Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
September 1979
NOTICE
11
FOREWORD
It is now clear that only the most effective design and operation
of pollution control facilities using the latest available
techniques will be adequate to ensure continued protection of
the nation's waters. It is essential that this new technology be
incorporated into the contemporary design of pollution control
facilities to achieve maximum benefit of our expenditures.
The purpose of this manual is to provide the engineering
community and related industry with a new source of information
to be used in the planning , design , and operation of present
and future wastewater pollution control facilities , It is
recognized that there are a number of design manuals and manuals
of standard practice , such as those published by the Water
Pollution Control Federation , available in the field , and
that each of these adequately describes and interprets current
engineering practices as related to traditional plant design.
It is the intent of this manual to supplement this existing
body of knowledge by describing new treatment methods and by
discussing the application of new techniques for more effectively
removing a broad spectrum of contaminants from wastewater.
Much of the information presented is based on the evaluation and
operation of pilot, demonstration, and full-scale plants , The
design criteria thus generated represent typical values , These
values should be used as a guide and should be tempered with
sound engineering judgment based on a complete analysis of the
specific application.
111
ABSTRACT
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
FOREWORD , ill
ABSTRACT ... IV
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS * » # * * #
* * * xlix
CHAPTER 1. PURPOSE AND SCOPE ... 1- 1
. ......... .
--
1.1 Purpose . .. 1 1
1.2 Scope * * » * * * •
# # '
* i * + 1 2
1.3 Process Classification ** * * * 1- 2
1.4 References . # p f * * « 4 # #
* p « # # #
* « * « « 1- 2
CHAPTER 2. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 2 - 1
2.1 Introduction and Scope . . ............... ... .
. . -2-
2 1
2.2 Legal and Regulatory Considerations 1
2.2.1 Effect of Effluent Discharge Limitations
on Wastewater Solids Management . m • •• . 2- 1
2.2.2 Restrictions on Wastewater
Solids Treatment 2- 2
--
2.2.2.1 Air Emissions Limits . ... ... 2 2
2.2.2.2 Nuisances 2 3
2.2.2.3 State and Local Requirements « + + + # # # # 2- 3
2.2.3 Laws and Regulations Governing Wastewater
Solids Utilization and Disposal » » » « « » * « 2- 3
2.2.3.1 Federal Water Pollution Control Act ... 2- 3
2.2.3.2 Resource Conservation and
Recovery Act 2- 4
2.2.3.3 Toxic Substances Control Act ...
2.2.3.4 Marine Protection, Research and
2- 3
Sanctuaries Act * * * + « * » * « * « *
i 4 # tt 2- 5
2.2 . 3.5 Environmental Policy Acts * * * * * * • • * * # # # 2- 5
2.2.3.6 State and Local Reuse and
Disposal Requirements ... 2- 5
2.2.4 The Comprehensive Nature of Section 405
of the Clean Water Act ... 2- 5
2.3 Other Non-Technical Factors Affecting
Wastewater Solids Management .. . . ... . . . ... ... 2 - 6
2.3 .1 Availability of Construction Funds .... 2- 6
2.3 .2 Special Funding Requirements 2- 7
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
*
ft
ft ft ft # ft
2-
2- 9
8
2.3.7 Social and Political Factors Affecting
Waste Export « « « * * # # 2- 10
2.4 References 2- 11
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
VI 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
4.7.2.1 Quantity of Grit » * ft » » ft • # # #
* #
* 4- 51
4.7. 2.2 Properties of Grit 4- 52
4.7.2.3 Handling Grit ,. . . 4- 53
4.7.3 Scum « i * < • 4- 45
4.7.3.1Quantities of Scum * f * # ft 4- 55
4.7.3.2 Properties of Scum 4- 56
4.7. 3.3 Handling Scum . * * * # # 4- 57
4.7.4 Septage . ** * » * * » » • » 4- 59
4.7.4.1 Quantities of Septage . . . 4- 59
4.7.4.2 Properties of Septage .. • « * « * t * . i
* # v ft 4- 59
4.7.4.3 Treating Septage in Wastewater
Treatment Plants .» * * * * * * w # ft ft ft » * 4- 60
4.7.5 Backwash * * • * * •* « ft ft # ftft 4- 61
4.7.6 Solids From Treatment of Combined
Sewer Overflows , . 4- 62
4.8 References .......... .... . . . . . .... ..... 4- 63
CHAPTER 5 . THICKENING . * * * « * * * * m * ft ft # 5- 1
5.1 Introduction ..... 5- 1
5.1.1 Definition . * * « *• * ft ft 5- 1
.
5.1 2 Purpose ..
5.1.3 Process Evaluation
.. 5- 1
5- 1
.
5.1 4 Types and Occurrence of Thickening
Processes * * * * *
f t f t f t f t H» •«
f t f t t ft < 5- 2
5.2 Sedimentation Basins * ft ft 5- 2
5.2.1 Primary Sedimentation . 5- 2
5.2.2 Secondary Sedimentation 5- 3
5.3 Gravity Thickeners * * * * * * * * 5- 3
5.3.1 Introduction * * m u * * * * * * * * ^ * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
m a ** * * 5- 3
5.3 .2 Theory . * m m m r * * * * m m * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
w w * ** * 5- 3
5.3.3 System Design Considerations * * * 5- 5
5.3.3.1 Minimum Surface Area Requirements 5- 6
5.3.3.2 Hydraulic Loading 5- 8
5.3.3.3 Drive Torque Requirements 5- 8
5.3.3.4
Total Tank Depth .. . 5- 9
5.3.3.5 Floor Slope 5- 10
5.3.3.6 Other Considerations 5- 11
5.3.4 Design Example « ft 5- 12
.
5.3 5 Cost . 5- 15
5.3.5.1 Capital Cost 5- 15
5.3.5.2 Operating and Maintenance Cost 5- 15
5.4 Flotation Thickening ft ft * « « * . '
f t f t f t f t a f t
ft ft v f t # ft '
ft 5- 16
5.4.1 Dissolved Air Flotation ( DAF ) * « * • « f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t f t 5 -18
5.4.1.1 Theory 5- 19
5.4.1.2 System Design Considerations 5- 19
5.4 .2 Design Example 5- 33
5.4 .3 Cost * * * * « * « * ft ftft ftft ft 5- 35
5.4. 3.1 Capital Cost 5- 35
5.4.3.2 Operating and Maintenance Costs f c f t f t f t f t * * * 5- 36
5.5 Centrifugal Thickening * ft 5- 36
V I11
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
5.5.1 Introduction 5- 36
5.5.2 Theory • • * * * * * * • * * « >
* # 5- 38
5.5.3 System Design Considerations * * * * . # # * * ** 5- 39
5.5.3.1 Disc Nozzles * * # # 5- 39
5.5.3.2 Imperforate Basket # # 5- 45
..
5.5 3 3 Solid Bowl Decanter 5- 49
5.5.4 Case History • 5- 53
.
5.5.5 Cost * * * «...« *.* .. . A ..... ... # # # .
** **
5- 55
5.5.5.1 Capital Cost .. .
* * • » « « 9 4 9 # » » * * * * 5- 55
5.5.5.2 Operating and Maintenance Cost 9 9
* 5- 56
5.6 Miscellaneous Thickening Methods 5- 59
.
5.6 1 Elutriation Basin
5.6.2 Secondary Anaerobic Digesters
........... 5- 59
5- 60
5.6.3 Facultative Sludge Lagoons 5- 60
5.6.4 Ultrafiltration .* . #• # 5 -60
5.7 References * •. * * * * * * * . 9 5 -60
CHAPTER 6 . STABILIZATION
.
6.1 Introduction » * * * * *
6
6
-- 1
1
6.2 Anaerobic Digestion . * * * * • « * * « + * +
# #
* * * « * * ft .. .. # ! > 6 - 2
6.2.1 Process Description 6 -2
6.2.1.1 History and Current Status . 6 -2
6.2.1.2 Applicability 6- 3
6.2.1.3 Advantages and Disadvantages 6 -4
6.2.1.4 Microbiology .. . 6- 5
6.2.2 Process Variations ... » •
6 . 2 . 2 . 1 Low- Rate Digestion * • »
* « * *
'
* « * * * »
** « 4* » ** + * * * * * # #
#
#
# #
#
6
6
-- 7
7
6.2 . 2.2 High- Rate Digestion 6- 7
6.2 . 2.3 Anaerobic Contact Process 6- 15
6.2 . 2.4 Phase Separation ...... 6- 16
6.2.3 Sizing of Anaerobic Digesters • • * V # 6- 18
6.2.3.1 Loading Criteria . . * * . .. ' 6- 18
6.2.3.2 Solids Retention Time . * * • * * * • » * * * * # # 6- 18
6.2.3.3 Recommended Sizing Procedure
6.2.4 Process Performance
6 20-
6- 23
6.2.4.1 Solids Reduction ... 6- 26
6.2.4.2 Gas Production 6 - 29
6.2.4.3 Supernatant Quality 6- 31
6.2.5 Operational Considerations * •* * * * * * # # # # » 6- 34
6.2.5.1 pH **** * 6- 34
6.2.5.2 Toxicity ... ........ 6- 36
6.2.6 System Component Design ,, 6- 42
6.2.6.1 Tank Design . . ...... m < 6- 42
6.2.6.2 Heating . * * *** * * V i m a m
4 # 4 # 4 # 6- 46
6.2.6.3 Mixing « « « # * * < 4 4 6- 52
6.2 . 6.4 Covers * * * m * * # # 6- 62
6.2.6.5 Piping . 6- 66
6.2.6.6 Cleaning 6- 67
6.2.7 Energy Usage .
* # > 6- 72
6.2.8 Costs ... * * *• * * » * « * « * * ¥ •# 9 6- 74
IX
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
6.2.9 Design Example .....
..... 6- 74
6.2.9.1 Design Loadings ... * *' * * « * * * t i B f e 4 a a a 6- 74
6.2.9.2 System Description . 6- 75
6.2.9.3 Component Sizing .. . 6 - 77
6.3 Aerobic Digestion ....... . 6- 82
6.3.1 Process Description 6- 82
6.3.1.1 History .. .... . 6- 82
6.3.1.2 Current Status * * * * * « * # # a 6- 82
6.3.1.3 Applicability . * * * * * * * * * « * • * # # # 6- 82
6.3.1.4 Advantages and Disadvantages * a a 6- 82
6.3.1.5 Microbiology ... * • a a 6- 83
6.3.2 Process Variations ... 6- 84
6.3.2.1 Conventional Semi -Batch Operation * * a 6- 84
6.3.2.2 Conventional Continuous Operation .* * 6- 84
6.3.2.3 Auto-Heated Mode of Operation . « a • • * 6- 85
6.3.3 Design Considerations ... --
6 86
6.3.3.1 Temperature . 6 86
6.3.3.2 Solids Reduction . . -
6 86
6.3.3.3 Oxygen Requirements I < « « I I t • • * t t »
6.3.3.4 Mixing , * * * « # a
* * * •*
f
* * •• * *
f 4
#
#
-
6 88
6- 89
6.3.3.5 pH Reduction . 6 - 90
6.3.3.6 Dewatering I P * * * " S * S * * « « » 4 |
|# |
||( 6- 91
.
6.3 4 Process Performance , « » • I » 4
* • * •* * * •* *
» » I I i ! 6- 92
.
6.3 4.1 Total Volatile Solids Reduction ... 6- 92
6.3.4.2 Supernatant Quality 6- 93
6.3.5 Design Example 6- 93
6.3.6 Cost * * * * ft 6- 99
6.3.6.1 Capital Cost a a* * * *• * a # # # # i n 6- 99
6.3.6.2 Operation and Maintenance Cost * * * « i # 6 - 99
6.4 Lime Stabilization .....
. 6-100
6.4.1 Process Description * * 4 6-101
6.4.1.1 History * * * * * a a a a a a 4 a a # 6-101
6.4 . 1.2 Current Status * a * * « » « « * *
a a w a a a # #
* 6-102
6.4.1.3 Applicability ....... « * 4 * « * 6-102
6.4.1.4 Theory of the Process * a > i 6-103
6.4 . 2 Design Criteria * a 6-103
6.4.2.1 pH and Contact Time 6 -104
6.4.2.2 Lime Dosage . * * * * * * * * * a a 6-104
6.4.3 Process Performance ... * a a » * * * * * * * * * *
B
"4 f « 4 6 -107
6.4.3.1 Odor Control 6-108
6.4.3.2 Pathogen Reduction « i 6-109
6.4.3.3 Dewatering and Settling
Characteristics . * * * « a w w * * * * * * « « * * * * 6-110
6.4.3.4 Chemical Characteristics * * *** * * ** * 6-110
6.4.4 Process Design * * * * * * # #« a ** * a a i i # # 6-112
6.4.4.1 Design of Lime Handling Facilities 6-112
6.4.4.2 Mixing Tank Design * * * * * * • * • » * # 4 6-118
6.4.5 Costs and Energy Usage . 6-121
6.4.5.1 Capital and Operating Costs 6-121
6.4.5.2 Energy Usage . ** .
** * **•
4 4 4 # # * * 6-122
X
TABLE OF CONTENTS (continued )
Page
6.4.6 Design Example 6-124
6.4 . 6.1 Design Loading •• * i i 6 -124
6.4.6.2 System Description . 4 » ** * 6-124
6.4.6.3 Component Sizing * i * 4 6 -127
126
6.5 Chlorine Stabilization » 4 6-128
6.5.1 Process Description . » * * 4 4 # 4 4 6--131
6.5.2 Uses , Advantages, and Disadvantages . . »
*** 6
6.5.3 Chlorine Requirements 6- 132
6.5.4 Characteristics of Chlorine Stabilized -
Materials . « *# # # #
* * # «
• # 6-133
6.5.4.1 Stabilized Slude •• * « * * #
* 4 > *
| 6-133
6.5.4.2 Supernatant/Filtrate/Subnatant
Quality
6.5.5 Costs ...• * * « *
6-134
134
* **
6.5.5.1 Operating Costs * *
* 4» 4•* 4 4 4 4 # « # • 4 * * * 6-135
* 4 4 #
* 6-136
6.5.5.2 Capital Costs * »
6.6 References * * • 4 a • »
#
a a a # # 4
. 4 4 4 4 4 * * 4 4 «
6
6
--138
CHAPTER 7. DISINFECTION 7-- 1
7.1 Introduction * * * * » + * * * « v * * « * * * * * * * * * * • *
a t l Ht t 4 4 » > 7 1
7.2 Pathogenic Organisms
7.2.1 Pathogen Sources ......
4 a
...
7- 1
7 - 2
7.2.2 Pathogen Characteristics .
7.2.2.1 Viruses
7
7-
- 2
2
7 . 2 . 2 . 2 Bacteria ., 7-- 3
7.2.2.3 Parasites , 7 4
7.2.2.4 Fungi .. * * * * *
7.2.3 Pathogen Occurrence in the United States
* • * a # ' a # # # # # # 4 4 4 # 7 - 6
4 4 4 4 4
: 7 - 6
7.3 Pathogen Survival During Sludge Stabilization
Processes 7- 7
7.3.1 Pathogen Reduction During Digestion . .. . 7 - 7
7.3.1.1 Viruses * * 7 - 7
7.3.1.2 Bacteria * -
7.3.1.3 Parasites + * *
4 # 4
A A *
7
7
-- 8
9
7.3.2 Long Term Storage ...
7.3.3 Chemical Disinfection
# ( 7
7 -
- 10
10
7.3.3.1 Lime ** -
4 v #
* 4 4 4 * * * •» * * •* • *
4 4 B 4 « i a »: # #
* » 7 - 10
7.3.3.2 Chlorine ** 7 - 10
7.3.3.3 Other Chemicals ..
7.4 Pathogen Survival in the Soil .• * * *
*
*
»
»
m » •
m
4 t
4
t V
4 # 4
i f 4
4
4 # l
# # # 4 #
4 4 i 4 #
* * 4
7
7
-- 11
li
7.4.1 Viruses ... * a # 4 4 4 #
< 7 - 11
7.4.2 Bacteria 7 - 11
7.4.3 Parasites
7.5 Potential Human Exposure to Pathogens
7
7
-- 12
12
7.6 Heat Disinfection Processes . « # # # # # 4 # 7 - 13
7.6.1 Sludge Pasteurization + * « * * ••• *
7.6.1.1 Process Description *
* #
4 4
» « « # 4 4 7
7
-- 14
15
7.6.1.2 Current Status .. 7 - 16
7.6.1.3 Design Criteria . 7 - 16
XI
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
7.6.1.4 Instrumentation and Operational
Considerations ... 7- 17
7.6.1.5 Energy Impacts ... • m < » * * » * 7- 17
7.6.1.6 Cost Information . « • #
* 7- 17
7.6.1.7 Design Example 7- 20
7.6.2 Other Heat Processes ** 7- 24
7.6.2.1 Heat - Conditioning 7- 25
7.6 . 2.2 Heat-Drying . m « a 7- 25
7.6.2.3 High Temperature Processes * P * * 7- 25
7.6.2.4 Composting 7- 25
7.7 Pathogen Reduction With High-Energy Radiation 7- 26
.
7.7 1 Reduction of Pathogens in Sludge With
Electron Irradiation 7- 26
7.7.1.1 Process Descritpion , 7- 27
7.7.1.2 Status ..« * *** « • # 7- 28
7.7.1.3 Design Considerations ... *** # # # # # 7- 28
7.7.1.4 Instrumentation and Operational
Considerations 7- 30
7.7.1.5 Energy Impacts 7- 30
7.7.1.6 Performance Data 7- 30
7.7.1.7 Production Production and Properties ... 7- 31
7.7.1.8 Cost Information . 7- 31
7.7. 2 Disinfection With Gammer Irradiation .... 7- 32
7.7.2.1 Process Description 7- 33
1 . 1 . 2 . 2 Current Status - Liquid Sludge .... 7- 33
7.7.2.3 Current Status - Dried or Composted
Sludge #
* * * * *• + * * * * * *
# # 7- 34
7.7.2.4 Design Criteria * * * • * * #• # < 7- 35
7.7. 2.5 Instrumentation and Operational
Considerations .... * * * « « » # « » # * » 7- 35
7.7.2.6 Energy Impacts .... « 7- 36
.
K
CHAPTER 8. CONDITIONING 8- 1
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Selecting a Conditioning Process
--
8
8
1
1
8.3 Factors Affecting Wastewater Solids Conditioning ... 8- 1
8.3.1 General Wastewater Solids Properties * » * « * * * « 4 8- 1
8.3.1.1 Particle Size and Distribution ... 8- 3
8.3.1.2 Surface Charge and Degree of
Hydration ..... .......
.... .. . 8- 4
8.3.1.3 Particle Interaction 8- 4
8.3.2 Physical Factors » ** » * «
4 ' 4 8- 4
8.3.2.1 Effect of Processing Prior to
Conditioning « a * 8- 5
8.3.2.2 Conditioner Application 8- 5
.
--
8.4 Inorganic Chemical Conditioning . . # # A 8 6
8.4.1 Introduction ..........
...... 8 6
XI 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
8.4.2 Dosage Requirements * -
8 6
.. **
1
XI11
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
8.11.4 Ultrasonic 8- 43
8.12 References * • * •# < # #
* # * « 8- 43
CHAPTER 9 . DEWATERING * * .* •* *
V #
* * * * *, * » ** + * *
B n a » # I # a # 9- 1
9.1 Introduction * « * * * * • * « * » « * * * * * •* « * * # i l l l< i # a a ) 9- 1
........
>
XIV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
9.4.6.4 Other Considerations ... • 9 - 56
9.4.6.5 Case History * * * * * * * * * « * * * * ** * * 9- 59
9.4.6.6 Cost , A n a * * * * * •* » #
* * 9- 60
.
9.4 7 Screw and Roll Press « * « * »
* * * * * # # 9- 63
9.4.7.1 Screw Press . t « * .. 9- 63
9.4.7.2 Twin- Roll Press 9 - 66
9.4.8 Dual Cell Gravity ( DCG ) Filter .. * • * * * * « « • 9- 67
9.4.9 Tube Filters .. ...
9.4.9.1 Pressure Type
. 9- 68
« * * • * * * * * * ••• * # » « 9- 68
9.4.9.2 Gravity Type * * + * * * * * * * « * * * ** * 9- 68
9.5 Other Dewatering Systems * * * « *• #
* * * * ****** ** 9- 69
.
9.5 1 Cyclones 9- 69
9.5.2 Screens 9- 70
9.5.3 Electro-Osmosis * * « « 4 4 9- 70
9.6 References * * * * * » « * * *
# #
* • •* * * •* * * • # # # » 9- 70
XV
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
10.6.5.1
Process Description , * i 10- 27
10.6.5.2
Current Status .* « • * * * * * * # # # 10- 27
10.7 Other Heat-Drying Systems ,, * * * * * * * * * * * * * • # # # a # 10- 28
10.7.1 Solvent Extraction--BEST Process
10.7.1.1 Process Description
. 10- 28
» « * •« # a f 10- 28
10.7.1.2 Current Status .
10.7.1.3 Operating Experience *
* *
... # ft ft ft
10- 29
ft 10- 30
10.7.2 Multiple- Effect Evaporation--Carver
Greenfield Process m a * * a a
* * * * * * a a a a a m m m m m * a 10- 30
10.7.2.1 Process Description ,..* * * « • « * * * * » * # # # 10- 31
10.7.2.2 Current Status 10- 31
10.8 References « l # 10- 32
CHAPTER 11. HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESSES f t f t a a f t f t f t f t f t f t a f t a f t f t a 11-- 1
.
11.1 Introduction * a • * * « *- » * *•* * * * *• *• a 11 1
11.2 Principles of High Temperature Operations » * * . a a a 11 - 2
11.2.1 Combustion Factors H * # ft # 11- 3
.
11.2 1.1 Sludge Fuel Values 11- 3
11.2.1.2 Oxygen Requirements for Complete
Combustion
11.2.1.3 Factors Affecting the Heat Balance .• a
* » 11-
11- 7
6
.
--
11.2.2 Incineration Design Example . * a * * » * » a f t « « 11 10
.
11.2 2.1 Problem Statement .. * • * ... . ft # i 11 10
11.2.2.2 Approximate Calculation Method 11- 13
11.2.2.3 Theoretical Calculation Method
11.2.2.4 Comparison of Approximate and
-
11 20
XVI
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
11.4 Starved - Air Combustion « # 11- 65
11.4.1 Development and Application ... *
11.4. 2 Advantages and Disadvantages of SAC * * • ••
.... i 11 68-
# 9 11- 71
11.4.3 Conversion of Existing Multiple-Hearth
Incineration Units to SAC
11.4.4 Design Example: Retrofit of an Existing
11- 75
Multiple-Hearth Sludge Incinerator to a
Starved - Air Combustion Reactor 11- 76
11.4.4.1 Approach
11.4.4.2 Preliminary Design .
»• 11-
11-
77
78
11.5 Co- Combustion of Sludge and Other Material
11.5.1 Co-Combustion with Coal and Other
11- 81
Residuals * *
11.5.2 Co- Combustion with Mixed Municipal Refuse
11- 81
( MMR ) . # # * ¥ * * #
* * !» » i # * * * * *•*
> » 11- 83
11.5.2.1 Refuse Combustion Technology 11- 84
11.5.2.2 Sludge Combustion Technology ...... 11- 87
11.5.3 Institutional Constraints ... ... . . . . .. ... 11- 92
11.5.4 Conclusions about Co-Combustion . . ...... . # 11- 94
11.6 Related Combustion Processes Used in Wastewater
Treatment , ** # #
* * » * * • *• ** it 11- 94
11.6.1 Screenings , Grit , and Scum Reduction 11- 94
11.6.2 Lime Recalcination
.
11.6 3 Activated Carbon Regeneration
*
..... #
-
11 96
11- 98
11.6.3.1 Granular Carbon Systems ( GAC ) * » » * * « * k # 11- 99
11.6.3.2 Powdered Activated Carbon ( PAC ) * ** ¥ # # # 11-100
11.6.3.3 Jet Propulsion Laboratory Activated -
Carbon Treatment System ( JPL- ACTS ) • • . 11-100
11.7 Other High Temperature Processes 11-102
11.7.1 High Pressure/High Temperature Wet Air
Oxidation * ** 11-102
11.7.2 REACT-0-THERMtm * * * * * ** 11-109
11.7.3 Modular Starved - Air Incinerators * * # # 11-110
11.7.4 Pyro- Soltm Process . . . 11- 110
11.7.5 Bailie Process ..... » .. # 11- 113
11.7.6 Wright- Malta Process . 11-113
11.7.7 Molten Salt Pyrolysis 11-115
11.8 Air Pollution Considerations 4 * * * * * < a i # 4 11- 115
11.8.1 National Ambient Air Quality Standards
( NAAQS )-State Implementation Plans ( SIP ) ... 11- 116
11.8.2 National Emission Standards for Hazardous
Air Pollutants ( NESHAPS ) 11- 177
11.8.3 Standards of Performance for New
Stationary Sources ( NSPS ) . * « « « » • » . 11-118
11.8.4 New Source Review Standards ( NSR ) . » * * 11-119
11.8.5 Prevention of Significant Deterioration
( PSD ) 11- 119
11.8.6
11.8.7
The Permit Process
Air Emissions Test Procedures . ........ -
11 120
11- 120
11.8.8 Design Example * i * *• * * #
* # * # « * • * 11-120
XVI1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
11.8 . 8.1 Identify Applicable State and Local
Regulations * * #
* * 12- 5
12.2.6 Design Criteria and Procedures ... * + » # * * # # 12- 5
12.3 Unconfined Composting Systems . ... ... . .. -
12 11
12.3.1 Windrow Process 12- 12
12.3.1.1 Energy Requirements . .. ........ 12- 16
12.3.1.2 Public Health and Environmental
Impacts . « 12- 16•
X V I 11
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
13.2 Chemical Fixation Process * # * * « « « 13- 1
13.3 Encapsulation Process * I 13- 3
13.3.1 Polyethylene Process 13- 3
13.3.2 Asphalt Process . * « 13- 4
13.4 Earthworm Conversion Process * * 13- 4
13.4.1 Process Arrangement 13- 4
13.4.2 Advantages of the Earthworm Conversion
Process .• * * * 13- 6
13.4.3 Possible Operating Difficulties 13- 7
13.4.4 Limitations t i « # 13- 7
13.5 References •* * * ** * # 13- 9
CHAPTER 14. TRANSPORTATION 14- 1
14.1 Pumping and Pipelines * * * « * * * 14- 1
14.1.1 Simplified Head -Loss Calculations * * * 14- 1
14.1. 2 Application of Rheology to Sludge
Pumping Problems •* F 14- 3
14.1.2.1 Solution of Pressure Drop Equation .. • • 14- 4
14.1.2.2 Design Example 14- 8
14.1.2.3 Thixotropy and Other
Time - Dependent Effects ... 14- 12
14.1.2.4 Obtaining the Coefficients 14- 14
14.1.2.5 Additional Information ... 14- 17
14.1.3 Types of Sludge Pumps . 14- 17
14.1.3.1 Centrifugal Pumps 14- 17
14.1.3.2 Torque Flow Pumps t * • » * * * * < » # # 14- 18
14.1.3.3 Plunger Pumps ... 14- 19
14.1.3.4 Piston Pumps ... * .* * # i 14- 21
14.1.3.5 Progressive Cavity Pumps 14- 22
14.1.3.6 Diaphragm Pump ... 14- 24
14.1.3.7 Rotary Pumps 14- 26
14.1.3.8 Ejector Pumps .... * * * + « « « # 14- 27
14.1. 3.9 Gas Lift Pumps ... * ** # 14- 27
14.1.3.10 Water Eductors * « *•* » * « > 14- 28
14.1.4 Application of Sludge Pumps 14- 29
14.1.5 Pipe, Fittings, and Valves 14- 29
14.1.6 Long Distance Pumping ..... 14- 31
14.1.6.1 Experience . * * 14- 31
14.1.6.2 Design Guidance .* * « * • *
4 a a a 14- 32
14.1.7 In- Line Grinding . •* * * * 14- 36
14.2 Dewatered Wastewater Solids Conveyance * t 14- 37
.
14.2 1 Manual Transport of Screenings and Grit * * • * * 14- 37
14.2.2 Belt Conveyors * * # 14- 37
14.2.3 Screw Conveyors 14- 40
14.2.4 Positive Displacement Type Conveyors . * * » * * # # 14- 43
14.2.5 Pneumatic Conveyors ... » * * »
* a 4 4 # # # # # ) 14- 43
14.2.6 Chutes and Inclined Planes ... ..... 14- 44
.
14.2 7 Odors 14- 46
14.3 Long Distance Wastewater Solids Hauling . 14- 46
14.3.1 Truck Transportation * •* * * m 14- 47
XIX
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
14.3.1.1
14.3.1.2
Types of Trucks
Owned Equipment vs. Contract
# i 14- 47
Hauling .. .. 14- 48
14.3.1.3 Haul Scheduling .* * * * * * • • * * « # i # 9 # * ••••• 14- 49
14.3.1.4 Trucking Costs .. 14- 49
14.3.2 Rail Transport 14- 49
14.3.2.1 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Rail Transport * * * * 4
* * * « r * 14- 49
14.3.2.2 Routes . * * * * * * * * * * « » * * *
# #
• « # # » * t 14- 50
14.3.2.3 Haul Contracts ... * * * * * * «
---
•
t * * * « i i i i * i t 14 50
14.3.2.4 Railcar Supply ... 14 51
14.3.2.5 Ancillary Facilities 14 53
14.3.2.6 Manpower and Energy Requirements -- 54
14 53
14.3.3 Barge Transportation 14
14.3.3.1 Routes and Transit Times ....... m * -- 54
14
14.3.3.2 Haul or System Contracting .... 14 55
14.3.3.3 Barge Selection and Acquisition
14.3.3.4 Ancillary Facilities
14 -
- 57
14
56
14.3.3.5 Spill Prevention and Cleanup .. » * » # # » * 14- 57
14.4 References * m * * * *• 14- 57
CHAPTER 15. STORAGE 15- 1
15.1 Introduction • ..» * * * • « * * * * * + *
# # # #
• '
* « * ** » « * # # # # 15- 1
15.1.1 Need for Storage 15- 1
15.1.2 Risks and Benefits of Solids Storage Within
Wastewater Treatment System » * * * # » < 15- 1
15.1.3 Storage Within Wastewater Sludge Treatment
Processes . * * » * * * * * * * * • -» « « *
- » « 15- 2
15.1.4 Effects of Storage on Wastewater Solids 15- 2
.
15.1 5 Types of Storage 15- 4
15.2 Wastewater Treatment Storage 15- 5
15.2.1 Storage Within Wastewater Treatment
Processes ... * « * « • « « » ** » * *• # # 15- 5
15.2.1.1 Grit Removal .* * * * * * * . *• •* 15- 6
15.2.1.2 Primary Sedimentation
15.2.1.3 Aeration Reactors and Secondary
15- 7
Sedimentation . 15- 9
15.2.1.4 Imhoff and Community Septic Tanks .. 15- 10
15.2.1.5 Wastewater Stabilization Ponds ..... 15- 11
15.2.2 Storage Within Wastewater Sludge Treatment
Processes * (• 15- 11
15.2.2.1 Gravity Thickeners 15- 12
15.2.2.2 Anaerobic Digesters * * * * * * * * « * * •• * * • 4 # 15- 12
15.2.2.3 Aerobic Digesters
15.2. 2.4 Composting .......
* * *• ! 15- 18
* * * * * * •
» 15- 18
15.2.2.5 Drying Beds 15- 18
15.3 Dedicated Storage Facilities . * * * * ** * ** ****
# # •
# # # # # 15- 18
15.3.1 Facilities Provided Primarily for Storage
of Liquid Sludge 15- 19
15.3.1.1 Holding Tanks 15- 19
xx
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
.
15.3 1.2 Facultative Sludge Lagoons 15- 23
.
15.3 1.3 Anaerobic Liquid Sludge Lagoons . .. * *
15 - 41
15.3.1.4 Aerated Storage Basins 15- 43
15.3.2 Facilities Provided Primarily for Storage
of Dewatered Sludge 15- 46
15.3.2.1 Drying Sludge Lagoons ... ..... ..... 15- 47
15.3.2.2 Confined Hoppers or Bins ..
15.3.2.3 Unconfined Stockpiles
... ..... 15 - 51
15- 56
15.4 References * * B 15 - 58
xxi
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
17.2.2.11 Turbine Meters 17- 49
17.2.2.12 Vortex Meters 17- 50
17.2.2.13 Positive Displacement 17- 50
17.2.2.14Pump and Transport Displacement
Systems 17- 50
.
17.2 3 Pressure Measurement 17- 50
17.2.3.1 Bourdons or Bellows 17- 51
17.2.3.2 Diaphragms 17- 52
17.2.4 Temperature Measurements ....... .
. ... 17- 52
17.2.4.1 Resistance Temperature
Detectors ( RTDs ) 17- 53
17.2.4.2 Thermocouples 17- 53
17.2.5 Weight Measurements 17- 54
17.2.5.1 Static .. 17- 54
17.2.5.2 Mass Flow *i 17- 54
17.2.6 Density and Suspended Solids Measurements ... 17- 55
17.2.6.1 Density 17- 55
17.2.6.2 Suspended Solids Measurements 17- 56
17.2.7 Time Measurements 17- 57
17.2.8 Speed Measurements 17 - 57
17.2.9 Moisture Content Measurements 17- 57
17.2.10 Dissolved Oxygen Measurements 17- 58
17.2.11 pH Measurements 17- 58
17.2.12 Chemical Oxygen Demand Measurements ......... 17- 59
17.2.13 Ammonia Measurements 17- 59
17.2.14 Gas Measurement and Analysis 17- 59
17.2.14.1 Composition Analyzer 17- 59
17.2.14.2 Calorimeter 17- 60
17.2.15 Stack Gas Measurements and Analysis 17- 60
17.2.16 Odor Measurements 17- 61
17.2.17 Aerobic Condition Measurements 17 - 61
17.2.18 Blanket Level Measurements 17- 61
17.2.19 Hydrocarbons and Flammable Gas Detectors .... 17- 63
17.2.20 Radiation Monitoring ... ....................
. 17- 63
17.2.21 Machinery Protection ........................
17.2.21.1 Empty Pipe Detectors
17 - 64
17- 64
17.2.21.2 Vibration - Acceleration and
Displacement Systems 17 - 64
17.2.21.3 Flow Loss Monitors 17- 65
17.2.21.4 Overload Devices 17- 65
17.2.21.5 Flame Safeguard Equipment .. .. . ..
.. . .. 17 - 65
. ..
17.3 Sampling Systems . . 17- 66
17.4 Operator Interface . .. 17- 67
17.4.1 Location * 17- 67
17.4.2 Indicator Boards ****** 17- 68
17.5 References ... .... ..
. . * ** H 17 - 68
xxi 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
18.2.1 Perspective 18- 2
18.2.2 Principles and Design Criteria for
Applying Wastewater Sludge to Land 18- 3
18.2.2.1 Preliminary Planning . . ..... 18 - 5
18.2.2.2 Site Selection « # 18 - 5
18.2.2.3 Process Design . . 18 - 5
18.2.2.4 Facilities Design * •* « « «•» «# i 18- 6
18.2.2.5 Facility Management , Operations ,
and Monitoring . « *** . t k k 18 - 7
18.3 Sludge as an Energy Source 18 - 8
18.3.1 Perspective . * 4' 18 - 8
18.3.2 Recovery of Energy From Sludge 18- 9
18.3.2.1 Treatment of Digester Gas 18- 9
18.3.2.2 Gas- Burning Equipment ... 18- 11
18.3.3.3 Generators « * • * 4 4 * • # . 18 - 15
18.3.3 Examples of Energy Recovery 18 - 15
18.3.3.1 Energy Recovery From Digester Gas . 18 - 15
18.3.3.2 Recovery of Energy From Incinerator
Flue Gas * 1 18 - 25
18.3.4 Other Factors Affecting Heat Recovery 18- 34
18.4 Other Uses of Wastewater Solids and Solid
By-Products 18 - .35
18.5 References > * 18- 36
XXI11
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( continued )
Page
XXIV
LIST OF TABLES
Number Page
CHAPTER 3
-
3 1 Example of Initial Screening Matrix for Base
Sludge Disposal Options
. -
3 8
-
3 2 Example of Process Compatibility Matrix ,, -
3 9
-
3 3 Example of Treatment/Disposal Compatibility
Matrix ... * * » * * * *
# # #
-
3 9
3- 4 Example of Numerical Rating System for
3- 5
Alternatives Analysis
Estimated Costs of Alternatives for
3- 10
-
Eugene Springfield 3- 17
3-6 Mass Balance Equations for Flowsheet of
3- 7
Figure 3 7 - » « » » * « « * « * » * « « *•
Mass Balance Equations for Flowsheet of
3 - 21
Figure 3 9 - * *•
. ..
i t a v a 3 - 26
3- 8
3- 9
Solid Properties Checklist .
