Acquisition and Learning (Within General Linguistics)

Acquisition is a process refers to the gradual development of ability in a language by using it naturally
in communicative situations with others who know the language. Activities associated with
acquisition are those experienced by the young child and, by analogy, those who ‘pick up’ a second
language from long periods spent in interaction.

The term learning, however, applies to a more conscious process of accumulating knowledge of the
features, such as vocabulary and grammar, of a language, typically in an institutional setting.
(Mathematics, for example, is learned, not acquired.) Activities associated with learning have
traditionally been used in language teaching in schools and have a tendency, when successful, to
result in more knowledge ‘about’ the language studied.

The second language acquisition requires conscious attention, if not intense study and memorization,
to become proficient in a second language. Again, with the exception of some remarkable individuals,
adult second-language learners (L2ers) do not often achieve native like grammatical competence in
the L2, especially with respect to pronunciation. They generally have an accent, and they may make
syntactic or morphological errors that are unlike the errors of children acquiring their first language.

The difference between first language acquisition and second language acquisition

It usually requires conscious attention, if not intense study and memorization, to become proficient in
a second language. Again, with the exception of some remarkable individuals, adult second-language
learners (L2ers) do not often achieve native-like grammatical competence in the L2, especially with
respect to pronunciation. The second language learners generally have an accent, and they may make
syntactic or morphological errors that are unlike the errors of children acquiring their first language.

Fromkin (2013:430) says that Unlike L1 acquisition, which is uniformly successful across children and
languages, adults vary considerably in their ability to acquire L2 completely. Some people are very
talented language learners. Others are hopeless. Most people fall somewhere in the middle.
Also Fromkin says that second language acquisition depends on a range of factors, including age,
talent, motivation, and whether you are in the country where the language is spoken or sitting in a
classroom five mornings a week with no further contact with native speakers.

Sometimes we can say that second language is like the first language acquisition . Like L1ers, L2ers do
not acquire their second language overnight; they go through stages. Like L1ers, L2ers construct
grammars. These grammars reflect their competence in the L2 at each stage, and so their language at
any particular point.

Native Language Influence in L2 Acquisition

We cannot suppress our ability to use the rules of our language.
Similarly, L2ers-especially at the beginning stages of acquiring their L2-seem to rely on their L1
grammar to some extent. and this is called transfer .Transfer means that the learner of second
language uses expressions ,words and sound from the first language when performing in L2 .This is
most obvious in phonology .so we see that l2ers speak with an accent because they may transfer the
phonemes , phonological rules , syllable structures, stress placement or intonational patterns of their
first language to their second language.

We also find native language influence in the syntax and morphology. Sometimes this shows up as a
wholesale transfer of a particular piece of grammar. For example, a Spanish speaker acquiring English
might drop subjects in nonimperative sentences because this is possible in Spanish, as illustrated by
the following examples:
Hey, is not funny.
In here have the mouth.
Live in Colombia.

Acquisition barriers.
The people usually encounter the L2 during their teenage or adult years, in a few hours each week of
school time (rather than via the constant interaction experienced as a child), with a lot of other things
going on (young children have little else to do), and with an already known language available for
most of their daily communicative requirements..

Input and output

Input: The language the learner is exposed to, in contrast to output
- To be beneficial for L2 learning, input has to be comprehensible.

Output: the language produced by an acquirer/ learner, in contrast to

input
-The opportunity to produce comprehensible output in meaningful
interaction is another important element in the learner's development of L2 ability.

Focus on methods
More recent approaches designed to promote L2 learning have tended to reflect different theoretical
views on how an L2 might best be learned.

The grammar–translation method

The most traditional approach is to treat L2 learning in the same way as any other academic subject.
-Vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules are used to define the target of learning, memorization is
encouraged, and written language rather than spoken language is emphasized. does not focus on how
language is used in everyday conversation
- the students can leave school, having achieved high grades in English, yet find themselves at loss
when confronted by the way English native speakers actually use their language.

Audio-lingual method

Audio-lingual method emphasizes spoken language.

-Systematic presentation of the L2 structure, moving from the
simple to the more complex, in the form of drills – repetition.
- The use of language is a ‘habit’ that needs a lot of practice.
-Dialogue form, mimicry, set phrases, drills, memorization, tapes,
language labs.
Criticism:
It is boring and not like the interactional nature of actual spoken language use.

Communicative approaches
Communicative approaches are partially a reaction against:
- the artificiality of “pattern- practice”
- the belief that learning the grammar rules of a language will result in an ability to use the language.
- Based on the belief that the functions of a language (what it is used for) should be emphasized
rather than the forms of the language (correct grammatical or phonological structures).
- A shift from concern with the teacher, the textbook, and the method to an interest in the learner
and the acquisition process.

