= 7.2/2.5
= 2.88 m2
Height = 1.2 m
94
Provide free board=0.3 m
Area=1.2x2.5
=3 m2
= 4.9m
= 3/4.9
= 0.612
2
*v
S= 2/3
= (0.02*2.4/0.6122/3)2 1 in 226.
R
1. Transmission Line
V = 5.5*(L/6.6+P/100)
Where,L is in km
P is in kw
95
V is in kv
V = 5.5*(8.5/1.6 + 4200/100)0.5
2. Generator
= (Power Generated/P.F)0.5
= (4.2/0.95)0.5
4.2.1 Weir
Lever
SN Area Arm Moment at Toe
W1 21.353 23.042 492.016
W2 29.232 40.284 1177.582
W3 10.287 22.238 228.762
W4 21.600 11.61 250.776
W5 7.683 2.205 16.941
W6 1.656 9.21 15.252
91.811 108.589 2181.329
96
Total Area = 91.811 m^2
Moment of Area = 2181.329 m^3
CG from toe = 23.759 m
Unit weight = 25 KN/m^3
Total Weight = 2295.275 KN/m
Coefficient of friction (μ)= 0.6
Total Length L 54.9 m
Area of upstream water A1 238.654 m^2
Area of downstream water A2 26.487 m^2
H1 4.5 m
H2 8.04 m
H3 2.7 m
γ 9.81 KN/m^3
Figure:Weight of Weir
(KN- m/m)
= 149707.660/93046.686
= 1.61 >1.5(SAFE)
98
3. Tension at Heel
X=
= 56660.975/2004.193
= 28.271 m
Width (B) = 54.9 m
Eccentricity ,e = B/2- X
= (54.9/2-28.488)
= -0.821 m
which is less than B/6(9.15 m)
Therefore, no tension is produced at the heel of the dam.
σmin= ∑V(1-6*e/B)/B
= 39.783 KN/m^2
< 200
KN/m^2 (SAFE)
99
4.2.2 Settling Basin
100
18 Pw4= 0.5*y*8.35*8.35 341.989 3.483 1191.261
19 Wa1= (7.1*4+1.2*1.2+0.5*3.15*(7.1+1.2))*9.81 420.972 4.050 1704.935
20 Wa2= (7.1*4+1.2*1.2+0.5*3.15*(7.1+1.2)*9.81 420.972 11.650 4904.319
Sum 2084.718 0.000 19487.849 3123.740
∑M= 16364.109
B= 15.7
>1.5
Factor of safety against Overturning(Fo)= ∑Mr/∑Mo= 6.239 (Safe)
>1.5
Factor of safety against Sliding(Fs)= μ∑V/∑H= ∞ (Safe)
Check for Tension
X= ∑M/∑V= 7.850
Eccentricity (e)= B/2-X= 0.000 m <B/6(ok)
Safety against Bearing(Fb)
Pmax= ∑V/B*(1+6*e/B)= 132.807 KN/m2 <200 (safe)
Pmin= ∑V/B*(1-6*e/B)= 132.762 KN/m2 <200 (safe)
Case 2:Both side backfill with water inside one compartment(hill side) of Settling Basin
SN Description Forces Lever Arm Moment
V (KN/m) H (KN/m) Mr(KN-m/m) Mo(KN-m/m)
1 W1=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 0.25 26.094
2 W2=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 7.850 819.344
3 W3=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 15.45 1612.594
4 W4=0.7*15.7*25 274.75 7.85 2156.788
5 W5=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 1.48 137.529
6 W6=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 6.62 615.164
7 W7=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 9.08 843.759
101
8 W8=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 14.21 1320.464
9 W9=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 1.975 139.830
10 W10=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 6.125 433.650
11 W11=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 9.575 677.910
12 W12=2.95*1.2*21 70.8 13.725 971.730
13 Ps1 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) 245.708 3.017 741.218
14 Ps2 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) -245.708 3.017 741.218
15 Pw1= 0.5*y*8.35*8.35 -341.989 3.483 1191.261
16 Pw2= 0.5*y*8.35*8.35 341.989 3.483 1191.261
17 Wa1= (7.1*4+1.2*1.2+0.5*3.15*(7.1+1.2))*9.81 420.972 4.050 1704.935
Sum 1663.747 0.000 13392.268 1932.479
∑M= 11459.790
B= 15.7
Case 3:Both side backfill with no water on both compartment of Settling Basin
SN Description Forces Lever Arm Moment
V (KN/m) H (KN/m) Mr(KN-m/m) Mo(KN-m/m)
1 W1=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 0.25 26.094
2 W2=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 7.850 819.344
102
3 W3=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 15.45 1612.594
4 W4=0.7*15.7*25 274.75 7.85 2156.788
5 W5=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 1.48 137.529