Process Design Checklist . . .... **
3
3
-- 37
37
3-10 Public Health and Environmental
Impact Checklist * 3 - 38
CHAPTER 4
-
Computing Waste Activated Sludge 4- 12
4- 5 Design Data for Sludge Production Example .... 4- 21
4- 6 Activated Sludge Characteristics 4- 28
4- 7 Trickling Filter Solids Production 4- 30
-8
4 Daily Variations in Trickling Filter Effluent,
Stockton , California 4- 33
-
4 9 Description of Sloughing Events * f 4- 33
-
4 10 Concentration of Trickling Filter Sludge
Withdrawn from Final Clarifiers 4- 34
--
4 11 Trickling Filter Sludge Composition ... . * * 4- 35
4 12 Sludge from Combined Attached Suspended
Growth Processes
- 4- 36
4 13- Metals in Ferric Chloride Solutions .... 4- 40
XXV
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
4-14 Progress in Source Control of Toxic
Pollutants 4- 41
4- 15 Cadmium in Sludge 4- 42
4- 16 Increased Metals Concentration
During Processing 4- 43
4-17 Aroclor ( PCB ) 1254 Measurements in Sludge k * 4- 44
4-18 Chlorinated Hydrocarbon Pesticides in
Sludge 4- 45
4-19 Screening Experience 4- 47
4- 20 Analyses of Screenings 4- 49
4- 21
4-22
Methods of Handling Screenings
Grit Quantities
.....
..... 4- 50
4- 52
4-23 Sieve Analysis of Grit 4- 53
4-24 Scum Production and Properties .......... 4- 57
4- 2 5 . .. ...........
Methods of Handling Scum . . 4- 58
4- 26
4-27
Characteristics of Domestic Septage .... .
Metals Concentrations in Solids From Treatment
* 4 * 4- 60
5- 4
.
Rates for Gravity Thickeners ..... .... ...... ...
. 5- 8
Typical Uniform Load ( W ) Values 5- 9
5- 5 Definition of Torques Applicable to Circular
Gravity Thickeners 5- 10
5- 6 Types of Municipal Wastewater Sludges Being
Thickened by DAF Thickeners 5- 18
5- 7 Advantages and Disadvantages of DAF
. ... . . .
Thickening . ... . .. .. .. ..
. .. .. .... ... . . . ... 5- 19
5- 8 Typical DAF Thickener Solids Loading Rates
Necessary to Produce a Minimum 4 Percent
Solids Concentration 5- 23
5- 9 Field Operation Results From Rectangular DAF
Thickeners 5- 24
5-10 Reported DAF Thickener Hydraulic Loading
Rates 5- 27
5-11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Disc Nozzle
Centrifuges 5- 40
5-12 Typical Performance of Disc Nozzle Centrifuge
'
... 5- 43
5- 13 Advantages and Disadvantages of Imperforate
Basket Centrifuge 5- 45
5-14 Typical Thickening Results Using Imperforate
Basket Centrifuge 5- 47
5-15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Bowl
Decanter Centrifuges 5- 50
XXVI
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
5 -1 6 Typical Characteristics of the New Type
5 -1 7
Thickening Decanter Centrifuge WAS ....... ..
Estimated Capital and O& M Cost for Various
. 5 - 52
CHAPTER 6
- # # # 6- 2 9
6 31-
6 10- Supernatant, Characteristics of High Rate , -
-
Two Stage, Mesophilic , Anaerobic Digestion
at Various Plants 6 - 33
6-11 Effect of Ammonia Nitrogen on Anaerobic
Digestion ..m A a A * M
*
# A a a A
a a a a a * w i * a * » -
A A a # # # A A 6- 3 7
6-12 Influent Concentrations and Expected
Removals of Some Heavy Metals in Wastewater
6 -1 3
Treatment Systems 6 - 38
Total Concentration of Individual Metals
Required to Severely Inhibit Anaerobic
Digestion 6- 3 9
6 -1 4 Total and Soluble Heavy Metal Content of
6 -1 5
Digesters
Stimulating and Inhibitory Concentrations
6- 40
XXVI1
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
CHAPTER 7
X X V I1 1
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
CHAPTER 8
8- 1 Effects of Either Polyelectrolyte Conditioning
or Thermal Conditioning Versus No Conditioning
on a Mixture of Primary and Waste- Activated
Sludge Prior to Gravity Thickening 8- 2
8- 2 Typical Conditioning Dosages of Ferric
Chloride ( FeClg ) and Lime ( CaO ) for
Municipal Wastewater Sludges ..... m m « * ** * * # 8- 7
8- 3 Suppliers of Polyelectrolytes .... * « * # # 9 9 9 8- 14
8- 4 Representative Dry Powder Cationic
Polyelectrolytes 8- 16
8- 5 Representative Liquid Cationic
Polyelectrolytes * * * *
9 9 * « 9 a
*• # 8- 16
8- 6 Typical Polyelectrolyte Additions for
Various Sludges « * * * * * « * * *
# 9 # 9 # 9 H H 8- 21
8- 7 Typical Levels of Dry Polyelectrolyte Addition
for Belt Filter Presses 8- 23
8-8 Typical Levels of Dry Polyelectrolyte Addition
for Solid Bowl Decanter Centrifuges
Conditioning Various Sludges * • » ** * 9 » 8- 25
8- 9 Performance of Solids Handling System at
Bissell Point , St. Louis STP 1972-1976 « * * * 9 4 9 9 8- 26
-
8 10 Performance of Solids Handling System at
Bissell Point , St. Louis STP 1977-1978 ..... 8- 28
8-11 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ash Addition
to Sludge for Conditioning . * * .
* * * * « * •* *•9 <
# 8 - 33
8-12 General Characteristics of Separated Liquor
From Thermal Conditioned Sludge . * * * ** *
# 9 # # 8- 36
8-13 Filtrate and /or Centrate Characteristics From
Dewatering Thermal Conditioned Sludge ....... 8- 38
8-14 USEPA July 1979 Survey of Existing Municipal
Wastewater Thermal Conditioning ..... * » * v * i a 9 9 « 9 8- 39
8-15 Comparison of Sewage Sludge Handling and
Conditioning Processes 8- 41
CHAPTER 9
XXIX
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
--
9 7 Sludge Drying Beds , Labor Requirements ..... 9 - 13
9 8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Sludge
9- 9
Drying Lagoons
Sludge Drying Lagoons, Labor
9 - 14
9-1 0
Requirements
Advantages and Disadvantages of Basket
9 - 17
9 -1 1
Centrifuges
Typical Performance Data for an Imperforate
9- 18
Basket Centrifuge 9- 20
9 -1 2 Specific Operating Results for Imperforate
Basket 9- 20
9 -1 3 Operating Results for Basket Centrifuge
Dewatering of Aerobically Digested
9 -1 4
Sludge at Burlington, Wisconsin
Advantages and Disadvantages of Solid Bowl
9 - 22
9 -1 5
Decanter Centrifuges
Typical Performance Data for a Solid Bowl
9 - 23
9 -1 6
Decanter Centrifuge
Precoat Process Performance on Fine
9 - 24
9 -1 7
Particulate Sludges
Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Rotary
9 - 27
9 -1 8
Drum Vacuum Filters I *
Typical Dewatering Performance Data for
9 - 28
9 -1 9
Rotary Vacuum Filters - Cloth Media
Typical Dewatering Performance Data for
9- 34
9-2 1
Filters Cloth Media
Specific Operating Results of Rotary Vacuum
9 - 35
9- 2 2
Filters Coil Media
Operational Cost for Lakewood , Ohio Vacuum
9- 36
Filter Operations 9- 41
9-2 3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Belt
9 -2 4
Filter Presses
Typical Dewatering Performance of Belt Filter
9- 45
Presses .. 9- 48
9-25 Labor Requirements for Belt Filter
9- 26
Presses
Advantages and Disadvantages of Recessed Plate
9 - 51
9- 2 7
Pressure Filters
Expected Dewatering Performance for a Typical
9- 52
9-30
Volume Recessed Plate Pressure Filter .
Pressure Filtration and Incineration
9 - 57
Operational Cost.. 9 - 61
9- 3 1 Performance Results From a Screw Press 9 - 65
XXX
LIST OF TABLES (continued )
Number Page
9 32 - Summary of Performance Results For a Dual
Cell Gravity Filter -
Mentor , Ohio *
•
9- 68
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
11 - 1 Chemical Reactions Occurring During
......... ..... .
1 1- 2
Combustion . .
Representative Heating Values of Some
-
11 4
Sludges * * « « # 4 #
* * * *• 11- 5
11 - 3 Theoretical Air and Oxygen Requirements
for Complete Combustion . 11- 7
11 - 4 Approximate Combustion Calculation
Supplemental Fuel Requirements .. ... ..-. 11- 18
11 - 5 -
Combustion Calculations Molal Basis . . . 11- 21
11 - 6 -
Combustion Calculations Molal Basis , , . 11- 23
11 - 7 Comparison Between an Approximate and a
Theoretical Calculation of Furnace
Combustion . 11- 25
11-8 Hypothetical Wastewater Treatment Plant
Design Data . • # 11- 31
11- 9 Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
11-10
Incineration in a Multiple Hearth Furnace
Typical Hearth Loading Rates for a
- i
* 11 - 39
11 -11
-
Multiple Hearth Furnace * *
Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
i 11 - 48
11-12
Incineration in a Fluid Bed Furnace
Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
11 - 51
Incineration in an Electric Infrared
Furnace . * # 11 - 57
11 13- Heat and Material Balance for Sludge
Incineation in a Cyclonic Furnace .. 11- 60
11 14- Design Example: Wastewater Treatment Plant
Operating Data 11- 61
11 15- Design Example: Sludge Furnace Design
Criteria .. * * V « 11- 62
* fl
XXXI
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
Agents * * * * * « ’
** « » 12- 12
12- 3 Beltsville Equipment **** 12- 41
12- 4 Beltsville Actual and Projected Operating
Costs 12- 43
12- 5 Estimated Annual Labor and Equipment
Requirements, Bangor, Maine 12- 45
12 - 6 Bangor Equipment
Bangor Materials Requirements for 2 ,170 Wet Ton
12- 46
12 - 7
Annual Sludge Input 12- 46
12 - 8 Facility Processing 10 Dry Tons of Sludge per
Day 12- 50
12- 9 European Wastewater Sludge Composting
Processes * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * • * * • • * * • * * * * • * * *
# # # # # # # 12- 57
CHAPTER 13
XXXI1
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
XXXI11
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
15 11- 1978 Removed Sludge Prairie Plan Land-
Reclamation Project, The Metropolitan Sanitary
District of Greater Chicago » * # # # # # # a
* 15 - 44
15 12- 1973/1974 Supernatant Praire Plan Reclamation
Project, The Metropolitan Sanitary District of
-
Greater Chicago 15 - 45
CHAPTER 16
16 - 1 Effect of Polymer on Elutriation . 16 - 5
--
16
16
2
3
Effect of Supernatant Return
Estimated Increase in Wastewater Stream
* 16 - 6
Biological Treatment Capacity Required to
Handle Sidestreams From Various Solids
Treatment Processes * * » * « * *# * * » » » » * « *m f # # # # * * 16 - 7
16 - 4 Possible Digester Supernatant Treatment
Processes * fl < « 16 10-
16- 5
16- 6
Chlorine Treatment of Digester Supernatant
Aerobic Digestion of Heat Treatment Liquor
16 11-
16- 13
16- 7 Activated Sludge Treatment of Thermal
Conditioning Liquor * * * « »•
it # •« « * i # # t # # # # # i t * 16- 14
16 - 8 Aerobic Biological Filtration of Thermal
Condition Liquor • * * «. * *
# # # #« • * * » # # # # # # # * # # 16- 15
16- 9 Chlorine Oxidation Treatment of Thermal
Conditioning Liquor » « * * * » * * « * # # * « # # « * 16 - 16
CHAPTER 17
17 1 - Thickening .
, t » # * * 17- 3
17 2 - Stabilization 17 - 5
17 3
17 4
-- Disinfection
Conditioning * « * * *# #
* * * *
# . # # # # # # f # # # 4l
* f # #
*» ' #
**
17-
17-
8
10
17 5
17 6
-- Dewatering ..
Heat Drying ... • « i i t t 4 i t I t * I # 4 » • t * i t
17
17
-- 13
17
17 7 -- High Temperature Process # # * 17 - 22
17 8
17 9 -
Composting
Miscellaneous Conversion Processes * •
17
17-
- 27
30
17 10
17 11
-
-
Transportation * * * « * » «
Storage * * ••* • * *•
# # » *
#
• *
I
» * » * * * •*
1 4
*
17
17-
- 32
31
CHAPTER 18
* #
* #
* # # # •* 18 - 4
X X X IV
LIST OF TABLES ( continued )
Number Page
CHAPTER 19
19 -
19 -
1
2
Suitability of Sludges for Landfilling
Sludge and Site Conditions • . - #
19 - 7
19 - 9
19 - 3 Landfill Design Criteria . .. . .... ..... . . 19- 15
19 - 4 Leachate Quality From Sludge-Only Landfill , * * * + m 19 - 16
19 - 5 Landfill Equipment Performance
Characteristics # » # 19 - 19
19 - 6 Typical Equipment Type and Number as a Function
of Landfill Method and Site Loading .. .. * * . ...... 19 - 21
19 - 7 Potential Environmental Problems and Control
Practices 19 - 23
19 - 8 Surface Application Methods and Equipment for
Liquid Sludges * * * * « * * » « *' t *
9 ft 4 # < # 19 - 30
19 - 9 Subsurface Application Methods and Equipment
for Liquid Sludges ............... ...... ..
. . 19 - 31
19 -10 Furrow Slope Evaluation 19 - 33
19-11 Methods and Equipment for Application of
Dewatered Sludges * # # # 19 - 35
19 -12 Colorado Springs Population and Wastewater Flow
.
Projections . * * 19 - 40
19 -13 Colorado Springs Projected Cost of Sludge
Management System * » ** *t*** » *** **» * «
4 i l #
* > * # t f t l l 19 - 43
19 -14 Colorado Springs Climatic Conditions Affecting
Sludge Disposal 19 - 44
19-15 Colorado Springs Dedicated Land Disposal/
Subsurface Injection System Design Data ...... 19 - 49
19 -16 Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant
Projected 1985 Wastewater Flow and Loadings . * * * # 19 - 51
19 -17 Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant
Projected Digested Sludge Production 19- 54
19 -18 Sacramento Test DLD Runoff Water Analysis .... 19 - 55
19 -19 Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant
Projected 1985 DLD Staffing Requirements * * * « + * « * 19 - 58
19 -20 Sacramento Regional Wastewater Treatment Plant
Projected Costs of Sludge Management System
Following Anaerobic Digestion , * * * * # # 19 - 59
XXXV
saw
LIST OF FIGURES
Number Page
CHAPTER 1
-
1 1 Classification of Treatment Disposal Options .... 1- 3
CHAPTER 3
3- 1 Criteria for System Selection 3- 3
3- 2
3- 3
Components for System Synthesis .. ... .........
Flowsheet Developed From Components for
... 3- 4
System Synthesis 3- 5
3- 4 Parallel Elements 3- 12
3- 5 Candidate Base Alternatives for Eugene-
Springfield 3- 14
3- 6 Flowsheet for the Eugene-Springfield Sludge
Management System 3- 17
3- 7 31 ank QFD for Chemically- Assisted Primary
Plant 3- 19
3- 8
3- 9
QFD for Chemically- Assisted Primary Plant
QFD for Secondary Plant with Filtration
....... 3-
3-
22
25
3-10 Contingency Planning Example 3- 30
CHAPTER 4
4- 1 Typical Relationship Between Peak Solids
Loading and Duration of Peak for Some Large
American Cities ........... . ... . . . .
. . . . . . .... 4- 5
4- 2 .
Peak Sludge Loads , St. Louis Study ... ..... 4- 6
4- 3 Net Growth Rate Curves . 4- 18
4 4 Schematic for Sludge Quantity Example ....... 4- 20
4- 5 Sludge Wasting Methods 4- 26
4- 6 VSS Production Data for Three Trickling Media
Designs 4- 32
CHAPTER 5
5- 1 Typical Concentration Profile of Muncipal
Wastewater Sludge in a Continuously Operating
Gravity Thickener 5- 4
5- 2 Typical Gravity Thickener Installation ...... 5- 5
5- 3 Cross Sectional View of a Typical Circular
Gravity Thickener 5- 6
5- 4 Annual O& M Man- Hour Requirements - Gravity
Thickeners 5- 16
5- 5 Annual Power Consumption - Continuous
Operating Gravity Thickeners 5- 17
XXXVI
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
CHAPTER 6
6
6
-- 21 Summary of the Anaerobic Digestion Process
Low - Rate Anaerobic Digestion System * * * * * * *
* *** **
** * * * *
6-
-
6
5
8
XXXVI1
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
6- 3 Single-Stage, High- Rate Anaerobic Digestion
System . * • ***« «*« • « i 6- 9
6- 4
6- 5
Flow Diagram for the Torpey Process s
Two-Stage , High - Rate Anaerobic Digester
* * * * # # # i » « 6 10-
System * # * * *** * * * * » » » * «• * # 6 - 12
6 - 6 Carbon and Nitrogen Balance for a Two-Stage,
High - Rate Digestion System » > 6- 14
6- 7 Effect of Recycling Digester Supernatant on the
Suspended Solids Flow Through an Activated
Sludge Plant * * • * « # ** ** # « « # # # # < 6- 15
6 8
6- 9
- Anaerobic Contact Process *
Two-Phase Anaerobic Digestion Process
* « * ** * « * *
#
.
# # # #
...
# # i 6- 15
6- 16
6-10 Effect of SRT on the Relative Breakdown of
Degradable Waste Components and Methane
6-11
Production . * a » 9 V 9 * « «
* •9 B B
X X X V I1 1
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
6-39
Rate » I *
Influence of Sludge Age and Liquid Temperatures
# 6 - 88
on the Oxygen Uptake Rates in Aerobic
Digesters * * * » * * * *• * *
'
* * * * *
# # # #' # 6- 89
6-40 Design Chart for Low Speed Mechanical Aerators
in Non- Circular Aeration Basins to Calculate
Energy Requirements for Meeting Oxygen
Requirements * i 6- 90
6-41 Effect of Sludge Age on pH During Aerobic
Digestion « 4 6 - 91
6- 42 Volatile Solids Reduction as a Function of
Digester Liquid Temperature and Digester Sludge
Age 6- 92
6-43 Summary of Results for Aerobic Digestion Design
Example |
#«f I
| « * » «
1 * * * * *
#
** A m m * a 6 - 98
6-44 Lime Doses Required to Raise pH of a Mixture of
Primary Sludge and Trickling Filter Humes at
Different Solids Concentrations 6 -106
6-45 Change in pH During Storage of Primary Sludge
Using Different Lime Dosages 6 -107
6-46 Effect of pH on Hydrogen Sulfide- Sulfide
Equilibrium . * •* « * # » *- * * #
* * » •• * • * * *
# # » *
# * * * # 6- 108
6- 47 Conceptual Design for a Lime Stabilization
Facility 6-125
6- 48 Schematic Diagram of a Chlorine Oxidation
System # l 6-129
CHAPTER 7
XXXIX
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
7- 3 Energy Requirements for Sludge
Pasteurization Systems 7- 18
7- 4 Construction Costs for Sludge Pasteurization
Systems Without Heat Recovery « 7- 19
7- 5 Construction Costs for Sludge Pasteurization
Systems With Heat Recovery i W 7- 20
7- 6 Labor Requirements for Sludge
Pasteurization Systems * * - * * # # # # # # 7- 21
7- 7 Maintenance Material Costs for Sludge
With Heat Recovery * * » * * * * • m « < m > m a 7- 24
7- 9 Equipment Layout for Electron Beam Facility * * * * 7- 28
7-10 Electron Beam Scanner and Sludge Spreader . 7- 29
7-11 Schematic Representation of Cobalt -60 Irradiation
Facility at Geiselbullach, West Germany * * * * * # » 7- 34
7-12 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge Power
Requirements t i i i < I v v I H I 9 * M * i I # « i v « « t I i « m m 7- 36
7-13 Radiation Treatment of Dewatered Sludge - Power
Requirements » * * 7- 37
7-14 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge -
Capital Costs . 7- 39
7-15 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge Labor
Requirements • * * * « » a t
* 7- 40
7-16 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Liquid Sludge
Maintenance Material Supplies and Costs ... ... . 7- 41
7-17 Gamma Radiation Treatment Facility for Handling
25 Tons per Day or More of Dewatered Sludge * * * # 7- 41
7-18 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Dewatered Sludge
Capital Cost 7- 42
7-19 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Dewatered Sludge-
Labor Requirements 7- 43
7-20 Gamma Radiation Treatment of Dewatered
Maintenance Materials and Supplies Cost . .... . 7- 44
CHAPTER 8
8- 5
Feeding Facilities
Capital Cost of Lime Storage and Feeding
- 10
8
Facilities • * • * * « « * * • » * * * » * * * « « * * * *
$ #
* # # # # # # # # 8- 11
8 - 6 Ferric Chloride Storage and Feeding Operating and
Maintenance Work-Hour Requirements ..... ..... . ... 8- 11
8- 7 Electrical Energy Requirements for a Ferric
Chloride Chemical Feed System * * * * * « • * * * » * • > 4 v « + # # i
-
8 12
Xl
LIST OF FIGURES (continued )
Number Page
8-8 Lime Storage and Feeding Operation and
...... .....
8- 9
-
Maintenance Work Hour Requirements
Electrical Energy Requirements for a Lime Feed
- 12
8
System . 8- 13
8-10 Polyacrylamide Molecule -
Backbone of the
8-
Synthetic Organic Polyelectrolytes 15
8-11 Typical Configuration of a Cationic
Polyelectrolyte in Solution * • * i 8- 17
8-12 Schematic Representation of the Bridging Model
for the Destabilization of Colloids by
Polymers 8- 19
-
8 13 Effect of Biological Solids on Polymer
Requirements in Belt Press Dewatering , * * * * « » # # h 8- 24
8-14 Relative Influence of Polymer Addition on
Imperforate Basket Centrifuge Process
Variables 8- 28
-
8 15 Polymer Storage and Feeding Operation and
-
Maintenance Work Hour Requirements ......... 8- 29
8-16 Electrical Energy Requirements for a Polymer
Feed System * m m 8- 30
8-17 General Thermal Sludge Conditioning Flow Scheme
-
for a Non Oxidative System 8- 32
8 18- General Thermal Sludge Conditioning Flow Scheme
............ . ... ....
for an Oxidative System .. . 8 - 33
CHAPTER 9
9- 7
Wastewater Treatment Plant
Flow Diagram of a Filtration System . ...... ..
9
9
-- 2125
9- 8
Vacuum Filter ..
-
Cutaway View of a Drum or Scraper Type Rotary
9- 29
29
9- 9 Operating Zones of a Rotary Vacuum Filter ..... 9-
9-10 Cross Sectional View of a Coil Spring - Belt
Type - Rotary Vacuum Filter 9- 30
9-11 Typical Coil Spring
Filter Installation
- Belt Type
« * * * * *
# #
- Rotary Vacuum
* * * * * • •• * * * •
# # 9- 31
9-12 Cross Sectional View of a Fiber Cloth Belt
Type - Rotary Vacuum Filter 9- 32
9 13- Typical Fiber Cloth
Filter
- Belt Type - Rotary Vacuum
9 - 36
33
9 14- Rotary Vacuum Filter System ................... 9 -
xli
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
xlii
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
10- 1 Estimate of Energy Required to Dry Wastewater
Sludge as a Function of Dryer Feed Solids
10- 2
Content * * ****
# # '
CHAPTER 11
11
11
-- 12 Basic Elements of High Temperature Processes ....
Effect of Excess Air and Excess Temperature
11- 3
11- 3
on Supplemental Fuel Requirements ..........
Effect of Dry Solids Heating Value and Sludge
. -
11 8
11- 5
Fuel Consumption
Hypothetical Wastewater Treatment Plant
#
-
11 12
Flowsheet 11- 30
-
11 6
11- 7
Cross Section of a Multiple-Hearth Furnace . * * *
Shaft Cooling Air Arrangement in a
4 4 11- 33
Multiple-Hearth Furnace .. .
* * * * * ** n i a 11- 34
11- 8 Process Zones in a Multiple-Hearth Furnace 11- 35
11- 9 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in a
Multiple-Hearth Furnace * 4 4 4 4 11- 37
11-10 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Start-Up Fuel
Requirements . * * * * * i * « * 4
# i # * ** * ** * *
4 f # 4 4 # # 4 # 4 a B f t. 11- 41
11-11 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Construction
Cost ** « ***
# # # » 4 »
# 4 11- 42
11-12 Multiple- Hearth Furnace Operating and
Maintenance Labor Requirements ...... 11- 44
11-13 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Fuel
Requirements * *
B' K * * **
B B B B
**« *« 4
# # # * * 4*# # # # # 4 4 4 4 11- 45
11 -14 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Electrical Power
Requirments * » * » ** «* m m 11- 46
11-15 Multiple-Hearth Furnace Maintenance Material
Costs 11- 47
11-16 Heat Balance for the Recycle Concept
in a Multiple- Hearth Furnace 11- 49
11-17 Cross Section of a Fluid .Bed Furnace ....... 11- 50
11-18 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in a Fluid
Bed Furnace 11- 52
11-19 Fluid Bed Furnace Fuel Requirements * « * * * • • * * # # # 11- 53
11 - 20 Fluid Bed Furnace Electrical Power
Requirements * * *• 4 4 * **** » *
# *• * *
# # # # # # # 11- 54
xliii
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
11- 21 Cross Section of an Electric Infrared Furnace ... 11- 55
11- 22 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in an
11- 23
Electric Infrared Furnace . . .... * » » »
Cross Section of a Cyclonic Furnace
... i 11- 56
* * » •* 11- 58
11- 24 Flowsheet for Sludge Incineration in a
Cyclonic Furnace 11- 59
11- 25 Design Example: Heat and Material Balance
in a Fluid Bed Furnace * » » # i 11- 64
11 - 26 Comparison of Excess Air Requirements:
Incineration vs. Starved - Air Combustion ... « ft ft ft f t : ft 11 - 66
11- 27 Flowsheet for Starved - Air Combustion in a
Multiple-Hearth Furnace 11- 69
11- 28 Design Example: Starved - Air Combustion
in a Multiple- Hearth Furnace . 11- 82
11- 29 Typical Grate- Fired Waterwalled Combustion
Unit » + * * * »
# # # # # 11- 84
11- 30 Vertical Shaft Reactors ....... .... ... 11- 87
11 - 31 Autogenous Combustion Requirements for
11- 32
Co-Disposal
Flowsheet for Co- Combustion Full Scale Test
* # i # # # » * 11- 88
CHAPTER 12
xli v
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
14- 2 Comparison of Behaviors of Wastewater Sludge and
Water Flowing in Circular Pipelines * • « * • * # # # 14- 6
14- 3 Friction Factor for Sludge , Analyzed as a Bingham
Plastic • * * * «
# #» • * » * * » » * •• ,
* • * # 14- 7
14- 4 Friction Factors for Example Problem . 14- 12
14- 5 Pressure Drops for Example Problem . 14- 13
14- 6 Viscometer Test of Sewage Sludge 14- 16
14- 7 Centrifugal Pump * • ! « # 14- 18
14- 8 Torque Flow Pump * * * * * * * * * * * * # # # # 14- 19
14-12 Progressive Cavity Pump * * #
** ** 14- 23
14-13 Diaphragm Pump ... i
* * < i 14- 25
14- 14 Rotary Pump , 14- 27
14-15 Ejector Pump 14- 28
14-16 Belt Conveyor * * * * ft i * * * * a * * # # 14- 38
14- 17 Inclined Belt Conveyor Features . m. - * 4 14- 41
14-18 Flexible Flat Belt Conveyor * • * * « * * > # 14- 42
14-19 Screw Conveyor . * * * * « * * * * * * * * *
# # 4 4 14- 42
14- 20 Tabular Conveyor 14- 43
14- 21 Bucket Elevator * * M 4r• «I I < < I t i t 1 t 14- 44
14- 22 Pneumatic Ejector .. * * » « * « * * • « * # # # # # # 14- 45
14- 23 Pneumatic Conveyor , * * ** « » * « « * * * « * # < # # 14- 45
CHAPTER 15
xlvi
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
12- 2 Locations for Temperature and Oxygen
Monitoring at One End of a Windrow or
Individual Aerated Pile 12- 7
12- 3 Sludge Composting Mass Balance Diagram * * # • * * * * * 4 12- 9
12- 4 Temperature Profile of a Typical Compost
Windrow , ,,,,, 12- 14
12- 5 Turning a Windrow at Los Angeles Compost Site .... 12-15
-
12 6 Destruction of Pathogenic Organisms as a
Function of Time and Temperature During
Composting of Digested Sludge by the Windrow
Method ** 12-17
12- 7 Process Flow Diagram - Windrow Composting
Sludge - 10 MGD Activated Sludge Plant « *•* »# # # 12- 21
-
12 8
12- 9
Configuration of Individual Aerated Piles . • • * * « *
Aeration Pipe Set-Up for Individual Aerated
« 12- 22
Pile * * * * » * • « * «- 12- 23
12-10 Configuration of Extended Aerated Pile ,. 12- 25
12-11 Destruction of Pathogenic Organisms as a
Function of Time and Temperature During
Composting of Undigested Sludge by the Aerated
Pile Method .
• * :* * * * * * * * * « * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *
# # # # # # # 12- 28
12-12 Odor Filter Piles at Beltsville 12- 29
12-13 Process Flow Diagram for the Extended Pile
Compost Sludge Facility - 10 MGD Activated Sludge
Plant * * * * * 12- 32
12-14 Design Example Extended Aerated Pile
Cons true tion *** *'
* * * * * *•**
# # # #
*• * # * « 12- 34
12-15 Compost Piles Being Taken Down . . ..
. .. ... . 12-35
12-16 Finished Screened Compost .............. .. 12- 37
12- 17 Composting /Drying System - County Sanitary
Districts - Los Angeles .. . * * * *•* * * « «
# # # # 12-39
12- 44
12-18 Composting Site Layout - Bangor, Maine
12-19 Cross Section of Aeration Pipe Trench Durham
Compost Pad Design . * m 12-48
12- 20 Typical Process Flow Schematic Confined
Composting System * i 12- 52
12- 21 Partial Diagram Metro - Waste System -
Resource Conversion Systems , Inc. 12- 53
12- 22 Typical Layout of a Dano Bio-Stabilizer Plant .... 12- 54
12- 23 BAV Bioreactor 12-56
CHAPTER 13
13- 1 Diagram of an Earthworm Conversion Process 13- 5
CHAPTER 14
xl v
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
14- 2 Comparison of Behaviors of Wastewater Sludge and
Water Flowing in Circular Pipelines 14- 6
14- 3 Friction Factor for Sludge, Analyzed as a Bingham
Plastic * . * *** » ** » * a|
# i 14- 7
14- 4 Friction Factors for Example Problem ...* • « » # # a 14- 12
14- 5
14- 6
Pressure Drops for Example Problem
Viscometer Test of Sewage Sludge
... .. 14- 13
14- 16
14- 7 Centrifugal Pump ...... -
* * # f t 14- 18
14- 8
14-12
Torque Flow Pump .... .
Progressive Cavity Pump * v
. * * * * * * * *• « * #
*** * B # # a 14- 19
14- 23
14-13 Diaphragm Pump 14- 25
14-14 Rotary Pump » « 14- 27
14-15 Ejector Pump 14- 28
14-16 Belt Conveyor .. .. .. ... ¥ * 14- 38
14-17 Inclined Belt Conveyor Features 14- 41
14- 18 Flexible Flat Belt Conveyor * * * * * 14- 42
14-19 Screw Conveyor * * * * * * 14- 42
14- 20 Tabular Conveyor . * « « * * » * * * * * .* * « • * « * * • * * * • • * -» • ' 14- 43
14-21 Bucket Elevator . , 14- 44
14-22 Pneumatic Ejector .. 14- 45
14- 23 Pneumatic Conveyor . * * * * * * • • * • ** ** » •
A f t # 14- 45
CHAPTER 15
xlvi
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
15- 13 Anaerobic Liquid Sludge Lagoons, Prairie Plan
Land Reclamation Project , the Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago * * * • * * « * # 15- 42
15-14 Plan View of Drying Sludge Lagoon Near West-
15-15
Southwest Sewage Treatment Works, Chicago
Cross Section of Draw-Off Box Area Drying Sludge
. .. .. . 15- 49
Lagoon Near West - Southwest Sewage Treatment
Works , Chicago f % 15- 50
15-16 Cross Section of Drying Sludge Lagoon With
Slackline Cable Near West- Southwest Treatment
Works, Chicago 15- 50
15-17 Isometric of Sludge Storage and Truck Loading
Station, Joint Water Pollution Control Plant ,
Los Angeles County , California . M M t »I * t
i
*M i t 15- 55
15-18 Storage Bin Discharge Control System , Joint Water
Pollution Control Plant, Los Angeles County,
California 15- 57
CHAPTER 16
16 - 1 Example of Sidestream Production ......... 16 - 2
16- 2 Possible Treatment Scheme for Anaerobic
Digester Supernatant 16 - 9
16 - 3 Aerobic Digestion of Heat Treatment , Batch
Tests ** 16 -12
16 - 4 Flow Diagram , Anaerobic Filtration of Heat
Treatment Liquor .... 16 -14
16 - 5 Schematic Diagram of Plant for Processing Heat
Treatment Liquor . 16 -16
16- 6 Chlorine Treatment of Heat Treatment
Liquor 16 -17
CHAPTER 17
CHAPTER 18
xlvi i
LIST OF FIGURES ( continued )
Number Page
18 - 2 Schematic of Combined Boiler/Condenser System
for Hot Water Production 18 - 12
18- 3 Process Schematic for Example of Energy Recovery
From Digester Gas .... » 18 - 16
18 - 4 Energy Flowsheet for Example of Energy Recovery
From Digester Gas 18 - 18
18- 5 Mean Molal Heat Capacities of Gases at Constant
Pressure ( Mean Values From 77° to T °F ) * * ft 18- 23
18 - 6 Flowsheet for Example of Energy Recovery From
Incinerator Flue Gas * * 18- 27
18 - 7 Steam Conditions for Example of Recovery of
Energy From Incinerator of Flue Gas . . .... .... . 18- 28
18 - 8 Energy Flowsheet for Example of Energy Recovery
From Incinerator Flue Gas * * **** 18- 32
CHAPTER 19
19 - 1 Wide Trenching Operation, North Shore
Sanitary District ., 19 - 4
19 - 2 Dewatered Sludge Landspreading , Metropolitan
Denver Sewage Disposal District No. 1 ,
Denver, Colorado 19- 36
19 - 3 Flow Diagram Sludge Management System, Colorado
Springs , Colorado 19 - 41
19 - 4 Overall Sludge Disposal Site Layout, Colorado
Springs, Colorado ... 19 - 42
* ** * » *« * * * ** * * * * * * **
# #
xlviii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This d e s i g n m a n u a l was p r e p a r e d a s p a r t o f t h e T e c h n o l o g y
T r a n s f e r Series of the C e n t e r f o r Environmental Research
Information , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , Cincinnati,
Ohio. Development , coordination and preparation were carried
o u t by B r o w n and Caldwell, Consulting Engineers , Walnut Creek ,
California , with t h e assistance of Environmental T e c h n o l o g y
Consultants, I n c., of Springfield , Virginia. Technical review
and coordination were provided by the Office of Water Program
O p e r a t i o n s , U S E P A , W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. Additional technical
review and contributions were provided by Regions V and IX o f
t h e U S E P A , by t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n Sanitary District o f G r e a t e r
Chicago, and by t h e Technical Practice Committee of the Water
Pollution Control Federation. USEPA project officers on this
m a n u a l were Dr . J o s e p h B . Farrell , Municipal Environmental
R e s e a r c h C e n t e r , a n d D r. J a m e s E . Smith , J r. , C e n t e r f o r
Environmental Research Information, Cincinnati, Ohio.
xlix
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 1
PURPOSE AND SCOPE
1.1 Purpose
1 -1
1.2 Scope
T h i s m a n u a l h a s b e e n p r e p a r e d f o r u s e by p r o f e s s i o n a l s e n g a g e d in
t h e d e s i g n a n d a p p r o v a l o f m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r solids treatment
and d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s. D e s i g n information p r e s e n t e d includes:
• O r i g i n s, q u a n t i t i e s, a n d characteristics of municipal
wastewater treatment plant solids;
• P r o c e s s d e s c r i p t i o n s, including theory and appropriate
d e s i g n criteria ;
• Energy requirements;
• Public h e a l t h a n d environmental considerations ;
• C o s t and p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a ; a n d
• D e s i g n e x a m p l e s.
