Republic of the Philippines

CAVITE STATE UNIVERSITY

Don Severino de las Alas Campus
Indang, Cavite
 (046) 4150-010 / (046) 4150-013 loc. 206
www.cvsu.edu.ph

CENG105
HIGHWAY DESIGN AND TRAFFIC SAFETY

Submitted by:

MIGUEL II M. ESCUTIN
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

Submitted to:

ENGR. JOE RIENZI BENCITO

Instructor

College of Engineering and Information Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

In partial fulfilment
of the requirements for the degree
Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering

April 13, 2019

Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368

Accident Investigation

A. What Traffic Accident Investigation determines?

It aims to know the five (5) “Ws” and one (1) “H” of the incident:
1. WHAT happened?
2. WHO and WHAT was involved?
3. WHERE did it happen?
4. WHY did it happen?
5. HOW did the accident occur?
6. WHEN did the accident happen?

B. What are the purposes of Traffic Accident Investigation?

There are four (4) main reasons, depending on who does the investigation:
1. Everyone involved is curious about the causes and circumstances of the accident.
2. For the police – to find out whether there is enough evidence of law violation in the accident.
3. Claims attorneys and adjusters want to determine negligence on the part of the drivers involved in the accident
so that damage claims can be properly adjusted
4. Officials and others want specific information about accidents to know how to prevent future accidents.

C. Define the following:

a. Accident. It is that occurrence in a sequence of events which usually produces unintended injury, death, or property
damage.
b. Traffic Accident. An accident involving travel transportation on a traffic way.
c. Motor Vehicle Accident. Events resulting in unintended injury or property damage attributable directly or
indirectly to the action of a motor vehicle or its loads. Included are:
• Accidental injury from inhalation of exhaust gas;
• Fires;
• Explosion;
• Discharge of firearm within the motor vehicle while in motion;
• Collision between a motor vehicle and a railroad train or street car on stationary rails or tracks; and
• Failure of any part of the motor vehicle while the vehicle is in motion.
Excluded are:
• Collision of a motor vehicle with an aircraft or water-craft in motion;
• Injury or damage due to cataclysms (flood or sudden physical change of the earth surface); and
• Injury or damage while the motor vehicle is not under its power is being loaded on or unloaded from another
conveyance.
d. Motor Vehicle. Every device which is self-propelled and every vehicle which is propelled by electric power
obtained from overhead trolley wires, but not operated upon rails.
e. Key Event. An event on the road which characterizes the manner of occurrence of a motor vehicle traffic accident.
f. Debris. The scattered broken parts of vehicles, rubbish, dust and other materials left at the scene of the accident
caused by a collision.
g. Skid Marks. These are marks left on the roadway by tires which are not free to rotate, usually because brakes are
applied strong and the wheels locked.
h. Traffic Unit. Any person using a traffic way for travel, parking or other purposes as a pedestrian or driver, including
any vehicle, or animal which he is using. It applies not only to motor vehicles but also to:
• Pedestrians;
• Cyclists;
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368
• Street cars;
• Horse-drawn (animal-drawn) vehicles;
• Farm tractors; and
• Other road users in almost any combination – Example: A traffic accident could involve a cyclist and a
pedestrian.
i. Hazards. A hazard is generated when a critical space-motion relationships between a traffic unit and another object
develops due to the movement of either or both. Example: A curve in the path is a hazard. Another traffic unit in
the path is also a hazard.
j. Safe Speed. The speed adjusted to the potential or possible hazards or the road and traffic situation ahead. Safe
speed on the road is determined by the road rather than the particular driver of a vehicle. Example: A curve ahead
is a hazard and a safe speed for it is a speed at which it can be taken comfortably.
k. Strategy. It is the adjusting of speed, position on the road, and direction of motion, giving signals of intent to turn
or slow down, or any other action in situations involving potential hazards.
l. Tactic. Any action taken by the traffic unit to avoid hazardous situations like steering, braking, or accelerating to
avoid collision or other accident.
m. Impact. The striking of one body against another or a collision of a motor vehicle with another motor vehicle.
n. Contact Damage. Damage to a vehicle resulting from direct pressure of some foreign object in a collision or roll
over. It is usually indicated by striations, rub-off of material or puncture.
o. Factor. Any circumstance contributing to a result without which the result could not have occurred or it is an
element necessary to produce the result, but not by itself sufficient.
p. Primary Cause. A misnomer loosely applied to the most obvious or easily explained factor in the cause of an
accident or the most easily modified condition factor.
q. Cause. The combination of simultaneous and sequential factors without any one of which result could not have
occurred.
r. Attribute. Any inherent characteristics of a road, a vehicle, or a person that affects the probability of a traffic
accident.
s. Modifier. A circumstance that alters an attribute permanently or temporarily.

