Topics covered

• Unit 2: Water pollution

• Unit 3: Wastewater treatment

Text book: ‘Environmental Pollution Control Engineering’ by

C.S. Rao

Sources of water
• Water is a natural resource essential for survival of all living
organisms. There is no other alternative to it.
• It is used for many purposes: drinking, bathing, domestic
cleaning, industrial cooling, power generation (steam),
agriculture (irrigation), transportation, waste disposal, etc.
• In the chemical industries, water is used as a solvent,
reagent, and heat transfer medium.
• The main source of water in India is rain.
• Water supply resources are developed primarily for irrigation,
domestic use, power generation and industrial use.
 Origin of wastewater
• Two types:
− Domestic wastewater
− Industrial wastewater
• Domestic wastewater is discharged from residential and
commercial establishments.
• Pollutants in domestic wastewater arise from residential and
commercial cleaning operations, laundry, food preparation,
brushing, bathing and excretions.
• Industrial wastewater is discharged from manufacturing
plants.
• Pollutants in industrial wastewater arise from washing and
rinsing of equipment. These result in the pollution of nearby
aquatic systems because some of the products and by-
products are also discharged deliberately or unintentionally.

Origin of wastewater (contd…)

• Normally, wastewater is sent to treatment plants (STP/
WWTP) for removing undesirable components, which include
both organic and inorganic matter.
• These pollutants, if discharged directly (without proper
treatment) can interfere with self-cleaning mechanism of
water bodies (by the action of different micro-organisms).
• These micro-organisms use organic pollutants as food and
break them into simple compounds such as CO2 or methane
along with production of new cells.
• Certain pollutants (e.g. plastics) cannot be degraded by
micro-organisms and presence of toxic compounds destroys
the microbial population.
 Origin of wastewater (contd…)
• The domestic wastewater can be characterized by the
presence of dissolved solids (TDS), suspended solids (TSS),
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), total organic carbon (TOC), nitrogen (organic,
nitrites, nitrates, free ammonia), phosphorus (organic,
inorganic), chlorides, alkalinity (as CaCO3), grease, etc.
• The industrial wastewater may contain proteins,
carbohydrates, fats & oils, dyestuffs, phenols, detergents,
pesticides, cyanides, sulphides, chromates, metals, minerals,
acids, alkalis, etc.
• Drinking water sources are often threatened by increasing
concentrations of pathogenic organisms, and toxic chemicals
disposed-off by industry and agriculture.
• Nearly 75–80% of India’s population is exposed to unsafe
drinking water.

Origin of wastewater (contd…)

• The rivers and lakes near urban centres emit disgusting
odour; and fish are being killed in millions along sea coasts.
• Some fish are unsafe to eat because of excessive levels of
mercury and pesticides in their bodies.
• Therefore, the discharge of domestic and industrial wastes
into aquatic systems is becoming a serious problem in India.
 Types of water pollutants
• The water pollutants are classified into nine categories:
1) Oxygen demanding wastes
2) Disease-causing agents
3) Synthetic organic compounds
4) Plant nutrients
5) Inorganic chemicals and minerals
6) Sediments
7) Radioactive substances
8) Thermal discharges
9) Oil
• Pollution of water is often caused by a combination of the
above categories, which can severely compound the problem.

1. Oxygen demanding wastes

• Dissolved oxygen (DO) is essential for sustaining the plant
and animal life in any aquatic system. For example, warm-
water fish requires a minimum DO level of 5 mg/L (5 ppm).
• If the DO level drops below the level necessary to sustain
normal life, then the aquatic system is classified as polluted.
• There are four processes which actually affect the DO content
in water:
− Re-aeration
− Photosynthesis
− Respiration
− Oxidation of wastes
 Oxygen demanding wastes (contd…)
• Reaeration is the process by which oxygen transfer takes
place from the atmosphere to water.
• The solubility of oxygen in fresh water at saturation point
decreases with an increase in temperature.
• When the actual DO level (CL) falls below the saturation value
(CS), oxygen diffuses from the atmosphere at a rate
proportional to the deficit (i.e., driving force, D = CS–CL).
• The rate of reaeration depends on the rate of absorption
through the air–water interface and on the rate of dispersion
within the body of water beneath the surface.
• Since the solubility of oxygen in water is very low (approx.
1/40th of CO2), the main resistance to mass transfer is on the
liquid side of the interface (i.e., absorption is liquid-film
controlled).