Some material is not included because it has been presented
e l s e w h e r e. A s e c t i o n o n s a n i t a r y l a n d f i l l s h a s b e e n o m i t t e d
because an EPA manual of this subject has been published recently
( 2 ). T h e t r e a t m e n t o f land utilization is abbreviated because a n
EPA D e s i g n Seminar p u b l i c a t i o n is available ( 3 ).
1.3 P r o c e s s Classification
The manual is divided into 19 chapters, with 15 chapters
d e v o t e d t o s l u d g e p r o c e s s e s. Additional c h a p t e r s cover g e n e r a l
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , d e s i g n a p p r o a c h , a n d s l u d g e p r o p e r t i e s.
F i g u r e 1 - 1 d e p i c t s t h e b a s i c c l a s s i f i c a t i o n b y p r o c e s s. I t
s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t p r o c e s s e s w i t h i n classifications o v e r l a p
t o s o m e e x t e n t. A s a n e x a m p l e , s t a b i l i z a t i o n , d i s i n f e c t i o n ,
and d i s p o s a l a l s o t a k e p l a c e d u r i n g h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s i n g.
T h e p r o c e s s e s, as t h e y a p p e a r on F i g u r e 1 -1, should b e r e a d in
l e f t -t o-r i g h t s e q u e n c e ; t h e y d o n o t , h o w e v e r , n e c e s s a r i l y a p p e a r
in a t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m in t h e o r d e r s h o w n. F i g u r e 1-1 i s a r r a n g e d
to display sludge treatment and disposal options rather than to
s u g g e s t a n y p a r t i c u l a r o r d e r o f o p e r a t i o n s.
1.4 References
1. U S E P A. C o n s t r u c t i o n C o s t s f o r M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t
P l a n t s 1 9 7 3 -1 9 7 7. O f f i c e o f W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s.
W a s h i n g t o n, D.C. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 8.
2. U S E P A. M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s.
P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l:
E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h Information C e n t e r, Office o f S o l i d
W a s t e , C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A -6 2 5/1-7 8 - 0 1 0, S W - 7 0 5.
O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
3. USEPA. " P r i n c i p a l s a n d D e s i g n Criteria f o r S e w a g e S l u d g e
A p p l i c a t i o n o n Land." S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t and D i s p o s a l Part 2.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r , Cincinnati , Ohio 4 5 2 6 8. EPA -6 2 5/ 4- 7 8-
012 . O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
1- 2
L GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS - DESIGN APPROACH
DRYING BEDS
INSTRUMENTATION
INTERFACING
FIGURE 1- 1
CLASSIFICATION OF TREATMENT
AND DISPOSAL OPTIONS
1- 3
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 2
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
-
Non technical factors can heavily influence the planning , design ,
construction, and operation of solids management systems , and
-
these non technical considerations must be faced from the day a
project is conceived. -
Non technical factors include legal and
regulatory considerations , as well as other issues , such as
public participation.
2-1
•'"ttPtHKfen
T h e C l e a n A i r A c t A m e n d m e n t s o f 1 9 7 0 ( P L 9 1- 6 0 4 ) a n d 1 9 7 7
-
( PL 95 95 ) contain provisions f o r r e g u l a t i n g p o i n t source
emissions , for example , emissions from incinerators , USEPA
has promulgated several regulations in response to this
legislation . The most r e s t r i c t i v e a r e t h e New S o u r c e Review
r e g u l a t i o n s ( 4 0 C F R 5 1- 1 8 ) a n d P r e v e n t i o n o f S i g n i f i c a n t
D e t e r i o r a t i o n ( 4 0 CFR 5 2- 2 1 ) r e g u l a t i o n s . New S o u r c e Review
( NSR ) r e g u l a t i o n s a p p l y i n a r e a s where a l l o w a b l e l e v e l s f o r any
pollutant are exceeded . The regulations a f f e c t any new source
which , after installation of an a i r pollution control device,
c o u l d e m i t > 5 0 t o n s p e r y e a r ( 4 5 t /y r ) o f t h e o f f e n d i n g p o l l u t a n t
( controlled emission ) or which could emit >100 tons per year
( 9 1 t /y r ) o f t h e o f f e n d i n g p o l l u t a n t w e r e t h e r e n o p o l l u t i o n
control device or were the existing device to f a i l ( uncontrolled
emission ) . These sources are prohibited unless their emissions
can be compensated for by the reduction of emissions from other
sources within the same area . This compensation clause i s known
as the Emissions Offset Policy . Relaxation of the Emissions
Offset Policy is being considered for certain categories of
resource recovery projects . Presently , few urban areas exceeding
200 , 000 population meet a l l national a i r quality standards .
T h e r e f o r e , NSR r e g u l a t i o n s w i l l a p p l y t o a l m o s t a l l u r b a n p l a n t s ,
particularly larger ones .
P r e v e n t i o n of S i g n i f i c a n t D e t e r i o r a t i o n ( PSD ) r e g u l a t i o n s apply
primarily to areas which are presently meeting a i r quality
standards . They affect 28 major stationary source categories
with potential uncontrolled emissions exceeding 100 tons per year
( 9 1 t /y r ) and any o t h e r s o u r c e w i t h p o t e n t i a l u n c o n t r o l l e d
e m i s s i o n s o f o v e r 2 5 0 t o n s p e r y e a r ( 2 2 7 t /y r ) . Such sources are
allowed provided t h e y use Best A v a i l a b l e C o n trol Technology
( BACT ) t o t r e a t g a s e o u s d i s c h a r g e s a n d p r o v i d e d t he emissions of
specified pollutants do not increase at r a t e s g r eater than set
forth by regulatory schedules .
The Clean Air Act also requires "state implementation plans "
( SIPs ) t o regulate a l l s i g n i f i c a n t point sources , including new
sources . SIPs generally limit emissions , establish emissions
offset policies, require reporting, and establish penalties and
administrative procedures , State or regional boards usually
administer the permit system .
Historically , air emissions limits have affected incinerators
more than other wastewater solids treatment processes However , .
air emission limits can affect a n y s o l i d s t r e a t m e n t system .
2-2
Examples include sludge drying processes and the burning of
g a s e s from anaerobic digesters either by flaring o r in internal
c o m b u s t i o n e n g i n e s. U S E P A h a s a l r e a d y issued N e w S o u r c e
Performance Standards for s l u d g e incineration ( 4 0 CFR -6 Q -150 ) and
" A m e n d m e n t s t o National Emission S t a n d a r d s " ( 4 0 C F R 6 1 - 5 2 ).
These establish particulate air p o l l u t i o n emission s t a n d a r d s and
limit m e r c u r y emissions from incinerators a n d d r y e r s of w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t solids , C h a p t e r 1 1 contains further information
o n air pollution r e g u l a t i o n s.
2.2.2.2 Nuisances
Courts have ordered municipalities to pay damages or cease
o p e r a t i o n when wastewater solids treatment processes have been
p r o v e n t o be the source o f nuisances s u c h as noise a n d o d o r.
In some cases , judgments have resulted in t h e p e r m a n e n t shutdown
of plants containing expensive equipment, Since m o s t N P D E S
permits specify that treatment p l a n t operations be nuisance free ,
t h i s is a g o a l which d e s i g n e r s a n d o p e r a t o r s m u s t s t r i v e t o
achieve.
W h e n s t a t e a n d l o c a l r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e more s t r i n g e n t t h a n
federal regulations, the state and local conditions g o v e r n. Air
Pollution Criteria a r e the m o s t s t r i k i n g e x a m p l e o f t h i s.
The criteria are particularly restrictive in California , w h e r e
l o c a l n i t r o g e n o x i d e ( N0 X ) r e g u l a t i o n s m a y r e q u i r e t h a t n e w
s t a t i o n a r y r e c i p r o c a t i n g e n g i n e s above a certain size b e equipped
with c a t a l y t i c c o n v e r t e r s ( 1 ). A s a n o t h e r i n s t a n c e o f l o c a l
c o n t r o l s, d e e d r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d l o c a l o r d i n a n c e s e f f e c t i v e l y
p r e v e n t s l u d g e s p r o d u c e d a t t h e E a s t e r l y P l a n t in C l e v e l a n d ,
Ohio, from being processed o n t h e p l a n t site ( 2 ).
T h e C l e a n W a t e r A c t o f 1 9 7 7 ( P L 9 5 - 2 1 7 ) contains t w o m a j o r
p r o v i s i o n s f o r w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s utilization a n d d i s p o s a l .
Section 405 requires U S E P A t o issue guidelines and regulations
f o r the d i s p o s a l and reuse of wastewater solids. Guidelines and
regulations t o be issued in the n e x t few y e a r s are e x p e c t e d t o
limit t h e q u a n t i t y a n d k i n d s o f t o x i c m a t e r i a l s r e a c h i n g t h e
g e n e r a l p u b l i c by s e t t i n g l i m i t s o n t h e q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y
of s l u d g e distributed for p u b l i c use or applied t o lands w h e r e
c r o p s a r e g r o w n f o r h u m a n c o n s u m p t i o n. T h e m e t h o d s b y which
s l u d g e is applied t o land a r e expected t o be controlled t o m e e t
aesthetic r e q u i r e m e n t s , and g r o u n d w a t e r protection will p r o b a b l y
2- 3
be required at w a s t e w a t e r solids d i s p o s a l sites , T h e d e g r e e
of stabilization or disinfection for s l u d g e is e x p e c t e d t o be
s p e c i f i e d , a l o n g with monitoring and reporting r e q u i r e m e n t s
a n d design criteria. T h e g u i d e l i n e s and r e g u l a t i o n s will
probably rely on the fact that wastewater solids may e n d a n g e r
t h e p u b l i c a n d t h e environment if n o t p r o p e r l y m a n a g e d ,
and that r e q u i s i t e s for use m u s t be stricter t h a n t h o s e for
disposal.
2 -4
2 . 2. 3 . 4 Marine P r o t e c t i o n, Research and
Sanctuaries Act
2 5 -
i d e n t i f y u s e s f o r s l u d g e , s p e c i f y f a c t o r s t o be t a k e n i n t o
account in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e measures a n d p r a c t i c e s a p p l i c a b l e t o
e a c h s u c h u s e o r d i s p o s a l ( including p u b l i c a t i o n o f information
on costs ) and identify concentrations of pollutants which
interfere with e a c h s u c h u s e o r d i s p o s a l.
T h i s b r o a d a u t h o r i t y t o issue r e g u l a t i o n s c o v e r i n g d i f f e r e n t
s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t p r a c t i c e s h a s been viewed a s a mechanism t o
allow USEPA to bring together all of the regulations that have
b e e n o r w i l l be issued u n d e r various l e g i s l a t i v e authorities f o r
c o n t r o l l i n g m u n i c i p a l s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t a t a s i n g l e location in
t h e C o d e o f F e d e r a l R e g u l a t i o n s, u n d e r t h e j o i n t a u t h o r i t y o f
Section 4 0 5. T h e r e f o r e , r e g u l a t i o n s o n a i r emission c o n t r o l s
will be issued u n d e r t h e joint a u t h o r i t y o f S e c t i o n 4 0 5 o f the
Clean Water Act and various sections of the Clean Air Act;
regulations on land disposal and land application under joint
authority with the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act;
regulations on ocean disposal under joint authority with the
Marine Protection, Research and Sanctuaries Act , and so
f o r t h. R e g u l a t i o n s c o v e r i n g p r a c t i c e s n o t influenced b y o t h e r
authorities ( f o r e x a m p l e , h o m e u s e , g i v e-a w a y o r s a l e o f s l u d g e
d e r i v e d p r o d u c t s ) c o u l d b e issued s o l e l y u n d e r t h e b r o a d
a u t h o r i t y o f Section 4 0 5.
T h u s, a l l r e g u l a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o m a n a g e m e n t o f m u n i c i p a l
wastewater solids will be issued , administered , and enforced
u n d e r t h e u m b r e l l a o f Section 4 0 5. S l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t facilities
a n d practices will therefore be a p p r o v e d o r d i s a p p r o v e d a l o n g
with N P D E S p e r m i t s.
2.3 O t h e r N o n-Technical F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g
W a s t e w a t e r Solids M a n a g e m e n t
2 . 3.1 A v a i l a b i l i t y o f Construction F u n d s
2-6
-
to decision makers of the rationale for selected treatment and
disposal systems will assist greatly in obtaining federal and
state construction funds.
Design engineers should refer to the USEPA Construction Grants
Manual for federal grant requirements ( 4 ). In many states
these requirements are supplemented by state regulations.
Occasionally , a governmental agency may declare certain features
of a design to be ineligible for grant funding , S ome time s
these declarations are in direct contradiction with the design
engineer 's opinion regarding their necessity , The designer
should be aware of these potential conflicts of opinion and
submit full documentation and justification along with the
request for funding. The design year for full loading , special
loading allowances, system reliability requirements, and facility
flexibility allowances are important parts of this documentation.
-
2 7
—
'
'f
- .
.WW,
2 . 3 .4 Uncertainties
T h e selection of a s p e c i f i c p r o c e s s n o r m a l l y h i n g e s o n its
c o s t in c o m p a r i s o n with t h e c o s t of c o m p e t i n g p r o c e s s e s.
U n c e r t a i n t i e s m a k e c o s t c o m p a r i s o n s difficult. F o r e x a m p l e ,
c o n s i d e r t w o c o m p e t i n g p r o c e s s e s , o n e l a b o r - i n t e n s i v e, t h e
o t h e r requiring expensive chemicals. There are uncertainties as
t o h o w m a n y man - h o u r s w i l l be n e e d e d p e r t o n o f s l u d g e , w h a t
chemical additions will be required , and what future cost trends
will be. I t is o f t e n d i f f i c u l t t o p r e d i c t w h e t h e r l a b o r o r
chemicals will be more s e v e r e l y affected by inflation. Labor
p r o d u c t i v i t y a l s o m u s t be predicted. Given these uncertainties,
it m a y b e n e c e s s a r y t o s a y t h a t " P r o c e s s A is p r o b a b l y m o r e
cost -effective, " r a t h e r than " Process A _is_ more c o s t -effective."
Cost uncertainties are u s u a l l y g r e a t e r for processes that are not
w i d e l y u s e d . T h e r e a r e a l s o uncertainties in t h e q u a l i t y o f
solids that will be p r o d u c e d. F o r instance, if incineration is
s e l e c t e d o n t h e basis o f p r e v i o u s d e w a t e r i n g u n i t p r o d u c t i o n
o f a cake with 3 5 p e r c e n t solids , but o n l y 20 p e r c e n t solids is
actually obtained, then the cost of incineration may become
excessive.
M a n y f a c t o r s a r e i m p o r t a n t in s e l e c t i n g a n d d e s i g n i n g s l u d g e
treatment and disposal p r o c e s s e s , for e x a m p l e c a p i t a l c o s t s,
o p e r a t i n g s t r a t e g i e s , a n d environmental e f f e c t s , Di fferent
individuals h a v e d i f f e r e n t p e r s p e c t i v e s o n w a s t e w a t er solids
>
-
2 8
management. These individuals should be heard . Therefore ,
a " design team " concept is helpful , The design team should
include:
• - -
Those involved in the day to day design effort ; that is ,
the design staff.
-
2 9
and creating a dialog between the public and the design staff
must be established , Mechanisms for accomplishing this are the
mass media , bulletins , public hearings , and presentations to
interested groups.
Conservation/environmental groups.
Business and industrial groups, including Chambers of
Commerce and selected trade and industrial associations.
2-10
T h e s e c o m m e n t s a r e n o t intended t o p r e c l u d e e x p o r t o p t i o n s b u t a s
a caution t o d e s i g n e r s n o t t o b e s o s w a y e d b y t h e e c o n o m i c a n d
t e c h n i c a l a d v a n t a g e s of s u c h p l a n s t h a t i n a d e q u a t e attention is
g i v e n t o alternatives which h a v e a g r e a t e r p o s s i b i l i t y o f b e i n g
i m p l e m e n t e d.
2.4 References
1. R u l e 2 1 3. S o u t h C o a s t A i r Q u a l i t y M a n a g e m e n t District .
9 4 2 0 Telstar Avenue, E l M o n t e , California , 9 1 7 3 1. Effective
O c t o b e r , 1 9 7 6.
2. U n g a r , A .T . a n d D. P a t r i c k . "C l e v e l a n d P u s h e s t o M e e t
Strict Effluent Limitations." W a t e r & W a s t e s E n g i n e e r i n g.
V o l. 1 5, p. 5 7 , ( F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8 ).
4. U S E P A. Municipal W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t W o r k s Construction
G r a n t s P r o g r a m R e f e r e n c e s , ( w i t h u p d a t i n g s u p p l e m e n t s ).
Office of W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n D.C • / 2 0 4 6 0.
5. N e l s o n , O .F . "Operational Experiences with Filter
P r e s s i n g ." D e e d s and D a t a. W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l F e d e r a -
t ion. P 5 , M a r c h 1 9 7 8.
-
6. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. Public Information
H a n d b o o k . W a s h i n g t o n , D.C • f 1 9 7 7.
7. U S E P A. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l, M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r. Cincinnati, O h i o, 4 5 2 6 8. EPA - 6 2 5/
1-7 8- 0 1 0 . O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
2-11
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 3
DESIGN APPROACH
3.2 S y s t e m s Approach
3-1
performance of the thickener affects digestion and d e w a t e r i n g.
Interactions b e t w e e n t h e p r o c e s s e s in a s y s t e m a r e described i n
this c h a p t e r.
W a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t a n d w a s t e w a t e r solids a n d d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s
must be put together so as to assure the most efficient
utilization o f resources s u c h a s, m o n e y , materials , e n e r g y , a n d
w o r k f o r c e in m e e t i n g t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s, L o g i c dictates
w h a t t h e p r o c e s s e l e m e n t s m u s t b e a n d t h e o r d e r i n which t h e y g o
t o g e t h e r.
A methodical p r o c e s s o f s e l e c t i o n m u s t b e f o l l o w e d in c h o o s i n g a
r e s o u r c e- e f f i c i e n t a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l l y s o u n d s y s t e m f r o m t h e
m y r i a d o f t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l o p t i o n s available , T h e basic
s e l e c t i o n m e c h a n i s m u s e d i n t h i s m a n u a l is t h e " p r i n c i p l e o f
successive elimination, " a n iterative p r o c e d u r e in w h i c h l e s s
effective options are progressively culled from the list of
candidate s y s t e m s u n t i l, o n l y t h e m o s t suitable s y s t e m o r s y s t e m s
f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r s i t e remain.
T h e c o n c e p t o f a "t r e a t m e n t t r a i n" h a s b e e n p r o p o u n d e d a s a
r e s u l t o f a s y s t e m s a p p r o a c h t o p r o b l e m s o l v i n g, H o w e v e r,
this c o n c e p t is u s e f u l o n l y if a l l c o m p o n e n t s o f the rain are
t
considered . T h i s includes n o t o n l y s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and disposal
c o m p o n e n t s, b u t w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s and o t h e r c r i t i c a l
linkages such as s l u d g e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n, s t o r a g e, a n d s i d e s t r e a m
t r e a t m e n t. The successful devlopment of a treatment train from
a collection of individual components depends on a rigorous
s y s t e m selection p r o c e d u r e, o r l o g i c, F o r l a r g e p l a n t s, s y s t e m
s e l e c t i o n i s c o m p l e x a n d a m e t h o d i c a l a p p r o a c h is r e q u i r e d .
Progressive and concurrent documentation of the procedure is
m a n d a t o r y i n t h a t it p r e v e n t s a c u r s o r y dismissal o f o p t i o n s.
F o r s m a l l e r p l a n t s ( t h a t i s, < 1 M G D ) t h e s y s t e m c h o i c e s a r e o f t e n
n e c e s s a r i l y m o r e o b v i o u s and t h e s e l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e is u s u a l l y
s h o r t e r a n d l e s s c o m p l e x.
T h e g e n e r a l s e q u e n c e o f e v e n t s in s y s t e m selection i s:
1. S e l e c t i n g r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a.
2. I d e n t i f y i n g o p t i o n s.
3. N a r r o w i n g t h e list of candidate s y s t e m s.
4. S e l e c t i n g a s y s t e m.
3 . 3.1 Identification o f R e l e v a n t C r i t e r i a
Criteria for system selection must be pinpointed prior to system
s y n t h e s i s. A l i s t i n g o f p o t e n t i a l criteria f o r consideration is
s h o w n o n F i g u r e 3 -1. T h e list i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o m p l e t e a n d
3-2
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rt
H* *
o
P ri
^
p rt rr
0)
fD P rt rt fD fD
^
ft W
CD
3 ft
H* r 3 -
PRIMARY
r~~~\ r
SEDIMENTATION SECONDARY TREATMENT TERTIARY TREATMENT EFFLUENT RECEIVER
(
* r
RIVER
i
ACTIVATED SLUDGE NITROGEN REMOVAL LAKE
CHEMICALLY ASSISTED
PROCESS
INTERFACES
1 1 1
'
I (
LIME THERMAL VACUUM FILTER
DRYING BEDS
DRYING LAGOONS
STRAINERS
HIGH MISCELLANEOUS
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
DRYING PROCESSES COMPOSTING • PROCESSES
f 1 f 1 f
I FLASH INCINERATION
STARVED - AIR
CHEMICAL FIXATION
MULTIPLE EFFECT
1 FOREST INDUSTRY
RESOURCE RECOVERY }; LANDFILL OTHER INDUSTRY
* FARMS
AGRICULTURE DEOICATED LAND DISPOSAL
HOUSEHOLD
FOREST PERMANENT LAGOONS METRO
LOCAL
LAND RECLAMATION
,
1 i: STATE
FEDERAL
OTHERS
FIGURE 3- 2
3- 4
- LV
PRIMARY
SEDIMENTATION SECONDARY TREATMENT TERTIARY TREATMENT EFFLUENT RECEIVER
i i h f {
RIVER
1
RAW SEWAGE r ACTIVATEO SLUDGE n NITROGEN REMOVAL LAKE
i CHEMICALLY
n TRICKLING FILTEH ACTIVATED CARBON
OCEAN
J PUMPING
PRELIMINARY
TREATMENT
ASSISTED
PLAIN
J RBC PHOSPHOROUS REMOVAL H .
DISINFECTION RECLAMATION PROJECT
t
\
STABILIZATION POND FILTRATION
DECANT LIQUOR
I
r J
J SFWWi
I
.J
DAF
GRAVITY
LIME
CHLORINE
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
CHEMICAL
HEAT
THERMAL
CHEMICAL
PHYSICAL
ru !
VACUUM FILTER
BELT FILTER
FILTER PRESS
j
BIOLOGICAL
TREATMENT
WASTE SLUDGE
DRYING BEDS
J DRYING LAGOONS
STRAI ERS
^
HIGH MISCELLANEOUS
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
ORYING PROCESSES COMPOSTING PROCESSES
1 r ]
FLASH INCINERATION CHEMICAL FIXATION
'
ROTARY STAHVED - AIR CONFINED ENCAPSULATION
COMBUSTION
TOROIDAL UNCONFINED EARTH WORM
WET AIR CONVERSION
SOLVENT EXTRACTION OXIDATION
Q
UTILIZATION DISPOSAL ON LANO FINAL INSTITUTION
1
!
'
FOREST INDUSTRY
I
RESOURCE RECOVERY , LANDFILL OTHER INDUSTRY
DEDICATED LAND DISPOSAL FARMS
AGRICULTURE
L3£AL WASTEWATER
LAND RECLAMATION
STATE
SLUDGE
FEDERAL
OTHERS SIDESTREAMS
FIGURE 3 - 3
3 -5
3.3 3 . System Selection Procedure
I n t h e f i r s t c u t, f e a s i b l e b a s e d i s p o s a l a l t e r n a t i v e s a n d
r e l e v a n t criteria a r e s e t u p in matrix f o r m. A n e x a m p l e is s h o w n
in T a b l e 3 -1. Feasible alternatives a r e t h o s e which a p p e a r t o b e
suitable f o r t h e situation a t h a n d . O b v i o u s l y i n a p p l i c a b l e
alternatives w o u l d not be included in this matrix. Only t h o s e
criteria which t h e p l a n n e r s e e's a s critical f o r t h e s i t e a t h a n d
s h o u l d b e considered in this first c u t. O t h e r , l e s s critical
criteria can be considered in s u b s e q u e n t iterations, w h e r e more
in- d e p t h i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s n e e d e d f o r e a c h o f t h e c a n d i d a t e
p r o c e s s e s.
F o r t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d i n T a b l e 3 -1 , n i n e
u t i l i z a t i o n/ d i s p o s a l o p t i o n s a r e c o n s i d e r e d f e a s i b l e a n d a r e
s e t u p f o r evaluation. T h e criteria most important t o the s i t e
a r e j u d g e d t o b e r e l i a b i l i t y , environmental i m p a c t s , s i t e
availability and c o s t. B a s e disposal alternatives a r e judged t o
be p r a c t i c a l o n l y if t h e y s a t i s f y a l l t h e r e l e v a n t c r i t e r i a.
I n T a b l e 3 -1 , utilization o f s l u d g e o n p r i v a t e agricultural land
is a n u n a c c e p t a b l e b a s e d i s p o s a l alternative. R e a s o n s f o r t h i s
might be insufficient a c r e a g e o r a lack o f a s s u r a n c e t h a t t h e
farmers w o u l d a c c e p t a l l of t h e s l u d g e. Alternatives which would
seem t o satisfy relevant criteria f o r base disposal alternatives
a r e u t i l i z a t i o n o n p u b l i c a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d , l a n d f i l l, a n d
3 -7
dedicated land disposal , Before considering these, however, one
must determine what combinations of solids treatment processes
make sense for the site in question.
TABLE 3 - 1
Relevant criteria
Acceptable
Utilization/disposal Environmental Site for base
options Reliability impacts availability Cost alternative
Ifi
-'
A COitil
'.v .
il MJMMCMSTM
-
Bag market as
fertilizer oa xb X X 0
Agricultural land
(private) o X X X o
Agricultural land
( public ) X X X X X
Forested land ( pri-
vate) o X 0 o 0
Forested land (public ) X X 0 o o
Give to citizens
( horticulture) o X X X o
Combine with commer-
cial topsoil o X X X 0
Dedicated land dis-
posal X X X X X
Landfill X X X X X
a0 unacceptable.
=
bx = acceptable.
3-8
culling. Table 3 -3 shows the matrix of base treatment/disposal
combinations made by bringing forward the base disposal and
treatment options from Tables 3 - 1 and 3 - 2. Incompatible
combinations and systems ruled out by local constraints are then
eliminated . For example , undewatered wastewater solids are
not generally disposed of in landfills. An example of local
constraints is the ruling out of applying lime stabilized sludge
on agricultural lands because of already high soil pH.
TABLE 3 - 2
No further processing xa X ob 0 X 0
C
0
Drying beds 0 X o o 0 o 0
Heat dry X o 0 o 0 o 0
Pyrolysis 0 0 0 o 0 0 o
Incineration 0 o 0 o 0 0 0
Compost X o X o 0 0 0
ax = generally compatible.
bo - generally not compatible.
0= generally compatible , but ruled out by local constraints.
TABLE 3- 3
Not Lime
Mechanically Mechanically Not mechanically Mechanically stabilized ,
Viable local Mechanically dewatered , dewatered , mechanically dewatered , dewatered , mechanically
disposal options dewatered heat dry compost dewatered drying beds composted dewatered
Agricultural land
a
(public) X X X X X X 0*
Landfill X X oc o X X X
Dedicated land disposal X X 0 X X X 0
a
b
X - generally compatible ,
c
0 - generally compatible , but ruled out by local considerations.
0 - generally not compatible.
3 -9
3.3.3.3 Choosing a Base Alternative: Second Cut
TABLE 3 - 4
Ratings of alternatives
Effectiveness
- Flexibility
Reliability
3
5
4
3
12
15
6
5
18
25
9
5
27
25
5
2
15
10
6
2
18
10
Sidestream effects 3 10 30 9 27 5 15 6 18 7 21
Track record 2 5 10 7 14 4 8 9 18 6 12
Compatibility
With existing land use
plans 2 8 16 8 16 8 16 7 14 4 8
With areawide wastewater ,
solid waste and air
pollution programs 3 3 9 fi 18 3 9 5 15 7 21
With existing treatment
facilities 4 5 20 20 6 24 , 8 32 3 12
Economic impacts
- Net direct costs 4 7 28 6 32 a 32 9 36 7 28
- Net indirect
costs 1 8 8 9 9 6 6 3 33 8 8
Environmental impacts
Public health 5 7 35 6 30 4 20 6 30 7 35
Administrative burdens
1 4 4 6 6 5 5 n 1 4 4
Level of effort
Marketing respons
ibilities
- 2 5 10 5 10 4 8 7 14 9 18
Resolution of juris
dictional disputes
- 1 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 2 2
Public relations 2 4 8 2 4 5 10 5 10 3 6
aRelative importance of criteria as perce’ ved by reviewer ; scale, 0 to 5; no importance rated zero, most important rated 5.
Alternative rating. Rates the alternatives according to their anticipated performance with respect to the various criteria;
scale 0 to 10; least favorable rated zero , most favorable rated 10.
CWeighted rating. Relative weight for each criteria multiplied by alternative rating.
dSum of weighted ratings for each alternative.
3 -10
In the s e c o n d c u t , s u b j e c t i v e j u d g m e n t s a r e combined with
technical measurements , Numerical v a l u e s are assigned t o all
criteria f o r a l l alternative s y s t e m s , T h e p l a n n e r's perception
of the relative importance of each criterion is indicated o n a
rating scale, say of 0 to 5 , with highest ratings given to
c r i t e r i a t h e p l a n n e r considers t o be o f g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e ,
and the lowest to those of least important, F o r e x a m p l e,
if r e l i a b i l i t y is highly v a l u e d f o r t h e s i t e in q u e s t i o n ,
reliability m a y be assigned a relative w e i g h t of 5 .
3.3.3.4 Third C u t
The third cut uses the same methodology as the second , but
t h e n u m b e r of alternatives remaining is more limited ; typically
t o a m a x i m u m o f 3 t o 5 -- a n d t h e a n a l y s i s is m o r e d e t a i l e d .
Information m a y include:
Possible e f f e c t s o f i n d u s t r i a l s o u r c e c o n t r o l/
p r e t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s o n p r o c e s s viability a n d quality o f
s l u d g e for disposal.
D a t a oriented literature s e a r c h.
3 -1 1
• -
Information developed from s i t e specific pilot work .
• Mass balances .
• Energy analyses .
• Detailed cost analyses .
3.3 3.5 . Subsequent Cuts
’
mi TWS A
SPREAD ON
ANAEROBIC FACULTATIVE AGRICULTURAL
THICKEN LAGOON
DIGESTERS LAND
DRYING HORTI-
BEDS CULTURE
PARALLEL
SYSTEMS
APPLICATION
ON
FOREST
LAND
FIGURE 3- 4
PARALLEL ELEMENTS
-
3 12
The concept of providing for more than one base alternative may
at first seem contradictory but a given base alternative might
not always be reliable because unpredictable events might occur.
For example, new owners of farmland may decide they do not wish
to accept sludge , or a disaster or strike could interrupt one
method of transporting sludge to its ultimate destination , To
minimize risks, therefore municipalities may wish to provide more
than one base alternative. The selection procedure presented in
Section 3.3.3 has the advantage of clearly depicting which is the
second or even third most desirable base alternative.
3-13
A key provision in the selection of a suitable sludge management
system was t h a t the system be f u l l y operational by the time the
wastewater treatment system i s started up This seemingly .
straightforward condition was c o m p l i c a t e d b y the fact that
planning for the sludge system did not start until design of the
wastewater treatment p l a n t was already under way This meant .
that the sludge management system would be f o r c e d t o fit into
an already developed plan for the wastewater treatment facility
( which i s by no means unusual ) .
As a first cut,
sludge disposal options were immediately
developed screened for acceptability as part of a base
and
alternative, using a matrix similar to that developed in
T a b l e 3-1 .
Practical treatment systems were identified from a
p r o c e s s c o m p a t i b i l i t y m a t r i x s i m i l a r t o T a b l e 3-2 Practical .
d i s p o s a l/p r o c e s s i n g c o m b i n a t i o n s w e r e t h e n d e v e l o p e d i n a m a t r i x
f o r m ( a s i n T a b l e 3- 3 ) .
Physically incompatible or otherwise
unsuitable combinations were eliminated in this matrix A .
flowsheet was then prepared for the remaining options , with
necessary intermediate storage and transport requirements added
in .
The flowsheet of alternatives for Eugene second cut analysis
i s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 3- 5 .
THICKENED THICKENED
PRIMARY SECONDARY /
RAW RAW /
SLUDGE SLUDGE /
T sl
i
=
: i L
L . I
'1
L. r
I
* ! I
I
I
L
n L y i
n ;
I
DIGESTED RAW
DIGEST SLUDGE SLUDGE
ALTERNATIVES ALTERNATIVES
h
=
COMBINED
SLUOGES
C ! i
X
DIGEST
PRIMARY
-1 DIGEST
SECONDARY
LIME
SLUDGE SLUDGE STABILIZE
T
I
MECHANICALLY MECHANICALLY MECHANICALLY
DEWATER DEWATER DEWATER
SOLIDS SOLIDS
STORAGE STORAGE
BASINS BASINS I
1
DRYING BEOS DRYING BEOS . P *'l
k I TKOC« L
MECHANICALLY
DEWATER
COMPOST
AND STORE tfCINE RATION PYROLYSIS INCINERATION
.
TRMLF I HAIL
n:) a f r TRLCS4.1 T ft?. ’:
* KJ ITMJCK TRUCK
l ANDFILL ..
•*»» C>" LANDFILL OLD * OLD * BL a* LANDFILL LAHDMU . BCD' LAKLVML1
0 v
LANDFILL LANDFILL
V.
*
DLO * DEDICATED LAND DISPOSAL
FIGURE 3- 5
3-14
I t is worth noting t h a t utilization o n agricultural land could
not be considered as a base alternative despite the large
agricultural a c r e a g e n o r t h of E u g e n e a n d the fact that the new
regional p l a n t is o n t h e north side of t h e city , I t would h a v e
b e e n a r e q u i s i t e t h a t M W M C o w n sufficient f a r m l a n d ( 2 , 0 0 0 t o
3 ,0 0 0 a c r e s ) t o a c c e p t all o f the s l u d g e generated , The cost
o f p u r c h a s i n g s u c h a c r e a g e w a s d e e m e d u n a c c e p t a b l y high ;
furthermore , t h e r e w a s o p p o s i t i o n t o converting p r i v a t e land t o
public land. T h u s agricultural utilization w a s not considered
further in the s e a r c h f o r a base alternative.
T h e s e c o n d c u t analysis was m o r e quantitative. Information used
w a s g e n e r a l and readily available. F o r e x a m p l e , costs w e r e taken
f r o m c u r r e n t c o s t c u r v e s, a n d c e r t a i n e n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s
were a s s e s s e d f r o m projects with similar d i s p o s a l s y s t e m s and
soil/g r o u n d w a t e r conditions. With numerical d a t a established
for each criterion , a rating table was produced similar t o that
of Table 3- 4. T h e d a t a were d e v e l o p e d by t h e project engineers,
but the r a t i n g s were a n a l y z e d e x tensively by the Citizens
P a r t i c i p a t i o n Committee ( CPC ) o n s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t which had been
recruited f r o m t h e population a t large a t t h e v e r y beginning of
t h e p r o j e c t. T h e committee w a s c o m p o s e d o f v a r i o u s v e s t e d
interest g r o u p s , r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s a n d
private unaffiliated citizens w h o w e r e interested in t h e project.
S y s t e m s w i t h t h e l o w e s t t o t a l r a t i n g s w e r e t h e n e l i m i n a t e d.
Incineration was found to be unacceptable primarily because
it w o u l d impact t h e a l r e a d y limited dilution capacity available
d u r i n g t h e s u m m e r in t h e t r a p p e d v a l l e y airshed o f E u g e n e ;
p y r o l y s i s w a s eliminated p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e o f its p e r c e i v e d
inability t o m e e t the construction deadline f o r p l a n t s t a r t -u p;
a n d lime stabilization with d i s p o s a l t o landfill w a s e l i m i n a t e d
primarily o n a c o s t- effective basis. A t t h e end of t h e second
c u t a n a l y s i s , a l l a l t e r n a t i v e s which c o u l d a c c o m m o d a t e r a w
s l u d g e s were eliminated , since , as indicated , most raw s l u d g e
options ( incineration, pyrolysis , lime stabilization ) w e r e not
viable and there was a strong desire to make use of existing
digesters. A decision w a s m a d e t o combine primary a n d s e c o n d a r y
s l u d g e in o r d e r t o avoid t h e c o s t a n d p r o b l e m s o f constructing
and operating s e p a r a t e s y s t e m s f o r each .