6 W6=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 6.62 615.164
7 W7=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 9.08 843.759
8 W8=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 14.21 1320.464
9 W9=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 1.975 139.830
10 W10=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 6.125 433.650
11 W11=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 9.575 677.910
12 W12=2.95*1.2*21 70.8 13.725 971.730
13 Ps1 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) 245.708 3.017 741.218
14 Ps2 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) -245.708 3.017 741.218
Sum 1242.775 0.000 10496.072 741.218
∑M= 9754.855
B= 15.7
Case 4:Both side backfill with water inside one compartments(river side) of the Settling Basin
SN Description Forces Lever Arm Moment
V (KN/m) H (KN/m) Mr(KN-m/m) Mo(KN-m/m)
1 W1=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 0.25 26.094
103
2 W2=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 7.850 819.344
3 W3=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 15.45 1612.594
4 W4=0.7*15.7*25 274.75 7.85 2156.788
5 W5=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 1.48 137.529
6 W6=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 6.62 615.164
7 W7=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 9.08 843.759
8 W8=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 14.21 1320.464
9 W9=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 1.975 139.830
10 W10=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 6.125 433.650
11 W11=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 9.575 677.910
12 W12=2.95*1.2*21 70.8 13.725 971.730
13 Ps1 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) 245.708 3.017 741.218
14 Ps2 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) -245.708 3.017 741.218
15 Pw3= 0.5*y*8.35*8.36 -341.989 3.483 1191.261
16 Pw4= 0.5*y*8.35*8.37 341.989 3.483 1191.261
17 Wa2= (7.1*4+1.2*1.2+0.5*3.15*(7.1+1.2)*9.81 420.972 11.650 4904.319
Sum 1663.747 0.000 16591.653 1932.479
∑M= 14659.174
B= 15.7
∑M= 17105.327
B= 15.7
Case 6:Backfill in hill side with full water in one compartment(hill side) of the Settling Basin
SN Description Forces Lever Arm Moment
V (KN/m) H (KN/m) Mr(KN-m/m) Mo(KN-m/m)
1 W1=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 0.25 26.094
2 W2=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 7.850 819.344
3 W3=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 15.45 1612.594
4 W4=0.7*15.7*25 274.75 7.85 2156.788
5 W5=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 1.48 137.529
6 W6=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 6.62 615.164
7 W7=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 9.08 843.759
8 W8=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 14.21 1320.464
9 W9=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 1.975 139.830
10 W10=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 6.125 433.650
11 W11=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 9.575 677.910
12 W12=2.95*1.2*21 70.8 13.725 971.730
13 Ps1 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) 245.708 3.017 741.218
14 Pw1= 0.5*y*8.35*8.35 -341.989 3.483 1191.261
15 Pw2= 0.5*y*8.35*8.35 341.989 3.483 1191.261
16 Wa1= (7.1*4+1.2*1.2+0.5*3.15*(7.1+1.2))*9.81 420.972 4.050 1704.935
Sum 1663.747 245.708 13392.268 1191.261
106
∑M= 12201.007
B= 15.7
Case 7:Backfill in hill side with full water in one compartment(river side)of the Settling Basin
Lever
SN Description Forces Moment
Arm
H Mr(KN- Mo(KN-
V (KN/m)
(KN/m) m/m) m/m)
1 W1=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 0.25 26.094