Focus on the learner

The most fundamental change in the area of L2 learning in recent years has been a shift from concern
with the teacher, the textbook and the method to an interest in the learner and the acquisition
process. For example, one radical feature of most communicative approaches is the toleration of
‘errors’ produced by students. Traditionally, ‘errors’ were regarded negatively and had to be avoided
or eradicated. The more recent acceptance of such errors in learners’ use of the L2 is based on a
fundamental shift in perspective from the more traditional view of how L2 learning takes place.

Theories of Second Language acquisition

The Monitor Model

Stephen Krashen's model is one of the most influential and well-known theories of second language
acquisition. In the late 1970s Krashen developed the Monitor Model, an ‘overall’ theory of second
language acquisition, that had important implications for language teaching. Here are the four central
hypotheses underlying the Monitor Model:
1) The Acquisition versus Learning Hypothesis. Acquisition is a subconscious process, much like first
language acquisition, while learning is a conscious process resulting into "knowing about language"
(Krashen, 1982:10). Learning does not "turn into" acquisition and it usually takes place in formal
environments, while acquisition can take place without learning in informal environments.
2) The Monitor Hypothesis. Learning has the function of monitoring and editing the utterances
produced through the acquisition process (Krashen, 1982:15). The use of the Monitor is affected by
the amount of time that the second language learner has at his/her disposal to think about the
utterance he/she is about to produce, the focus on form, and his/her knowledge of second language
rules (Krashen, 1981:3-4).
3) The Natural Order Hypothesis. There is a natural order of acquisition of second language rules.
Some of them are early-acquired and some are late-acquired. This order does not necessarily depend
on simplicity of form while it could be influenced by classroom instruction (Krashen, 1985). Evidence
for the Natural Order Hypothesis was provided by a series of research studies investigating
morpheme acquisition orders.
4) The Input Hypothesis. According to Krashen, receiving comprehensible input is the only way that
can lead to the acquisition of a second language. If a learner’s level in a second language is i, he/she
can move to an i+1 level only by being exposed to comprehensible input containing i+1 (Krashen,
1985).

Interlanguage Theories
The term interlanguage was first used by Selinker (1969) to describe the linguistic stage second
language learners go through during the process of mastering the target language. Since then,
‘interlanguage’ has become a major strand of second language acquisition research and theory.

According to Selinker (1972) interlanguage is a temporary grammar which is systematic and

composed of rules.
It is a System used in the L2 acquisition process that certainly contains aspects of the L1 and L2, but
which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own. it is now considered to be the basis of all
L2 production.
the language produced by L2 learners contains a large number of ‘errors’ that seem to have no
connection to the forms of either the L1 or L2. For example, the Spanish L1 speaker who says in
English She name is Maria is producing a form that is not used by adult speakers of English, does not
occur in English L1 acquisition by children, and is not based on a structure in Spanish.

Universal Grammar Theories

Universal Grammar (UG) theories are based on Chomsky’s claim that there are certain principles that
form the basis on which knowledge of language develops. These principles are biologically
determined and specialized for language learning .
In summary, Universal Grammar theories of second language acquisition were generated in order to
provide explanations for empirical evidence and they were primarily concerned with the internal
mechanisms that lead to the acquisition of the formal aspects of the target language and the
similarities and differences between acquiring a particular language as a first or a second language.
Although researchers have used UG to generate a number of interesting hypotheses about second
language acquisition, and generative theorists regard UG as the best theory of grammar because of its
descriptive and explanatory adequacy , empirical evidence has been restricted to the acquisition of a
small set of syntactic phenomena. A general theory of second language acquisition needs to cover a
wider range of phenomena .

Cognitive Theories
Psychologists and psycholinguists viewed second language learning as the acquisition of a complex
cognitive skill. Some of the sub-skills involved in the language learning process are applying
grammatical rules, choosing the appropriate vocabulary, following the pragmatic conventions
governing the use of a specific language. These sub-skills become automatic with practice. During this
process of automatisation, the learner organizes and restructures new information that is acquired.
Through this process of restructuring the learner links new information to old information and
achieves increasing degrees of mastery in the second language. sequencing on prior cognitive
abilities” and language is viewed as a function of “more general nonlinguistic abilities” .

Effective factors
-Teenagers are typically much more self-conscious than younger children.
- unwillingness or embarrassment in attempting to produce the different sounds of another language.
-If this self-consciousness is accompanied by a lack of empathy with the other culture (for example,
feeling no identification with its speakers or their customs), then this may strongly inhibit the learning
process.