T h e s a m e m e t h o d o l o g y u s e d in t h e s e c o n d c u t w a s u s e d in t h e
third ; h o w e v e r , d a t a u s e d in t h e a n a l y s i s w e r e m o r e s i t e
s p e c i f i c , s o t h a t economic a n d environmental c o m p a r i s o n s could b e
better refined . A s e x a m p l e s:
A c t u a l r o u t e s w e r e s e l e c t e d t o o f f - site facilities ;
river crossings were defined , and decisions w e r e m a d e o n
routing pipes u n d e r bridges o r jacking u n d e r f r e e w a y s.
3-1 5
Lane County Solid Waste Division t o MWMC , and ( 2 ) the
actual net volume of landfill required for sludge
disposal , allowing for s l u d g e consolidation.
3 -16
PRIMARY GRAVITY
Pi
SLUDGE THICKEN
r
;
LONG
DISTANCE FACULTATIVE DEDICATED
’ ANAEROBIC
DIGESTERS STORAGE * LAND
WASTE -
i i PIPELINE LAGOONS * DISPOSAL *
IMUMT
ACTIVATED FLOTATION
m^ THICKENER
SLUDGE
DRYING TRUCK
BEDS * * LANDFILL
FIGURE 3- 6
T h e a b i l i t y t o u s e b a s e facilities a n d e q u i p m e n t f o r desired
s e c o n d a r y alternatives w a s a m a j o r consideration in selecting the
b a s e s y s t e m. I n E u g e n e , t h e f o r c e main , s l u d g e l a g o o n s , a n d
application equipment to be used for dedicated land disposal
o f t h e l i q u i d s l u d g e a r e a l s o r e q u i r e d f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l u s e.
T r u c k s t o t r a n s p o r t liquid s l u d g e from t h e s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t site
t o agricultural sites will , h o w e v e r , be a n additional e x p e n s e f o r
t h e s e c o n d a r y alternatives.
3-17
At the time this manual was written ( 1979 ), MWMC was involved in
public hearings aimed at selecting a suitable sludge management
site.
1. -
Draw the flowsheet ( as on Figure 3 7 ).
-
3 18
an indicator of solids separation efficiency, Th e
general form in which such relationships are
expressed i s:
mass of solids in stream 6
xe mass of solids entering the u n i t
F o r example , Xp =
P
- ,
+ g Xj = g
J - . The processing u n i t ' s
^ .
p e r f o r m a n c e i s s p e c i f i e d w h e n a v a l u e i s a s s i g n e d t o XQ
DEGRITTED SEWAGE
SOLIDS
SOLIDS
GENERATED
BY CHEMICAL
A ADDITION
M PRIMARY B
SEDIMENTATION EFFLUENT
V
SOLIDS
N J DESTROYED
DIGESTION ( CONVERTED
SUPERNATANT TO GAS AND
WATER )
P S CONDITIONING
DEWATERING CHEMICALS
FILTRATE
t
TO ULTIMATE
DISPOSAL
FIGURE 3-7
3 -1 9
4. Combine the mass balance relationships so as to reduce
them to one equation describing a specific stream in
t e r m s o f g i v e n o r k n o w n q u a n t i t i e s. I n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n
to be presented, expressions will be manipulated until E,
t h e p r i m a r y s o l i d s u n d e r f l o w r a t e, c a n b e e x p r e s s e d i n
t e r m s o f A , XE , X j, X , X p , a n d X £ , q u a n t i t i e s w h i c h t h e
^
d e s i g n e r w o u l d k n o w o r a s s u m e f r o m p l a n t i n f l u e n t s u r v e y s,
knowledge of water chemistry and an understanding of the
g e n e r a l s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n/ destruction e f f i c i e n c i e s o f t h e
p r o c e s s i n g i n v o l v e d. T h e c a l c u l a t i o n i s c a r r i e d o u t a s
f o l l o w s:
T h e r e f o r e,
E
M A ( 3-2 )
XE
b. D e f i n e M b y b a l a n c e s o n r e c y c l e s t r e a m s:
M = N + P ( 3-3 )
N = XNE ( 3-4 )
P = Xp( S + K ) ( 3-5 )
S = XSK ( 3-6 )
T h e r e f o r e,
P = XP ( 1 + XS ) K ( 3-7 )
K + J + N = E ( 3 -8 )
T h e r e f o r e,
and
P XpE ( 1 Xj - XN )( 1 + XS ) ( 3 -10 )
T h e r e f o r e,
M EIXN + XP ( 1 - Xj - XN )( 1 + XS ) ] (3 -110
-
3 20
c . E q u a t e e q u a t i o n s ( 3 - 2 ) a n d ( 3 -1 1 ) t o eliminate M :
E
A = E [ XN + Xp( l - X j - XN )( 1 + XS )]
XE
A -
(3 12)
E
i xp( 1 _ XJ
Xg “
XN “ “
XNH 1 + XS )
O n c e t h e e q u a t i o n f o r E i s derived, e q u a t i o n s f o r o t h e r s t r e a m s
f o l l o w r a p i d l y ; i n f a c t, m o s t h a v e a l r e a d y b e e n d e r i v e d , T h e s e
a r e summarized i n T a b l e 3 -6.
TABLE 3- 6
A
E 1
XE
- XN - Xp ( 1- Xj-
XN ) ( 1 + Xg )
M E A
XE
B - (1~
XE ) ( A + M)
J = XJ E
N = XnE
K E {1 _ XJ V
'
S = X„ K
S
(1 + Xg ) K
P =
XP
L = K (1 + Xg ) ( 1- Xp )
3 -2 1
DEGRITTED SEWAGE
SOLIDS
299,000 SOLIDS
GENERATED
110,000 BY CHEMICAL
A ADDITION
409,000
r
M PRIMARY
' B
SEDIMENTATION EFFLUENT
56,030 46,503
XE = 0.90
E
418,527
V
SOLIDS
N DIGESTION J DESTROYED
0 Xj = 0.25
104,632
( CONVERTED
TO GAS AND
xN = 0.0
WATER )
K
313,895
t
DEWATERING
P S CONDITIONING
Xp = 0.15
56,030 59,640 CHEMICALS
Xs = 0.19
L
317,505
TO ULTIMATE
DISPOSAL
FIGURE 3 - 8
3 -2 2
F i g u r e 3-8 i s a w o r k e d e x a m p l e in w h i c h a l l s o l i d s f l o w r a t e s
are calculated, F o r t h i s e x a m p l e t h e f o l l o w i n g information w a s
p r o v i d e d:
(1
e f f l u e n t s u s p e n d e d solids ) 100
influent s e w a g e solids
4 6 ,5 0 3 )
(1 ~ 100 = 84.4 percent
2 9 9, 0 0 0
c. T w e n t y- f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s f e d t o
.
t h e d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m a r e d e s t r o y e d , i.e , c o n v e r t e d
t o g a s o r w a t e r ( X j = 0 , 2 5 ), The number assumed is
s o m e w h a t l e s s t h a n t h e u s u a l v a l u e u s e d ( 0 . 3 0-0 . 4 0 ) ,
s i n c e t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e f r a c t i o n o f d i g e s t e r f e e d in
t h i s instance is l o w b e c a u s e o f t h e l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n
o f chemical solids p r e s e n t.
d. D i g e s t e r s are n o t s u p e r n a t e d ( X j = 0 . 0 ).
^
e. S o l i d s c a p t u r e i n t h e d e w a t e r i n g u n i t s is 8 5 p e r c e n t
( XP = 0 . 1 5 ) .
f. Conditioning chemicals are 19 percent by weight
of digested sludge fed to the dewatering units
( XS = 0 . 1 9 ).
3 -2 3
rapidly w h e n t h e m a s s balance e q u a t i o n s ( p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 3-6 )
are set up for solution on a computer or a programmable
c a l c u l a t o r.
T h e e x a m p l e j u s t w o r k e d w a s relatively s i m p l e. F i g u r e 3-9 s h o w s
a more comp ! —
ex sys tem secondary ae robi c _ biological treatme n t
f o l l o w e d by filtration, M a s s b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s f o r this s y s t e m
a r e summarized i n T a b l e 3 - 7. F o r this f l o w s h e e t t h e f o l l o w i n g
i n f o r m a t i o n m u s t b e s p e c i f i e d.
a. I n f l u e n t s o l i d s ( A ).
b. E f f l u e n t s o l i d s ( Q ), t h a t is, o v e r a l l s u s p e n d e d solids
r e m o v a l m u s t b e s p e c i f i e d.
c . XEf XG , X j , X N f XR , a n d Xg a r e s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d
assump tions a b o u t t h e d e g r e e o f s o l i d s r e m o v a l,
addition o r destruction.
d. XD r which describes the net solids destruction
reduction or the net solids synthesis in the
biological system, must be estimated from yield
d a t a ( s e e S e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 . 4 ). A p o s i t i v e XD s i g n i f i e s
n e t solids destruction. A negative XD s i g n i f i e s n e t
s o l i d s g r o w t h. I n t h i s e x a m p l e 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e
solids e n t e r i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s a r e a s s u m e d
d e s t r o y e d , i . e. , c o n v e r t e d t o g a s o r l i q u i f i e d.
N o t e t h a t alternative p r o c e s s i n g s c h e m e s c a n b e e v a l u a t e d s i m p l y
by m a n i p u l a t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e variables. F o r e x a m p l e:
a. Filtration c a n b e eliminated b y s e t t i n g XR t o z e r o.
b. T h i c k e n i n g c a n b e eliminated b y s e t t i n g XG t o z e r o.
c. Digestion c a n be eliminated by s e t t i n g X j t o z e r o.
d. D e w a t e r i n g c a n b e eliminated by s e t t i n g Xp t o z e r o.
e. A system without primary sedimentation can be
s i m u l a t e d b y s e t t i n g Xg e q u a l t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y
z e r o, e. g., 1 x 1 0 8. “
Xg c a n n o t b e s e t e q u a l
t o e x a c t l y z e r o, s i n c e d i v i s i o n by Xg p r o d u c e s
indeterminate s o l u t i o n s w h e n c o m p u t i n g E .
3 -2 4
DEGRITTED SEWAGE
SOLIDS
TREATMENT
A CHEMICALS
299,000 D SOLIDS DESTROYED
10,831 OR SYNTHESIZED
’
1
* 40,367
h
SECONDARY
PRIMARY REACTOR /
. M
77,794
SEDIMENTATION
XE = 0.65 135,
B
390
SEDIMENTATION
TANK
XD = 0.08
C
57,667
FILTRATION
XR = 0.70
Q
17,300
EFFLUENT
F
G
66,892
10,034
E
251,438 THICKENING
X „ = 0.15
G
ir
i 56, 858
K
184,978
f
P DEWATERING S CONDITIONING
Xp = 0.10 CHEMICALS
22,012 35,146
xs = 0.19
L
198,111 ALL QUANTITIES ARE
EXPRESSED IN POUNDS
TO ULTIMATE
PER DAY
DISPOSAL 1 Ib /day = 0.454 kg/day
FIGURE 3 - 9
3-2 5
TABLE 3- 7
Where a
P
(1 - X
J V (1 + V + XH
8
“
XE^P XP
xE
Y X
G
+ a (1 - XG)
„
B
(1 - XE)E
XE
O
c 1 - XR
D = X_ B
D
Q
F 8E 1 - XR
G = X F _
G
H (1 - XG_ )F
J = XTJ (E + H)
K = (1 - XJ X„N)(E + H) T
L = K ( 1 + Xg) ( 1 - Xp)
E
M
X E
G - A
N = XN (E + H)
P = XP (1 + Xg)K
XR
R Q
-
1 XR
S = XgK
-
3 26
3.5 Sizing of Equipment
The QFD d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n c a n be a n i m p o r t a n t a i d
to a designer in predicting long term ( i e , average ) solids
loadings on sludge treatment components ,
- . .
This allows the
designer to establish such factors as operating costs and
quantities of sludge for ultimate disposal .
However, i t does not
establish the solids loading which each equipment item must be
capable of processing . A particular component should be sized t o
handle the most rigorous loading conditions i t i s expected to
encounter .This loading i s usually not determined by applying
- . .
s t e a d y s t a t e models ( e g , QFD c a l c u l a t i o n s ) t o peak p l a n t l o a d s .
Because of storage and plant scheduling considerations, the rate
of solids reaching any particular piece of equipment does not
usually rise and f a l l in direct proportion to the rate of solids
arriving a t the plant headworks . Consider a system similar in
configuration t o t h a t shown on Figure 3 9 - .
I f maximum s o l i d s
l o a d s a t t h e headworks ( Stream A ) a r e t w i c e t h e a v e r a g e v a l u e,
i t does not n e c e s s a r i l y follow t h a t a t t h a t i n s t a n t maximum
dewatering loads ( Stream K ) are twice the average dewatering
load .
To pursue this further , consider the design of a centrifuge
intended to dewater anaerobically digested primary and secondary
sludge at a small treatment plant .
The flow scheme i s similar t o
t h a t s h o w n o n F i g u r e 3- 9 .
The plant i s staffed on only one s h i f t
per day , seven days per week , T h e d i g e s t e r s a r e c o m p l e t e-m i x
units equipped with floating covers, Because of the floating
covers, digester volume can vary , Secondary sludge is wasted
from the activated sludge systems to a dissolved a i r flotation
thickener prior to digestion whenever operators are available to
operate the thickener .
As indicated , the average loadings t o t h e c e n t r i f u g e can be
d e f i n e d by t h e QFD , b u t c o m p u t a t i o n o f t h e n e c e s s a r y c e n t r i f u g e
capacity requires analysis of both the load dampening effect of
the storage in the digesters and the plant operating schedule .
During periods of peak plant solids loadings , loads to the
dewatering u n i t s may be attenuated by storing portions of the
peak loadings within the digester .
This can be done by e i t h e r
mechanism 1 or mechanism 2 below , acting either singly or in
concert .
1. Digester volume i s increased by allowing the digester
floating cover to rise .
2. Solids are allowed to concentrate and thus accumulate
within the digester (See Chapter 15, Section 15.2 2.2 for .
example of storage by mechanism 2 ) .
The effect of both mechanisms 1 and 2 i s storage within the
digester of part of the load which would otherwise go to the
centrifuge .
Thus peak dewatering loads will not be 2.5 times
the average when peak solids mass withdrawn from primary and
3- 2 7
s e c o n d a r y sedimentation t a n k s a r e 2 . 5 times t h e a v e r a g e , but
something less , for example, only 1.4 times the average value.
T h e degree of load dampening is a direct function of the size and
operating configuration of the digester.
Since t h e c e n t r i f u g e will o n l y o p e r a t e w h e n a t t e n d e d , t h e
" design" loading must account for this factor , T h e centrifuge
must be either capable of processing , during one shift , all the
s l u d g e which must be extracted from t h e digester during the peak
d a y ( for example, 1 . 4 times average quantity ) or the o p e r a t o r s
m u s t d e w a t e r s l u d g e for l o n g e r t h a n o n e shift p e r d a y . A
j u d g m e n t w o u l d b e n e e d e d a t this p o i n t w h e t h e r t o p a y f o r
increased equipment capacity o r o p e r a t o r overtime t o handle the
peak loads. With no o p e r a t o r overtime, the " design" centrifuge
capacity would h a v e t o be 1 . 4 x 2 4/8 = 4 . 2 times the average
daily digested sludge production t o account for both the effect
of sludge peaking , s t o r a g e volume and only one operations shift
p e r day.
• E q u i p m e n t reliability . G r e a t e r c a p a c i t y o r p a r a l l e l
units must be specified if there is reason t o believe
t h a t downtime for any particular units will be high.
• Sensitivity o f d o w n s t r e a m c o m p o n e n t s. If l o s s e s in
efficiency of a particular sludge h a n d l i ng component
a t p e a k l o a d i n g conditions w o u l d cause p roblems for
d o w n s t r e a m p r o c e s s e s, t h i s u p s t r e a m p r o c ess should
3 -28
be designed conservatively , Conversely , if reduced
efficiency could be tolerated , design need not be so
conservative.
-
3 29
WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE WHEN THICKENER IS INOPERATIVE
1
PRELIMINARY PRIMARY ACTIVATED DISINFECTION,
TREATMENT SEDIMENTATION SLUDGE DISCHARGE
i
GRIT, ETC.
SIDESTREAM
1,000 Ib/day
THICKENER FEED
9,000 Ib/ day
1.0% SOLIDS
108,000 gpd
SLUDGE
THICKENER
SIDESTREAM PRIMARY UNDERFLOW
800 Ib/day PRIMARY SLUDGE ONLY . .
THICKENED W A Sr ( 8,000 Ib/day )
10,000 Ib / day NO POLYMER
- -4
* m "
“
5.0% SOLIDS 3.5% SOLIDS
24,000 gpd 27,000 gpd
PRIMARY SLUDGE + W.A.S. WITH POLYMER
18,000 Ib /day 4.5% SOLIDS
2.5% SOLIDS 21,000 gpd
86,000 gpd
T
f
DIGESTER
T 1
DIGESTER
GAS ( 7 ,000 Ib /day )
1 2
f
DEWATERING DEWATERING
1
UNIT UNIT
1 2
I T
D
DEWATERED CAKE ( 10,200 Ib /day )
33.9 yd 3 @ 17% SOLIDS
SLUDGE OR
26.2 ydJ3 @
STOCKPILE 22% SOLIDS
TO LANDFILL
VIA 16 yd 3 TRUCK
1 Ib/ day = 0.454 Kg /day
3
1 gpd = 0.00378 m / day
1 yd3 = 0.765 m 3
FIGURE 3 - 10
3 -3 0
2. Two complete - mix digesters with floating covers are
provided. E a c h d i g e s t e r h a s a n e t v o l u m e of
610, 000 gallons ( 2 , 310 m 3 ) at minimum cover height.
Net volume at maximum cover height is 740 , 000 gallons
( 2 , 803 m 3 ) , t h u s t o t a l d i g e s t e r s t o r a g e v o l u m e i s
2 ( 740 , 000 - 610 , 000 ) = 260 , 000 gallons ( 984 m 3 ). The
digesters are not supernated.
2. Dewatering operation :
a . Weekly sludge feed = 7 ( 24,000 + 27,000 gpd )
= 357 , 000 gallons ( 1 , 350 m 3 ).
3-31
3
4. T r u c k l o a d s r e q u i r e d t o h a u l d e w a t e r e d c a k e _ 2 6 . 2 y d /d a y
3
1 6 y d /t r u c k
= 1 . 6 t r u c k l o a d s p e r d a y (1 1 p e r w e e k ) .
In summary , the dewatering operation can be carried out in
a n o r m a l 5 - d a y , 8 - h o u r- p e r- d a y w e e k , T i m e is a v a i l a b l e f o r
s t a r t- u p a n d s h u t d o w n a n d f o r p r o v i d i n g g o o d s u p e r v i s i o n.
Digester detention time is more t h a n a d e q u a t e f o r g o o d d i g e s t i o n.
2 . D e w a t e r i n g o p e r a t i o n:
a. Weekly sludge feed 7 ( 8 6, 0 0 0 g p d ) = 6 0 2 , 0 0 0 g a l
( 2 2 8 0 m 3 ).
b. H o u r l y t h r o u g h p u t. A t 9 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e,
t h r o u g h p u t i s 1 0, 8 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r h r ( 4 0 . 8 m 3/h r ). A t
1 1 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute, t h r o u g h p u t is 1 3 , 2 0 0 g a l l o n s
p e r h r ( 4 9 . 9 m 3/h r ).
c . O p e r a t i n g h o u r s required. A t 9 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e
6 0 2, 0 0 0 g a l
( 4 0 . 8 m 3/h r ), r e q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g h o u r s 1 0, 8 0 0 g p h
= 56 hours per week , This requires substantial
o v e r t i m e o r a s e c o n d s h i f t. At 110 gallons per
3
m i n u t e ( 4 9 . 9 m /h r ), r e q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g h o u r s =
6 0 2 ,0 0 0 g a l 4 6 h o u r s p e r w e e k. This r e d u c e s t h e
1 3,2 0 0 g p h
a m o u n t o f overtime required .
d. If the dewatering u n i t s operate at 90 gallons per
m i n u t e ( 40.8 m 3/ h r ), 2 6 . 2 c u b i c y a r d s p e r d a y
( 2 0 . 0 m J / d a y ) o f 2 2 p e r c e n t c a k e i s p r o d u c e d.
O p e r a t i o n a t 1 1 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 4 9 . 9 m 3 /h r )
p r o d u c e s 3 3 . 9 cubic y a r d s p e r d a y ( 2 5 . 9 m 3/ d a y ) o f
a 1 7 p e r c e n t s o l i d s s l u d g e c a k e.
3. I f d e w a t e r i n g units a r e n o t r u n o n w e e k e n d s, 8 6 ,0 0 0 g a l/
d a y x 2 . 7 d a y s = 2 3 2, 0 0 0 g a l l o n s ( 8 7 8 m 3 ) m u s t b e s t o r e d
i n t h e d i g e s t e r s, D i g e s t e r s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y i s a d e q u a t e
f o r n o r m a l w e e k e n d s , b u t n o t l o n g w e e k e n d s.
4. F o r 2 2 p e r c e n t c a k e, 1 1 truckloads p e r w e e k a r e r e q u i r e d.
F o r 1 7 p e r c e n t c a k e, 1 5 t r u c k l o a d s p e r w e e k a r e r e q u i r e d .
3-3 2
In summary , loss of the thickener reduces digester detention
time , increases required dewatering unit operating time and the
amount of trucking required for disposal of cake , The operation
can be managed , but with more difficulty , This example also
illustrates the value of the thickener.
Case C. One digester is out of service. All other units are
operating:
1. 610 ,000 gal
Digester detention time
24 ,000 + 27 ,000 gpd 12 d ay s.
This is only marginally adequate. By using polymers in
the thickener , assume waste activated sludge thickness
is increased from 3.5 to 4.5 percent. Detention time is
610 ,000 gal
24 ,000 + 21 ,000 gpd = 14 days, still short,
increased to
but an improvement.
2. Dewatering operation, This is not greatly affected by
loss of the digester , It can still be operated with a
single shift and a 22 percent cake can can be produced.
3. W e e k e n d s t o r a g e. Without polymer addition to
the thickener , required storage volume is 2.7 days
x 51,000 gpd = 138,000 gallons (522 m 3 ). One digester
( 130 ,000 gallons or 4 92 m 3 ) has inadequate storage
and a d e w a t e r i n g m a c h i n e m u s t b e r u n p a r t o f t h e
weekend . I f polymer is used , required storage = 2.7
x 45 ,000 122,000 gallons ( 462 m 3 ). One digester is
marginally adequate for storage.
4. Eleven (11 ) truckloads per week are required to transport
the sludge cake.
-
3 33
c. T r y a d d i n g p o l y m e r s t o thickener a n d maintaining a
1 1 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute feed r a t e t o t h e d e w a t e r i n g
units . R e q u i r e d o p e r a t i n g time = 4 5 ,0 0 0 g p d
1 1 0 g p m ( 6 0 min/h r )
= 6 . 8 h o u r s p e r d a y , e v e r y d a y , e x c l u d i n g s t a r t- u p
a n d s h u t d o w n times.
3. W e e k e n d d i g e s t e r s t o r a g e is n o t a n issue as dewatering
u n i t s m u s t b e r u n s e v e n d a y s a w e e k.
4. Eleven ( 11 ) truckloads are required to transport
22 percent cake, 15 truckloads are required for
1 7 p e r c e n t c a k e.
I n s u m m a r y , l o s s o f o n e d e w a t e r i n g unit will r e q u i r e o p e r a t i o n o f
t h e r e m a i n i n g unit f o r s e v e n d a y s a w e e k. overtime c o s t s will b e
h igh.
C a s e E . T r u c k strike l a s t i n g a m o n t h. A s s u m i n g 2 2 p e r c e n t c a k e,
s l u d g e, a c c u m u l a t e s a t a b o u t 2 5 c u b i c y a r d s ( 1 9 ) a d a y. T h e
s l u d g e s t o r a g e area s t o c k p i l e m u s t , therefore , be a b l e t o s t o r e
^
a b o u t 2 5 ( 3 0 ) = 7 5 0 c u b i c y a r d s ( 5 7 0 m ) o f s l u d g e t o avoid m a j o r
p r o b l e m s d u e t o t h e s t r i k e. O d o r s from t h e s t o c k p i l e c o u l d be
a p r o b l e m.
Z o n i n g r e g u l a t i o n s a r e d i f f e r e n t f o r different s i t e s.
3 -3 4
Structures are less costly if foundation conditions are
good. Quite often, however, wastewater treatment plants
are located in valley bottoms, tidelands , or reclaimed
landfills where expensive foundations are required.
Costs for labor, electricity , freight on chemicals , and
trucking can vary markedly from one region to another.
Because of these variations, the best alternative for one site is
often not the best at another site. Also, reported capital and
operating costs from one site must be carefully adjusted before
being used at another site.
-
3 35
M o t o r s s h o u l d b e a c c u r a t e l y sized , Motors are most
efficient when o p e r a t e d near capacity . However, motors
i n wastewater treatment p l a n t s are frequently o p e r a t e d
far below capacity .
C o s t- e f f e c t i v e a n a l y s i s f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t a n d d i s p o s a l
s y s t e m s h a s b e e n discussed in s o m e w h a t g r e a t e r d e t a i l in a
1979 publication ( 4 ). Present worth and equivalent annual
value calculations a r e discussed in References 5 a n d 6 , a m o n g
o t h e r s.
3-3 6
a»
TABLE 3- 8
SOLID PROPERTIES CHECKLIST
TABLE 3 - 9
1. Description of process
Details of works , schematic drawing , logical location in overall
sludge treatment flowsheet.
2. Process Theory
3. Current status
Number of suppliers; usage in USA ; good and bad experience and potential
for avoiding problems ; advantages and disadvantages with respect to
competing processes .
4. Design criteria
Process loadings (solids and hydraulic); pilot scale investigations
(when to make them , methods , costs, limitations) ; special considerations
(solids origin).
12 . Cost information
Construction/operation ( tie to ENR and EPA Construction Cost Indexes);
-
constraints (site specific). Break down costs by category (labor,
electricity , etc. ) so that adjustments can be made for different
conditions.
-
3 37
3.7.4 Checklists
The following checklists provide information a designer must
have to design wastewater solids treatment and disposal systems.
Three checklists are provided .
1. A Solids Properties Checklist appears in Table 3 -8. This
checklist summarizes required information concerning raw
solids entering the solids treatment system and solids
produced in the various processes and operations.
TABLE 3 - 10
3. Air pollution
4. Groundwater contamination
5. Surface water contamination (by run off) -
6. Soils contamination
7. Land use
8. -
Social economic
9. Utilization (sludge or byproducts used beneficially )
10. Occupational safety
11. Risk of accidents involving the public
12. Control of potentially hazardous substances
13. Effects on biota including transfer and accumulation of pollutants
in the food chain
14. Use of material resources
3 -38
Designers should refer frequently to these checklists to assure
that all relevant topics are given proper consideration during
planning stages and system design , An extensive series of
checklists dealing with wastewater solids management has also
been prepared for EPA ( 4 ). The checklists are intended to serve
as aids for the review of facility plans , for preparation of
designs and specifications and the writing of operations and
maintenance manuals.
3.8 References
5. .
Grant , E . L and Ireson , W.G. Principles of Engineering
Economy . .
Fourth edition New York ; Ronald Publishing Co.
1964
3- 39
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 4
W A S T E W A T E R S O L I D S PRODUCTION
AND CHARACTERIZATION
4.1 Introduction
This chapter principally discusses the quantities and properties
of sludges produced by primary biological and chemical wastewater
t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s, S c r e e n i n g s , g r i t, s c u m , s e p t a g e, a n d
o t h e r m i s c e l l a n e o u s w a s t e w a t e r solids , i n c l u d i n g t h e s l u d g e
p r o d u c e d in t h e t r e a t m e n t o f c o m b i n e d s e w e r o v e r f l o w s , a r e
discussed briefly .
4.2 Primary S l u d g e
4-1
i s usually in the 50 t o 65 percent range ( 2 ) An e f f i c i e n c y of .
60 percent i s frequently used for estimating purposes, subject to
t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n d i t i o n s:
4-3
was 1.37 . The average for comparison of peak days and peak
months over ten years of record was 1.59. Thus , in a typical
year , the maximum daily flow would be about 1.37 x 1.59 , or
2.2 times the average. The maximum day ' s sludge production
was, therefore , expected to follow a similar pattern and was
estimated to be 2.2 times the average value.
TABLE 4- 1
Chemical addition3
No chemical
Sludge type addition0 Lime^ Alum d Iron6
C
125 mg/1 Ca( OH)2 added to raise pH to 9.5.
^
G
154 mg/1 Al 2(S04 )3 *14 H 2O added.
84 mg/1 FeCl added.
Note:
^
Assumes no recycle streams (for example , recycle of waste-activated
sludge to primary sedimentation , digester supernatant , etc.).
4- 4
sludge production was more than four times the normal production
from the plant's service area , Main contributors to the peak
load were:
Q 500
<
o
>
400
<
o
LU
o
<
cc 300
LU
>
<
LL
o 200
I
z-
LU
O
cc
UJ
Q
- 100 1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
FIGURE 4- 1
-
4 5
were taken .
Both of these plants have significant industrial
loads, and both serve large areas of combined storm and sanitary
sewers .
(/
>
<
>
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B BISSELL P O I N T
4.0
LEMAY
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aa
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o MINIMUM MINIMUM
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O CONSECUTIVE D A Y S CONSECUTIVE D A Y S
z
K E Y : A - A A V E R A G E O F RESULTS C - C RESULTS F R O M
O F E I G H T MONTHS T H E LEAST EXTREME
B — B MOST EXTREME OF T H E E I G H T M O N T H S
RESULTS RECORDED
IN ALL OF THE
E I G H T MONTHS
FIGURE 4- 2
4-6
six p e r c e n t r a n g e are common , Conditions that influence primary
s l u d g e concentration include:
• If w a s t e w a t e r i s n o t d e g r i t t e d b e f o r e it e n t e r s t h e
sedimentation tanks, t h e grit may be removed by passing
t h e r a w p r i m a r y s l u d g e t h r o u g h c y c l o n i c s e p a r a t o r s.
H o w e v e r, t h e s e s e p a r a t o r s d o n o t function properly with
s l u d g e concentrations a b o v e one p e r c e n t ( 1 5 ).
• Industrial l o a d s m a y s t r o n g l y a f f e c t p r i m a r y s l u d g e
concentration. F o r e x a m p l e, a t a p l a n t receiving soil
discharged from a t o m a t o canning operation , a primary
s l u d g e with a 1 7 p e r c e n t solids concentration, o f which
4 0 p e r c e n t is volatile, w a s r e c o r d e d. N o r m a l primary
s l u d g e a t t h i s p l a n t had a s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
from five to six percent solids ( 60 to 70 percent
volatile ) ( 1 7 ).
T a b l e 4 - 2 l i s t s a n u m b e r o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s.
In m a n y c a s e s, r a n g e s and /o r " typical " values are given, I n t h e
a b s e n c e o f recirculating s l u d g e p r o c e s s sidestreams , t h e p e r c e n t
of volatile solids in t h e primary sludge should approximate the
p e r c e n t volatile s u s p e n d e d solids in t h e influent w a s t e w a t e r.
A volatile solids content below about 70 percent usually
indicates t h e p r e s e n c e o f s t o r m w a t e r inflow , s l u d g e processing
sidestreams, a large amount of grit, sludge from a water
filtration p l a n t t h a t w a s d i s c h a r g e d t o t h e sanitary s e w e r, l o w
volatile solids from industrial waste, or wastewater solids that
h a v e a long detention time in t h e sewers.
4-7
TABLE 4- 2
PH 5 - 8 6 1
Volatile acids, mg/1 as ace
tic acid
- 200 - 2 , 000 500 1
Heating value , Btu/lb (kJ/kg) 6 ,800 - 10 ,000 Depends upon volatile content, 1
and sludge composition , re
ported values are on a dry
-
weight basis.
10 , 285 Sludge 74 percent volatile. 1
7 ,600 Sludge 65 percent volatile. 20
Specific gravity of individ
ual solid particles
- 1.4 Increases with increased grit ,
silt , etc.
1
4- 8
t h e f r a g m e n t e d screenings a p p e a r in the primary s l u d g e , S m a l l e r
p l a s t i c a n d r u b b e r items t h a t p a s s t h r o u g h s c r e e n s a l s o a p p e a r in
t h e p r i m a r y s l u d g e.
4.3 Biological S l u d g e s
4 . 3.1 G e n e r a l Characteristics
Biological s l u d g e s a r e p r o d u c e d by t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s s u c h a s
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e, t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s, a n d r o t a t i n g b i o l o g i c a l
contactors. Quantities and characteristics o f biological s l u d g e s
v a r y with t h e metabolic and g r o w t h r a t e s o f the various micro-
organisms p r e s e n t in t h e s l u d g e. T h e quantity and quality o f
s l u d g e p r o d u c e d b y t h e biological p r o c e s s i s intermediate b e t w e e n
t h a t p r o d u c e d in n o- p r i m a r y s y s t e m s a n d t h a t p r o d u c e d in
f u l l- p r i m a r y s y s t e m s in c a s e s w h e n f i n e s c r e e n s o r p r i m a r y
sedimentation tanks with high overflow rates are used .
B i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e c o n t a i n i n g d e b r i s s u c h a s g r i t, p l a s t i c s ,
p a p e r, a n d f i b e r s w i l l b e p r o d u c e d a t p l a n t s l a c k i n g p r i m a r y
t r e a t m e n t. P l a n t s with primary sedimentation n o r m a l l y p r o d u c e
a f a i r l y p u r e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e. The concentrations and ,
therefore, t h e volumes of w a s t e biological s l u d g e a r e g r e a t l y
a f f e c t e d by t h e m e t h o d o f o p e r a t i o n o f t h e c l a r i f i e r s.
B i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e s a r e g e n e r a l l y m o r e difficult t o thicken a n d
d e w a t e r t h a n primary s l u d g e and m o s t chemical s l u d g e s.
4 . 3.2 Activated S l u d g e
4-9
Basic Predictive Equations
The most important variables in predicting waste activated sludge
production are the amounts of organics removed in the process,
-
the mass of microorganisms in the system , the biologically inert
suspended solids in the influent to the biological process , and
the loss of suspended solids to the effluent.
Px = ( Y )(sr ) ( k d )( M ) -
( 4 1)
WASp — Px 4-
^- NV ~ Ep -
( 4 2)
where:
sr = substrate
kg/day ;
( for example , BOD 5 ) removed , lb/day or
INV -
non volatile suspended solids fed to the process ,
lb/day or kg/day ;
--
To use Equation 4 1 , it is necessary to obtain values of Y and
kd. While Table 4 4 summarizes several reported values for these
parameters, it is best to determine Y and k on an individual
waste stream whenever possible. ^
-
4 10
TABLE 4- 3
kd Decay constant 1
Time
b, Kd , Ke Endogenous respiration ,
maintenance energy ,
-
auto oxidation
M Microbial solids
inventory
Mass s, X , xv Microbial mass , solids under
aeration , solids inventory,
mixed liquor solids
aThe letter Y has also been used for the net yield coefficient Px/sr. The net yield
coefficient is quite different from the gross yield coefficient.
To u s e E q u a t i o n 4 - 2 , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e s t i m a t e 1 N V'
n o n- v o l a t i l e influent s o l i d s , a n d , e f f l u e n t s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s.
T h e f o l l o w i n g a r e g e n e r a l l y included within t h e t e r m I v :
^
N o n- volatile solids in i n f l u e n t s e w a g e, i n c l u d i n g r e c y c l e
s l u d g e l i q u o r s.
N o r m a l n o n- v o l a t i l e c o n t e n t o f t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e .
I n t h e a b s e n c e o f s l u d g e l i q u o r s, chemical p r e c i p i t a t e s ,
a n d s t o r m w a t e r, a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e w i l l b e a b o u t 8 0 p e r c e n t
volatile ( l e s s in e x t e n d e d a e r a t i o n ) a t m o s t m u n i c i p a l
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s.
To compute ET , a s m a l l v a l u e s u c h a s 1 0 m g/1 T S S s h o u l d be
u s e d.
T h e f o l l o w i n g sections discuss s e v e r a l f a c t o r s t h a t c a n i n f l u e n c e
t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f w a s t e- activated s l u d g e. S e c t i o n 4 . 3 . 2 . 3 is a
d e t a i l e d e x a m p l e o f h o w s l u d g e q u a n t i t i e s s h o u l d b e c o m p u t e d.
4-1 1
TABLE 4- 4
E f f e c t o f S l u d g e A g e a n d F/M R a t i o
( Y ) ( sr )
Px ( 4- 3 )
1 + ( kd )( 0 m )
w h e r e 0m M s l u d g e a g e, d a y s.