2 W2=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 7.850 819.344
3 W3=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 15.45 1612.594
4 W4=0.7*15.7*25 274.75 7.85 2156.788
5 W5=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 1.48 137.529
6 W6=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 6.62 615.164
7 W7=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 9.08 843.759
8 W8=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 14.21 1320.464
9 W9=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 1.975 139.830
10 W10=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 6.125 433.650
11 W11=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 9.575 677.910
12 W12=2.95*1.2*21 70.8 13.725 971.730
107
13 Ps1 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) 245.708 3.017 741.218
14 Pw3= 0.5*y*8.35*8.36 -341.989 3.483 1191.261
15 Pw4= 0.5*y*8.35*8.37 341.989 3.483 1191.261
16 Wa2= (7.1*4+1.2*1.2+0.5*3.15*(7.1+1.2)*9.81 420.972 11.650 4904.319
Sum 1663.747 245.708 16591.653 1191.261
∑M= 15400.392
B= 15.7
>1.5
Factor of safety against Overturning(Fo)= ∑Mr/∑Mo= 13.928 (Safe)
>1.5
Factor of safety against Sliding(Fs)= μ∑V/∑H= ∞ (Safe)
Check for Tension
X= ∑M/∑V= 9.256
Eccentricity (e)= B/2-X= -1.406 m <B/6(ok)
Safety against Bearing(Fb)
Pmax= ∑V/B*(1+6*e/B)= 49.012 KN/m2 <200 (safe)
Pmin= ∑V/B*(1-6*e/B)= 162.930 KN/m2 <200 (safe)
Case 8:Backfill in hill side with no water in both compartments of the Settling Basin
Lever
SN Description Forces Moment
Arm
H Mr(KN- Mo(KN-
V (KN/m)
(KN/m) m/m) m/m)
1 W1=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 0.25 26.094
2 W2=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 7.850 819.344
3 W3=8.35*0.5*25 104.375 15.45 1612.594
4 W4=0.7*15.7*25 274.75 7.85 2156.788
5 W5=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 1.48 137.529
6 W6=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 6.62 615.164
7 W7=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 9.08 843.759
108
8 W8=0.5*2.95*3.15*20 92.925 14.21 1320.464
9 W9=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 1.975 139.830
10 W10=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 6.125 433.650
11 W11=2.95*1.2*20 70.8 9.575 677.910
12 W12=2.95*1.2*21 70.8 13.725 971.730
13 Ps1 =0.5*Ka*18*(8.35+.7)*(8.35+.7) 245.708 3.017 741.218
Sum 1242.775 245.708 10496.072 0.000
∑M= 10496.072
B= 15.7
>1.5
Factor of safety against Overturning(Fo)= ∑Mr/∑Mo= ∞ (Safe)
>1.5
Factor of safety against Sliding(Fs)= μ∑V/∑H= ∞ (Safe)
Check for Tension
X= ∑M/∑V= 8.446
Eccentricity (e)= B/2-X= -0.596 m <B/6(ok)
Safety against Bearing(Fb)
Pmax= ∑V/B*(1+6*e/B)= 61.138 KN/m2 <200 (safe)
Pmin= ∑V/B*(1-6*e/B)= 97.178 KN/m2 <200 (safe)
109
4.2.2.2 Structure Design
= 18kN/m3
=150kN/m2
=25kN/m3
=9.81kN/m3
=20kN/m3
Ka = =
=8.7m
Width=7.1+0.25*2
=7.6m
AB=FC=ED=8.7
BC=CD=7.6
110
CASE 1: Both side backfill with full water in both compartments of the Settling Basin
A F E
I1 I2
B C D
B BA 0 0.00 EI 0.51 EI 0
BC 4EI1/L1=4E*I/7.85 0.51 EI 1
CF 0 0.00 EI 0
DE 0 0.00 EI 0
MFCB = (-137.153*7.6^2)/12
= -660.161 KNm
MFCD = (+137.153*7.6^2)/12
= 660.161 KNm
MFDC = (-137.153*7.6^2)/12
= -660.161 KNm
113
At L/2,M(cantilever moment)=wl^2/48 = (85.347-52.2)*8.7^2/48
= 52.269 KNm.
For horizontal slab BC,
It is subjected to a uniformly distributed load(U.D.L) having intensity of 137.153 KN/m2.
Reactions:
Taking moment about C, we have
Rb*7.6 = -418.149-1199.32+137.153*7.6^2/2
= 734.004 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 = 137.153*7.6^2/8
= 990.241
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
x/418.149 = (7.6-x)/1199.32
=>418.149*7.6-418.149x = 1199.32x
=>x = 1.96 from B.