Fig. 7.1 Saturation concentration of oxygen in fresh water

 Oxygen demanding wastes (contd…)
• The ‘mass flux’ (N) of oxygen across unit area of the surface
in unit time is given by
N = kL (CS - CL )

where, kL (m/s) is the liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient.

• The rate of oxygen transfer per unit volume of water is given
by
dCL A A
= N = kL (CS - CL ) = r (CS - CL )
dt V V
where, A is the total interfacial area, V is the volume of water
and r (s–1) is the reaeration (or reoxygenation) rate constant.

Table 7.7 Typical values of kL

Types of water kL (m/day)

Stagnant water 0.10–0.15
Water flowing at 0.6 m/min 0.25
Sluggish polluted river 0.5
Sluggish clean water about 5 cm deep 1.0
Water flowing at 10 m/min 2.0
Open sea water 3.0
Water flowing at 15 m/min 7.0
 Oxygen demanding wastes (contd…)
• During the photosynthesis, the algae utilize carbon dioxide
and the inorganic nutrients present in water to synthesize
organic materials and liberate oxygen.
• Since the process occurs only in the presence of sunlight, the
DO level in the water increases during the day.
• At night, the algae and micro-organisms compete with each
other for dissolved oxygen.
• This bacterial and algal respiration is responsible for the
depletion of DO and subsequent production of carbon dioxide.
• Combination of the three effects of respiration, photosynthesis
and reaeration results in a diurnal variation of DO concentra-
tion from the values that may far exceed saturation during the
day to much lower values (depletion) at night.
Note: Diurnal behaviour is characterized by activity during day time
and inactivity at night.

Fig. 7.2 Diurnal variation of dissolved oxygen

 Oxygen demanding wastes (contd…)
• The primary cause of deoxygenation of aquatic systems is the
presence of organic substances collectively called oxygen
demanding wastes.
• When these substances enter a water body, DO is consumed
in their breakdown by micro-organisms, so the organic
substances can be said to exert a demand on the availability
of DO.
• The more the oxygen is required for the breakdown of the
substance, the greater will be the deoxygenation of the water
body. Pollution results when the oxygen demand exceeds the
available oxygen.
• Organic wastes come from sewage, food processing plants,
pulp and paper mills, tanning operations, etc.
• These wastes deplete the DO level and also produce
unpleasant odour, taste and colour.

Biochemical oxygen demand

• Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is a measure of the
oxygen utilized by micro-organisms during the oxidation of
organic materials.
• It is the most widely known measure for assessing the water
pollution potential of a given organic waste.
• On an average, the demand for oxygen is directly proportional
to the amount of organic waste which has to be broken down.
• Hence, BOD is a direct measure of oxygen requirements and
an indirect measure of biodegradable organic matter.
Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)
• The rate of oxidation of organic matter (or rate of decline of
BOD) can be approximated as a first-order chemical reaction
expressed as:
dL
- = kL
dt
where, L is the BOD remaining at time t and k1 is the first order
rate constant.
• Assuming that at time t = 0, L = Lu (the original / ultimate BOD)

L dL t æ L ö
-ò = ò kdt Þ - ln ç ÷ = kt
Lu L 0
è Lu ø
k
L = Lu e - kt (or) L = Lu 10- k 't (where, k ' = )
2.303

Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)

• The value of k1' depends on temperature and type of waste.
• If Y represents the amount of BOD utilized at any time, t, then

Y = Lu - L = Lu (1 - 10- k 't )

• The amount of oxygen required by the bacteria during the first

five days of decomposition of organic matter (BOD5) is

BOD5 = Lu (1 - 10-5k ' )

 Fig. 7.3 BOD remaining versus time

L = Lu 10- k 't

Fig. 7.4 BOD utilized versus time

Y = Lu (1 - 10- k 't )
 Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)
- kt (-kt ) 2 (-kt )3
We know that e = 1 + (-kt ) + + + ...
2! 3!
Therefore, 1 - e - kt = kt éë1 - 12 kt + 16 (kt ) 2 - ...ùû (1)