'
Px
4-1 2
S i m i l a r l y , E q u a t i o n 4-1 c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d t o s h o w t h e e f f e c t o f
t h e f o o d-t o- m i c r o o r g a n i s m r a t i o ( F /M ):
U d > ( sr )
P x = ( Y )( sr ) - ( C )( F M ) ( 4- 4 )
2 /
w h e r e:
F/M = f o o d - t o-m i c r o o r g a n i s m r a t i o;
BOPs a p p l i e d d a i l y
V S S ( m a s s ) in s y s t e m
A s 0 m i n c r e a s e s a n d F/M d e c r e a s e s , t h e b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s
p r o d u c t i o n Px d e c r e a s e s. S l u d g e h a n d l i n g i s e x p e n s i v e , a n d c o s t s
c a n be r e d u c e d b y u s i n g high v a l u e s o f 0ra o r low v a l u e s o f F/M .
H o w e v e r, t h e r e a r e o f f s e t t i n g c o s t f a c t o r s, s u c h a s increases in
the aeration tank volume needed, oxygen requirements for the
a e r o b i c b i o l o g i c a l s y s t e m , e t c. A l s o , a s s e a s o n s c h a n g e , s o
m a y t h e o p t i m u m 6 m a n d F /M f o r m a x i m u m w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
e f f i c i e n c y. T h e r e f o r e , it is desirable t o be a b l e t o o p e r a t e
a c r o s s a r a n g e o f c o n d i t i o n s. O b v i o u s l y , t r i a l-a n d -e r r o r
calculations a r e r e q u i r e d t o determine t h e l e a s t c o s t l y s y s t e m.
Effect of Nitrification
N i t r i f i c a t i o n i s t h e b i o-o x i d a t i o n o f a m m o n i a n i t r o g e n a n d
o r g a n i c nitrogen t o t h e nitrite a n d nitrate f o r m s. C o m p a r e d w i t h
p r o c e s s e s t h a t a r e d e s i g n e d f o r c a r b o n a c e o u s ( B O D 5 , C O D ) oxida-
t i o n o n l y , s t a b l e nitrification p r o c e s s e s o p e r a t e a t l o n g s l u d g e
a g e s ( 8 m ) a n d l o w f o o d - t o- m i c r o o r g a n i s m r a t i o s ( F / M ). A l s o ,
nitrification p r o c e s s e s a r e o f t e n p r e c e d e d by o t h e r p r o c e s s e s
t h a t r e m o v e m u c h o f t h e B O D 5 a n d S S. A s a r e s u l t , a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e in a nitrification m o d e g e n e r a l l y p r o d u c e s l e s s w a s t e-
activated s l u d g e t h a n conventional activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s e s.
However, there is an additional component to nitrification
s l u d g e , t h e n e t y i e l d o f nitrifying bacteria, Yfg. T h i s m a y b e
estimated a t 0 . 1 5 p o u n d s S S p e r p o u n d o f t o t a l K j e l d a h l n i t r o g e n
( o r g a n i c p l u s ammonia ) r e m o v e d ( 3 7 ). Y varies with t e m p e r a t u r e,
^
p H , dissolved o x y g e n , a n d c e l l residence time. H o w e v e r, detailed
measurements of Y are not ordinarily required for sludge
facility d e s i g n ^
because the yield of nitrifying bacteria is
s m a l l. F o r e x a m p l e , if Y i s 0 . 1 5 a n d if t h e n i t r i f y i n g p r o c e s s
^
r e m o v e s a n a m m o n i a n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 20 m g /1 a n d a n
o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 10 m g /1 t h e n n i t r i f i c a t i o n
w o u l d a d d 0 . 1 5 x ( 2 0 + 1 0 ) = 4 . 5 m i l l i g r a m s o f nitrifying bacteria
p e r liter o f w a s t e w a t e r ( 3 8 p o u n d s p e r million g a l l o n s ). T h e s e
4-1 3
quantities are small compared to other sludges , In single- stage
nitrification processes, the sludge production figures must also
include the solids produced from the carbonaceous oxidation ,
computed at the and F/M of the nitrifying system .
Effect of Temperature
Sludge Production
Px = ( Y )( sr ) - ( kd ) ( M ) ( 4 -1 )
Px =
sr
( Y )( )
( 4- 3 )
«
1 + ( kd )( m )
4- 15
Px = ( Y )(sr )
sr
( kd )( )
-
( 4 4)
( C 2 )( F/M )
4-16
To accomplish the desired inventory reduction , solids handling
facilities must have the capacity to accept the wasted solids.
For wastewater treatment plants without major known BOD5 and SS
loading variations, allowance should be made in designing solids
processing facilities for the wasting of an additional two percent
of M per day and lasting up to two weeks , Such plants include
those serving stable domestic populations , Industrial loads
would be either small or unusually stable.
4 -17
and .
k To establish these two coefficients, solids production
m u s t ^b e m e a s u r e d u n d e r a t l e a s t t w o d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s o f F/ M
a n d 0m . E q u a t i o n 4 -1 c a n b e r e a r r a n g e d s l i g h t l y t o E q u a t i o n 4 - 5 :
Px S
M =
Y 1( —
M '
) - kd -
( 4 5)
w h e r e:
l b ( k g ) B O D5 r e m o v e d p e r d a y
s f/ M = l b ( kg ) VSS
1.00
BOD BASIS
.80
ff
M
= 0.67 ( if
M
) - 0.06
*
Y = 0.67, kd = 0.06
.60 r
>
~u 00
C/5
a >
00
CO
COD BASIS
> 2 .40
co m £>L = 0.34 ( *L ) - 0.06
M M
m Y = 0.34 , kd = 0.06
.20
i i
-. 20
0 .50 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50
FIGURE il- 3
-
4 18
If t h e d e s i g n conditions o f sr/ M o r 0m are k n o w n and if solids
production can be measured under these conditions, then it is not
n e c e s s a r y t o determine b o t h Y a n d kd . I n s t e a d , a s i m p l e observed
n e t y i e l d m a y b e c a l c u l a t e d . E q u a t i o n s 4-1 and 4-3 a r e e a s i l y
r e a r r a n g e d t o s h o w:
Px Y - k d /( s r/M )
Y
( 4- 6 )
Yobs “
sr 1 + ( kd )( 0 m )
w h e r e:
l b( k g ) V S S p r o d u c e d
l b ( k g ) s u b s t r a t e ( for e x a m p l e , B O D 5 ) r e m o v e d
N e t y i e l d c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e o f t e n r e p o r t e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e.
T h e y a r e d i r e c t l y a p p l i c a b l e o n l y u n d e r t h e conditions o f sr/M
a n d 0m t h a t o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e x p e r i m e n t s; t h e y a r e m e a n i n g l e s s
u n l e s s sr/ M o r a r e m e a s u r e d a l s o, F o r gathering d a t a from
p i l o t p l a n t s o r e x i s t i n g p l a n t s f o r use in establishing s l u d g e
y i e l d c o e f f i c i e n t s, s e v e r a l p r e c a u t i o n s s h o u l d b e e x e r c i s e d.
Either a u t o m a t i c dissolved o x y g e n ( D O ) c o n t r o l should b e used in
t h e t e s t o r a m p l e a i r o r o x y g e n s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d t o e n s u r e t h a t
t h e mixed l i q u o r D O concentration is o v e r 2 mg /1 a t a l l times.
D a t a f r o m w i d e l y d i f f e r i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s s h o u l d n o t be p l o t t e d o n
t h e same g r a p h t o determine Y a n d kd . Instead , data from each
t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e s h o u l d be u s e d t o determine Y a n d kd f o r t h a t
r a n g e. Each condition of sr/ M o r should be maintained l o n g
e n o u g h t o o b t a i n s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n, T o assure s y s t e m s t a b i l i t y,
a period of time equal to three times the sludge age should
e l a p s e b e t w e e n t e s t s. The d e s i g n e r should use the t e r m I v in
E q u a t i o n 4- 2 t o c o r r e c t t h e effect of sidestreams , ^
The percent
volatile c o n t e n t o f t h e solids p r o d u c e d s h o u l d b e r e c o r d e d , This
will b e u s e f u l in c o m p u t i n g t h e t o t a l solids in t h e s l u d g e.
4 . 3 .2 . 3 E x a m p l e: Determination o f B i o l o g i c a l
S l u d g e Production
T h i s e x a m p l e i l l u s t r a t e s t h e u s e of y i e l d f a c t o r s a n d d e c a y
f a c t o r s. F i g u r e 4 - 4 s h o w s a f l o w d i a g r a m f o r a h y p o t h e t i c a l
p l a n t. T h e p r o b l e m i s t o p r e p a r e a n i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e o f t h e
l o a d i n g t o t h e w a s t e - activated s l u d g e t h i c k e n e r , T a b l e 4- 5
contains information required for this calculation, including
average and maximum d a y loadings and activated s l u d g e operating
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s. I t is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t h i c k e n e r in this
e x a m p l e will h a v e t o h a n d l e t h e m a x i m u m - d a y w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d
sludge production, P e a k loadings o f shorter duration than the
m a x i m u m d a y p r o d u c t i o n will be h a n d l e d b y s t o r i n g t h e a d d e d
s u s p e n d e d solids in the aeration basins , For the purposes of
this e x a m p l e , the s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s such as digestion ,
4-1 9
dewatering , disinfection, thermal conditioning , and chemical
c o n d i t i o n i n g h a v e n o t b e e n i d e n t i f i e d. Depending upon the
s e l e c t i o n a n d d e s i g n o f t h e s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s, t h e
r e c y c l e l o a d s from s u c h p r o c e s s e s c o u l d h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t
u p o n t h e q u a n t i t i e s o f w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e a n d p r i m a r y
sludge that must be processed , When they are known, the
d e g r a d a b l e o r g a n i c s ( B O D ) a n d n o n- v o l a t i l e f r a c t i o n s o f t h e
recycle streams should be added to the substrate removal ( )
a n d n o n- v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s ( I y ) f a c t o r s. S u b s e q u e n t
sr
^
calculations in E q u a t i o n s 4 -1 a n d 4- 2 a r e f o r t h e p u r p o s e s o f
o b t a i n i n g a s l u d g e m a s s b a l a n c e, which i n c l u d e s t h e e f f e c t o f
r e c y c l e s t r e a m s.
u
O
_
cc
UJ RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE LU
GRIT o a
o HI Z
15
CJ
CO
>-
tr
>
CJ
LU
GC
LU _
U
cc
< WASTE - ACTIVATED SLUDGE - CC
5 TO BE CALCULATED <
CC a
a.
r
1
SLUDGE THICKENER
{
!>,
i'
THICKENED SLUDGE
RECYCLE
SLUDGE TREATMENT
'
SLUDGE FOR REUSE
OR DISPOSAL .
FIGURE 4- 4
S t e p 1. D e t e r m i n e B O D 5 l o a d t o t h e activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s .
A v e r a g e d a y B O D 5 load :
8 . 3 4 l b/ M G
5.0 MG D x x 1 9 0 m g/1 x ( 1 - 0 . 3 5 ) = 5 ,1 5 0 l b/ d a y
1 m g/1
4- 2 0
Maximum day BOD5 load ( similar calculation ):
8.34 lb/ MG
9.5 MGD x x 160 mg/1 x ( 1 - 0.25 ) = 9 , 510 lb/day
1 mg/1
TABLE 4- 5
Average day ^
Influent flow , mgd (m /day )
5.0 (18 ,900)
Sludge thickener capture
efficiency
Maximum day 9.5 (36 ,000) Average , percent 95
Maximum day , percent 85
Influent BOD 5 , mg/1
Average day
Maximum day
190
160
- -
Food to microorganism
ratioa
Average 0.3
Influent suspended solids , Maximum 0.5
mg/1
Average day 240 Temperature of wastewater
Maximum day 190 Average , degrees F
(degrees C) 65 ( 18)
BOD5 removal in primary Minimum , degrees F
sedimentation , percent (degrees C) 50 ( 10)
Average day 35
Maximum day 25 Dissolved oxygen in aera
tion tanks
-
Suspended solids removal in Average , mg/1 2.5
primary sedimentation Minimum , mg/1 2.0
Average day 65 Control: automatic
Maximum day 50
Effluent limitations, 30
day average
-
BOD5 , mg/1 30
Suspended solids , mg/1 30
. 'V'‘V’lhtimis
dHWiraiiHJMflMiiyji
4- 21
Maximum day: F/M = 0 . 5
Px = ( Y )( s r ) ( kd )( M )
Average:
4-22
Maximum day , similar calculation:
8.34 lb/ MG
5.0 MGD x
1 mg/ 1
x 240 mg/1 x ( 1 - 0.65 )( 0.25 * )
= 880 lb/day
8.34 lb/ MG
9.5 MGD x 1 mg/ 1
x 190 mg/ 1 x ( 1 - 0.50 ) ( 0.25* )
= 1 ,800 lb/day
Average:
8.34 lb/ MG
5.0 MGD x
1 mg/1
x 10 mg/1 = 420 lb/ day
Maximum day:
From Equation ( 4- 2 ) ;
WASp = Px + IJSJV — Ep
4- 23
M a x i m u m d a y:
WAST 6 , 1 8 4 + 1 ,8 8 0 - 7 9 0 = 7 , 2 7 4 l b T S S/d a y
( 3 , 3 0 2 k g /d a y )
Step 9 . C o m p u t e i n v e n t o r y r e d u c t i o n a l l o w a n c e.
I n v e n t o r y reduction a l l o w a n c e = ( 0 . 0 2 )( 1 7 ,1 7 0 ) = 3 4 3 l b/ d a y
( 1 5 6 k g /d a y )
F o r t h e a v e r a g e f l o w:
4-2 4
For maximum day flows:
2. S o l i d s e n t e r i n g t h e b i o l o g i c a l unit (1 0 . 5 0 )( 1 9 0 )
( 8 . 3 4 )( 9 . 5 ) = 7 , 5 2 7 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 3 , 1 4 7 k g /d a y ).
537
4. XD m a x 7,527
0.07
A n i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e t h a t c a n a f f e c t w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s t h e m e t h o d o f s l u d g e w a s t i n g. A n u m b e r o f
different m e t h o d s a r e illustrated in F i g u r e 4 - 5. S l u d g e solids
m a y b e w a s t e d f r o m t h e c l a r i f i e r u n d e r f l o w. I t h a s b e e n a r g u e d
that wasting solids from the mixed liquor should improve control
o f t h e p r o c e s s ( 2 , 3 5 ). I n this c a s e, w a s t e s l u d g e i s r e m o v e d
f r o m t h e activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s a t t h e s a m e c o n c e n t r a t i o n a s
t h e m i x e d l i q u o r s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , a b o u t 0 . 1 t o 0 . 4 p e r c e n t.
This low concentration can be a disadvantage because a large
volume of mixed liquor must be removed to obtain a given wastage
o n a d r y w e i g h t b a s i s. T h e m o s t c o m m o n a r r a n g e m e n t i n v o l v e s
sludge wasting from the clarifier underflow , because the
concentration o f s l u d g e t h e r e i s h i g h e r t h a n in t h e m i x e d l i q u o r.
Subsequent discussions in this section are based on sludge
w a s t i n g f r o m t h e c l a r i f i e r u n d e r f l o w.
4- 2 5
( a). WASTING FROM CLARIFIER UNDERFLOW lb ). WASTING FROM REAERATION TANK
ir
WASTE SLUDGE
*
WASTE SLUDGE
TANK NOT
FEED NO EFFLUENT AERATED, PROCESS EFFLUENT
AERATION
* NO SLUDGE REMOVAL
NO FEED OPERATED
AS BATCH
CLARIFIER
WASTE SLUDGE
FEED
* AERATION TANK
MIXED LIQUOR
•IHCLARIFIEK
PROCESS EFFLUENT
O
LU
h-
<
> LU 5
CC
H UJ O
U
< 3 LL LL
c CC
Z CO LU
a
3 5
O
Q
Z
3
UJ REAERATION TANK
^
j
cc
, ( IF USED ) |
J
' '
WASTE SLUDGE
FIGURE 4- 5
4 -2 6
been considered in detail in the development of solids flux
procedures for predicting the clarifier underflow concentration
of activated sludge ( 52 ).
4 -27
TABLE 4- 6
4-28
Activated s l u d g e a l s o c o n t a i n s f i l a m e n t o u s m i c r o o r g a n i s m s s u c h a s
S p h a e r o t i l u s , T h i o t h r i x , Bacillus , a n d B e g g i a t o a ( 6 2 ). Various
p r o t o z o a a r e p r e s e n t , including ciliates a n d f l a g e l l a t e s.
4 . 3.3 T r i c k l i n g Filters
Trickling filters are widely used in municipal wastewater
t r e a t m e n t. T h i s s e c t i o n c o v e r s t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s t h a t a r e u s e d
w i t h clarifiers. W h e n a clarifier is n o t u s e d , t h e trickling
f i l t e r e f f l u e n t i s u s u a l l y f e d t o a n activated s l u d g e p r o c e s s.
R e f e r t o S e c t i o n 4 . 3.5 f o r s u c h combinations.
4 . 3 .3 . 1 C o m p u t i n g T r i c k l i n g Filter S l u d g e
Production - Dry Weight Basis
Trickling filter microorganisms are biochemically similar to
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s t h a t p r e d o m i n a t e i n a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s y s t e m s.
Consequently, solids production from trickling filters and from
activated sludge systems is roughly similar when compared on
the basis of pounds of solids produced per pound of substrate
r e m o v e d . T h e r e a r e differences b e t w e e n t h e t w o s y s t e m s , h o w e v e r ,
with respect to solids production prediction methodology and the
pattern of sludge wasting , Attempts have been made to develop
solids production models consistent with biological theory
( 4 7,6 3 ,6 4 ). H o w e v e r, p r e s e n t l y ( 1 9 7 9 ) , e m p i r i c a l m e t h o d s a r e
u s u a l l y u s e d f o r d e s i g n p u r p o s e s, T a b l e 4-7 p r e s e n t s s l u d g e
yields observed at several treatment plants and from one
l o n g - t e r m p i l o t s t u d y , T h e s e d a t a a r e p r i m a r i l y b a s e d o n heavily
l o a d e d f i l t e r s.
Equations t h a t r e l a t e t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f s u s p e n d e d material in a
t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r c a n b e d e v e l o p e d i n a f o r m similar t o t h a t used
in p r e d i c t i n g activated s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n , T h e main difference
lies in t h e t e r m u s e d t o d e f i n e t h e q u a n t i t y o f m i c r o o r g a n i s m s
in the system. I n l o n g -t e r m s t u d i e s o f t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r
p e r f o r m a n c e , M e r r i l l ( 6 4 ) a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t o t a l m a s s o f m i c r o-
o r g a n i s m s p r e s e n t in t h e s y s t e m w a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e media
surface area, The resulting equation for volatile solids
production w a s:
Px - Y'( sr )- K ^( Am ) ( 4 -7 )
w h e r e:
Y' = g r o s s y i e l d coefficient , p o u n d p e r p o u n d o r kg /k g ;
coefficient , day-!
k
^ = decay ;
4-2 9
sr substrate ( for example , BOD5 ) removed , pounds per day
or kg/day = BOD5 in minus soluble effluent BOD5 ;
TABLE 4- 7
Total
BOD5.
0
-
IT ES
BOD5
C
-
IT ES
C0D
d
SS VSS Solids percent BOD5
Plant basis basis basis basis6 basis volatile load9 Media Reference
Stockton , California 2 3
Plastic , 27 ft /ft 65
Average of 13 months 0.74 0.67 0.43 1.00 0.94 77 27
Highest month 1.01 0.92 0.60 1.17 1.08 86 73
( 5/76) (5/76, (7/76) (6/76, (10/76) (8/76 , 11/76) (8/76)
7/76) 1/77)
aSolids production includes both waste sludge (clarifier underflow) and clarifier effluent solids.
^Pounds volatile suspended solids (VSS) per pound BOD5 removed (same as kg/kg).
on total (suspended plus dissolved) measurements.
BOD
^
removal based
CPcunds VSS per pound BOD5 removed. BOD5 removal based on influent total minus effluent soluble (IT-ES)
measurements.
Pounds total BOD5 applied per day per 1,000 cubic feet of media.
Stockton and Sacramento plants have heavy industrial loads about August to October from fruit and
vegetable canneries.
)
Pilot studies. SS basis was found to describe data well over a wide range of loadings. Wastewater
included some industrial load and recycle liquors from dewatering digested sludge.
where:
-
4 30
XNV = n o n- v o l a t i l e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s f e d t o t h e p r o c e s s ,
p o u n d s p e r d a y o r k g/d a y ;
Erp = e f f l u e n t s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , p o u n d s p e r d a y o r k g /d a y .
The coefficients Y
4 Y = 0.83
#
8
S3 4 Y ' = 0.89
Q MEDIA TYPE - PLASTIC SURFACE
3 k 'd * 0.32 MEDIA SURFACE DENSITY -
3 3
V) 4 ft — 25 sq ft / cu ft
4 ft — 31 sq ft / cu ft
2 4 ft — 37 sq ft /cu ft
4 ft — 40 sq ft /cu ft
5 ft — 43 sq ft /cu ft
1 - MEDIA DEPTH - 21 ft
0 J
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
FIGURE 4- 6
4-3 2
TABLE 4- 8
Five
Number of Average TSS , Coef ficient percent
Period samplesa mg/1 of variation ^ ratio0
-
March July 1976 57 144 0 .28 1.5
August- September 1976u
November 1976 March -
^ 26 187 0 .33 1.6
1977 51 149 0.31 1.7
TABLE 4- 9
--
October 22 26, 1976 5 114 256 0.44 2.06 33 27
d
August 5 6, 1977 2 132 289 0.63 1.56 50 27
July 31- August 5,
1977 6 147 222 0.63 1.56 50 Graded6
4-3 3
to activated sludge sedimentation tanks . T r i c k l i n g filter s l u d g e
also has better thickening properties than activated sludge .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t r i c k l i n g filter s l u d g e c a n b e withdrawn a t a m u c h
h i g h e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n t h a n w a s t e- activated s l u d g e , C o n c e n t r a t i o n
d a t a a r e s u m m a r i z e d i n T a b l e 4-1 0 .
TABLE 4- 10
Percent dry
Type of sludge solids Comments Reference
Trickling filter ,
alone
5 -7 10 Depends on solids residence time
in trickling filter
69
13
7 -
Low rate trickling filter 70
3
3
-- 74 -
High rate trickling filter 70
71
4 2
T h e solids flux m e t h o d f o r p r e d i c t i n g s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n m a y b e
u s e d w i t h t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s l u d g e ( 5 2 ). This method requires
m e a s u r e m e n t o f initial solids s e t t l i n g velocity v e r s u s solids
c o n c e n t r a t i o n. S u c h r e l a t i o n s h i p s h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d f o r a t
l e a s t o n e t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r p r o c e s s ( 6 4 ).
T a b l e 4 -1 1 c o n t a i n s a f e w a n a l y s e s o f t r i c k l i n g filter s l u d g e
p r o p e r t i e s. T h e microbial p o p u l a t i o n t h a t inhabits a t r i c k l i n g
f i l t e r i s c o m p l e x a n d includes m a n y s p e c i e s o f a l g a e , b a c t e r i a,
f u n g i , p r o t o z o a, w o r m s , s n a i l s , a n d insects , Filter flies and
t h e i r l a r v a e a r e o f t e n p r e s e n t in l a r g e n u m b e r s a r o u n d t r i c k l i n g
f i l t e r s.
R o t a t i n g b i o l o g i c a l r e a c t o r s ( R B R s ) a r e u s e d f o r t h e s a m e basic
p u r p o s e s a s activated s l u d g e a n d t r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s: to remove
B O D5 a n d s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s a n d , w h e r e n e c e s s a r y , t o n i t r i f y .
T h e R B R p r o c e s s u s e s a t a n k in w h i c h w a s t e w a t e r , t y p i c a l l y
p r i m a r y e f f l u e n t , c o n t a c t s p l a s t i c m e d i a in t h e s h a p e o f l a r g e
d i s c s. B a c t e r i a g r o w o n t h e d i s c s, T h e d i s c s r o t a t e s l o w l y o n
h o r i z o n t a l s h a f t s; t h e bacteria a r e a l t e r n a t e l y s u b m e r g e d in t h e
w a s t e w a t e r a n d e x p o s e d t o a i r. E x c e s s bacteria s l o u g h f r o m t h e
d i s c s i n t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r. A f t e r c o n t a c t i n g t h e b a c t e r i a, t h e
wastewater flows to a sedimentation tank, where the excess
b a c t e r i a a n d o t h e r w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s a r e r e m o v e d. T h e s e r e m o v e d
4-3 4
solids are RBR sludge. RBR sludge is roughly similar in quantity
by dry weight , nutrient content , and other characteristics, to
trickling filter sludge.
TABLE 4- 11
4-35
p r o c e s s e s a n d n o t e t h a t t h e s l u d g e is s i m i l a r t o a c t i v a t e d
s l u d g e, b o t h in q u a n t i t y and in characteristics ( 5 ,6 7 , 6 8 , 7 7, 7 8 ).
T h e sludge characterized in T a b l e 4 -12 contains some p a r t i c l e s
o f d e n s e solids f r o m t h e a t t a c h e d g r o w t h r e a c t o r , These
p a r t i c l e s m a y i m p r o v e t h e t h i c k e n i n g characteristics o f t h e
sludge ( 7 8 ).
TABLE 4- 12
SLUDGE FROM COMBINED ATTACHED - SUSPENDED GROWTH PROCESSES
Roughing filter plus Livermore , California (68) 0.98 Not stated 3.3 84
nitrifying activated
sludge
Roughing filter plus San Pablo, California ( 37 ) 1.47 78.2 Not stated Not stated
nitrifying activated
sludge
4.4 Chemical S l u d g e s
4 . 4.1 Introduction
Chemicals are widely used in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t t o precipitate
and remove p h o s p h o r u s , a n d in s o m e c a s e s , t o improve s u s p e n d e d
solids removal. At a l l such facilities , chemical s l u d g e s a r e
formed . A f e w p l a n t s a p p l y chemicals t o s e c o n d a r y e f f l u e n t a n d
4- 3 6
use tertiary clarifiers to remove the chemical precipitates. An
example of this arrangement is the plant at South Lake Tahoe,
California. However, it is more common to add the chemicals to
the raw wastewater or to a biological process. Thus, chemical
precipitates are usually mixed with either primary sludge solids
or biological sludge solids.
The discussion below is brief because the subject of chemical
sludges and their characteristics is discussed in detail
elsewhere ( 79 - 82 ). A 1979 publication provides considerable
background information on theoretical rates of chemical sludge
production, as well as actual operating data from wastewater
treatment plants employing chemicals for removal of phosphorus
( 7 ). Also, production of chemical sludges in primary sedimenta-
tion is discussed in Section 4.2.2.5.
4- 37
to t o t a l mass , b u t t h e y c a n g r e a t l y improve clarifier
efficiency with a concomitant increase in sludge
p r o d u c t i o n.
F o r efficient chemical u s a g e , f e e d r a t e s m u s t b e a d j u s t e d t o
match c h a n g e s in wastewater flow and composition.
4.4 .4 H a n d l i n g Chemical S l u d g e s
4-3 8
4 . 4 .4 . 1 Stabilization
D i g e s t i o n o f m i x e d b i o l o g i c a l - c h e m i c a l s l u d g e s is g e n e r a l l y
feasible. P u r e c h e m i c a l s l u d g e will n o t d i g e s t. Studies d o n e
in 1974 and 1 9 7 8 , h o w e v e r , n o t e s i g n i f i c a n t r e d u c t i o n s in
digestibility as chemicals were added to sludge; the studies
i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f aluminum , i r o n, a n d p o l y m e r ( 8 7, 8 8 ).
4.4 . 4.2 C h e m i c a l a n d B y- p r o d u c t R e c o v e r y
W h e r e l i m e u s e r e s u l t s in c a l c i u m c a r b o n a t e f o r m a t i o n , i t m a y
b e f e a s i b l e t o r e c o v e r l i m e b y r e c a l c i n a t i o n. T e r t i a r y l i m e
t r e a t m e n t , a s p r a c t i c e d a t t h e S o u t h L a k e T a h o e, C a l i f o r n i a ,
p l a n t i s w e l l s u i t e d t o lime r e c o v e r y ; a r e c a l c i n a t i o n p r o c e s s
h a s b e e n o p e r a t e d t h e r e f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s, W h e r e l i m e is a d d e d
to raw wastewater , lime recovery is more difficult but still
p o s s i b l e. Lime r e c o v e r y d o e s n o t reclaim a l l o f t h e c a l c i u m ,
a s s o m e i s a l w a y s l o s t w i t h t h e p h o s p h a t e , s i l i c a, a n d o t h e r
materials t h a t m u s t b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e s y s t e m. L i m e recovery
reduces but does not eliminate the amount of residue for
d i s p o s a l. Feasibility of lime recovery d e p e n d s on plant size,
a m o u n t o f calcium c a r b o n a t e f o r m e d , c o s t o f n e w lime , a n d c o s t o f
s l u d g e d i s p o s a l ( 8 1 , 8 2 ).
A s a r u l e, a l m o s t a n y t h i n g c a n b e found i n s l u d g e , T h i s section
describes trace elements in all types of sludge , Data on
concentrations o f the 74 e l e m e n t s found i n w a s t e w a t e r s l u dge are
i n c l u d e d i n R e f e r e n c e s 8 9-9 5 .
4-3 9
Trace elements are present in industrial process waste ,
industrial waste spills, domestic water supply , feces and urine,
and detergents .
Additional trace elements are derived from:
TABLE 4- 13
Constituent C o n c e n t r a t i o n , mg/l a
Cadmium 2 - 3.5
Chromium 10 - 70
Copper 44 - 14 , 200
Iron 146 , 000 - 188 , 000
Nickel 92 - 6,200
Lead 6 - 90
Silver 2
Zinc 400 - 2 , 150
Note: Data for Joint Water Pollution Control Plant, Los Angeles County ,
California ; weekly composite samples. (13).
S l u d g e s a m p l e s s h o u l d be a n a l y z e d f o r p e r c e n t s o l i d s
and p e r c e n t volatile as w e l l a s f o r t r a c e e l e m e n t s.
4-4 1
4.5.3 Cadraium
TABLE 15
CADMIUM IN SLUDGE
Concentration, mg/dry kg
Standard Number of
Type of sludge Location Mean deviation Median Range samples Reference
Digested
Heat dried
12 U.S. cities
4 U.S. cities
89
150
72
200
65
67
6.8 -
15 - 440
200 12
4
89
89
Anaerobic Various U.S. 106 16 3 - 3 , 410 98 90
" Other" Various U.S. 70 14 4 - 520 57 90
Not stated 42 cities in England , < 200 < 200 - 1, 500 42 91
Wales (7 > 200)
Incinerator ash Palo Alto , California 84 68 - 99 2 92
Digested Chicago (Calumet) 10 - 35 93
-
Digested waste acti
vated
Dewatered digested
- -
Chicago (West Southwest)
Seattle ( West Point)
340
48
43
100
102
94
primary approximate
130
a 1.5 lb 25 95
Digested Cincinnati (Millcreek)
Raw Several U.S. cities 30 15 20 20 95
Digested About 25 U.S. cities c 75
39
104 31 9 - 550 80 95
103
Raw primary Los Angeles (Hyperion)
Mesophilic digested Los Angeles (Hyperion)c 140 103
Thermophilic digested Los Angeles (Hyperion ) 120 103
Q 103
-
Waste activa ted Los Angeles (Hyperion) 110
Anaerobically digested
chemical and waste -
Chatham ,r Ontario0 2.6 1.4 1.8 0 - 10 225 99
Raw primary and bio- Sacramento (Meadowview) 3.1 1.0 2.6 2.3 - 4.4 5
^ 97
filter
aGeometric mean.
b
Spread factor for use with geometric mean.
°Concentrations reported on wet weight basis and converted
to dry weight basis.
dweekly composites of daily samples.
-
4 42
TABLE 4- 15
Concentration , mg/dry kg
Standard Number of
Type of sludge Location Mean deviation Median Range samples Reference
Raw primary and bio
filter
- Sacramento (City Main) 10.5 2.0 11 7.6 - 13 5d 97
Waste activated Sacramento (Arden) 5.4 2.6 6.7 2.3 - 7.7 5
5d
97
Raw primary and waste
activated
- Sacramento ( Rio Linda ) 9.7 2.9 9.1 6.2 - 14 97
Raw primary Sacramento (County 29 28 12 8.3 - 72 .. 5d 97
Central)
Anaerobically digested North Toronto, Ontario 29 9 60 104
ferric chloride
Anaerobically digested Point Edward , Ontario 8.5 1.9 61 104
chemical (mostly alum)
Anaerobically digested Newmarket , Ontario 7.5 4.2 59 104
lime
Anaerobically digested Sarnia , Ontario 76 21 40 104
ferric chloride
aGeometric mean.
DSpread factor for use with geometric mean.
CConcentrations reported on wet weight basis and converted
to dry weight basis.
Weekly composites of daily samples.
TABLE 4- 16
Note: 1977 data , Sacramento County Central treatment plant , California , Anaerobic
-
digesters also receive thickened waste activated sludge (metals content not
measured ).
4-43
4.6 Trace Organic Compounds in Sludge
TABLE 4- 17
Average
concentration of
samples with
compound detected
Wet Dry
basis , basis , Number of Samples with Year of sample
Sludge type Location ug/1 mg/kg samples compound detected collection Reference
a
Sacramento, (Natomas) 60 1.5 5 1 1977
Sacramento (County
a
80 1.8 5 5 1977
Central)
a
Weekly composite of daily samples.
4 -44
TABLE 4- 18
4-45
“'’KSBftSsB* »
4.7.1 Screenings
Screenings are materials that can be removed from wastewater by
screens or racks with openings of 0.01 inch ( 0.25 mm ) or larger.
Coarse screens or racks have openings larger than 0.25 inch
( 6 mm ) , whereas fine screens have openings from 0.01 to 0.25 inch
( 0.25 to 6 mm ). If openings are larger than 1.5 inches ( 38 mm ),
the screens are often called trash racks.
4-46
TABLE 4- 19
-
3 3/8
3
Norwalk , Connecticut
New Haven , Connecticut
11.75
8
0.17
1.0
3 East Hartford , Connecticut 4.0 1.33
3 San Jose , California 0.25
-
1 3/8 New York , New York , Jamaica 65 0.6
-
1 1/2 Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , North 48.2 2.20
-
1 1/2
1- 1/2
Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , Southside
Cranston , Rhode Island
25.0
8 .32
2.1
0.65
-
1 1/2 Taunton , Massachusetts 3.5 1.0
-
1 1/2 Meadville , Pennsylvania 2.5 0.6
-
1 1/2 Grove City , Pennsylvania 0.8 0. 1
1- 1/4 Uniontown , Pennsylvania 3.0 0.9
1- 1/4 Fargo , North Dakota 2.7 4.55
1 New York , Wards Island 180 1.0
1 New York , Owls Head 160 0.6
1 Minneapolis- St. Paul , Minnesota 134 0.9
1 New York , Hunts Point 120 0.7
1 East Bay , Oakland , California 98 1.6
1 New York , Coney Island 70 1.4
1 New York , 26 th Ward 60 1.1
1 New York , Tallmans Island 40 0.7
1 Bridgeport , Connecticut , West Side 17 0.93
1 New York , Rockaway 15 1.0
1 Waterbury , Connecticut 15 2.35
1 Bridgeport, Connecticut , East Side 14 2.04
1 Duluth , Minnesota 12 0.56
1 Austin , Minnesota 9 1.1
1 Fond du Lac , Wisconsin 7.2 5
1 Findlay , Ohio 7 0.39
1 Massillon , Ohio 5.2 1. 5
1 York , Nebraska 5 1.5
1 Marion , Ohio 5.0 2.5
1 Gainesville , Florida 5 3.5
1 Marshalltown , Iowa 4.0 0.25
1 East Lansing , Michigan 3.8 0.4
1 Birmingham, Michigan 1.5 1.2
7/8 Boston , Massachusetts , Nut Island 125 1.2
7/8 Richmond , Indiana 6.2 1. 2
3/4 Detroit , Michigan 450 0.47
3/4 New York , Bowery Bay 40 1.1
3/4 Hartford , Connecticut 39.0 1.6
3/4 Portsmouth , Virginia 9.7 0.82
3/4 Sheboygan , Wisconsin 8.0 0. 25
3/4 Aurora , Illinois 8.0 1.42
3/4 Topeka , Kansas 7. 5 1.30
3/4 Oshkosh , Wisconsin 6.0 1.7
1/2 Green Bay , Wisconsin 10.0 1.2
1/2 Manteca , California 1.5 5.2
1 in. 2.54 cm
1 mgd = 3 ,785 mJ5/day.