Again,
1199.316/(7.6-1.96) = y/(7.6-1.96-3.8)
=>y = 390.583 KNm.
Reactions:
Taking moment about D, we have
Rc*7.6 = +418.149+1199.316+137.153*7.6^2/2
114
= 990.241
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
x/418.149 = (7.6-x)/1199.32
=>418.149*7.6-418.149x = 1199.32x
=>x = 1.96 from D.
Again,
1199.316/(7.6-1.96) = y/(7.6-1.96-3.8)
=>y = 390.583 KNm.
= 144.189 KN.
115
Fig:Bending moment diagram
116
Case 2:Both side backfill with water inside one compartment(hill side) of Settling Basin
117
The moment of inertia of all the members will be same as in previous case.
MFBC = (+((109.457*7.6^2)/12+(151.024-109.457)*7.6^2/20))
= 646.900 KNm
MFCB = (-((109.457*7.6^2)/12+(151.024-109.457)*7.6^2/30))
= -606.884 KNm
MFCD = (+((67.89*7.6^2)/12+(109.457-67.89)*7.6^2/20))
= 446.822 KNm
MFDC = (-((67.89*7.6^2)/12+(109.457-67.89)*7.6^2/30))
= -406.806 KNm
118
For vertical slab AB,
It is subjected to two uniformly varying loads(U.V.L) having maximum intensity of 52.2 KN/m2
and 85.347 KN/m2 at B.
Reactions:
Reaction at B(RB)= ½*(85.347-52.2)*8.7 = 144.189 KN.
= 548.854 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 109.457*7.6^2/8+(151.024-109.457)*7.6^2/16
= 940.338 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
119
x/418.149 = (7.6-x)/191.865
=>418.149*7.6-418.149x = 191.865x
=>x = 5.21 from B.
Again,
y/(5.21-
418.149/(5.21) = 3.8)
=>y = 113.142 KNm.
For maximum,
dMx/dx= -41.567*x^2/(7.6*2)-109.457*x+548.854
which gives x = 4.5 from C.
Now,
Mmax = -41.567*4.5^3/(7.6*2*3)-109.457*4.5^2/2+548.854*4.5-191.865
= 1086.660 KNm.
120
=>Rd = 67.89*7.6+0.5*7.6*(109.457-67.89)-443.550
= 230.368 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 67.89*7.6^2/8+(109.457-67.89)*7.6^2/16
= 640.221 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
Average FEM = 963.510 KNm.
Mnet = -323.289 KNm.
= 371.259 KN.
121
MFDE(cantilever moment) = (1/2)*(52.2)*8.7*8.7*(1/3)
= 658.503 KNm.
At L/2,M(cantilever moment)=wl^2/48 = (52.2)*8.7^2/48
= 82.313 KNm.
123
The moment of inertia of all the members will be same as in previous case.
MFBC = (+81.762*7.6^2)/12
= 393.545 KNm
MFCB = (-81.762*7.6^2)/12
= -393.545 KNm
MFCD = (+81.762*7.6^2)/12
= 393.545 KNm
MFDC = (-81.762*7.6^2)/12
= -393.545 KNm
124
For vertical slab AB,
It is subjected to a uniformly varying loads(U.V.L) having maximum intensity of 52.2KN/m2 at B.
Reactions:
Reaction at B(RB)= ½*(-52.2)*8.7 = -227.070 KN.
= 227.070 KN.
Reactions:
Taking moment about C, we have
Rb*7.6 = 658.503-264.892+81.762*7.6^2/2
= 258.895 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 = 81.762*7.6^2/8
= 590.318
Net Moment:
At L/2,
Average FEM = 461.666 KNm.
Mnet = 128.652 KNm.
125
For horizontal slab CD,
It is subjected to a uniformly distributed load(U.D.L) having intensity of 81.762 KN/m2.
Reactions:
Taking moment about D, we have
Rc*7.6 = -658.503+264.892+81.762*7.6^2/2
127
Case 4:Both side backfill with water inside one compartments(river side) of the Settling Basin
128
The moment of inertia of all the members will be same as in previous case.