(n)(n - 1) 2
Also, (1 + x) n = 1 + nx + x + ...
2!
Or, (1 + 16 kt ) -3 = 1 - 12 kt + 16 ( kt ) 2 - ... (2)

Þ (1 - 10 - k 't ) = 2.3k ' t (1 + 2.3

6 k 't )
-3
From (1) & (2), 1 - e - kt = kt (1 + 16 kt ) -3
-3
Hence, Y = Lu (1 - 10- k 't ) = Lu (2.3k ' t ) éë1 + 2.3
6 k 't ù
û

ætö
13
é ( k ')2 3 ù
= ( 2.3k ' Lu )
-1 3
ç ÷ +ê 13 ú
t
èY ø êë 3.43 ( Lu ) úû

Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)

ætö
13
é ( k')2 3 ù
= ( 2.3k'Lu )
-1 3
ç ÷ +ê 13 ú
t (or) f = a + bt
èY ø êë 3.43 ( Lu ) úû

A plot of (t / Y )1/3 versus t will give a straight line

with slope 'b' and intercept 'a'

b 1
Now, k' = 2.61 and Lu =
a 2.3k'a 3
Problem: The following BOD results are observed for a sample
of raw sewage at 20°C. Calculate the reaction rate constant, k',
and the ultimate BOD, Lu.

t (days) 0 1 2 3 4 5
Y (BOD, mg/L) 0 65 109 138 158 172

Solution:
i. Construct the following table
(t/Y)1/3 0 1 2 3 4 5
t 0 1 2 3 4 5
ii. Plot (t/Y)1/3 versus t
iii. Determine the slope ‘b’ and intercept ‘a’ of the linear plot
iv. Calculate k' and Lu.

Slope, b = 0.012 and intercept, a = 0.235

b 0.012
Therefore, k' = 2.61 = 2.61 = 0.133 day -1
a 0.235
1 1
and Lu = 3
= 3
= 253 mg/L
2.3k'a 2.3(0.133)(0.235)
 Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)
• The rate constant k' depends on the temperature (T)
according to the Arrhenius equation:
E
-
k' µ e RT

where, E is the activation energy (J/mol) and R is the

universal gas constant (J/mol.K).
• If k'1 and k'2 are rate constants at temperatures T1 and T2,
then,
For most cases of wastewater treatment,
k'1
= q (T1 -T2 ) (or) k'1, T = k'1, 20q (T - 20)
k'2
where, q = 1.135 for T < 20°C and
q = 1.056 for T> 20°C

Problem: Show that the 2 ¼ day BOD at 35°C and the 5 day
BOD at 20°C are approximately equal.

Solution:

k'35 = k'20 (1.056 )

35 - 20
= 2.264k'20
Y2 1 ,35 = Lu (1 - 10- k'35 ´2.25 )
4

= Lu (1 - 10-2.264 k'20 ´2.25 )

= Lu (1 - 10-5.09 k'20 )
Y5,20 = Lu (1 - 10-5´k'20 )
Hence proved.
 Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)
• The BOD curve discussed previously is the first-stage BOD,
where carbonaceous matter is degraded by bacterial
oxidation.
• But, when nitrogenous material is also present, nitrifying
bacteria exert an additional oxygen demand. This causes a
second hump in the BOD curve called the second-stage BOD.
• If nitrification occurs, the second stage of BOD exerts demand
for oxygen and a further decrease of DO is observed over and
above the ultimate BOD (Lu).
• A typical BOD curve showing carbonaceous oxidation and
nitrification phases for wastewater is given below.

Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)

Fig. 7.6 Complete BOD curve

Biochemical oxygen demand (contd…)
• During the carbonaceous stage, ammonia is produced by the
breakdown of organic nitrogen materials, but his process is so
slow that nitrifiers do not predominate until the end of
carbonaceous stage.
• Ammonium ion is oxidized to nitrite and then to nitrate by
Nitrosomonas and Nitrobacter microorganisms, respectively.