^ ^ m 3.
1 cu ft/mil gal = 7.48 m /1 x 10
-
4 47
• Operating practices . Where manual cleaning is used ,
operators sometimes pass some screenings through or
around the screens. Where automatic equipment is used ,
the operating pattern can greatly affect removals ( 112 ).
4-48
TABLE 4- 20
ANALYSES OF SCREENINGS
aComputed.
1 Btu/lb dry solids = 2,32 kj/ dry solids.
1 lb/cu ft = 16.03 kg/m - .
1 in. = 2.54 cm. ^
S o m e f e c a l s o l i d s a c c o m p a n y t h e l a r g e r materials s u c h a s r a g s a n d
t w i g s. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , a s w e l l a s t o s a v e l a b o r time a n d c o s t ,
it i s d e s i r a b l e t o mechanize s c r e e n i n g s h a n d l i n g , A l s o, w h e r e
c o a r s e s c r e e n i n g s a r e l a n d f i l l e d o r i n c i n e r a t e d , it is d e s i r a b l e
to use the largest rack opening that will adequately protect
downstream processes, This will minimize the quantity of
s c r e e n i n g s t h a t m u s t b e handled s e p a r a t e l y .
S c r e e n i n g s m a y b e t r a n s p o r t e d p n e u m a t i c a l l y ( 1 1 6 ) , in s l u i c e w a y s ,
o n c o n v e y o r s , a n d i n c a n s , d u m p s t e r s , o r c o v e r e d t r u c k s.
S c r e e n i n g s- w a t e r m i x t u r e s t h a t a r e g r o u n d m a y b e p u m p e d , For
thickening and dewatering , fine static screens, drum screens,
c e n t r i f u g e s ( 1 1 3 ), a n d d r u m o r s c r e w p r e s s e s m a y b e u s e d .
Chemical conditioning is not required .
4 -4 9
the effluent ( 117 ) . Another example occurred at a plant where
digested sludge was discharged to the ocean , Fine screens were
used to prevent floatable materials from being discharged ( 118 ).
Other examples of the use of screens on streams other than
influent wastewater are the screening of overflow water from grit
separators and the screening of feed sludge to disc - nozzle
centrifuges to prevent clogging ( 113,119 ) .
TABLE 4- 21
3. Removal3 from main stream, draining or Keeps screenings out of other sludges; Transport of screenings may be difficult.
dewatering , landfill avoids disadvantages of Methods 1 and 2. Unless carefully designed and operated ,
Can be fairly well mechanized. causes fly and odor nuisances and health
hazards.
Regulations for landfill disposal may strongly
affect operations.
4. Removal3 from main stream, dewatering, Keeps screenings out of other sludges; High cost if an incinerator is required for
incineration, landfill of ash . avoids disadvantages of Methods 1 and 2. screenings alone.
Ash is very small in volume and easy to Unless incinerator is properly designed and
transport and dispose of.
If incineration is used for other sludges
operated , air pollution (odor and partic
ulates) will be serious.
-
and/or grit, then screenings can be
added at modest cost *
Not well adapted to wide fluctuations in-
screenings quantities , unless screenings
Pathogen kill are only a small part of the total in
cinerator load .
-
5. Anaerobic digestion of fine screenings Digestion was tested at large scale at
alone (not mixed with other Milwaukee, Wisconsin , but found to be
solids) impractical.. (115)
aMechanical removal is usually practiced at large plants. Manual removal is frequently used at small plants. The advantages
of manual removal are simplicity and low capital cost ; the disadvantages are high operating labor requirements and fly and odor
problems. A common arrangement at small plants is to install a single comminutor with a manually cleaned bar rack as a standby unit.
4.7.2 Grit
Grit is composed of heavy , coarse solids associated with raw
wastewater. It may be removed from wastewater before primary
sedimentation or other major processes. Alternatively , it may be
4- 50
removed from primary sludge after the primary sludge is removed
from the wastewater , Typical ingredients of grit are gravel,
sand , cinders , nails, grains of corn , coffee grounds , seeds , and
bottle caps.
• Amount of septage.
Occurrence of construction in the service area or at the
treatment plant.
4- 51
such as adequate scouring velocities , an allowance of 15 cubic
feet per million gallons ( 2 m 3/ lxl 0 m 3 ) should suffice for ^
maximum flows. On the average , the quantity of grit in waste-
water will usually be less than 4 cubic feet per million gallons
^ ^ ^
( 0.53 m / lxlO m ) for separate sewer systems , ( 5 ) but
higher values have been observed ( see Table 4- 22 ).
TABLE 4- 22
GRIT QUANTITIES
Quantity ,
Plant cu ft/mil gal Comments References
Seattle , Washington (West Point) 2.6 Average. Combined storm and sani - no
tary sewers.
11.2 Maximum day
1 cu ft/mil gal =
3
7.48 m /1- x 106 m
3
4- 52
The moisture content of grit is reported as ranging from 13 to
65 percent , and the volatiles content from 1 to 56 percent ( 109 ) .
Specific gravity of grit particles varies; values from 1.3 to
2.7 have been reported ( 109 ) The range for volatile solids was .
8 to 46 percent ( 123 ). Particle size for grit removed from five
plants is shown in Table 4- 23 , along with an analysis of digester
bottom deposits.
TABLE 4- 23
Percentage retained
Digester deposits,
Sieve opening , Green Bay , Kenosha , Tampa , St . Paul, Renton, Renton , Los Angeles,
c
Sieve sizea mm Wisconsin Wisconsin Florida Minnesota Washington Washington ^ California
4
8
4.76
2.38
1
5
-- 7
20
2.S
- 13.S 0 - 0.5
2.8
10
12
b
2.08
1.41
3.7 12 19.S - 34.5 2 - 11
7.3
20
28
b
0.84
0.6G
9.1 12
- 53 50 - 74.5 10 - 41
28.3
40 0.42 19.8 70 71 - 88.5 27 - 62
50
60
0.30
0.25
29.6 2.3 20 - 67 90.5 - 94 60 - 76.5
b
65 0.21 51.7 59
80 0.18 95
100
150
b
0.149
0.105
78.2 59.3 97 - 99.9 97.5 85
- 92
77.6
200 0.074 96.1 99.5 99.5 95
- 98 84.9
Source (109) (109) (109) (109) (119) (119) (118)
4-53
4.7.3 Scum
S c u m -i s t h e m a t e r i a l t h a t f l o a t s o n w a s t e w a t e r , e x c e p t w h e r e
flotation is involved , In a flotation unit , scum is incorporated
into t h e f l o a t , Scum may be removed from many t r e a t m e n t
units i n c l u d i n g p r e a e r a t i o n tanks , skimming tanks , primary
a n d s e c o n d a r y sedimentation tanks , chlorine contact tanks ,
gravity thickeners , a n d d i g e s t e r s , The term "skimmings" refers
s p e c i f i c a l l y t o scum t h a t has been r e m o v e d.
S c u m production is influenced b y:
4 -55
Efficiency of upstream processes in removing colloidal
grease. This is true for chlorine contact tank scum ,
since chlorine breaks emulsions , allowing grease
particles to coalesce and float , Chlorine dose and
mixing may also affect contact tank scum.
Scum that is returned from sludge handling. Anaerobic
digesters usually have a scum layer , Recycled digester
supernatant may carry portions of this scum back to the
influent wastewater. Similarly , scum may be returned in
sidestreams from gravity thickening and centrifugation.
Scum removal equipment effectiveness , Some arrangements
produce better removal efficiencies than others , Also,
some arrangements produce a scum with a high solids
content and , therefore, a small volume.
_
Tendency of sludge solids to float jL n sedimentation tanks
due to formation of gas bubbles.
-
Table 4 24 contains information on the solids content, volatile
content , fuel value , and grease content of scum. Scum usually
has a specific gravity of about 0.95 (110).
Varying quantities of vegetable and mineral oils , grease , hair ,
rubber goods , animal fats , waxes , free fatty acids , calcium and
magnesium soaps, seeds , skins , bits of cellulosic material such
as wood , paper or cotton , cigarette tips , plastic and pieces
of garbage may comprise scum (110 ). When gases are entrained in
particles of primary and secondary sludge , these particles become
components of scum ( 126 ). At one plant, a variation in scum
consistency was noted , At 36°F (10°C), the scum was a congealed ,
clotty mass. At 5 4°F ( 20°C ), it flowed freely , in a manner
similar to that of four percent combined thickened sludges ( 126 ).
Scum should not be stored for more than a few days because the
grease will begin to decompose , with a resulting odor production.
-
4 56
TABLE 4- 24
SCUM PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES
25
31
'
19 2.3
4 25
27
9
® .
42
6 ,900
^
3 ,100"
a From low lime primary sedi-
mentation (pH 9.4 to 9.0),
after heated thickener
From gravity thickener
125
126
Oakland , New Jersey
Wichita , Kansas 9 From primary sedimentation. 127
Grease is 30 percent of
skimmings after decant
ing.
-
0 7 - Grease balls from preaer-
ation tanks.
127
4-57
::mm&t&&*****,=
iCwi
TABLE 4- 25
2. Landfill separately Low capital cost May have very high operating cost.
Possible odors during storage.
Requires good decanting to minimize volume
and fluidity of scum.
4. Burn in open lagoon Very low cost. Severe air pollution ( 128); illegal under
present laws.
5. Incinerate in separate " Watergrate" Very small amount of ash in slurry. High capital cost , especially for small plants
furnace (Nichols)a Despite low emissions , may not be acceptable
to air pollution regulators.
Problems with feed systems.
6. Incinerate in separate single purpose Very small amount of ash High capital cost (130)
multiple hearth furnace a
- High maintenance cost
Despite low emissions , may not be acceptable
to air pollution regulators
Requires good decanting
-
7. Incinerate in multiple hearth furnace
with other wastewater solidsa
Low incremental cost
Fuel value of scum can be used to offset
Requires good decanting
Requires very careful feed to the furnace ;
fuel requirements of other solids otherwise causes high maintenance and
severe smoke problems. These problems can
be avoided. ( 137)
8. Incinerate in fluidized bed furnace Similar to Method 7. Unless well decanted , can tax furnace
with other wastewater solidsa capacity. (126)
If scum is mixed with sludge before injec-
tion into furnace , unstable operation is
likely. (126)
9. Reuse for cattle feed Provides reuse, not disposal (however, do Toxic organic materials (e.g., DDT) tend to
not expect revenue concentrate in grease
Low capital cost Erratic market demand for waste grease (133),
it may be impossible to find anyone
that wants it.
Treatment for reuse must begin within a few
days; otherwise grease begins to decompose .
Requires good decanting because of long dis
tance transportation.
-
Subject to interference from actinomycete
growths in activated sludge, which increase
the amount of solids that are not grease
but are in the scum.
.
10 Reuse for low grade soap manufacture Same as Method 9. Similar to Method 9, but less serious.
Caustic soda could be added at the treat
ment plant , preventing decomposition and
-
probably making the material more usable
to grease reclaimers , but raising operating
.
costs
11. Return to influent wastewater Almost zero direct cost Slight increase in hydraulic load on the
treatment plant
Highly suitable for scum from chlorine con
tact tanks , secondary clarifiers , etc.
- Inapplicable to the main source of scum
(primary sedimentation tanks if used ,
when scum is removed from primary sedi
mentation tanks
- secondary clarifiers if primary tanks are
not used ).
aFor further information on scum incineration, see Chapter H , High Temperature Processes.
4- 5 8
P i p i n g s h o u l d be h e a t e d t o a minimum o f 6 0 °F ( 1 5 ° C ). H i g h e r
t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e p r e f e r r e d , e s p e c i a l l y if p i p e s i z e s o f l e s s
t h a n f o u r- inch diameter ( 1 0 0 m m ) a r e u s e d o r if pipe l e n g t h s are
s u b s t a n t i a l. Flushing connections and cleanouts should be
liberally p r o v i d e d . W h e n s c u m is t o be incinerated , a s m a l l
amount of fuel oil should be added as a convenient means of
ensuring that t h e scum can be p u m p e d ( 1 3 7 ). An in- line g r i n d e r
should be p r o v i d e d if decanting o r incinerating is t o t a k e p l a c e
( 125 , 1 3 7 ).
Decanting ( simple thickening by flotation ) is occasionally used
t o increase t h e solids c o n t e n t of t h e s c u m. Decanting requires
some care in design, in o r d e r t o reduce t h e effects o f u n p l e a s a n t
odor a n d high g r e a s e a n d solids c o n t e n t in t h e d e c a n t e d w a t e r.
A t l e a s t t w o m a n u f a c t u r e r s m a r k e t a h e a t e d d e c a n t i n g unit .
H e a t i n g s c u m t o a b o u t 1 8 0 °F ( 8 0 °C ) g r e a t l y i m p r o v e s t h e
separation of solids from w a t e r . T h u s , the decanted w a t e r will
have a lower solids and g r e a s e c o n t e n t , w h e r e a s t h e thickened
scum will contain less moisture.
4 . 7.4 Septage
Domestic s e p t i c t a n k w a s t e s ( s e p t a g e ) m a y b e defined a s a
p a r t i a l l y d i g e s t e d mixture o f l i q u i d a n d solid m a t e r i a l t h a t
originates a s waterborne domestic w a s t e s. S e p t a g e a c c u m u l a t e s in
a septic tank or cesspool over a period of several months or
years. Normally , household w a s t e s derive f r o m t h e toilet, b a t h
o r s h o w e r , s i n k , g a r b a g e d i s p o s a l , d i s h w a s h e r, a n d w a s h i n g
machine , S e p t a g e m a y a l s o include t h e p u m p i n g s f r o m t h e
s e p t i c t a n k s o f s c h o o l s , m o t e l s , r e s t a u r a n t s, a n d s i m i l a r
establishments. S e p t a g e is f r e q u e n t l y d i s c h a r g e d into municipal
w a s t e w a t e r s y s t e m s. W i t h c a r e f u l d e s i g n a n d operation , m u n i c i p a l
s y s t e m s c a n handle s e p t a g e adequately ( 1 3 8-1 4 0 ).
4.7.4 . 1 Quantities o f S e p t a g e
F o r Connecticut , K o l e g a and o t h e r s ( 138 ) estimated residential
s e p t a g e a t 6 6 g a l l o n s p e r c a p i t a p e r y e a r ( 2 5 0 1/ c a p i t a/y r ).
S o m e t a n k s were p u m p e d only after many y e a r s of service; o t h e r s
were p u m p e d more t h a n t h r e e times a y e a r , F r e q u e n t p u m p i n g w a s
associated with seasonally h i g h g r o u n d w a t e r levels , Based o n
t h e detailed observations of t h r e e t a n k s, B r a n d e s recommended
designing for a septage volume of 53 gallons per capita per
y e a r ( 2 0 0 1 / c a p i t a /y r ) ( 1 4 1 ). O t h e r s h a v e r e c o m m e n d e d 5 0 t o
3 6 0 g a l l o n s p e r capita p e r year ( 1 8 9 t o 1 4 6 1/capita/y e a r ).
4.7.4 . 2 P r o p e r t i e s of S e p t a g e
T a b l e 4- 2 6 contains a wide r a n g e of d a t a o n various constituents
o f s e p t a g e. Septage may foam and generally has a highly
offensive o d o r ( 1 4 0 ). Settling properties are highly variable.
S o m e s a m p l e s s e t t l e r e a d i l y t o about 2 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t o f
t h e i r o r i g i n a l v o l u m e , w h e r e a s o t h e r s s h o w l i t t l e s e t t l i n g.
4- 59
Significant amounts of grit may be present ( 140 ). Large
concentrations of total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and fecal
streptococci have been found in septage ( 140 , 141 ).
TABLE 4- 26
4-60
If septage is added to wastewater, the quantities of all
wastewater solids in the treatment plant increase for the
f o l l o w i n g r e a s o n s:
S e p t a g e contributes t o g r i t , s c u m , a n d s c r e e n i n g s.
T h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s in t h e s e p t a g e m a y be largely
r e m o v e d in primary sedimentation , increasing the amount
o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e. O n e p i l o t s t u d y found 5 5 t o 6 5 p e r-
cent removals of septage suspended solids ( 1 4 0 ), b u t
v e r y different values m i g h t o c c u r u n d e r o t h e r conditions.
I n b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s , s e p t a g e i n c r e a s e s t h e B O D5
load a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n , F u r t h e r m o r e,
septage may produce as much as twice the amount of sludge
p e r unit B O D5 r e m o v e d a s o r d i n a r y w a s t e w a t e r , since t h e
s e p t a g e h a s a h i g h r a t i o o f s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s t o -B O D
( 1 4 0 ). ^
Addition o f s e p t a g e increases t h e p h o s p h o r u s load a t a
treatment plant, F o r p l a n t s which m u s t m e e t e f f l u e n t
l i m i t s o n p h o s p h o r u s, t h e a d d i t i o n o f s e p t a g e w i l l
increase t h e n e c e s s a r y c h e m i c a l d o s e , T h u s, c o s t s a n d
t h e a m o u n t o f chemical s l u d g e will i n c r e a s e.
A t s o m e p l a n t s, s l u d g e t h i c k e n i n g a n d d e w a t e r i n g p r o p e r t i e s h a v e
b e e n d e g r a d e d by s e p t a g e , but t h e r e a r e f e w d a t a a v a i l a b l e o n t h e
extent of t h e p r o b l e m, and d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d at
d i f f e r e n t locations. A t S h r e w s b u r y , M a s s a c h u s e t t s, d e w a t e r i n g
difficulties w e r e e n c o u n t e r e d w h e n t h e s e p t a g e/s e w a g e h y d r a u l i c
r a t i o e x c e e d e d a b o u t 0 . 0 0 3 3 ( 1 4 0 ). Furthermore, problems
associated with bulking activated sludge may be related to
s e p t a g e ( 1 4 0 ). Bulking sludge has very poor thickening and
dewatering p r o p e r t i e s , T h e m e t a l s c o n t e n t of s e p t a g e m a y a l s o be
h i g h.
4 . 7.5 Backwash
4- 6 1
When designing a plant with filters , the following measures
should be taken to allow for backwash and associated solids:
METALS CONCENTRATIONS IN
SOLIDS FROM TREATMENT OF
COMBINED SEWER OVERFLOWS ( 142 )
Concentration ,
Metal mg /kg dry solids
4-62
4.8 References
1. Water Pollution Control Federation. MOP 8 Wastewater
Treatment Plant Design . Water Pollution Control
Federation. 1977.
P -289 ( 1978 )
4-63
13. Babbitt , H.E. Sewerage and Sewage Treatment. 6 th Edition
Wiley. 1947.
14. Smith , J . E . , Jr . " Ultimate Disposal of Sludges . "
Technical Workshop on Advanced Waste Treatment , Chapel
Hill, North Carolina. February 9 -10, 1971.
15. Prazink , J .A. " Process Control in the Real World." Deeds
and Data ( WPCF ). July 1978.
17. Dewante and Stowell and Brown and Caldwell. 1973 Study ,
Central Treatment Plant , County of Sacramento Final Report,
County of Sacramento, Sacramento, California. February
1974.
26. .
Colbaugh , J E . and A Liu . .
" Pure Oxygen and Diffused Air
Activated Sludge Studies at Hyperion " .
Presented at 48 th
Annual Conference of the California Water Pollution Control
Association, South Lake Tahoe, California .
April 14-16 ,
1976.
4-64
2 7. U S E P A. Characterization o f t h e Activated S l u d g e P r o c e s s
O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t. C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o ,
4 5 2 6 8. E P A -R 2-7 3/2 2 4, A p r i l 1 9 7 3.
2 8. W u h r m a n n, K. " H i g h- R a t e Activated S l u d g e Aeration a n d I t s
R e l a t i o n t o S t r e a m S a n i t a t i o n." S e w a g e a n d I n d u s t r i a l
W a s t e s. V o l. 2 6 , ( 1 ), ( 1 9 5 4 ).
2 9. Eckenfelder, W.W. W a t e r Q u a l i t y E n g i n e e r i n g f o r P r a c t i c i n g
E n g i n e e r s. B a r n e s & N o b l e , 1 9 7 0.
3 0. B r o w n a n d C a l d w e l l. W e s t P o i n t P i l o t P l a n t S t u d y , V o l. I I ,
A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e R e p o r t f o r Municipality o f M e t r o p o l i t a n
S e a t t l e. S e a t t l e, W a s h i n g t o n. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 8.
3 1. .
B e e r e , C W • / a n d J .F .
Malina .
Application of Oxygen
t o T r e a t W a s t e F r o m M i l i t a r y FieTd I n s t a l l a t i o n s: An
Evaluation o f a n A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e P r o c e s s E m p l o y i n g
Downflow Bubble Contact Aeration ”
.
P a r t I I , F i n a l R e p o r t,
U n i v e r s i t y of T e x a s , A u s t i n , T e x a s 7 8 7 1 2 E H E - 7 4 0 - 0 1 ,
July 1974 .
3 2. S l e t t e n, R.S. a n d A. V i g a, W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t in C o l d
C l i m a t e s , R e p o r t t o U.S. A r m y C o l d R e g i o n s R e s e a r c h a n d
E n g i n e e r i n g L a b o r a t o r y , H a n o v e r, N e w H a m p s h i r e , 0 3 7 5 5.
1 9 7 5.
3 3. S a y i g h , B.A., a n d J .F. M a l i n a. "T e m p e r a t u r e E f f e c t s o n t h e
Activated S l u d g e P r o c e s s." J o u r n a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
Federation. V o l. 5 0, P 6 7 8, 1 9 7 8.
-
3 4. Middlebrooks, E.J ., a n d C .F. G a r l a n d , " Kinetics o f M o d e l
a n d F i e l d E x t e n d e d - A e r a t i o n W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t U n i t s."
J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 4 0, p 5 8 6
1 9 6 8.
3 5. G a r r e t t , M .T • t J r. " H y d r a u l i c C o n t r o l o f Activated S l u d g e
.
G r o w t h R a t e " S e w a g e a n d Industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 3 0, ( 3 ),
1 9 5 8.
3 6. O b a y a s h i , A.W ., B . W a s h i n g t o n , a n d C. L u e-H i n g. " N e t
S l u d g e Y i e l d s Obtained D u r i n g S i n g l e-S t a g e Nitrification
S t u d i e s a t C h i c a g o's W e s t -S o u t h w e s t T r e a t m e n t P l a n t."
P r o c e e d i n g s o f 3 2 n d Industrial W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e. M a y 1 0-
1 2, 1 9 7 7, P u r d u e U n i v e r s i t y , A n n A r b o r S c i e n c e, P
1 9 7 8.
-
7 5 9,
3 7. USEPA. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r N i t r o g e n C o n t r o l.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r , C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o, 4 5 2 6 8 , E P A-6 2 5/1- 7 5-
0 0 7, O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5.
4-6 5
39 . C h a p m a n, L C T D . .,
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High Dissolved
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.
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.
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40 . Miller, M A . .
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41 . Kalinske, A A . .
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42 . .
Parker, D S• / and M S M e r r i l l . .
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Federation . .
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- .
43 . Muck , R E . ., and . . .
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44 . Randall , C W•. r Jr . Discussion of "Temperature E f f e c t s
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45 . Gujer, and D W.
Jenkins . . "T h e C o n t a c t S t a b i l i z a t i o n
. — W a t e r—
Activated Sludge Process Oxygen Utilization , Sludge
Production, and Efficiency "
(1975 ) . iMill
" .yflaKaan n i it‘«
Research
Yiymmm T '( n
. Vol . 9 , 516 ,
4 -6 6
52 . Dick , R I . .
" Folklore in the Design of Final Settling
.
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.
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- .
53 . Mueller , J A , T J . . . .
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m e n t a l E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n - ASCE Vol 99 , .
( EE3 ) , .
P - 2 6 9 , ( J u n e 1 9 7 3 ) .
54 . USEPA
Treatment
. .
S t a t u s of Qxygen/Activated Sludge Wastewater
Municipal Seminar Publication, Cincinnati ,
Ohio 45268 . E P A 6 2 5 / 4 - 7 7- 0 0 3 October 1977 . .
55 . Anderson, M S . .
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~
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4-6 8
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90. Sommers , L.E. "Chemical Composition of Sewage Sludges and
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-
Metro Puget Sound Plants System Wide Volume , Part 1 , Basis
Report to Municipality o f Metropolitan
Seattle , Seattle, Washington 98101. 1976.
95. USEPA " Elemental Analysis of Wastewater Sludges from
33 Wastewater Treatment Plants in the United States."
Pretreatment and Ultimate Disposal of Wastewater Solids.
Office of Research and Development Cincinnati, Ohio 45268.
- - -
EPA 902/9 74 002, May 1974. ^
96 . Carun, G.F., and L.J. McCabe , "Problems Associated with
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Source Survey . Sacramento Regional County Sanitation
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101 . S t e r n, L. "T h e G r e a t Cadium C o n t r o v e r s y." S l u d g e M a g a z i n e.
.
V o l 1 , ( 2 ), M a r c h/A p r i l 1 9 7 8.
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.
and Biological Quality of Municipal Sludge" Recycling
Treated Municipal Wastewater and Sludge Through Forest
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P e n n s y l v a n i a-S t a t e University P r e s s. P 2 6, ( 1 9 7 3 ).
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1 0 3. O h a r a , G .T. , S . K . R a k s i t , a n d D. R . O l s o n. "S l u d g e
D e w a t e r i n g S t u d i e s a t H y p e r i o n T r e a t m e n t P l a n t. " Journal
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P r o c e e d i n g s , S l u d g e H a n d l i n g a n d D i s p o s a l S e m i n a r, T o r o n t o,
O n t a r i o, 1 9 7 4. Environmental P r o t e c t i o n S e r v i c e ( C a n a d a )7
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1 0 6. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. S e w a g e S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t
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1 0 8. M i c h i g a n W a t e r R e s o u r c e s C o m m i s s i o n. "Monitoring for
P o l y c h l o r i n a t e d B i p h e n y l s in t h e A q u a t i c E n v i r o n m e n t. "
1 9 7 3.
109 . American Society of Civil Engineers and Water Pollution
C o n t r o l Federation. M a n u a l o f Practice 8 S e w a g e T r e a t m e n t
P l a n t Design. 1 9 5 9 E d i t i o n, ( 1 9 7 2 p r i n t i n g ).
4- 7 1
113 . V o l p e, G .J . "Static Screen and Rotostrainer Screenings
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t o S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l C o u n t y S a n i t a t i o n D i s t r i c t.
"
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.
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S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
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,
5 1s t A n n u a l C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n,
, ,
A n a h e i m California O c t o b e r 3 , 1 9 7 4.
120. Questionnaire for San Francisco Bay Region Wastewater
S o l i d s S t u d y , O a k l a n d , California 9 4 6 1 1 , 1 9 7 7.
121. M a t h e w s , W.W. 1 9 5 7 O p e r a t o r s' F o r u m , W . D. I t a t f i e l d ,
L e a d e r. S e w a g e a n d I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e s. V o l. 3 0 , A p r i l
1 9 5 8.
122 . USEPA. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r S u l f i d e C o n t r o l in
Sanitary Sewerage Systems. Technology T r a n s f e r,
C i n c i n n a t i, O h i o. 4 5 2 6 8. E P A 6 2 5/1 -7 4-0 0 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 4.
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1 9 3 5.
4-7 2
125 . D r a g o, J . A . I n t e r n a l M e m o r a n d u m o n S i t e V i s i t t o H a m p t o n
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W a l n u t C r e e k , C a l i f o r n i a 9 4 5 9 6. 1 9 7 6.
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.
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4- 74
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
Chapter 5. Thickening
September 1979
CHAPTER 5
THICKENING
5.1 Introduction
The p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r is t o p r o v i d e t h e r e a d e r with
r a t i o n a l d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i n g information o n which t o b a s e
decisions about cost-effective thickening p r o c e s s e s. Thickening
is o n l y one p a r t o f the wastewater solids treatment and disposal
s y s t e m and must be integrated into the overall treatment process ,
s o t h a t p e r f o r m a n c e f o r b o t h liquid and s o l i d s t r e a t m e n t is
o p t i m i z e d and total c o s t is minimized ( 1- 3 ).
5 . 1.1 Definition
Thickening is defined in this c h a p t e r as removal of water from
s l u d g e t o achieve a volume reduction . The resulting material is
still fluid.
5 . 1.2 Purpose
5 . 1.3 P r o c e s s Evaluation
• Solids concentration a n d v o l u m e t r i c f l o w r a t e o f t h e
feed s t r e a m ;
5- 1
• Chemical d e m a n d and c o s t if chemicals a r e e m p l o y e d ;
Thickening i s a c c o m p l i s h e d in s e d i m e n a t i o n b a s i n s ; g r a v i t y ,
flotation a n d c e n t r i f u g a l t h i c k e n e r s ; a n d i n m i s c e l l a n e o u s
facilities such a s s e c o n d a r y anaerobic digesters , elutriation
basins , and sludge lagoons.
5 -2
5 . 2.2 Secondary Sedimentation
5.3 G r a v i t y Thickeners
5.3.1 Introduction
TABLE 5- 1
Advantages Disadvantages
5 . 3.2 Theory
5 -3
Coarse m i n e r a l s t h i c k e n a s p a r t i c u l a t e ( n o n f 1o c c u1e n t )
suspensions .
M u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s , h o w e v e r, a r e u s u a l l y
flocculent suspensions that behave differently (12 ) .
Detailed, comprehensiveanalysis of current gravity thickening
theory for municipal wastewater sludges i s beyond the scope
of this manual; those desiring such detail should consult
Design and Operational C r i t e r i a for Thickening of Biological
Sludges ( 13 ) .
A short descriptive summary of current theory
follows ( 12 ) .
OVERFLOW INFLOW
UNDERFLOW
Ci Cb Cu
SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
IN THICKENER
FIGURE 5- 1
F i g u r e 5 -1 s h o w s a t y p i c a l s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e f o r
municipal wastewater sludges within a continuously operating
gravity thickener .
Sludge moving into the thickener partially
disperses i n water i n the sedimentation zone and p a r t i a l l y flows
as a density current t o the bottom of the sedimentation zone .
T h e s o l i d p h a s e o f t h e s l u d g e, b o t h d i s p e r s e d a n d i n t h e d e n s i t y
current, creates floes that settle on top of the thickening
zone . Floes i n the thickening zone lose t h e i r individual
character . They have mutual contacts and thus become a p a r t o f
5-4
the matrix of solids c o m p r e s s e d by t h e pressure o f t h e overlying
s o l i d s. The d i s p l a c e d w a t e r f l o w s u p w a r d t h r o u g h c h a n n e l s in
the solids matrix .
FIGURE 5- 2
5-5
BAFFLE
HANDRAILING SUPPORTS
INFLUENT
PIPE EFFLUENT
TURNTABLE WEIR
1" GROUT
BRIDGE
z /
MAX. WATER SURFACE
1'3" MIN.
EFFLUENT
LAUNDER
:v
•
pj»
| *
T<
INFLUENT
BAFFLE
TOP OF TANK
2
i -
’• i.
J,
D m
m
cn
*
Mi DRIVE
CAGE
f
i>
x H
m
/
2%' **
.»
•
12”
dlr - ytZ,
i,; • n
2" GROUT
\
ADJUSTABLE
'
S <r SCRAPER SQUEEGEES
y BLADES
r/a" BLADE /
/
SLUDGE
CLEARANCE SLUfWJ HOPPER
PIPE
1*;
1 f t = 0.305 m
1 in = 2.54 c m HOPPER
SCRAPERS
FIGURE 5- 3
5- 6
TABLE 5- 2
3
TYPICAL GRAVITY THICKENER SURFACE AREA DESIGN CRITERIA
Influent Expected
solids underflow
concentration , concentration , Mass loading ,
Type of sludge percent solids percent solids lb/sq ft/hr*3 Reference
.
II
-
Separate sludges:
Primary (PRI)
Trickling filter (TF )
2
1
-
-
7
4
5 - 61 0 0.8
0.3
- 1.2
- 0.4
16
16
Rotating biological
contactor (RBC)
Waste activated sludge
1 - 3.5 2 - 5 0.3 - 0.4 16
(WAS)
WAS air 0.5 1.5 2 - 3 0.1 - 0.3 16
WAS
WAS
oxygen
(extended
0.5 - 1.5 2 - 3 0.1 - 0.3 17
Tertiary sludge:
High lime 3 - 4.5 12 - 15 1.0 - 2.5 18 , 20
Low 1 ime
Alum
3 - 4.5 10 - 12 0.4 - 1.25 18 , 20
Other sludges:
PRI + WAS 0.5 - 1.5 4 - 6 0.2 - 0.6 20
2.5 - 4.0 4 -7 0.3 - 0.7 16
PRI + TF 2 -6 5 - 98 0.5 - 0.8 16
PRI
PRI
+ RBC
+ iron
2 -26 5 -4 0.4 - 0.7
0.25
16
18
PRI + low lime 5 7 0.8 18
PRI + high lime 7.5 12 1.0 18
PRI + (WAS + iron) 1.5 3 0.25 18
PRI + (WAS + alum) 0.2 - 0.4 4.5 -
6.5 0.5 -0.7 20
(PRI + iron) + TF
(PRI + iron) + WAS
0.4 - 0.6
1.8
6.5
3.6
-8.5 0.6 - 0.8
0.25
20
18
WAS + TF 0.5 - 2.5 2 - 4 0.1 -0.3 16
Anaerobically digested
PRI + WAS 4 8 0.6 18
Anaerobically digested
PRI + (WAS + iron) 4 6 0.6 18
-
5 7
5.3.3.2 Hydraulic Loading
Hydraulic loading is important for two reasons. First , it
is related to mass loading. The quantity of solids entering
the thickener is equal to the product of the flow rate and
solids concentration. Since there are definite upper limits for
mass loading , there will therefore be some upper limit for
hydraulic loading. Secondly , high hydraulic loading causes
excessive carryover of solids in the thickener effluent.
Typical maximum hydraulic loading rates of 25 to 33 gallons per
square foot per hour ( 1,200 to 1 ,600 l/m /hr) have been used in
the past but mainly for primary sludges. For sludges such as ^
-
waste activated or similar types , much lower hydraulic loading
rates , 4 to 8 gallons per square foot per hour ( 200 to 400 l/n//
hr ) are more applicable ( 16 ). Table 5 -3 gives some typical
operating results. Note that the hydraulic loading rate in
gallons per square foot per hour can be converted to an average
upward tank velocity in feet per hour by dividing by 7.48.
TABLE 5- 3
dValues shown are average values only. For example , at Port Huron , MI the hydraulic
loading varies between 7 to 9 gal/sq ft/hr ( 300-400 l/m 2/hr) , the thickened solids in
the underflow between 4.0 and 6.0 percent solids ; and the suspended solids in the
overflow , from 100 to 10 ,000 mg/1.
bP = Primary sludge
TF = Trickling filter sludge
WAS Waste-activated sludge 1 gal/sq ft/hr = 40.8 l/m' Vhr
A1 = Alum sludge 1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
^
Using the typical maximum hydraulic loading rates mentioned
above , maximum velocities for primary sludges are 3.3 to 4.4 feet
per hour ( 1.0 to 1.3 m/hr ) and for waste activated sludge are
0.5 to 1.1 feet/hour ( 0.2 to 0.3 m/hr ).
-
Several researchers have related overflow rates to odor control ,
but odor is due to excessive retention of solids and can be
better controlled by removing the thickened sludge from the
thickener at an increased frequency.
-
5 8
of torque for a circular drive unit is based on the simple
cantilevered beam equation represented by Equation 5-1:
T = WR 2 ( 5-1 )
where:
T = torque, ft/lb
W uniform load — this is sludge specific,
lb/ft ( see Table 5- 4 )
R tank radius , ft
TABLE 5- 4
Truss arm W ,
Sludge type lb/fta
5-9
liquid and sedimentation zone ), and compression and s t o r a g e zone
( thickening zone ).
TABLE 5- 5
Running torque -
this is the torque value calculated from equation 5 1 -
Alarm torque -
torque setting , normally 120 percent of running , which tells the operator
that there is something wrong
-
Shut off torque
the mechanism
-
torque setting , normally 140 percent of running, which would shut off
. . . .
.
.
Peak torque -torque value , determined by the supplier of the drive unit. This torque
is provided only for an instant and is normally 200 percent of the running torque
Free Board
T a n k f r e e b o a r d i s t h e vertical distance b e t w e e n t a n k l i q u i d
surface and t o p o f vertical t a n k wall , It is a function o f t a n k
diameter , t y p e of bridge structure--half o r full bridge--t y p e of
influent p i p i n g a r r a n g e m e n t , a n d w h e t h e r o r n o t s k i m m i n g is
provided . It will u s u a l l y be a t least 2 t o 3 feet ( .6 t o 9 m ) .
a l t h o u g h free- board distances u p t o 7 t o 1 0 feet ( 2 t o 3 m ) have
been used by some designers .