D. Kinds of Traffic Accidents

In the investigation of traffic accidents, it is imperative for the traffic investigator to know the kinds on accident
occurred in order to map out the necessary activities to be done when responding and investigating.
1. Non-Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Refers to any accident occurring on a traffic way involving persons using
the traffic way or travel or transportation, but not involving a motor vehicle in motion. Example: pedestrian and
cyclist in a traffic way.
2. Motor Vehicle Non-Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident which occurs entirely in any place other than
a traffic way. Example: accident on a private driveway.
3. Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident. Any motor vehicle accident occurring on a traffic way. Example: collision
between automobiles on a highway.

E. Classification of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accident According to Key Event

1. Running off road. This is usually characterized by a motor vehicle falling on the roadside or on a cliff along
mountainous roads.
2. Non-collision on road. This does not involve any collision, an example of which is overturning.
3. Collision on road. On the other hand, this type of accident includes all forms of accident as long as there is a
collision. Examples of this are motor vehicle colliding with:
a. Pedestrian – may be walking, running or standing on a roadway.
b. Other motor vehicle on traffic – may be head on, head and rear, sides opposite direction, sides the same
direction, head and side collision, etc.
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368
c. Parked motor vehicle – the form of collision may be similar to a moving vehicle like head on collision,
however, one is parked anywhere on a roadway.
d. Railroad train – this type of collision usually occurs along railroad crossings.
e. Bicycle – in this form of collision, it is either the motor vehicle or the bicyclists who initiated the collision.
f. Fixed object – traffic islands, pedestrian barriers, electric post.
g. Other objects – street cars, ice cream vendor, etc.

F. Classification of Accidents According to Severity

1. Property Damage Accident. There is no fatal or injury to any person but only damage to the motor vehicle or
to other property including injury to animals.
2. Slight. Only slight damages to properties.
3. Non-Fatal Injury Accident. This results in injuries other than fatal to one or more persons.
4. Less Serious. Only less serious injuries to persons.
5. Serious. This causes serious injuries to persons.
6. Fatal. This results in death to one or more persons.

G. Causes of Motor Vehicle Traffic Accidents

Traffic accidents occur due to varying circumstances and only after thorough investigation, when liability and
responsibility can be ascertained. Notwithstanding that no driver will readily accept that he initiated the accident. With
these, the traffic investigator is faced with a gargantuan task of bringing out the truth on who should be held responsible
for the unusual incident. His primary concern will be to determine how and why the accident happened.
1. Simultaneous Factors
a. Road conditions.
b. Driver’s attitude or behavior.
c. Weather condition.
2. Sequential Factors
a. Speed is greater or less than safe.
b. Defective vehicle (vehicle malfunction).
3. Operational Factors
a. Road hazards.
b. Driver’s non-compliance to traffic laws, rules and regulations.
4. Perception Factors
a. Driver’s inability to react promptly to a situation.
b. Driver’s faulty action to escape collision course.
When all possible causes of an accident have been grouped together by an investigating officer and he believes the
accident would not have occurred if any one of these causes did not exist, then the investigator may have identified the
combination of factors causing the accident.
On-the-scene reconstruction of a traffic accident relates accident causation to direct causes for summary police
action and to direct, mediate and early causes for ongoing studies of high-frequency accident locations and future
research and analysis.