MFBC = (+((67.938*7.6^2)/12+(109.457-67.938)*7.6^2/30))
= 446.915 KNm
MFCB = (-((67.938*7.6^2)/12+(109.457-67.938)*7.6^2/20))
= -406.946 KNm
MFCD = (+((109.457*7.6^2)/12+(150.976-109.457)*7.6^2/30))
= 646.760 KNm
MFDC = (-((109.457*7.6^2)/12+(150.976-109.457)*7.6^2/20))
= -606.791 KNm
129
For vertical slab AB,
It is subjected to a uniformly varying loads(U.V.L) having maximum intensity of 52.2 KN/m2 at B.
Reactions:
Reaction at B(RB)= ½*(-52.2)*8.7 = -227.070 KN.
= 227.070 KN.
Reactions:
Taking moment about C, we have
Rb*7.6 = 658.503-1059.443+67.938*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(109.457-67.938)*7.6*(1/3)
= 416.1010006 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 67.938*7.6^2/8+(109.457-67.938)*7.6^2/16
= 640.396 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
Average FEM = 858.973 KNm.
Mnet = -218.577 KNm.
130
For horizontal slab CD,
It is subjected to a uniformly distributed load(U.D.L) having intensity of 150.976KN/m2 at D and 109.457 KN/m2 at C.
Reactions:
Taking moment about D, we have
Rc*7.6 = 418.149-400.94+109.457*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(150.976-109.457)*7.6*(1/3)
= 413.344 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 109.457*7.6^2/8+(150.976-109.457)*7.6^2/16
= 940.164 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
x/418.149 = (7.6-x)/400.940
=>418.149*7.6-418.149x = 400.940x
=>x = 3.88 from D.
Again,
418.149/(3.88) = y/(3.88-3.8)
=>y = 8.605 KNm.
131
Let the maximum sagging B.M. occur at a distance x from C.
Mx + 41.519*x^3/(7.6*2*3)+109.457*x^2/2-576.302*x+400.94 = 0
=>Mx = -41.519*x^3/(7.6*2*3)-109.457*x^2/2+576.302*x-400.94
For maximum,
dMx/dx= -41.519*x^2/(7.6*2)-109.457*x+576.302
which gives x = 4.71 from C
Now,
-41.519*4.71^3/(7.6*2*3)-109.457*4.71^2/2+576.302*4.71-
Mmax = 400.94
= 1004.204 KNm.
= 144.189 KN.
132
Fig:Bending moment diagram
133
Case 5:Backfill in hill side with water inside both compartments of the Settling Basin
= 418.1494 KNm.
MFBC = (+((117.928*7.6^2)/12+(137.153-117.928)*7.6^2/30))
= 623.146 KNm
MFCB = (-((117.928*7.6^2)/12+(137.153-117.928)*7.6^2/20))
= -604.639 KNm
MFCD = (+((137.153*7.6^2)/12+(156.377-137.153)*7.6^2/30))
= 715.682 KNm
MFDC = (-((137.153*7.6^2)/12+(156.377-137.153)*7.6^2/20))
= -697.175 KNm
= 0 KNm.
= -1076.65 KNm.
135
For vertical slab AB,
It is subjected to two uniformly varying loads(U.V.L) having maximum intensity of 52.2KN/m2 and 85.347 KN/m2 at B.
Reactions:
Reaction at B(RB)= ½*(85.347-52.2)*8.7 = 144.189 KN.
Reactions:
Taking moment about C, we have
Rb*7.6 = -418.149-1363.942+117.928*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(137.153-117.928)*7.6*(1/3)
= 731.3136326 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 117.928*7.6^2/8+(137.153-117.928)*7.6^2/16
= 920.839 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
136
x/418.149 = (7.6-x)/1363.942
=>418.149*7.6-418.149x = 1363.942x
=>x = 1.78 from B.
Again,
1363.942/(7.6-1.78) = y/(7.6-1.78-3.8)
=>y = 472.896 KNm.
Reactions:
Taking moment about D, we have
Rc*7.6 = 1363.942+1076.652+137.153*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(156.377-137.153)*7.6*(1/3)
= 248.752 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 137.153*7.6^2/8+(156.377-137.153)*7.6^2/16
= 1059.643 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
x/1076.652 = (7.6-x)/1363.942
=>1076.652*7.6-1076.652x = 1363.942x
=>x = 3.35 from D.