2 NH 4+ + 3O2 ¾¾¾¾¾
Nitrosomonas
® 2 NO2- + 2 H 2O + 4 H +
2 NO2- + O2 ¾¾¾¾
Nitrobacter
® 2 NO3-
• The oxidation process speeds up towards the end of first
stage and slows down again as the ammonia is oxidized.
• Ammonia exerts a very high oxygen demand, requiring over
4½ times its own weight of oxygen for complete oxidation.

Oxygen Sag Curve

• The discharge of wastes into a water body results in the
depletion of DO level as the wastes are oxidized by the
bacteria.
• Opposing this drop in DO is reaeration, which replaces
oxygen through the surface, at a rate which is proportional to
the depletion of oxygen below the saturation value.
• The simultaneous action of deoxygenation and reaeration
produces a typical pattern in the DO concentration of the
aquatic system.
• This pattern is known as the DO sag and the sag curve is
shown below.
 Oxygen Sag Curve (contd…)

Fig. 7.7 Oxygen sag curve

Oxygen Sag Curve (contd…)

• The sag curve initially drops as the wastes deplete the oxygen
faster than it can be replaced.
• At the point of DO minimum, the rate of reaeration equals the
rate of deoxygenation.
• Beyond this point, the ate of reaeration exceeds the rate of
deoxygenation and the DO level begins to increase and
eventually returns to normal.
• The simultaneous actions of deoxygenation and reaeration
can be described by the equation:
dD
= k1 L - k2 D
dt
where, D = DO deficit, L = BOD remaining in time t, k1 =
deoxygenation constant, k2 = reaeration constant.
 Oxygen Sag Curve (contd…)
(or) dD
+ k2 D = k1L
dt
dD
L = Lu e - k1t Þ + k2 D = k1Lu e - k1t
dt
dy
+ Py = Q Þ ye ò = ò Qe ò dx + C
Pdx Pdx

dx
\ De ò = ò k1 Lu e - k1t e ò dt + Do
k2 dt k2 dt

Þ De k2t = k1 Lu ò e ( k2 - k1 )t dt + Do
e( k2 - k1 )t - 1
Þ De k2 t
= k1 Lu + Do
k2 - k1

Þ D=
k1 Lu
k2 - k1
( e - k1t - e - k2t ) + Do e - k2t

Oxygen Sag Curve (contd…)

k1¢Lu
(or)
D=
k2¢ - k1¢
(10- k1¢t - 10- k2¢ t ) + Do10- k2¢ t

k
where, e- kt = 10- k ¢t and k ¢ =
2.303

• Both constants k'1 and k'2 are temperature dependent.

k2,¢ T = k2,¢ 20 (1.047 )

T - 20
 Wastewater Treatment
• The purpose of wastewater treatment is to remove
contaminants from water so that the treated water can meet
the acceptable quality standards.
• The wastewater treatment processes are broadly classified as
physical, chemical and biological.
• Physical processes are based on exploitation of the physical
properties of the contaminants and are generally the simplest
forms of treatment. These include: screening, sedimentation,
flotation and filtration.
• Chemical processes utilize the chemical properties of the
impurities. These include: precipitation, coagulation and
disinfection.
• Biological processes utilize biochemical reactions. Example:
activated sludge process.

Wastewater Treatment (contd…)

• The wastewater treatment processes are grouped according
to the water quality they are expected to produce.
− Primary treatment
− Secondary treatment
− Tertiary or advanced treatment
• Primary treatment removes identifiable suspended solids and
floating matter.
• In the secondary treatment (also known as biological
treatment), organic matter that is soluble or in colloidal form is
removed.
• Advanced treatment processes such as adsorption and
membrane separation are expensive and are employed to
remove residual soluble non-biodegradable compounds such
as surfactants, salts and metal ions.
 Primary Treatment
• The primary treatment process comprises of
− Pretreatment
− Sedimentation
− Flotation
• Wastewater is pretreated to remove large floating and
suspended solids which could interfere with the normal
operation of subsequent treatment processes.
• Pretreatment consists of screening and grit removal.
• Screens of various sizes and shapes are used; fixed bar
screens having apertures in the range 5–50 mm are the most
common type.
• Grit chambers are provided to protect pumps from abrasion
and to reduce the formation of heavy deposits in pipes and
channels.