H. Chain of Events in a Vehicular Accident

For the purpose of reporting, traffic accident may usually be described well enough as a single occurrence but when
accident is investigated, attention is directed to particular stages of the occurrence. In fact, an accident may be usually
defined as a series of an expected events leading to damage or injury. One event usually leads to another so that the
series can be spoken of as a “chain of events.” These events are described and illustrated below:
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368
1. Perception of Hazard. It is seeing, feeling, or hearing and understanding the usual or unexpected movement or
condition that could be taken as sign of the accident about to happen.
2. Start of evasive action. It is the first action taken by a traffic unit to escape from a collision course or otherwise
avoid a hazard.
3. Initial Contact. The first accidental touching of an object collision course or otherwise avoids a hazard.
4. Maximum Engagement. It is greatest collapse or overlap in a collision. The force between the traffic unit and
the object collided with are greatest at maximum engagement.
5. Disengagement. It is the separation of a traffic unit in motion from an object with which it has collided. The
force between the object ceases at this time.
6. Stopping. This is when the traffic unit/s involved come to rest. It usually stabilizes the accident situation.
7. Injury. It is receiving bodily harm. This event does not necessary occur after the accident but within any of the
chain of events. It may also happen right after the evasive action taken by the drivers involved or during the
initial contact.
8. Other events that may occur during an accident.
a. Point of Possible Perception. The place and time of which the hazard could have been perceived by a normal
person. It precedes actual perception and is the beginning of perception delay
b. Point of no Escape. It is that place and time after or beyond which the accident cannot be prevented by the
traffic unit under consideration.
c. Perception Delay. The time from the point of possible perception to actual perception.
d. Final Position. It is the place and time when objects involved in an accident finally come to rest without
application of power.

I. Who conducts the traffic accident investigation?

In some instances, the police traffic officers assigned in the field or highways upon learning of an accident usually
responds and conduct initial inquiries. However, police stations normally have designated traffic accident investigators.
In cases of Major Traffic Accidents such as those that attract national media attention or those that involve numerous
victims, the local traffic investigator shall immediately inform the nearest PNP Highway Patrol Group Office which shall
then take the lead in the investigation under the Special Investigation Task Group (SITG) which shall be activated to
manage the case. (PNP Field Manual on Investigation of Crimes of Violence and Other Crimes, 2011)
When the proper crime scene processing is necessary, the traffic investigators may also ask the assistance of the
Scene of the Crime Operation Team (SOCO Team).

J. Five (5) levels of activity in accident investigation.

In the investigation of traffic accidents, the police are guided by the following stages or levels of investigation:
1. Reporting. This stage involves basic data collection to identify and classify a motor vehicle, traffic and
persons, property and planned movements involved.
2. At-Scene Investigation. This level involves all action taken by the investigator at the scene of the crime or
accident.
3. Technical Preparation. This involves delayed traffic accident data collection and organization for study and
interpretation.
4. Professional Reconstruction. This involves efforts to determine from whatever information is available,
how the accident happened.
5. Cause Analysis. This last level usually involves final analysis on the causes of accident which are bases for
the prevention of similar accident.

K. Steps Taken by the police during Traffic Accident Investigation.

Like in any other forms of police investigations, the traffic investigators follow chronological steps in responding
and investigating traffic-related accidents to ensure gathering if thorough information.
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368