137
Again,1363.942/(7.6-3.35) = y/(7.6-3.35-3.8)
=>y = 143.645 KNm.
For maximum,
dMx/dx= -19.224*x^2/(7.6*2)-137.153*x+866.662
which gives x = 5.99 from C.
Now,
Mmax = -19.224*x^3/(7.6*2*3)-137.153*x^2/2+866.662x-1363.942
= 1276.225 KNm.
= 371.259 KN.
138
Fig:Bending moment diagram
139
Case 6:Backfill in hill side with full water in one compartment(hill side) of the Settling Basin
= 418.1494 KNm.
MFBC = (+((109.457*7.6^2)/12+(131.775-109.457)*7.6^2/20))
= 591.308 KNm
MFCB = (-((109.457*7.6^2)/12+(131.775-109.457)*7.6^2/30))
= -569.823 KNm
MFCD = (+((87.139*7.6^2)/12+(109.457-87.139)*7.6^2/20))
= 483.883 KNm
MFDC = (-((87.139*7.6^2)/12+(109.457-87.139)*7.6^2/30))
= -462.398 KNm
= -1076.65 KNm.
= 0 KNm.
141
For vertical slab AB,
It is subjected to two uniformly varying loads(U.V.L) having maximum intensity of 52.2 KN/m2 and 85.347 KN/m2 at B.
Reactions:
Reaction at B(RB)= ½*(85.347-52.2)*8.7 = 144.189 KN.
Reactions:
Taking moment about C, we have
Rb*7.6 = -418.149-894.817+109.457*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(131.775 -109.457)*7.6*(2/3)
= 546.133 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 109.457*7.6^2/8+(131.775 -109.457)*7.6^2/16
= 870.849 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
x/418.149 = (7.6-x)/356.491
=>418.149*7.6-418.149x = 356.491x
142
=>x = 4.10 from B.
Again,
418.149/(4.1) = y/(4.1-3.8)
=>y = 30.829 KNm.
For maximum,
dMx/dx= -22.318*x^2/(7.6*2)-109.457*x+546.133
which gives x = 4.69 from C.
Now,
Mmax = -22.318*x^3/(7.6*2*3)-109.457*x^2/2+546.133x-356.491
= 950.569 KNm.
Reactions:
Taking moment about D, we have
Rc*7.6 = 894.817+0+87.139*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(109.457-87.139)*7.6*(2/3)
= 170.825 KN.
143
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 87.139*7.6^2/8+(109.457-87.139)*7.6^2/16
709.710540
= 6 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
716.571600
Average FEM = 3 KNm.
Mnet = -6.861 KNm.
= 371.259 KN.
144
= 0 KNm.
At L/2,M(cantilever moment)=wl^2/48 = (0)*8.7^2/48
= 0.000 KNm.
145
Case 7:Backfill in hill side with full water in one compartment(river side)of the Settling Basin
MFBC = (+((117.928*7.6^2)/12+(137.153-117.928)*7.6^2/30))
= 409.854 KNm
MFCB = (-((117.928*7.6^2)/12+(137.153-117.928)*7.6^2/20))
= -351.355 KNm
MFCD = (+((137.153*7.6^2)/12+(156.377-137.153)*7.6^2/30))
= 702.352 KNm
MFDC = (-((137.153*7.6^2)/12+(156.377-137.153)*7.6^2/20))
= -643.852 KNm
147
For vertical slab AB,
It is subjected to a uniformly varying loads(U.V.L) having maximum intensity of 52.2 KN/m2 at B.
Reactions:
Reaction at B(RB)= ½*(-52.2)*8.7 = -227.070 KN.
= 227.070 KN.
Reactions:
Taking moment about C, we have
Rb*7.6 = 658.503-894.817+48.689*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(109.457-48.689)*7.6*(1/3)
= 440.889954 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 48.689*7.6^2/8+(109.457-48.689)*7.6^2/16
= 585.531 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
Average FEM = 1045.823 KNm.
Mnet = -460.292 KNm.
148
For horizontal slab CD,
It is subjected to a uniformly distributed load(U.D.L) having intensity of 170.225KN/m2 at D and 109.457 KN/m2 at C.