Settling Z o n e
This zone encompasses the theoretical zone of clear liquid and
sedimentation z o n e a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 5 - 1 . T y p i c a l l y 4 t o
6 feet ( 1 . 2 t o 1 . 8 m ) is necessary , with the g r e a t e r depth being
f o r t y p i c a l l y d i f f i c u l t s l u d g e s , such a s w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d o r
nitrified s l u d g e .
Compression and S t o r a g e Zone
Sufficient tank volume must be provided s o that the solids will
be retained for t h e period o f time required t o thicken t h e s l u r r y
t o the required concentration. In addition , sufficient s t o r a g e
is necessary t o c o m p e n s a t e for fluctuations in solids loading
rate .
A n o t h e r consideration is t h a t g a s m a y be p r o d u c e d b e c a u s e o f
anaerobic conditions o r denitrification , Development o f these
conditions d e p e n d s o n the t y p e o f s l u d g e , liquid t e m p e r a t u r e ,
and the length o f time s l u d g e is k e p t in the thickener , Plant
o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e h a s indicated t h a t t h e t o t a l v o l u m e in
this zone should not exceed 24 hours of maximum s l u d g e wasting .
5-1 0
--
' '’- '’-***''"''*'-
yfKiWV y
5 . 3 .3 . 6 Other Considerations
Lifting Devices
O p t i m u m f u n c t i o n i n g o f a t h i c k e n e r mechanism c a n b e i n h i b i t e d
by heavy accumulation of solids due to power outages or
i n c o n s i s t e n t a c c u m u l a t i o n s o f heavy o r v i s c o u s s l u d g e s.
T h i c k e n e r s c a n b e p r o v i d e d with either a m a n u a l o r a n automatic
lifting device that will raise the mechanism above these
accumulations. T h i s d e v i c e h a s n o t b e e n considered n e c e s s a r y i n
the majority of municipal wastewater treatment plants except
in applications involving very dense sludges ( for example,
t h e r m a l l y- c o n d i t i o n e d s l u d g e o r p r i m a r y p l u s l i m e s l u d g e ).
Skimmers
S e v e r a l y e a r s a g o, i t w a s r a r e f o r s k i m m e r s t o b e i n s t a l l e d
o n g r a v i t y t h i c k e n e r s. T o d a y i t is c o m m o n p r a c t i c e t o s p e c i f y
s k i m m i n g a n d b a f f l i n g f o r new p l a n t s. T h e r e a s o n f o r t h e c h a n g e
is the increased processing of biological sludges and the
i n h e r e n t f l o a t i n g s c u m l a y e r associated w i t h t h o s e s l u d g e s.
Polymer Addition
A d d i t i o n o f p o l y m e r t o g r a v i t y thickener f e e d h a s b e e n p r a c t i c e d
a t s e v e r a l p l a n t s ( 2 3 , 2 4 ). R e s u l t s indicate t h a t t h e addition
of p o l y m e r s i m p r o v e s solids c a p t u r e b u t h a s little o r n o e f f e c t
o n i n c r e a s i n g s o l i d s u n d e r f l o w concentration. ( S e e C h a p t e r 8 f o r
further discussion) .
Thickener Supernatant
——
W* W W “W WWK 1 w
T h i c k e n e r s u p e r n a t a n t o r overflow is n o r m a l l y r e t u r n e d t o e i t h e r
t h e p r i m a r y o r s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s. A s i n d i c a t e d i n
T a b l e 5- 3 , t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e o v e r f l o w , a s m e a s u r e d b y t o t a l
s o l i d s , c a n v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y. T h e l i q u i d t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m
must be sized to handle the strongest recycled load. ( See
C h a p t e r 1 6 f o r f u r t h e r discussion ).
Pickets
Stirring with pickets in gravity thickeners is thought to
h e l p c o n s o l i d a t e s l u d g e in t h e t h i c k e n i n g z o n e ( 2 5 ). H o w e v e r,
t h e s u p p o r t r a k e mechanism u s u a l l y c a n p r o v i d e sufficient s l u d g e
m i x i n g t o m a k e s p e c i a l p i c k e t s u n n e c e s s a r y.
5-11
Feed Pump and Piping
The following guidelines are applicable for feed pump and piping :
A d e s i g n e r h a s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t it is n e c e s s a r y t o thicken
a maximum of 2 , 7 0 0 p o u n d s ( 1 , 225 kg ) p e r d a y of waste s l u d g e,
( d r y weight ). The s l u d g e consists of 1 ,0 8 0 p o u n d s ( 4 9 0 kg ) of
p r i m a r y a t 4 . 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s a n d 1 ,6 2 0 p o u n d s ( 7 3 5 k g ) o f
activated a t 0 . 8 p e r c e n t s o l i d s , Wasting from the primary
c l a r i f i e r w i l l b e initiated b y a t i m e c l o c k a n d t e r m i n a t e d
by a sludge density meter when the s l u d g e concentration d r o p s
below a given value. W a s t e-activated s l u d g e will be pumped from
the final clarifier 24 hours p e r d a y at 1 7 gallons p e r minute
( 6 4 1 /min ).
T h e r e a r e t w o p o s s i b l e t h i c k e n i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s, The first
a l t e r n a t i v e i s t h i c k e n i n g o f s t r a i g h t w a s t e - activated s l u d g e
w i t h a m a x i m u m i n f l u e n t s o l i d s concentration o f 0 . 8 p e r c e n t
5 -1 2
solids. At maximum conditions, the designer has selected a mass
loading o f 0 . 2 p o u n d s per s q u a r e foot p e r hour ( 1 . 4 7 kg /m /hr )
and will design for a 2.0 p e r c e n t solids in the underflow.
^
T h e s e c o n d alternative i s t h i c k e n i n g a c o m b i n a t i o n o f w a s t e -
activated s l u d g e a n d p r i m a r y s l u d g e , The d e n s i t y m e t e r o n
the primary clarifier will be set t o allow the sludge pump t o
continue as l o n g a s the solids concentration i s g r e a t e r than or
e q u a l t o 4.0 p e r c e n t solids , The primary s l u d g e pump will b e
equipped with a variable s p e e d controller and has a maximum rated
pumping capacity of 1 0 gallons per minute ( 38 1/min ).
Hydraulic Loading
( ( 1 7 + 1 0 ) g a l/ min ) x ( 6 0 min/hr )) =
2 7 0 s q ft ( 25.1 m 2 )
6 gal/sq ft/hr
Since continuous o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e h a n d l i n g s y s t e m i s
essential , t w o gravity thickeners , each c a p a b l e of handling the
s l u d g e f l o w , will b e p r o v i d e d , T h e m i n i m u m r e q u i r e d area
is 3 3 7 . 5 s q u a r e f e e t ( 3 1 . 4 m 2 ) , which is e q u i v a l e n t t o a
2 0 . 7-foot ( 6 . 2 m ) diameter unit , In this size range , equipment
manufacturers have standardized on 1- foot ( 0.3 m ) increments ;
therefore , a 21-foot ( 6.3 m ) diameter , 346 -square-foot ( 32.2 m 2 )
unit will be specified.
5-1 3
Torque Requirements
T h e 3 0 p o u n d s p e r f o o t ( 4 5 k g /m ) v a l u e will b e u s e d f o r t h e t r u s s
a r m l o a d i n g ( T a b l e 5 - 4 ). F r o m Equation 5-1 , t h e r u n n i n g t o r q u e
r e q u i r e d is:
3
Qfoo t n d S
'
,
x ( 1 0 5 f e e t ) 2 = 3 , 3 0 7 f t -l b ( 4 6 5 m -k g )
-
T h e d e s i g n e r w i l l s p e c i f y a minimum r u n n i n g t o r q u e c a p a c i t y
o f 3 , 3 0 7 f o o t p o u n d s ( 4 6 5 m - k g ). T h e o t h e r t o r q u e s ( a l a r m ,
s h u t -o f f , and p e a k ) w o u l d b e s p e c i f i e d a s in T a b l e 5 - 5.
Tank Depth
F r o m p a s t e x p e r i e n c e , t h e d e s i g n e r has s e l e c t e d a t y p i c a l d e p t h
of 5 f e e t ( 1 . 5 4 m ) f o r t h e s e t t l i n g zone.
T o calculate t h e d e p t h o f t h e thickening z o n e , it is a s s u m e d t h a t
t h e a v e r a g e solids concentration in t h e z o n e w o u l d be 1 . 4 p e r c e n t
solids and t h a t one-d a y s t o r a g e w o u l d b e utilized.
T h e f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s w e r e m a d e in o r d e r t o arrive a t this
p e r c e n t a g e:
O n l y w a s t e- activated s l u d g e w o u l d b e thickened .
1 , 6 2 0 l b o f w a s t e- activated s l u d g e
5.36 ft ( 1.61 m )
( 0 . 0 1 4 )( 8 . 3 4 )( 7 . 4 8 g a l/c u f t )( 3 4 6 s q ft )
5- 1 4
T h e t o t a l vertical side -w a l l d e p t h o f t h e g r a v i t y thickener i s
t h e sum o f t h e f r e e b o a r d , s e t t l i n g z o n e , a n d r e q u i r e d t h i c k e n i n g
zone . I n this c a s e , it w o u l d be 1 2 . 3 6 feet ( 3 . 7 7 m ). A t this
time , n o a l l o w a n c e h a s b e e n m a d e f o r t h e d e p t h of t h e c o n e h e i g h t
o f t h e thickener which would reduce s l i g h t l y ( 2 1 inches [.2 7 m ]
the vertical side wall depth of the thickening zone when
.
s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e t h i c k e n i n g zone d e p t h
5 . 3.5 Cost
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t of p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s
Q = p l a n t d e s i g n f l o w in million g a l l o n s o f
w a s t e w a t e r flow p e r d a y
T h e a s s o c i a t e d c o s t s i n c l u d e t h o s e f o r e x c a v a t i o n, p r o c e s s
piping , equipment , c o n c r e t e , a n d s t e e l , I n addition , s u c h c o s t s
a s t h o s e for a d m i n i s t r a t i n g and engineering a r e e q u a l t o 0 . 2 2 6 4
times E q u a t i o n 5- 2 ( 2 7 ).
5- 1 5
area of 1 ,000 square feet (93 m 2), a designer would include a
yearly power usage of 4 ,500 kWhr (16.2 GJ ) in the cost analysis.
-
Figure 5 5 does not include accessories such as pumps or polymer
feed systems.
7
6
5
4
o3 3
o
cc 2
o
LL
CO
cc
3 1,000 .
c
o 9
X 8
7
6
CC
o 5
5 4
< 3
3
2
2
<
2
—
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 4
5 16-
In o n e flotation m e t h o d , dissolved air flotation , s m a l l g a s
bubbles ( 50-1 0 0 p ) are g e n e r a t e d as a result o f the precipita -
t i o n o f a g a s f r o m a solution s u p e r s a t u r a t e d w i t h t h a t g a s.
Supersaturation occurs when air is dispersed through t h e sludge
in a closed , high pressure tank. When the sludge is removed from
t h e t a n k and e x p o s e d t o a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , t h e p r e v i o u s l y-
dissolved air leaves solution in the form of fine bubbles.
100,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
Z
O 3
ti
2
Z«
O I!
O ^
10,000
cr ^ 9
LU 5 8
5^ 7
o
CL - 6
5
-i
<
I JO
4
Z 3
z
<
2
1,000 I
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10,000 2 3 4 6 8 7 8 9 100,000
FIGURE 5- 5
In v a c u u m f l o t a t i o n , s u p e r s a t u r a t i o n occurs w h e n t h e s l u d g e
is s u b j e c t e d i n i t i a l l y a t a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , t o a vacuum
of approximately 9 i n c h e s ( 2 3 0 mm ) o f mercury in a closed
tank ( 3 5 , 36 ).
5-1 7
10,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
V)
CO
2
O
“O
H
CO
°
a 1,000
8
9
<
3
Z
Z
<
7
6
5
4
«
—
3
J LLLJJ
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8
FIGURE 5- 6
TABLE 5- 6
TABLE 5- 7
Advantages Disadvantages
5.4.1.1 Theory
In t h e DAF t h i c k e n i n g p r o c e s s , air is a d d e d a t p r e s s u r e s in
excess o f a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e either t o t h e i n c o m i n g s l u d g e
stream o r t o a s e p a r a t e liquid stream. When pressure is reduced
and turbulence is created , air in excess of that required for
saturation at atmospheric p r e s s u r e leaves the solution as v e r y
small bubbles of 5 0 t o 1 0 0 y m in diameter. The bubbles adhere t o
the s u s p e n d e d particles or become enmeshed in the solids matrix .
Since t h e average density of t h e solids-air aggregate is less
than that of water , the a g g l o m e r a t e floats to t h e surface. The
floated solids build t o a d e p t h of several inches at the water
s u r f a c e. W a t e r d r a i n s f r o m t h e f l o a t and a f f e c t s s o l i d s
concentration. Float is continuously removed b y skimmers ( 35 ).
Good solids flotation occurs with a solids-air a g g r e g a t e specific
gravity of 0.6 t o 0 . 7.
DAF t h i c k e n e r s c a n be r e c t a n g u l a r o r circular , c o n s t r u c t e d
of concrete or steel , and can o p e r a t e in the f u l l , partial , o r
r e c y c l e pressurization modes.
5- 19
Fullf Partial and Recycle Pressurization
T h e r e a r e t h r e e w a y s i n w h i c h a D A F s y s t e m c a n b e o p e r a t e d.
T h e f i r s t m e t h o d i s c a l l e d " f u l l o r t o t a l p r e s s u r i z a t i o n."
With this d e s i g n , t h e entire sludge flow is p u m p e d t h r o u g h t h e
p r e s s u r e r e t e n t i o n t a n k , w h e r e t h e s l u d g e is s a t u r a t e d with
air and t h e n p a s s e d t h r o u g h a pressure reduction valve before
entering t h e flotation c h a m b e r. A distribution device is used t o
dissipate inlet energy and t h u s t o p r e v e n t turbulence and limit
s h o r t c i r c u i t i n g. T h e p r i m a r y a d v a n t a g e o f p r e s s u r i z i n g t h e
t o t a l f l o w i s t h a t it minimizes t h e s i z e o f t h e f l o t a t i o n
c h a m b e r , a significant p a r t o f t h e capital c o s t. H o w e v e r , t h e
a d v a n t a g e of a smaller c h a m b e r m a y be partially offset by the
c o s t o f a higher head feed pump , l a r g e r p r e s s u r e vessel , a n d more
expensive operation. O p e r a t i o n a l problems m a y result from floe
shearing a n d clogging when s l u d g e is p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e p r e s s u r e
regulating valve.
T h e second method o f operation is called " partial pressuriza-
tion." With this design only p a r t o f the s l u d g e flow is p u m p e d
t h r o u g h the p r e s s u r e retention t a n k. After pressurization t h e
u n p r e s s u r i z e d a n d p r e s s u r i z e d s t r e a m s a r e combined a n d m i x e d
before t h e y e n t e r t h e flotation chamber. I n this a r r a n g e m e n t
the pressurizing p u m p and p r e s s u r e vessel a r e smaller and t h e
process is not as susceptible to flow variations as is total
pressurization; this is t h e case w h e n the necessary pump c o n t r o l s
a r e included in the d e s i g n. T h e size o f the flotation c h a m b e r
w o u l d be t h e same as t h a t for a total pressurization s y s t e m.
T h e third method is called " recycle pressurization." H e r e, a
portion of the clarified liquor ( subnatant ) or an alternate
source containing relatively little suspended matter is
pressurized. O n c e saturated with air , it is combined a n d mixed
w i t h t h e u n t h i c k e n e d s l u d g e b e f o r e it is r e l e a s e d i n t o t h e
flotation c h a m b e r.
T h e major a d v a n t a g e of this s y s t e m over t h e total and partial
pressurization s y s t e m is t h a t it minimizes high s h e a r conditions ,
a n i m p o r t a n t p a r a m e t e r w h e n d e a l i n g w i t h f l o c c u l e n t-t y p e
s l u d g e s. Another advantage arises when wastewater sludge
s t r e a m s c o n t a i n i n g stringy materials are thickened. T h e recycle
pressurization system eliminates clogging problems with the
pressurization pump , retention tank , and p r e s s u r e release valve.
F o r t h e a b o v e reasons, r e c y c l e pressurization s y s t e m s a r e t h e
m o s t c o m m o n l y used u n i t s in t h e United S t a t e s. F i g u r e 5 - 7 s h o w s
a typical r e c t a n g u l a r steel tank installation.
I n this s y s t e m , t h e p r e s s u r e r e t e n t i o n t a n k m a y b e e i t h e r
u n p a c k e d o r p a c k e d ( m e a n i n g t h a t t h e t a n k is filled w i t h a
packing material t o c r e a t e turbulence ). T h e use of either is
d e p e n d e n t principally o n t h e s o u r c e of t h e pressurized recycle
f l o w.
The pressurized recyle flow can be obtained either from the
subnatant stream o r , typically , from the s e c o n d a r y effluent, T h e
a d v a n t a g e s o f u s i n g s e c o n d a r y effluent are that it results in a
5 -2 0
much cleaner stream ( low suspended solids and low grease content )
and allows the use of a packed pressure retention tank. A packed
tank is smaller than a packless tank , has lower associate <
capital cost , and provides for a more efficient saturation of the ^
liquid stream. In this case , less air is required to achieve the
same level of liquid saturation as a packless tank and Povf ® r
requirements are lower. Packed tanks may , however , even tually
require cleaning , and the use of secondary plant effluent will
significantly increase the flow through the secondary treatment
system , thereby increasing pumping costs and possibly affecting
the performance of the secondary clarifier.
TSeW
--
W V C
FIGURE 5- 7
Rectangular or Circular
es
The use of rectangular DAF thickeners has a number of advant
over circular units in float removal. First , skimmers can ea
be closely spaced ; secondly , they can be designed to skirr
^ -
.^ the
^
ily
entire surface. Because of the side-walls , float does not ea ^
-
5 21
move around the end of the skimmers , Bottom sludge flights are
usually driven by a s e p a r a t e unit and , hence , c a n be o p e r a t e d
independently of the skimmer flights , Water level in the tank
can be changed readily b y adjusting the end weir. This permits
changing the depth of water and flight submergence to accommodate
c h a n g e s in float weight and displacement , which a f f e c t the
ability t o remove this material from the unit.
The main a d v a n t a g e o f circular units is their lower c o s t in
terms of both structural concrete and mechanical equipment . For
e x a m p l e , t w o 6 0 - foot ( 1 8 m ) diameter circular units are the
equivalent of three 20- foot by 9 0- foot ( 6 m by 27 m ) rectangular
units. The rectangular units require approximately 1 1 percent
more structural concrete , as well as more drives and controls
which increase maintenance requirements.
Concrete or Steel
Steel t a n k s come completely assembled and o n l y require a concrete
foundation pad and piping and wiring hookups. Although equipment
purchase price is much higher for steel tanks , considerable field
l a b o r and e x p e n s i v e e q u i p m e n t installation are eliminated .
Structural and shipping problems limit steel DAF units t o the
^
smaller sizes ( 450 square feet [ 40.5 m ] or less for rectangular
units and 100 square feet [ 9 m ] for circular units ).
^
For a l a r g e installation requiring m u l t i p l e t a n k s or l a r g e
tanks, concrete tanks are more economical .
Feed Characteristics
The first step in designing a DAF thickener is to evaluate the
characteristics of the feed stream , The designer must evaluate
the t y p e of s l u d g e ( s ) t o be thickened and the approximate
q u a n t i t i e s of e a c h under various p l a n t loadings and m o d e s of
operation. If waste-activated sludge is to be thickened , the
expected range of sludge ages must be determined , since sludge
age can significantly affect DAF thickening performance ( 40 ).
Information is needed about the source of waste sludge and the
range of solids concentrations that can be expected . Also, there
should be an evaluation of any characteristic of the feed stream
that may affect air solubility — for example, concentration of
dissolved salts , and range of liquid temperatures.
5- 2 2
Surface Area
To calculate the effective surface area of a DAF thickener , a
designer must know the net solids load , solids surface loading
rate , and hydraulic surface loading rate.
TABLE 5- 8
Eugene, OR
Springdale, AR
P+TF
P+TF
1.25
2.5
5 ,000
20 ,000
0
7 6.5
-
4.5 5.0 500
200
43
43
Athol , MA A. 3.2 8 ,000 2 4.0 50 43
Westgate Fairfax, VA Ab 7.0 14 ,000 1-4 7.3 20 43
Warren, MI Ac 11 ,000 40 5.0 200 16
Frankenmuth, MI AC 0.58 5,000 0 3.0 750 14
AC 8 ,000 26 3.5- 5.5 90
Cinnaminso, NJ A 2.0 5 ,000 5 4.0 250 16
San Jose, CA P+ Ad 1.9 23 ,000 0 7.1 14
P+Ae 1.6 17 ,000 0 5.3 14
Boise / ID A 1.0 4 ,600 0 4.0 14
A 1.17 5 ,000 3 3.8 500 14
A 1.13 5 ,000 6 4.0 500 14
Levittorn, PA A 0.54 8 ,000 0 6.5 14
P+A 1.00 6 ,400 0 8.6 14
Xenia, OH A 4 ,000 30 -
2.5 3.0 100 16
Indianapolis, IN
Columbus, OH
P +A 10 ,000 30 -
3.5 4.2 -
100 1 ,000 16
a P
= Primary sludge K =3;
-
A = Was te ac tiva ted re
TF = Trickling filter sludge
^cConsiderable
Oxygen plant
brewery waste
—
dMNon canning season
eCanning season
5 -2 4
^afissassa-
"""a
8 800
7 700
—CD
t
TJ 6 E
1
*z
600
_
m
Q
J
o
5 500 S
H o
LU
< Q
cc z
H 4 400 LU
Z Qu
LU to
D
z m
O 3 300 H
O z
H <
< H
<
_
O
1 2 200 z
LL CD
D
00
1 100
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FIGURE 5- 8
5 -25
directly proportional to the quantity of solids entering the
thickener ( defined as g r o s s solids load in the p r e v i o u s section ).
F o r d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s , r e p o r t e d ratios r a n g e from
0.01 t o 0 . 4, with most s y s t e m s operating at a value under 0.1.
8 800
7 700
-o*
</
6 600
E
a c/5
Q
z
o
5 500 8
Q
LU
< Q
DC
z
4 400 £
CL
LU CO
u Z)
z C/5
O 3 300
u z
<
<
o
u
_ 2 200
<
z
CO
3
C/5
1 100
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FIGURE 5- 9
T h e a p p r o p r i a t e A/S ratio f o r a p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n is a
function o f t h e characteristics of t h e s l u d g e , p r i n c i p a l l y ,
t h e s l u d g e volume index ( 4 0 ), t h e p r e s s u r i z a t i o n s y s t e m s air
dissolving efficiency , and the distribution o f the g a s-liquid
mixture into the thickening tank. Figures 5-1 1 and 5-1 2 show the
effects of A/S o f float concentration and subnatant s u s p e n d e d
solids , with and without p o l y m e r addition.
Polymer Usage
5- 2 6
a t t a c h m e n t. Doubling the diameter or size of the particle can
result in a fourfold increase in the rise rate provided the
p r e v i o u s A/S r a t i o is m a i n t a i n e d. T h e s u r f a c e p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
solids may have to be altered before effective flotation can
o c c u r. Sludge particles can be surrounded by electrically
c h a r g e d l a y e r s t h a t d i s p e r s e t h e s e p a r t i c l e s in t h e l i q u i d p h a s e.
P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s c a n neutralize t h e c h a r g e , c a u s i n g t h e p a r t i c l e s
to coagulate so that air bubbles can attach to them for effective
f l o t a t i o n. T h u s , w i t h u s e o f p o l y m e r s , t h e f o l l o w i n g o p e r a t i n g
a d v a n t a g e s m a y o c c u r: t h e s i z e o f t h e D A F t h i c k e n e r m a y b e
reduced; solids capture may be imp roved, thus reducing the
a m o u n t o f solids r e c y c l e d b a c k t o t h e l i q u i d h a n d l i n g s y s t e m ; a n
e x i s t i n g , o v e r l o a d e d facility i n w h i c h p o l y m e r s a r e n o t b e i n g
u t i l i z e d m a y b e u p g r a d e d. T h e y a l s o a c t a s u r f a c t a n t, t h u s
a l l o w i n g b e t t e r a t t a c h m e n t o f a i r b u b b l e s.
TABLE 5- 10
3
REPORTED DAF THICKENER HYDRAULIC LOADING RATES
H y d r a u l i c l o a d i n g r a t e ( g p m /s q f t )
The m a j o r d i s a d v a n t a g e o f p o l y m e r s i s c o s t ( p o l y m e r c o s t,
operation and maintenance of polymer feed equipment ) when
c a l c u l a t e d o v e r t h e useful lifetime o f t h e p l a n t , I n addition ,
t h e a c t u a l a m o u n t r e q u i r e d i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e r m i n e until
f l o t a t i o n s t u d i e s c a n b e r u n o n t h e a c t u a l i n s t a l l a t i o n, I f
p o l y m e r s a r e t o b e used , it is best t o d e s i g n c o n s e r v a t i v e l y ,
so that the possibility of the exceptionally high polymer
d e m a n d n e e d e d t o k e e p m a r g i n a l o p e r a t i o n a t c a p a c i t y i s a v o i d e d.
T a b l e 5 -9 l i s t s c u r r e n t o p e r a t i n g r e s u l t s o f p l a n t s w i t h a n d
w i t h o u t p o l y m e r a d d i t i o n.
Pressurization S y s t e m
T h e a i r dissolution e q u i p m e n t , which consists of t h e pressuriza-
tion p u m p , a i r dissolution t a n k , a n d o t h e r . mechanical e q u i p m e n t ,
5-2 7
is the heart of a DAF thickener system. In sizing a pressuriza-
tion system , the designer must decide on an operating pressure
and a quantity of pressurized flow and must be aware of factors
affecting the performance of the system.
300
200
o>
E
Q
O
u
H
<
o
H
<
CO
3
CO
100
LEGEND
O WITHOUT POLYMER
WITH POLYMER
0
2 3 4 5
FIGURE 5- 10
Operating Pressure
Most commercial available pressurization systems operate at 40 to
80 psig ( 276 to 522 kN / m 2 ). For a given A/S ratio , the air
-
5 28
r e q u i r e d t o f l o a t t h e s l u d g e c a n b e o b t a i n e d by i n c r e a s i n g
t h e operating p r e s s u r e o f t h e s y s t e m t o dissolve more air, o r
holding a lower operating p r e s s u r e and increasing the volume o f
p r e s s u r i z e d flow.
£ 800
7 700
o
o»
to
TJ o E
6 600
o
to
o to
Q
a*
z
o
5 o o 500 8
O
< % Cfa o LU
Q
cr 4 O Q
cA o 400 g
Z CL
UJ y
& CO
U FLOAT D
z CLr
CONCENTRATION
00
o
u
3 H- 300
z
<
< <
SUBNATANT
3
u_
t SUSPENDED
200 Z
m
SOLIDS D
cn
1 100
*
0
0
i,
.02 .04 .06
j
.08
’.
.10
r
.12
5
.14 .16
1
.18 .20
1
.22
i
.24 . 26 .28
0
FIGURE 5- 11
In o n e s t u d y ( 4 0 ) , it w a s s h o w n t h a t t h e higher t h e operating
p r e s s u r e o f a flotation thickener s y s t e m , t h e lower the rise r a t e
of the sludge .
T h e r e a s o n f o r a h i g h e r rise r a t e a t 4 0 p s i g
^
( 2 7 6 k N/ m ) t h a n a t 6 0 o r 8 0 p s i g ( 4 1 4 o r 5 5 2 k N/m ) i s t h a t
t h e optimum b u b b l e size is predominant a t this lower operating
^
p r e s s u r e. This s t u d y c o n c l u d e s t h a t attempting t o raise the A/S
ratio by increasing t h e operating p r e s s u r e is detrimental t o t h e
t h i c k e n i n g p r o c e s s. T h e s e results are i m p o r t a n t in t h a t it will
be in t h e u s e r's b e s t interest t o o p e r a t e a t t h e lowest p r e s s u r e
p o s s i b l e. T h e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r h i g h e r h e a d p u m p s , l a r g e r a i r
c o m p r e s s o r s , a n d higher p r e s s u r e rated retention t a n k s raises t h e
initial c o s t o f t h e p r o c e s s a s well a s operating c o s t s.
Quantity of Pressurized Flow
F o r a D A F thickener t o w o r k effectively , t h e p r o p e r a m o u n t o f
a i r m u s t b e p r e s e n t f o r e a c h p o u n d o f s o l i d s t o be h a n d l e d
( A /S r a t i o ). T h e d e s i g n p r e s s u r i z e d f l o w s h o u l d b e b a s e d o n
t h e maximum g r o s s solids load t h a t t h e D A F thickener is designed
5 -2 9
to receive. For multiple units , each basin should have its own
independent pressurization system. This is especially important
to remember if the thickening system is designed to operate over
a wide range of influent solids concentrations and flows.
FIGURE 5- 12
5 -3 0
In practice , the actual amount of air dissolved for a g i v e n a i r -
N o r m a l l y a p r e s s u r e r e t e n t i o n t a n k is u s e d t o o p t i m i z e t h e
air - w a t e r interface for efficient air transfer in the shortest
detention time. Depending o n tank design ( p a c k e d t a n k , p a c k l e s s
tank , t a n k s with mechanical mixers, etc.) , efficiencies can r a n g e
from a s l o w a s 5 0 p e r c e n t t o o v e r 9 0 p e r c e n t , I t i s c u r r e n t
d e s i g n p r a c t i c e in t h e United S t a t e s t o s p e c i f y a minimum o f
8 5 t o 9 0 p e r c e n t efficiency.
5- 3 1
Adequate capacity t o thicken p e a k hourly waste s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n
is n e c e s s a r y .
In addition , p r o v i s i o n m u s t be m a d e t o h a n d l e
the sludge flow if a unit must be taken o u t of service. ( S e e
discussion in Chapter 2 ) .
Other Considerations
I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e s y s t e m d e s i g n considerations p r e v i o u s l y
discussed , t h e d e s i g n e r m u s t a l s o g i v e consideration t o f e e d
s l u d g e line sizing , thickened sludge r e m o v a l , bottom draw-off
piping , subnatant piping , pressurized flow piping , and controls.
Each o f these items is briefly discussed below.
Feed S l u d g e Line
Thickened S l u d g e Removal
T h e s u r f a c e skimmer brings t h e thickened s l u d g e o v e r the
d e w a t e r i n g beach a n d d e p o s i t s it in a s l u d g e h o p p e r. The
thickened s l u d g e must then be pumped t o the next p h a s e of t h e
solids handling s y s t e m. I n p u m p selection , it is i m p o r t a n t t o
r e m e m b e r t h a t air h a s b e e n entrained i n this s l u d g e b y t h e
flotation thickening process. P u m p s t h a t can air lock should
n o t be used ; p o s i t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t p u m p s a r e common in t h i s
application.
F o r p i p e s i z i n g and f i n a l p u m p s e l e c t i o n , c o n s i d e r t h a t t h e
thickened s l u d g e can reach concentrations in t h e r a n g e of t e n
percent . ( S e e C h a p t e r 1 4 for further discussion ).
B o t t o m S l u d g e D r a w Off
5- 3 2
-
This draw off is at the lowest point in the basin and therefore
could also be used as a basin drain , If a tee and drain valve is
installed on this line at the outside of the tank wall , draining
can take place , The line from the drain valve can go to the
plant's drain system.
Subnatant Line
Pipe sizing should be such that it can handle the maximum total
flow ( influent plus recycle ) without any appreciable head loss.
Pressurized Flow Piping
Because of the high pressure requirements of this flow , the
pressurization liquor is usually delivered to the pressure tank
-
by a high speed , closed impeller centrifugal pump. Piping must
be sized to handle the maximum liquid throughput rate of the
pressure tank selected.
Controls
The controls for a DAF thickener are dependent upon the system ,
the degree of automation required , and the equipment manufac
turer's design. They usually include , at a minimum , a pressure
-
controller for the pressure vessel and flow meters for the feed
and thickened sludge flows.
-
5 33
The maximum net hourly load ( actual amount of solids that must be
captured and removed per hour by the thickener ) is:
5- 34
After discussing the operating conditions with several DAF
t h i c k e n e r e q u i p m e n t s u p p l i e r s, t h e e n g i n e e r d e s i g n e d f o r a
maximum o f 237 g a l l o n s per minute ( 14.95 1/sec ) .
Thickened sludge flow rate The maximum hourly net solids load
w a s 5 0 4 p o u n d s p e r h o u r ( 2 2 8 . 6 k g / hr ) , At t h e minimum four
p e r c e n t s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n, t h e e x p e c t e d f l o w r a t e c a n b e
calculated a s follows:
S u b n a t a n t flow r a t e
This r a t e is equal t o the maximum total
flow into the tank — 237 gallons per minute ( 14.95 1/sec ) feed
plus 237 gallons per minute ( 14.95 1/sec ) r e c y c l e.
B a s e d o n s o l i d s l o a d i n g , t h e m i n i m u m thickener s u r f a c e a r e a
w a s c a l c u l a t e d t o b e 1 , 2 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 1 0 8 m 2 ). T h e t o t a l
maximum flow rate ( influent p l u s r e c y c l e ) was calculated t o be
4 7 4 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 1 , 7 9 4 1/ min ). T h e maximum h y d r a u l i c
surface loading r a t e would be:
1 , 200 sq ft =
2.53 g p m/sq ft ( 1.72 1/ sec/ m 2 )
474 gpm
N u m b e r of Units
Manufacturer' s Recommendations
Several r e p u t a b l e manufacturers o f DAF thickeners were contacted
for their comments o n the designer's calculations and proposed
applicat ion.
5.4. 3 Cost
5-3 5
d o c u m e n t s f o r t h e y e a r s 1 9 7 3-1 9 7 7 ( 27 ). A l t h o u g h t h e d a t a were
s c a t t e r e d , a r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s indicated t h e c a p i t a l c o s t c o u l d
be a p p r o x i m a t e d b y E q u a t i o n 5-3:
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t o f p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s;
Q = p l a n t d e s i g n flow in mil g a l w a s t e w a t e r flow p e r d a y .
The associated costs include, those for, excavation, process
piping , e q u i p m e n t , c o n c r e t e a n d s t e e l. I n addition , s u c h c o s t a s
those for administrating and engineering are equal to 0.2264
times E q u a t i o n 5-3 ( 27 ).
Staffing
F i g u r e 5-1 3 indicates a n n u a l m a n-h o u r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r o p e r a t i o n s
a n d maintenance. A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r a DAF thickener s u r f a c e area
o f 1 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 9 3 m 2 ) a d e s i g n e r w o u l d include 2 , 7 0 0 m a n-
h o u r s o f o p e r a t i o n and maintenance in t h e c o s t analysis.
Power
Figure 5-1 4 shows annual power consumption for a continuously
operating DAF thickener as a function of DAF thickener surface
area . A s a n e x a m p l e , for a D A F thickener s u r f a c e a r e a of
1 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 9 3 m 2 ) , a d e s i g n e r w o u l d include a y e a r l y
p o w e r u s a g e of 7 2 0 , 0 0 0 k W h r ( 2 , 5 9 2 GJ ) in t h e c o s t a n a l y s i s.
Figure 5 -1 4 does n o t include accessories such as p u m p s or polymer
feed s y s t e m s.
Maintenance Material C o s t
F i g u r e 5-1 5 s h o w s a c u r v e d e v e l o p e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g D A F thickener
maintenance material cost as a function of DAF thickener
s u r f a c e a r e a. A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r D A F thickener s u r f a c e a r e a of
1 ,000 s q u a r e feet ( 9 3 m 2 ), a d e s i g n e r w o u l d estimate a y e a r l y
m a t e r i a l s c o s t o f $ 2 7 5. Since t h i s n u m b e r is b a s e d o n a J u n e
1 9 7 5 c o s t , it m u s t be adjusted t o t h e c u r r e n t d e s i g n p e r i o d .
5 . 5 .1 Introduction
The concept of using centrifuges for thickening municipal
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s ( w a s t e-activated s l u d g e ) w a s f i r s t considered
in t h e United S t a t e s in t h e l a t e 1 9 3 0's ( 4 9 ). A t t h a t time , d i s c
5-3 6
nozzle centrifuges were used. Early installations used machines
developed for industrial processing , Equipment manufacturers
did not appreciate that the composition of municipal wastewater
sludges is extremely variable from plant to plant and within a
plant , and that most wastewater treatment facilities provided
little , if any , of the preventive maintenance common in
industrial applications.
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
d6
O 2
DC
o
LL
C/5 1,000
DC 9
8
O 7
X 6
5
DC 4
O
5 3
<
D
<
100
9
8
7
6
5
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 13
-
5 37
support systems (chemical conditioning and chemical feed systems ,
pumps , and e l e c t r i c a l controls ) , Today , more sophisticatd
machines are being built that require less power and attention
and produce less noise .