1. Step One. Upon Learning of the Accident.

a. Ask first: When did the accident happen?; Exactly where was it?; How bad was it?; Did you see the accident
happened?; and Where can you be reached?
b. Decide whether to go to the scene: Will scene have been cleared by the time of arrival?; Is it in the
investigator’s area?; and Should headquarters be informed or consulted?
c. Then find out, if necessary: Is traffic blocked?; Has ambulance been called?; Has wrencher been called?;
and Was fire apparatus called?
2. Step Two. Start for the Scene. With two-way radio, you can do two things while on the way.
a. Choose Best Approach. Consider: Time; possible traffic jams; possible route of driver involved; and probable
situation at scene.
b. Drive Safely. Get there safely; if you get involved in accident yourself, then other units must be used.
c. Be Alert for Cars Leaving the Scene: As possible witnesses or hit and run drivers; and record registration
numbers of any likely looking vehicles.
d. Get Equipment Ready for Use. So far as practical on the way.
e. Look for Conditions confronting a driver approaching Scene: Low visibility view obstructions; and traffic
control devices.
f. Note Hazards to approaching Traffic: Drop helper to direct traffic if necessary; and look for physical
evidence. Have it guarded until it can be examined, collected or located.
3. Step Three. Upon Arrival at the Scene.
a. Select parking place carefully: Is it safe?; Will it block traffic?; and Can headlight illuminate scene?
b. Care for injured: Stop arterial bleeding; call for help if necessary; help injured from cars safely; protect
injured from exposure; and ask for emergency assistance from bystanders from anywhere.
c. Look over bystanders and others: Look for drivers; look for possible witnesses; look for volunteers who will
help you; and get them under control.
d. Have Emergencies Under Control: Have spilled gasoline guarded; look for fire and electrical hazards; look
for traffic hazards; put out flares; ask helper to direct traffic; keep bystanders off roadway; and request help
from headquarters if needed.
e. Locate drivers: Consider possibility of hit and run accident; and need to alert headquarters.
f. Measure location of short lived evidences.
g. Arrange for clearing roadway.
h. Delay removal of vehicles except to aid injured.
4. Step Four. When Emergency is Under Control.
a. Preliminary questioning of drivers: Who was driving each vehicle?; Note unpremeditated statement; and
look for signs of nervousness, confusion and intoxication.
b. Gather clues for identifying hit and run cars: Question other witnesses especially bystanders in hurry to go;
and if needed, get signed statement at once from why who may be hard to find later.
c. Examine drivers’ conditions: Get specimen for chemical test; and question about trip plan for possible
fatigue.
d. Question drivers carefully: Check license and record data from it; verify and identify address; check
registration and record data; verify ownership[ and correct address; and Get step by step account of what driver
saw and did.
e. Position and condition of Vehicles: Note lights and light switches; note gear position and tires; mark position
of vehicles if it must be removed; and look for unusual thing inside the vehicles.
f. Form preliminary opinion as to how accident occurs.
g. Photography: Photograph skid mark and location of vehicles; and mark skid mark location for later
measurement.
h. Record place to which injured persons or damage vehicles were or will be taken.
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368

5. Step Five. After Getting Short-live Evidence.

a. Get additional evidence: Make test skids; decide whether proof of violation is sufficient for arrest; if so,
make arrest or issue citation; get additional formal statements, from witnesses remaining at the scene; and have
road clear if traffic is obstructed.
b. Suggestion to drivers, if necessary: How much accidents can be avoided in the future; and tell drivers what
reports they must make and dismiss them.
c. Approach the scene by path of each traffic unit involved. Look for: View obstructions; traffic control devices,
etc.; probable points of perception; and road surface conditions.
d. Complete examinations of vehicles.
e. Locate key event of accident.
f. Make additional photographs of: Vehicle damage; view obstruction; pavement’s conditions; and control
devices, and general view, etc.
g. Establish exact location of accident and record it.
h. Measure for scale diagram if location is hard to reach.
i. Review notes of evidence or testimony: Get additional facts at scene; and identify all notes with places and
time.
j. Clean up location or arrange to have it done.
k. Report to headquarters by radio or telephone. Nowadays, the cellular phone is a ready alternative in reporting
to police headquarter.
6. Step Six. After Leaving the Scene:
a. Get medical report on injured persons from doctor or hospital.
b. Question drivers or witnesses: At hospital or home if not adequately questioned; and take needed additional
statements.
c. Notify: Relatives of dead or injured; and/or Owner of vehicles.
d. Have specimens analyzed if were taken for chemical or laboratory test.
e. Have photograph developed; get prints if needed for report.
f. Complete the report of the accident: Have copies made if necessary; file report and copies; and complete
factual data on investigation report if not completed at scene.
g. Decide whether analysis of accident is warranted by the time available for making it.
h. Reconstruction of the accident: Estimate speeds of vehicles involved; draw scale diagram; analyze angle of
collision; get technical help if necessary; and summarize opinions.
i. Present case summary to a lawyer.
j. Complete report or investigation.
k. Submit to superior for approval.
l. Inform other Agencies or departments of any condition at the scene which needs attention for safety.
7. Step Seven. If Case Goes to Court:
a.Find out what the prosecutor wants further to develop evidence.
b. Return to the scene if necessary for the following: Additional photographs of general scene and long-lived
evidence; measure for scale diagram for use in court; and Locate additional witnesses and review their
testimony.
c. Locate also, if necessary: Relatives and friends who confirm activities before the accident; technicians who
developed pictures, made chemical tests, etc.; and expert who can help.
d. Have enlargement made of any photo needed in court.
e. Enlarge scale diagram made for court use.
f. Pre-trial conference with prosecution witnesses to review testimony.
g. Ensure that subpoenas are issued.
h. Testify in court.
i. Organize papers and file permanently, if necessary, for future reference.
j. Ensure that the disposition of case is recorded in driver’s record and other reports.
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368