Primary Treatment (contd…)

• In sedimentation, the settleable solids are removed by
gravitational settling under quiescent conditions.
• The sludge formed at the bottom of the sedimentation tank is
removed as underflow.
• The clear liquid produced is known as the overflow and
contains no readily settleable matter.
• The sedimentation operation may be carried out in
rectangular horizontal flow or circular radial flow basins.
• In discrete settling, particles are unhindered by the presence
of other settling particles. It is influenced only by the
properties of the fluid and the particles.
• In flocculent settling, the settling velocity of the particles
increases due to coalescence with other particles.
 Primary Treatment (contd…)
• Flotation is used primarily for treating industrial wastewaters
containing finely divided suspended solids and oily matter.
• The separation can be done by aerating the effluent whereby
air bubbles are attached to the suspended matter and
increase buoyancy of the particles.
• To aid in the flotation process, chemical coagulants are often
used. These chemicals increase the flocculent structure of the
floated particles so that they can easily entrap the air bubbles.

Secondary (Biological) Treatment

• Most of the organic matter in wastewater is colloidal and
dissolved, and therefore, the primary treatment processes are
ineffective in removing it.
• This organic matter represents a high demand for oxygen, so
it should be reduced before discharging into water bodies.
• A variety of microorganisms, mainly bacteria, is used in the
stabilization of organic matter.
• The microorganisms convert the colloidal and dissolved
carbonaceous organic matter into various gases and into cell
tissue (known as protoplasm).
• As the density of the protoplasm is slightly higher than that of
water, it can be removed by gravity settling.
 Secondary Treatment (contd…)
• There are two processes by which the organic matter could
be decomposed: aerobic and anaerobic.
• In aerobic process, oxygen is used by the microorganisms
for the decomposition of organic matter. The end products are
very stable and include CO2, H2O and new cell tissue.
• Aerobic organisms have faster growth rates and generate
large amount of biological sludge. Aerobic process is suitable
for BOD5 < 500 mg/L.
• In anaerobic process, oxygen is not used by the
microorganisms. The organic matter is first broken down into
low molecular weight fatty acids (acetic or propionic), which
are then converted to methane gas (CH4) and CO2.
• Anaerobic process is slow and generates less sludge. It is
suitable for BOD5 > 1000 mg/L.

Secondary Treatment (contd…)

• The bacterial growth pattern has four phases:
A. Lag phase
B. Log-growth phase
C. Stationary phase
D. Death phase
• In the lag phase (A), the bacteria initially adapt to the new
surroundings and start synthesizing new cells.
• In the log-growth phase (B), the bacteria cells divide/grow
exponentially depending on the availability of food (organic
matter).
• The population remains constant for certain period in the
stationary phase (C) as a result of balance between the
growth of new cells and the death of old cells.
• Finally, the death rate exceeds the production of new cells in
the death phase (D) because of limited supply of food.
 Fig. 9.14 Bacterial growth curve

Secondary Treatment (contd…)

• The main components in the activated sludge process are:
aeration, solid-liquid separation, and sludge recycle system.
• Wastewater after primary treatment (i.e., pretreatment [1]
and primary clarification [2]) enters an aeration tank [3]
where the organic matter is brought into contact with the
sludge from the secondary clarifier [4].
• This sludge is heavily laden with microorganisms which are in
an active state of growth.
• Air is introduced into the tank in the form of bubbles.
• The microorganisms utilize the oxygen in the air and convert
the organic matter into stable compounds such as NOx, SOx,
CO2, and synthesize new bacterial cells.
• The effluent from the aeration tank is separated in a settling
tank, which is also known as secondary clarifier [4].
 Secondary Treatment (contd…)
• In the settling tank, the separated sludge, which is free of
organic matter is called activated sludge.
• A portion of the activated sludge is recycled to the aeration
tank as a seed, the rest is wasted.
• The wasted sludge is to be processed in thickener [5] and
digester [6] for safe disposal.
• The process flow diagram of activated sludge process is
shown below.

Fig. 9.16 Activated sludge treatment plant