Reactions:
Taking moment about D, we have
Rc*7.6 = 894.817+1076.652+109.457*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(170.225-109.457)*7.6*(1/3)
= 381.311 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 109.457*7.6^2/8+(150.976-109.457)*7.6^2/16
= 1009.653 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
From property of similar triangle,
x/1076.652 = (7.6-x)/356.491
=>1076.652*7.6-1076.652x = 356.491x
=>x = 5.71 from D.
Again,
y/(5.71-
1076.652/(5.71) = 3.8)
=>y = 360.081 KNm.
149
At L/2, Mnet = 1369.734 KNm.
For maximum,
dMx/dx= -60.768*x^2/(7.6*2)-109.457*x+681.481
which gives x = 5.22 from C.
Now,
Mmax = -60.768*x^3/(7.6*2*3)-109.457*x^2/2+681.481x-356.491
= 1520.027 KNm.
= 144.189 KN.
150
Fig:Bending moment diagram
151
Case 8:Backfill in hill side with no water in both compartments of the Settling Basin
152
The moment of inertia of all the members will be same as in previous case.
MFBC = (+((117.928*7.6^2)/12+(137.153-117.928)*7.6^2/30))
= 356.531 KNm
MFCB = (-((117.928*7.6^2)/12+(137.153-117.928)*7.6^2/20))
= -338.024 KNm
MFCD = (+((137.153*7.6^2)/12+(156.377-137.153)*7.6^2/30))
= 449.067 KNm
MFDC = (-((137.153*7.6^2)/12+(156.377-137.153)*7.6^2/20))
= -430.560 KNm
153
For vertical slab AB,
It is subjected to a uniformly varying loads(U.V.L) having maximum intensity of 52.2 KN/m2 at B.
Reactions:
Reaction at B(RB)= ½*(-52.2)*8.7 = -227.070 KN.
= 227.070 KN.
Reactions:
Taking moment about C, we have
Rb*7.6 = 658.503-425.692+62.537*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(81.762-62.537)*7.6*(1/3)
Reactions:
Taking moment about D, we have
Rc*7.6 = 425.692+0+81.762*7.6^2/2+0.5*7.6*(100.986-81.762)*7.6*(1/3)
= 303.385 KN.
Simply Supported moment:
At L/2, M = wl^2/8 +wl^2/16 = 81.762*7.6^2/8+(100.986-81.762)*7.6^2/16
= 659.720 KNm.
Net Moment:
At L/2,
Average FEM = 212.846 KNm.
Mnet = 446.874 KNm.
156
ii. Design
The vertical wall is designed for maximum B.M. and direct forces which occurs in case of wall CF.
Table 4.17 Bending Moment and axial forces in wall CF
Case B.M. at centre or B.M. at Direct force
intermediate ends (KN-m) (KN)
point (KN-m)
1 0.000 0.000 1468.008 (compressive)
2 134.582 1076.652 992.403 (compressive)
3 0.000 0.000 519.770 (compressive)
4 134.582 658.503 992.403 (compressive)
5 0.000 0.000 1597.976 (compressive)
157
6 134.582 1076.652 1122.371 (compressive)
7 134.582 1076.652 1122.371 (compressive)
8 0.000 0.000 646.767 (compressive)
((b*n/2)*(D-dt-n/3)+(mc-1)*Asc*1/n*(n-dc)(D-dt-dc)) / ((b*n/2)+(mc-1)*Asc*(n-d)/n-m*Ast*(D-dt-n)/n)
= (e+D/2-dt)
=>((1000*n/2)*(750-50-n/3)+(1.5*13.333-1)*2243.995*1/n*(n-50)(750-50-50))/((1000*n/2)+(1.5*13.333-1)*2243.995*(n-700)/n-m*Ast*(750-50-n)/n)
= (1.205+900/2-50)
The algebraic sum of internal force must be equal to external force,(B.C. Punima, Design of R.C.C,Eq.14.15)
((b*n*c')/2)+(mc-1)*Ast*c'/n*(n-dc)-m*Ast*c'/n*(D-dt-n) = P
=>((1000*332.646*c')/2)+(1.5*13.333-1)*2243.995*c'/204*(332.646-50)-13.333*2243.995*c'/332.646*(750-50-204) = 992.403*1000
=> c'= 5.855 N/mm2
So, compressive stress in concrete= 5.855 N/mm2
159
Design of horizontal slab
1. Design constants:
The slab is designed for maximum B.M. and direct forces which occurs in case of slab CD.