L. Traffic accident report example.

In the preparation of the traffic accident investigation report, the officer of the case must consider the following:
1. Uniform traffic Accident Reporting System.
2. Preparation of Traffic Accident Report:
a. By a competent, bonafide traffic accident investigator.
b. Requirements for an investigator in the submission of report such as evidence gathered, diagrams, sketches
as well as sworn statements of witnesses.
c. Traffic Accident Investigation Report will be accomplished in five (5) copies for: the Court or Prosecutor’s
Office; TRAFCOM (TMG) or Traffic Division; the Investigator; the Insurance company of Party-involved #1
and the Insurance Co. of Party-involved #2.

Accident Reconstruction

A. How is a Reconstructionist defined?

Webster’s New Universal Unabridged Dictionary defines a reconstructionist, “As a person who builds up from remaining
parts and other evidence, an image of what something was in its original and complete form.” Notice that the definition
states, “builds up from remaining parts, and other evidence… an image of what something was… .” It does not say,
“recreate.” It is impossible to recreate even the simplest of accidents.
For example, consider two vehicles coming off the production line, both with the same make and model, the same
options, colors, etc. They are identical in every way, or so it would seem. Weighing the two vehicles shows a difference of
a few hundred pounds.
This does not seem too important when considering the difference is probably less than 10% of the total weight. What
must be remembered is that these vehicles are mass-produced. They are not identical. The body welds are not in the same
place; some may even be missing. Other components are in slightly different locations in the vehicles. There are over 15,000
parts in a car. Each one is slightly different, but within the working tolerance necessary for the vehicle to operate effectively,
not necessarily identically. Therefore, if these two vehicles were crashed into a solid concrete and steel barrier, they would
have different crash signatures. Different parts of the vehicle would react differently under the stress of a collision.
The crash signature is a graph of the deceleration or velocity of the vehicle with respect to time. The peaks and valleys
on the graphs may occur at different times and with different magnitudes. Therefore, even under the best of controlled
conditions, it is impossible to recreate the accident. It is the task of the reconstructionist to develop a scenario or story of
the collision sequence that best fits the damaged vehicles (remaining parts), and data found at the scene as well as witness
statements and depositions (evidence).