-This type of emotional reaction, or ‘affect’, may also be caused by dull textbooks, unpleasant
classroom surroundings or an exhausting schedule of study and/or work. All these negative feelings or
experiences are affective factors that can create a barrier to acquisition.
-Basically, if the second language learners are stressed, uncomfortable, self-conscious or
unmotivated, they are unlikely to learn very much.

Motivation
Many learners have an instrumental motivation. That is, they want to learn the L2 in order to achieve
some other goal, such as completing a school graduation requirement or being able to read scientific
publications, but not really for any social purposes. In contrast, those learners with an integrative
motivation want to learn the L2 for social purposes, in order to take part in the social life of a
community using that language and to become an accepted member of that community.

It is more appropriate to say that L2 acquisition abilities gradually decline with age and that there are
“sensitive periods” for the native-like mastery of certain aspects of the L2. The sensitive period for
phonology is the shortest. To achieve native-like pronunciation of an L2 generally requires exposure
during childhood. Other aspects of language, such as syntax, may have a larger window.
( Fromkin ,2015)

Influence from the speaker’s first language makes L2 acquisition appear different from L1 acquisition.
Adults often do not achieve native-like competence in their L2, especially in pronunciation. The
difficulties encountered in attempting to learn languages after puberty may be because there are
sensitive periods for L2 acquisition. Some theories of second language acquisition suggest that the
same principles operate that account for first language acquisition.

Communicative competence
Communicative competence can be defined as the general ability to use language accurately,
appropriately, and flexibly.

grammatical competence, which involves the accurate use of words and structures. Concentration on
grammatical competence only, however, will not provide the learner with the ability to interpret or
produce L2 expressions appropriately.
sociolinguistic competence is the ability to use appropriate language. It enables the learner to know
when to say Can I have some water? versus Give me some water! according to the social context.

strategic competence is the ability to organize a message effectively and to compensate, via
strategies, for any difficulties. In L2 use, learners inevitably experience moments when there is a gap
between communicative intent and their ability to express that intent.

learning to talk knows that the process happens in stages—first understanding, then one-word
utterances, then two-word phrases, and so on. Similarly, children learning a second language move
through a number of predictable stages:
Stage 1: Preproduction or the Silent period
This stage is characterized by minimal comprehension with little to no verbal production and may last
from a couple of days to several months. Students may not speak but can respond using a number of
different strategies including pointing, performing an act, gesturing or nodding or responding with a
monosyllabic answer such as yes or no. It’s worth noting that children who listen but don’t often
verbalize in the new target language are often making as much (and often more) progress in second
language development than their more talkative classmates.
Stage 2: Early Production
Defined by limited comprehension and one/two word responses and may last up to 6 months. After
students have a reasonable opportunity to receive meaningful and understandable messages in
English, they will begin to respond with one or two word answers or short utterances. In order for
students to begin to speak, they must have a need to express themselves and be given a chance to
produce language in a low anxiety environment. Teachers should keep in mind that students are
experimenting and taking risks with the new language. Errors in grammar and pronunciation are to be
expected. Direct error correction for students at these phases is inappropriate. Teachers need to
model/demonstrate the correct responses in context.

Stage 3. Speech emergence

Speech will emerge in the form of short phrases and sentences. Students will begin to use the new
language to communicate more freely among themselves. Identified by increased comprehension, an
accumulated vocabulary of about 3000 words and the use of longer but simple sentences, which may
or may not be grammatically correct. Students will also understand easy stories with the help of
pictures and are able to answer simple questions. This stage can last up to another year.
Stage 4. Intermediate Proficiency
The Intermediate proficiency of this stage is characterized by good comprehension, more complex
sentences and fewer errors in speech
and make take up to another year after the speech emergence stage. Student vocabulary has typically
increased to about 6000 words and
they are able to use more complex sentences when reading and writing. They are also more willing to
state their opinions and share their
thoughts in the target language and will also, at this stage, use strategies from their native language
to learn content in the new target language. This is the stage at which a child will reach basic
interpersonal communication skills and conversational fluency (usually within
2-5 years).
Stage 5. Advanced fluency
Advanced proficiency in a second language can typically take from 5-7 years by which time students
have developed specialized vocabulary
and can participate fully in classroom activities with occasional extra support. Students at this stage
are likely to have near-native ability
in the target language and have achieved what is known as “cognitive academic language
proficiency”.
Source: TeachingLanguages.com.au

References
Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford: Pergamon
Press.

Fromkin,V. ,Rodman,R and HYams ,R.(2014) an Introduction to language.Wadsworth.

Yule, G. (2010). The study of language. (4th ed.) Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press.