Table 4.18 Bending Moment and axial forces in slab CD
Case B.M. at centre or B.M. at Direct force
intermediate ends (KN-m) (KN)
point (KN-m) 0 0
1 599.658 1199.316 144.189 (tensile)
2 323.289 1268.517 144.189 (compressive)
3 136.177 643.452 227.070 (compressive)
4 1004.204 418.149 144.189 (tensile)
5 1276.225 1363.942 371.259 (tensile)
6 950.569 418.149 185.630 (compressive)
160
7 1520.027 1076.652 144.189 (tensile)
8 467.840 425.692 0.000
For,υ= 20 mm
Development length(Ld)= σ*υ/4*τbd = 678.571 mm
The details of reinforcement are shown in the figure in annex III-3.
163
CHAPTER 5
Intake:
Intake type Side intake
Intake opening (B×H) 3× (2.4×1.5) m.
Intake sill level 796.5 m.
Gravel Trap:
Size (21×7.5×3.5) m
Flushing type Continuous
Size of flushing canal (0.5×0.28) m
Approach Canal:
Material RCC
164
Length 36.9 m
Top width 4.8 m
Bottom width 2.4 m
Height 1.5 m (with freeboard)
Spillway:
Length 10 m
Height 0.626 m
Settling basin:
Size (L×B×H) (86.1 ×7.1 ×4) m.
Number of bays 2 nos.
Flushing type Periodic
Frequency 8 Hrs.
Size of Orifice (1.2×1.2) m
Forebay:
Size (L×B× H) (13 ×14.4×5.6) m
Spillway:
Height 0.588 m.
Penstock:
Type of material Steel
Length 2238.73 m.
Diameter 1.90 m.
165
Thickness 14 mm.
Anchor Block:
Number 27
Bifurcation:
Diameter 1.343 m.
Thickness 6 mm.
Power house:
Type Sub-Surface
Machine Hall(L×B×H) (21.2×12.8×22.3) m.
Equipment Room(L×B×H) (6.4×5×22.3) m.
Transformer Room(L×B×H) (6.4×5×22.3) m.
Turbine:
Type Francis
Number of turbine 2 nos.
Turbine speed 750 rpm
Diameter of Runner 0.675 m
Generator:
Type 3 phase synchronous, 6 KV
166
Transmission Line:
Length 8.5 km
Transmission Voltage 33KV
167
CHAPTER 6
From the preceding design and analysis, it is found that the project is technically feasible and
structurally safe. However, there is relatively less difference in elevation from forebay to
powerhouse, which is only 68.95m for over 2km length, as a results large no. of anchor blocks
are required due to which the economic cost of the scheme would be higher.
As the plant can be connected to the national grid, it will help to minimize the raising electricity
demand of the country. During installation, it is highly recommended to involve experienced
parties and technicians so that the structure would be technically appropriate.
The study reveled that the project is technically feasible and hence recommended for
construction after performing financial analysis.
168
REFERENCES / BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bansal, R. K., A Text Book Of Fluid Mechanics And Hydraulic Machines, Laxmi Publication
(P) Ltd, New Delhi,2005.
Civil Works Guidelines for Micro hydropower in Nepal, 2002, BPC Hydroconsult,
ITDG, Kathmandu, Nepal.
Dandekar, M.M. & Sharma, K.N., Water Power Engineering, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd,
Delhi, 1997.
Detailed Feasibility Study of Shreeram MHP, nec 2008.
Final Year Reports of Senior students.
Garg, S. K, Irrigation Engineering & Hydraulic Structure, Khanna Publishers, Delhi,
2002.
Harvey, Adam et. al., 1993 ,Micro-Hydro design manual, A guide to small scales water power
schemes, Intermediate Technology Publications ISBN 1 85339 103 4.
Ranjan, Gopal and Rao,ASR, Soil Mechanics And Foundation Engineering, New Age
International Pvt. Ltd. Publishers, New Delhi,2007.
Water Conveyance System Design Guidelines For Hydropower Projects, DED.
169
ANNEXES
170