B. What are the basic information needed to start the Reconstruction?

Assume for the moment that the reconstructionist has not done the investigation of an accident. Most reconstructionists
have a checklist of information that they require to start their analysis. It may include most or all the following:
• All photographs taken at the scene by the police or any other agency or interested parties such as the plaintiff
or their families (color photographs required; color photocopies to start the initial analysis)
• Copies of the photographs of the vehicles taken at the scene or at a later date by the police or any other interested
parties
• Copies of the police reports including all supplemental sheets and fatal squad reports if the accident victim is
a fatality
• Copies of all witness statements taken by the police or any private agency such as an insurance adjustor or
private investigator
• Copies of all reports and diagrams by the police or other agencies including calculations and data used to
produce those calculations
• Copies of all depositions
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368
• Copies of all medical data, primarily those of the emergency medical service (EMS) units and the hospital
emergency room personnel
• Copies of the autopsy reports if applicable
• Copies of all fire department visits to the scene, or any other public agency such as first responders
• Copies of all accident simulation computer programs used to determine the direction, speed, and angle of
approach and departure from the collision including all data that were inputted into the computer program
• Copies of all TV station or independent videotapes taken at the scene or at a later time concerning the accident
victims, scenes, or others involved
• Copies of all newspaper clippings that were written about the accident, people, scene, or vehicles
• Clothes the accident victims were wearing at the time of the accident
• Weather reports from the local National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) office or state
department of agriculture
• Request an inspection of both vehicles and the accident site
Not all these items are required for all accident cases, but this is a good checklist that can be customized as required.
Additional data are required depending on the type of case to be analyzed. If a commercial truck or a city vehicle, or city
property is involved, then the following is needed:
• Copies of all maintenance requests for each vehicle
• Copies of all accidents in which the vehicle was involved in
• Copies of all the drivers’ professional and personal driving records
• Drivers’ normal route, drivers’ route on the day of the accident
• Inspection of the vehicle involved
• Inspection of the accident site
If the case involves a product defect then an additional set of information is required including:
• All drawings of the product area of concern involving any changes made to the drawings since the original
design
• All test data from any and all types of tests that had been conducted on the product as it was released for sale
• Copies of all customer complaints concerning the problem
• Copies of all previous litigation concerning the product
• Any product change requests that were initiated at the production level to complete the production cycle
• All federal, state, or local test requirements, the results of all the testing done for compliance
• All sign-off compliance sheets for the testing that meet the required standards
• Copies of all the production process sheets for fabricating the product
• Copies of all manuals pertinent to the product, including the owner’s manual, repair manuals, and any
specialized manuals
• Copies of all service bulletins sent to the distributor of final point of sales and service for product updates due
to potential or determined product failures
• Copies of all federal, state, or local recall campaigns conducted by the company either voluntarily or
compulsorily
It must be remembered that much of the preceding information is requested through the client. It may take time,
sometimes up to several months for the information to become available to the reconstructionist. Therefore, he/she must
begin the investigation based on a hypothesis or theory of liability. It is his/her job to prove or disprove the hypothesis from
a reconstructionist’s standpoint.

C. What happens when details are insufficient to prove the hypothesis?

When there are insufficient details to prove the hypothesis, the reconstructionist then proceeds as Sherlock Holmes
suggests at the beginning of this chapter. “When you have eliminated the impossible, whatever remains, however
improbable, must be the truth.” The reconstructionist must look at every possible scenario and find data to eliminate them
or to render them as a frivolous answer to the problem. In doing this he/she is taking the negative approach, that is, all other
possibilities have been eliminated and the remaining answer, which cannot be proved and looks improbable, must be the
truth. There is no other answer.
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368

This type of solution is very difficult to prove to the satisfaction of the opposing counsel. The reconstructionist must
bear in mind that most people are taught or develop the habit of thinking deductively. Inductive reasoning is much more
difficult and requires the user to think many times in the abstract, bearing in mind that the answer found is not the proof but
is the elimination of a position in the realm of the possibility. When presenting this kind of proof at a deposition or a trial,
the reconstructionist must be very thoroughly acquainted with all aspects of the case so that the opposing counsel cannot
find a weakness if it exists. He/she must be able to find alternative methods of presenting the same data in a different manner.
This requires a lot of preparation but eliminates any loopholes that are a weakness in the analysis. If the evidence points to
this type of negative solution and the reconstructionist’s analysis cannot discover any weakness, then it is his/her duty to
convince the opposing counsel and a jury that his/her solution is the only possible explanation, however improbable.
Miguel II M. Escutin BSCE 5-2
201411368

REFERENCES

Highway Patrol Group Traffic Investigation Manual. (n.d.).

J., V. K. (2001). Vehicular accident investigation and reconstruction. Boca Raton: CRC Press.