9
5 8
7
o 6
CD
00 5
I! 4
-C 3
2
_c
1 , 000,000
z 9
O 8
7
H
Q 6
.
5 5
D
CO 4
Z
o 3
O
CL
IU 2
s
o
CL
< 100,000
D 9
Z 8
Z 7
6
-
< I
5
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9100 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 14
7
6
5
4
CO
3
CO
o 2
T>
h-
CO
co
o 1 ,000
9
CJ
8
7
< 6
3
Z
<
5-
4
-
3
2 -
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 ,0 0 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 15
-
5 39
5 0 m u n i c i p a l i t i e s ( 3 7 ). T a b l e 5 - 1 1 lists t h e a d v a n t a g e s and
disadvantages o f a disc nozzle as compared t o o t h e r thickening
systems . Figure 5-1 6 shows a typical disc nozzle centrifuge.
TABLE 5- 11
Advantages Disadvantages
Yields highly clarified centrate without Can only be used on sludges with particle
the use of chemicals sizes of 400 ym or less
Has large liquid and solids handling Requires extensive prescreening and grit
capacity in a very small space removal
Produces little or no odor Requires relatively high
_ maintenance if
pretreatment system xs improperly
designed
Requires skilled maintenance personnel
FIGURE 5-16
5 -4 0
Principles of Operation
-
Figure 5 17 features a cut away view of a disc nozzle centrifuge.
The feed normally enters through the top ( bottom feed is also
possible ) and passes down through a feedwell in the center of the
rotor. An impeller within the rotor accelerates and distributes
the feed slurry , filling the rotor interior. The heavier solids
settle outward toward the circumference of the rotor under
increasingly greater centrifugal force. The liquid and the
-
lighter solids flow inward through the cone shaped disc stack.
These lighter particles are settled out on the underside of the
discs, where they agglomerate , slide down the discs , and migrate
out to the nozzle region. The gap of 0.050 inches ( 1.27 mm )
between the discs means that the particles have a short distance
to travel before settling on the disc surface. The clarified
_
liquid passes on through the disc stack into the overflow chamber
and is then disehtrge' tk.. V the effluent liner
FEED FEED
EFFLUENT EFFLUENT
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
ROTOR
BOWL
CONCENTRATING
CHAMBER
ROTOR
NOZZLES
SLUDGE SLUDGE
DISCHARGE DISCHARGE
RECYCLE FLOW
FIGURE 5- 17
-
5 41
The centrifugal action causes the solids t o concentrate a s they
s e t t l e o u t w a r d. At the o u t e r rim o f t h e rotor bowl , t h e high
energy imparted t o the fluid forces the concentrated material
t h r o u g h t h e r o t o r n o z z l e s. One part of this concentrated
s l u d g e i s d r a w n off as the thickened p r o d u c t a n d another is
r e c y c l e d back t o the base of the rotor and p u m p e d back into the
c o n c e n t r a t i n g c h a m b e r ; t h e r e , it is s u b j e c t e d t o additional
c e n t r i f u g a l f o r c e a n d i s f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e d b e f o r e it i s
once again discharged through the n o z z l e s , This recirculation
i s a d v a n t a g e o u s b e c a u s e it increases t h e o v e r a l l u n d e r f l o w
concentration ; minimizes particle accumulation inside the rotor
b y f l u s h i n g action ; a l l o w s t h e use of l a r g e r n o z z l e s , t h u s
decreasing the potential for nozzle plugging ; and helps to
a c h i e v e a s t a b l e s e p a r a t i o n e q u i l i b r i u m t h a t l e n d s itself t o
precise adjustment and control.
Application
Disc nozzle centrifuges can be applied o n l y t o s l u d g e s consisting
of smaller particles ( less than 400 m [ 5 4 ] ) a n d void o f
fibrous material . I n e a r l y installations , severe o p e r a t i n g
and maintenance p r o b l e m s occurred from p l u g g a g e ( 24,49 , 5 5,56 ).
For wastewater treatment , then , only those systems that provide
p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t and s e p a r a t e t h e p r i m a r y s l u d g e f r o m t h e
w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e c a n be e q u i p p e d with a d i s c n o z z l e
centrifuge and o n l y activated s l u d g e can b e thickened in this
w a y. Even for those s y s t e m s that k e e p t h e n e c e s s a r y separation ,
designers have frequently forgotten the amount of fibrous
material t h a t can b e r e c y c l e d b a c k i n t o t h e aeration s y s t e m
from a dirty anaerobic digester s u p e r n a t a n t stream , This a l s o
eventually causes severe p l u g g a g e.
Pretreatment
T o further reduce operation and maintenance requirements, c u r r e n t
design recommendations provide for pretreatment of the disc
n o z z l e feed s t r e a m. Figure 5 -1 8 shows a disc nozzle pretreatment
s y s t e m.
R a w W A S is p u m p e d t o a strainer in o r d e r t o remove l a r g e solids
a n d f i b r o u s material . S t r a i n e r s s h o u l d b e m a d e o f stainless
steel , should be self - cleaning , and should be easily accessible.
Approximately one p e r c e n t of t h e inlet f l o w will be rejected .
The reject stream should go to the primary sludge handling
s y s t e m.
A f t e r s c r e e n i n g , the f l o w g o e s t o a d e g r i t t e r; h o w e v e r , e v e n
a f t e r a e r a t e d g r i t r e m o v a l and p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t , s o m e g r i t
g e t s into the aeration basin. Under t h e velocities g e n e r a t e d in
a d i s c n o z z l e, t h i s g r i t b e c o m e s a b r a s i v e and c a u s e s n o z z l e
d e t e r i o r a t i o n. T h e d e g r i t t e r d o e s n o t e l i m i n a t e t h e p r o b l e m
c o m p l e t e l y but it d o e s increase the running time between nozzle
r e p l a c e m e n t s. Approximately 1 0 p e r c e n t o f the degritter inlet
flow is rejected , and this rejected s t r e a m is usually combined
with the screen flow.
5 -4 2
STRAINER
RAW WASTE
ACTIVATED DEGRITTER
SLUDGE
\j
l
* /
BUFFER
TANK
P I
I
RECIRCULATION
GJ PUMP
p p
NOZZLE
SEPARATOR
REJECT FLOW GOES THICKENED
BACK TO PRIMARY SLUDGE
SLUDGE HANDLING SYSTEM
FIGURE 5- 18
Performance
T a b l e 5 -1 2 l i s t s t y p i c a l p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t c a n b e e x p e c t e d o f
disc n o z z l e c e n t r i f u g e s. In addition to the standard process
v a r i a b l e s , t h e d i s c n o z z l e m a c h i n e variables considered a r e b o w l
diameter , b o w l s p e e d , o p e r a t i o n o f r e c y c l e , d i s c spacing , a n d
n o z z l e c o n f i g u r a t i o n. P o s s i b l y t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t c o n s i d e r a t i o n ,
h o w e v e r, i s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e .
A s with o t h e r c e n t r i f u g e
a p p l i c a t i o n s , a n i n c r e a s i n g s l u d g e v o l u m e index ( S V I ) i n f l u e n c e s
machine p e r f o r m a n c e. F i g u r e 5-1 9 s h o w s t h e e f f e c t o f S V I's o n
c a p t u r e a n d t h i c k e n i n g ( 5 7 ).
TABLE 5- 12
5
5
150
400
--
0.75 1.0
>
-4.0
5 5.5 90 +
80
None
None
5
5
50 80
60 270-
- 0.7
0.7
5 7 -6.1 -
93 87
-
97 80
None
None
24
60
66
200
1.5
0.75
6.5-7.5
5.0
-
87 97
90
None
None
5 -4 3
100
90
80
> 70
cc
LU
>
O 60
u
LU
CC
50
40
30
FIGURE 5- 19
O t h e r Considerations
A s n o t e d i n t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f p r e t r e a t m e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s,
approximately 1 1 percent o f t h e flow t o the disc nozzle s y s t e m is
rejected. T h e reject s t r e a m contains t w o t o t h r e e p e r c e n t solids
and is usually p u m p e d t o t h e primary s l u d g e handling s y s t e m.
5 -4 4
Typically , equipment suppliers furnish disc nozzle systems
c o m p l e t e , i n c l u d i n g a l l n e c e s s a r y p u m p s. T h e s y s t e m m u s t b e
assembled in t h e field .
I m p e r f o r a t e b a s k e t c e n t r i f u g e s w e r e first u s e d in t h e u.S. in
1 9 2 0 , a n d t o d a t e , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 0 0 m u n i c i p a l installations
( o v e r 3 0 0 machines ) h a v e b e e n installed ( 3 7 ). About o n e half a r e
used for thickening , I n fact , t h e largest centrifuge facility
in t h e w o r l d , t h e J o i n t W a t e r P o l l u t i o n P l a n t o f t h e C o u n t y
Sanitation Districts of L o s A n g e l e s County , California, utilizes
48 imperforate basket centrifuges, T a b l e 5 -1 3 l i s t s t h e
a d v a n t a g e s and disadvantages o f a n imperforate basket centrifuge
c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r thickening s y s t e m s.
TABLE 5- 13
Advantages Disadvantages
Facility can be designed so that same Unit is not continuous feed and discharged
machine can be used both for thickening Requires special strucbural support
and dewatering
Has the highest ratio of capital cost to
Is very flexible in meeting process capacity
requirements
Is not affected by grit
Of all the centrifuges , has the lowest
operation and maintenance requirements
Compared to gravity and DAF thickener
installations , is clean looking and has
little to no odor problems
- -
Is an excellent thickener for hard to handle
sludges
Principles of Operation
Figure 5-20 is a schematic of a top feed imperforate basket
centrifuge illustrating general location o f s l u d g e inlet , p o l y m e r
feed , and c e n t r a t e piping and location o f c a k e d i s c h a r g e.
5 -4 5
either a pre-set timer or a centrate monitor that shuts the feed
pump off when a certain level of suspended solids appears in the
centrate. The centrate is normally returned to the inlet of the
secondary treatment system.
POLYMER
SKIMMINGS
-
*
'vi
8 #
i
1mu* !
KNIFE
&
it
&
CAKE
\
CAKE
FIGURE 5- 20
GENERAL SCHEMATIC OF IMPERFORATE BASKET CENTRIFUGE
5-46
When the plow blade reaches the bowl wall, a dwell timer is
activated to keep the plow in the same position for approximately
5 to 15 seconds until all the solids have been discharged , When
the plow retracts , a cycle has been completed and the machine
will automatically begin to accelerate , starting a new cycle.
Application
Performance
TABLE 5- 14
Polymer
Average required , Recovery
Feed solids cake solids pounds dry based on
concentration , concentra tion , per ton dry centrate ,
Sludge type percent solids percent solids feed solids percent
-
Raw waste activated -
0.5 1.5 -
8 10 0 -
85 90
sludge
Aerobically
1
1-3 8- 10
-0
1.0 3.0 -
90 95
80-90
digested sludge 1.0- 3.0 90-95
Raw trickling filter sludge 2- 3 8-9 0 -
90 95
(rock & plastic media) -
9 11 1.5- 3.0 -
95 97
Anaerobically digested 2- 3 -
8 10 0 95-97
sludge, primary and rock
tricklinq filter sludge
-
7 9 1.5- 3.0 -
94 97
(70:30)
5 -47
CO
as
A O
Q
co
A POSSIBLE
>oc• <
H
LU O
> H
O
o
LU LU
DC
*<
O
c
A -O
C
A
)
E -_C
a) Q
O
a a
£ A “O
8-
M
c
o o
5 -
^
“O
a>
0) 00£
^ rs
tr CD - CO
H
LU
$
o I 8, 5
a.
FIGURE 5 - 21
5-4 8
Other Considerations
I n d i s c u s s i o n s o f h y d r a u l i c f l o w r a t e , a distinction m u s t be
m a d e b e t w e e n instantaneous f e e d r a t e a n d a v e r a g e f e e d r a t e.
I n s t a n t a n e o u s feed r a t e is t h e a c t u a l h y d r a u l i c p u m p r a t e t o
the basket. The a v e r a g e feed r a t e includes the period of time
during a c y c l e w h e n s l u d g e i s n o t being p u m p e d t o t h e basket
( acceleration , deceleration , discharge ) , Therefore , dividing
total g a l l o n s p u m p e d p e r c y c l e b y total c y c l e time g i v e s t h e
a v e r a g e feed r a t e.
5- 4 9
TABLE 5- 15
Advantages Disadvantages
Yields high throughput in a small area Is potentially a high maintenance item
Is easy to install May require polymers in order to operate
successfully
Is quiet
Causes no odor problems
Requires grit removal in feed stream
Has low capital cost for installation Requires skilled maintenance personnel
Is a clean looking installation
Has ability to constantly achieve four to
six percent solids in the thickened sludge
v/j T
0
v
ROTATING
^ CONVEYOR
A
/
f/
A
ROTATING
BOWL :/
•••
•• ••
i
•\v
#
FIGURE 5- 22
-
5 50
s l u d g e is t o o " s l i m y " t o be conveyed u p w a r d without large doses
o f p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e , I n t h e n e w l y d e s i g n e d m a c h i n e s, m a x i m u m
pool d e p t h s are maintained ; i n a d d i t i o n , a s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d
baffle is located a t t h e beginning of the conical section , This
baffle , working in conjunction with the deep liquid p o o l , allows
hydrostatic pressure t o force the thickened sludge o u t of the
machine i n d e p e n d e n t of t h e rotating c o n v e y o r , This design
e l i m i n a t e s t h e n e e d f o r p o l y m e r a d d i t i o n t o aid i n c o n v e y i n g
thickened s l u d g e u p the incline towards t h e s l u d g e discharge and
allows only the thickest cake at the bowl wall t o be removed .
Figure 5- 23 shows a typical installation of a centrifuge designed
for thickening .
*« v
:
•
' air
£:: * .
£
t <
v.
FIGURE 5- 23
Application
B e c a u s e of t h e s p e c i a l l y d e s i g n e d b a f f l e , t h e n e w t y p e o f
thickening decanter centrifuge can be used to thicken only
straight waste-activated or aerobically digested w a s t e-activated
5- 51
sludge. A thickening type decanter centrifuge cannot be used for
-
primary or equivalent sludges , whereas the old style decanters
without baffle can be used to thicken any sludge.
Performance
Operating data on the newly designed machines are very limited.
-
Table 5 16 shows typical operating results supplied by one
equipment manufacturer.
TABLE 5- 16
Solid bowl
Parameter conveyor
Operating method Continuous
Bowl diameters , inches
Normal G range
-
14 40
1 ,400- 2 ,100
WAS feed solids , percent
Thickened WAS solids , percent
-
0.5 1.5
5- 8
Recovery , percent 85-95
Polymer range , lb/ton 0-6
1 inch 2.54 cm
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
Other Considerations
-
5 52
awveuesss
-
The following is a summary of a three year project in which
a disc nozzle , imperforate basket and solid bowl decanter
centrifuge were evaluated for their ability to thicken waste
activated sludge. The study was concluded at the Village Creek -
Plant , Fort Worth , Texas ( 59 ), where wastewater temperatures
reach 86°F ( 30°C). The plant had been unable to gravity thicken
-
waste activated sludge over a maximum of 2.5 percent ,
addition , sludge blanket turnovers and other process upsets
In
proved troublesome. Use of polymers , dilution water , and mixing
with primary sludge did not resolve the problems associated with
-
gravity thickening waste activated sludge.
After some pilot testing , two disc-nozzle centrifuges were
-
installed to concentrate waste activated sludge prior to
anaerobic dig-estion , and an equipment testing- program was-
-
'
Disc Nozzle
-
Testing was conducted on a 24 inch ( 61 cm ) diameter unit ,
-
operating at 4,290 rpm and having a 0.07 inch ( 1.7 mm ) nozzle
opening . The optimum design for obtaining a five percent
sludge and 90 percent recovery was at 200 gpm ( 12.62 1/sec ) and
750 pounds per hour ( 340 kg/hr ) of solids.
-
In operation , the nozzles on a disc nozzle machine will plug up
in minutes if prescreening is not provided. For activated sludge
the screen must be chosen with care , Vibrating screens can
become coated with grease and fiber , They may coat over even
when provided with spray nozzles , or they may tear from abrasion.
A rotating drum wedge wire screen with either 0.010 inch -
-
( 0.25 mm ) or 0.020 inch ( 0.51 mm ) openings offered the best
results. The rejects from this screen were about 5 to 15 percent
of the feed solids. These rejects consisted of approximately
60 percent hexane extractables and 30 percent fiber.
-
5 53
Even with prescreening , the centrifuge nozzles e v e n t u a l l y plug
u p , a n d p e r f o r m a n c e deteriorates. A n examination o f t h e
centrifuge after p e r f o r m a n c e deterioration revealed that g r e a s e
had built u p and had begun to back up into the disc s t a c k and
interfere with clarification , T h e centrifuge t h e n h a d t o be
disassembled a n d c l e a n e d , a b o u t a n e i g h t - h o u r ( 1 6 m a n - h o u r )
operation. With o n l y drum screening , runs of about three d a y s'
duration were experienced , but when a n in- line w e d g e-wire b a c k u p
screen was installed , the runs were of seven t o ten d a y s duration.
Other installations have h a d success r e m o v i n g this g r e a s e
in-line by periodically flushing the centrifuges with hot water
introduced into the feed pipe ; the r u n is thereby l e n g t h e n e d t o
more than thirty d a y s.
In addition , the nozzles, their holders, and r e c y c l e t u b e s a l s o
underwent extreme wear. Erosion d u e t o fine grit in the sludge
( despite primary treatment ) was ruining one nozzle o r its holder
about e v e r y three d a y s until c y c l o n e degritters were installed.
These reduced the p r e s s u r e t o 1 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 6 . 3 1 1/sec )
a t 4 5 p s i ( 3 1 0 k N / m ) a n d r e m o v e d g r i t d o w n t o 7 5 m m. T h e y
^
also reduced wear , s o that the nozzle had t o be r e p l a c e d o n l y
once every six months.
I m p e r f o r a t e Basket
T e s t i n g w a s c o n d u c t e d o n a 4 0 - inch ( 1 0 2- c m ) d i a m e t e r unit
operating a t 1 , 5 0 0 rpm. P o l y m e r usage was not evaluated. T h e
optimum design was for a six percent cake and 8 0 percent recovery
at a n average feed r a t e of 4 0 g p m ( 252 1/sec ) and 1 5 0 p o u n d s p e r
hour ( 6 8 kg / hr ) of solids.
5- 54
from plant d a t a for disc nozzle machines and o t h e r manufacturer 's
horizontal b o w l s a n d considered minimal f o r t h e basket , Cleaning
c o s t s w e r e included f o r the disc nozzle.
TABLE 5- 17
Dollars
Twenty
Six solid bowl Five disc imperforate
Item decanters nozzle basket
Capital cost
Centrifuges 900 , 000 600 ,000 1,400 , 000
Associated equipment 300 , 000 300 ,000 1,500 , 000
Annual cost
-
20 yr life , 7 percent interest 113 ,280 84 ,960 179 , 360
Operating cost
Maintenance parts 17 , 800 20 ,000 10 , 000
Manpower ($10/hr) 12,480 41,600 20 , 800
Electricity (1.75 cents/kWhr) 55 , 188 51,739 144 , 975
5.5.5 Cost
5 . 5.5.1 Capital C o s t
Capital cost data for disc nozzle systems are not readily
a v a i l a b l e. I n o n e s t u d y ( 5 9 ) t h e 1 9 7 8 c o s t f o r f i v e 2 0 0 - g p m
( 1 2 . 6 2 1 /s e c ) u n i t s with p r e t r e a t m e n t e q u i p m e n t w o u l d b e
$ 9 0 0 , 000. This c o s t f i g u r e w a s restricted t o equipment .
Basket Centrifuge
5-5 5
flexible connectors , necessary spare parts , air compressor ,
sludge feed pump , polymer feed system and start up services was -
$160 ,000 to $170 ,000.
1,000, 000
9
(Si 8
CO 1
o 6
O
"
5
C/D 4
H
C/D
O 3
O
z 2
O :
f-
CJ
D
CC 100,000
9
co 8
z 7
O 6
O
5
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 24
Operating and maintenance cost data for disc nozzle systems are
not readily available , In one study ( 59 ) the following 1978
costs were given for operating four 200 gpm ( 12.62 1/sec ) units -
24 hours per day:
-
5 56
The foilowin g Provides a rough guide for operating a n d
maintenance requirements for a disc nozzle centrifuge:
It is best to run a disc nozzle 24 hours per day to
prevent shutdowns from materials that will dry out
between stacked plates when machine is not operating.
At least once every eight hours, each machine should be
inspected for general machine operation , product , and
amperage draw--l/2 man-hour per unit .
At least once a week , each machine should be shut down
to be given a thorough flushing , and nozzles should be
removed and cleaned — two man-hours per unit .
5 -57
High pressure oil filter should be changed every 1 ,000
--
operating hours 0.5 man hour. -
If the machine is to be shut down for more than 24 hours ,
the basket should be cleaned with water ( tap water
pressure ). This can be provided as an automatic or a
-- -
manual operation 0.5 man hour for manual operation.
- -
Figure 5 25 indicates annual man hour requirements for operation
_
and maintenance. Included in the curve are labor requirements
directly related to the centrifuge , sludge conditioning , and
other associated equipment.
100,000
8
9
7
6 -
5
66 4
O
3
CL
O
LL 2
CO
CL
3
O
X 10,000
9
8
CL 7
O 6
§ 5
4
<
3 3
Z
Z
< 2
1,000
L±1 5t
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 0 2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 25
ANNUAL O &M REQUIREMENTS - SOLID BOWL DECANTER
CENTRIFUGE ( 28 )
-
5 58
Power
100,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
c/>
CD
2
o
o
H
CO
O
O
10,000 -
< 6
Z)
z 5
Z 4
<
3
1,000
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 89100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 5- 26
5 -5 9
d o s a g e o f flocculent is used t o coflocculate t h e mixed s l u d g e s.
T h i s p r e v e n t s excessive l o s s o f f i n e s i n t h e o v e r f l o w e l u t r i a t e.
( S e e C h a p t e r 8 f o r further discussion.)
G r a v i t y thickening o f b i o l o g i c a l l y p r o d u c e d s l u d g e s in s e c o n d a r y
anaerobic d i g e s t e r s d o e s n o t w o r k w e l l a s p r e s e n t l y d e s i g n e d.
Digesters should not be relied upon to function as gravity
thickeners. T h e y m a y, h o w e v e r , b e used t o g e n e r a t e m o r e methane
( five t o t e n p e r c e n t ) a n d t o function a s s l u d g e h o l d i n g t a n k s
( o n l y if equipped with floating -t y p e covers ). ( S e e C h a p t e r 6 f o r
f u r t h e r discussion.)
5 . 6.3 Facultative S l u d g e L a g o o n s
A l t h o u g h s l u d g e l a g o o n s a r e o u t o f f a v o r with m a n y d e s i g n e r s,
properly designed facultative sludge lagoons can provide an
effective m e a n s f o r f u r t h e r c o n c e n t r a t i n g a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d
s l u d g e ( 6 0 ). ( S e e C h a p t e r 1 5 f o r f u r t h e r discussion.)
5 . 6. 4 Ultrafiltration
T h i c k e n i n g w a s t e- activated s l u d g e f r o m o n e t o s i x p e r c e n t s o l i d s
b y u l t r a f i l t r a t i o n h a s b e e n s t u d i e d ( 6 1 ). M i n i m u m e s t i m a t e d
m e m b r a n e a r e a required t o c o n c e n t r a t e o n e t o n ( 0 . 9 t ) o f w a s t e-
a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p e r d a y f r o m one t o s i x p e r c e n t s o l i d s w a s
2 6 0 s q u a r e feet ( 2 3 . 4 m 2 ). High p r e s s u r e d r o p s o f 2 5 t o 7 5 p s i
( 1 7 t o 5 2 N/c m 2 ) h a d t o b e u s e d . Power requirements were
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 5 4 0 k W h r p e r t o n ( 5 9 5 k W h/t ) o f d r y f e e d s o l i d s.
5.7 References
2. D i c k , R. I . a n d D. L. S i m m o n s. "Optimal Integration of
Process for S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t. " P r o c e e d i n g s 3 rd National
Conference o n S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t D i s p o s a l a n d Utilization ,
Miami B e a c h , F l o r i d a , 1 2/1 4-1 6/ 7 6 , s p o n s o r e d b y ERDA , U S E P A ,
NSF and ITI , p . 20 .
3. A n d e r s o n , R.K • / B.R. W e d d l e , T. Hillmer, a n d A. Geswein.
Cost of Landspreading and Hauling Sludge from Municipal
W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. USEPA Office o f Solid Waste?
"
"
W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. EPA 5 3 0/S W- 6 1 9. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7.
5-6 0
5. USEPA P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r U p g r a d i n g E x i s t i n g W a s t e-
w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t s. T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r! C i n c i n n a t i,
Ohio 45268 E P A 6 2 5/1-7 1 - 0 0 4a. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 4.
6. T o r p e y , W . N. " C o n c e n t r a t i o n o f Combined P r i m a r y a n d A c t i-
v a t e d S l u d g e s i n S e p a r a t e T h i c k e n i n g T a n k s ." Journa 1
S a n i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n , P r o c e e d i n g s American S o c i e t y
o f C i v i l E n g i n e e r s . V o l. 8 0 , p. 4 4 3 ( 1 9 5 4 ).
5 -6 1
1 8. U S E P A S l u d g e H a n d l i n g a n d C o n d i t i o n i n g, Office o f W a t e r
P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. E P A 4 3 0/9 - 7 8-
022. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
1 9. S u m m a r y o f r e p o r t e d o p e r a t i n g d a t a f o r various U.S. t h e r m a l
conditioning facilities.
20. Review of Techniques for Treatment and Disposal of
Phosphorus - Laden Chemical S l u d g e s. USEPA- MERL
c o n t r a c t 6 8-0 3- 2 4 3 2 t o b e p u b l i s h e d in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 9.
22. B o y l e , W .H .
" Ensuring Clarity and Accuracy in Torque
Determinations." W a t e r a n d S e w a g e W o r k s. ( M a r c h 1 9 7 8 ).
2 3. J o r d a n , V .J . a n d C . H . S c h e r e r . "Gravity Thickening
T e c h n i q u e s a t a W a t e r Reclamation P l a n t." Journal Water
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n . V o l . 4 2, P • 1 8 0 ( 1 9 7 0 ) .
^
2 4. E t t e l t , G . A. a n d T . K e n n e d y . " R e s e a r c h a n d O p e r a t i o n a l
Experience i n S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g a t C h i c a g o." J o u r n a l W a t e r
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 3 8 , p . 2 4 8 ( 1 9 6 6 ) .
2 5. D i c k , R .I. a n d B . B. E w i n g . " E v a l u a t i o n o f A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e
T h i c k e n i n g T h e o r i e s." Journal of the Environmental
E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n , A S C E. V o l. 9 3 , E E 4 , p. 9 ( 1 9 6 7 ).
2 6. USEPA. Areawide Assessment Procedures Manual - V o l u m e I I I.
M u n i c i p a l Environmental R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y . Cincinnati,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A 6 0 0/9 -7 6 -0 1 4. J u l y 1 9 7 6.
31 . V r a b l i k , E . R. " F u n d a m e n t a l P r i n c i p l e s o f D i s s o l v e d - A i r
Flotation o f Industrial W a s t e s." 1 4t h P u r d u e I n d u s t r i a l
W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e , 1 9 5 9.
3 2. L a b o o n , J . F. " E x p e r i m e n t a l S t u d i e s o n t h e Concentration o f
R a w S l u d g e." S e w a g e a n d Industrial W a s t e s . . .
V o l 2 4, p 4 2 3
( 1952 ) .
5 -6 2
3 3. L a b o o n , J.F. " P i t t s b u r g h P l a n s U n i q u e P r o j e c t t o A b a t e
S t r e a m P o l l u t i o n." C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g. V o l . 2 4 , p. 4 4
( J a n u a r y 1 9 5 4 ).
3 4. B u r d , R.S. A S t u d y o f S l u d g e Handling a n d D i s p o s a l. U.S.
D e p a r t m e n t o f Interior W P- 2 0- 4 , M a y 1 9 6 8.
3 5. L o g a n , R .P . " Scum Removal b y V a c u a t o r a t P a l o A l t o. "
S e w a g e a n d industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 2 1 , p. 7 9 9 ( M a y 1 9 4 9 ).
3 7. T a k e n f r o m e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r's installation l i s t s.
3 8. W o o d , R . F . a n d R. I . D i c k .
"Factors Influencing Batch
F l o t a t i o n T e s t s ." Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. V o l . 4 5, P. 3 0 4 ( 1 9 7 3 ).
3 9. E c k e n f e l d e r , W. W. a n d D.L. F o r d . W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
E x p e r i m e n t a l P r o c e d u r e s f o r P r o c e s s D e s i g n, P e m b e r t o n P r e s s
Jenkins P u b l i s h i n g C o • 1 1 9 7 0. P 7 5. -
4 0. Gulas , V • r L. Benefield and C . Randall. " F a c t o r s Affecting
t h e D e s i g n of Dissolved Air Flotation S y s t e m s." Journal
W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation , V o l. 5 0 , p 1 8 3 5 ( 1 9 7 8 ).
-
4 1. W e b e r , W.J. P h y s i o c h e m i c a 1 P r o c e s s e s f o r W a t e r Q u a l i t y
C o n t r o l. W i l e y- Interscience N e w Y o r k , 1 9 7 2. P 5 5 5.
-
4 2. K o m i i n e , T.R. " Dissolved Air Flotation Tackles Sludge
T h i c k e n i n g ." W a t e r a n d W a s t e s Engineering . p. 6 3 ( F e b r u a r y
1 9 7 8 ).
4 4. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. MOP 8 Wastewater
T r e a t m e n t Plant D e s i g n . W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation ,
1 9 7 7.
4 5. M u l b a r g e r , M .C . a n d D. D. H u f f m a n . " M i x e d L i q u o r S o l i d s
S e p a r a t i o n b y F l o t a t i o n." J o u r n a l o f t h e E n v i r o n m e n t a l
E n g i n e e r i n g Division , A S C E. Vol. 9 6 , S A 4, p. 8 6 1 ( 1 9 7 0 ).
5- 6 3
49. Kraus , L.S . and J .R. Longley . " Concentrating Activated
Sludge with a Continuous Feed Centrifuge." Sewage Works
Journal. Vol. 11 , p. 9 , ( 1939 ).
50. Keith , F. W. and T.H. Little. " Centrifuges in Water and
Waste Treatment." Chemical Engineering Progress. Vol. 65 ,
( November 1969 ).
51. Svarovsky , L. " Separation by Centrifugal Sedimentation."
Solid - Liquid Separation , Butterworths , Inc., Ladislav
52.
Svarovsky , editor 1977. P 125.
,
-
Vesilind , P.A. Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater Sludge.
Ann Arbor Science Publishers , 1974.
55.
Engineering. P
- 27 , ( September 1969 ).
Bradney , L. and R.E. Bragstad . " Concentration of Activated
Sludge by Centrifuge ." Sewage and Industrial Waste.
Vol. 27 , p. 404 , ( 1955).
56. Keefer , C.E . and H. Krotz . " Experiments on Dewatering
Sewage Sludge with a Centrifuge." Sewage Works Journal ,
Vol. 1 , p. 120 , ( 1929 ).
57. Vaughn , D.R. and G. A. Reitwiesner. " Disc Nozzle Centrifuges
-
for Sludge Thickening." Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. Vol. 44 , p. 1789 , ( 1972).
58. Albertson , O. E. and E . E. Guidi , Jr . " Centrifugation of
Waste Sludges." Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
59.
-
Vol. 41 , P 607 , ( 1969 ).
McKnight , M .D., " Centrifugal Thickening of Excess Activated
Sludge." Unpublished article on experience at Village Creek
Plant , Ft. Worth , Texas. 1978.
-
5 64
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
Chapter 6 . Stabilization
September 1979
CHAPTER 6
STABILIZATION
6.1 Introduction
T h e principal purposes o f stabilization are t o make the treated
sludge less odorous and putrescible and to reduce the pathogenic
organism content, Some procedures used to accomplish these
o b j e c t i v e s can a l s o r e s u l t in o t h e r basic c h a n g e s in t h e s l u d g e.
The selection of a certain method hinges primarily on the final
disposal p r o c e d u r e p l a n n e d . If the s l u d g e is t o be dewatered and
incinerated , frequently no stabilization p r o c e d u r e is e m p l o y e d .
M o s t stabilization m e t h o d s , particularly anaerobic and aerobic
d i g e s t i o n , r e s u l t in a s u b s t a n t i a l d e c r e a s e in t h e a m o u n t o f
s u s p e n d e d s l u d g e s o l i d s. Hence, the corollary function of
conversion is included in the description o f these p r o c e s s e s.
This chapter provides detailed discussion of four processes
t h a t h a v e t h e primary function o f s l u d g e stabilization. These
processes are anaerobic digestion , aerobic digestion , lime
s t a b i l i z a t i o n , and c h l o r i n e o x i d a t i o n. Both a n a e r o b i c a n d
aerobic digestion are currently increasing in popularity . The
former is receiving revived attention from some cities and n e w
attention from o t h e r s for several reasons. T h e production o f
m e t h a n e in anaerobic digestion is attractive in view o f energy
s h o r t a g e s , a s is t h e s u i t a b i l i t y o f a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d
sludges to disposal on land . Also, it is being recognized
that p r o b l e m s experienced previously with anaerobic digestion
were a c t u a l l y due t o other w a s t e w a t e r p r o c e s s considerations.
I n t e r e s t in a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n o f e x c e s s activated s l u d g e i s
g r o w i n g b e c a u s e it h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r p r o v i d i n g a g o o d
quality liquid p r o c e s s s t r e a m and can p r o d u c e exothermic reaction
conditions. A major i m p e t u s for p r o c e s s e s such as anaerobic and
aerobic digestion and lime treatment is the growing emphasis o n
u t i l i z a t i o n o f s l u d g e r a t h e r t h a n m e r e d i s p o s a l. Chlorine
o x i d a t i o n is o f limited use f o r s p e c i a l s i t u a t i o n s o r w h e r e
s e p t i c t a n k w a s t e s a r e involved .
6 -1
sludge , such as heat drying and pasteurization , also provide
limited stabilization. These processes are discussed in
Chapters 7 and 10.
6 -2
Currently , sludge stabilization by anaerobic digestion is used
extensively. A 1977 survey ( 11 ) of 98 municipal wastewater
treatment plants in the United States found that 73 used
anaerobic digestion to stabilize and reduce the volume of sludge.
Because of emphasis on energy conservation and recovery and
environmental pressure to use wasteewater sludges on land , it is
expected that anaerobic digestion will continue to play a major
role in municipal sludge processing.
6.2.1.2 Applicability
A wide variety of sludges from municipal wastewater treatment
plants can be stabilized through anaerobic digestion , Table 6 1
lists some types of sludge that have been anaerobically digested
-
in full scale , high rate digesters.
-
TABLE 6- 1
Reference
Mesophilic Thermophilic
Sludge type diqestion digestion
-
Solids liquid separation of digested primary sludge is downgraded
by even small additions of biological sludge , particularly
activated sludge. Although mixtures of primary and biological
sludge will break down readily under anaerobic conditions , the
net rate of the reaction is slowed slightly ( 12 ). Experience
with full-scale anaerobic digestion of straight activated sludge
is limited , although laboratory ( 13 ,14 ) and pilot-scale studies
( 15 ) demonstrate that separate digestion of activated sludge is
feasible.
Chemical sludges have been successfully digested anaerobically ,
although in several cases , volatile solids reduction and gas
-
6 3
p r o d u c t i o n were low , c o m p a r e d with conventional s e w a g e s l u d g e s
( 3 5 , 36 ). Decreased p e r f o r m a n c e a p p e a r s t o result from reduced
b i o d e g r a d a b i l i t y , r a t h e r t h a n f r o m t o x i c inhibition o f t h e
anaerobic microorganisms ( 35 ).
A n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n is a feasible s t a b i l i z i n g m e t h o d f o r
wastewater sludges that have low concentrations of toxins
and a volatile solids content above 50 p e r c e n t , T h e obligate
anaerobic microorganisms are sensitive and d o n o t thrive under
fluctuating operating conditions. Consequently , t h e process must
be c a r e f u l l y considered for use a t t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s w h e r e wide
variations in s l u d g e quantity and quality are common.
• R e d u c e s t o t a l s l u d g e m a s s t h r o u g h t h e conversion o f
organic m a t t e r t o primarily methane , carbon dioxide , and
w a t e r. C o m m o n l y , 2 5 t o 4 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e r a w s l u d g e
solids a r e d e s t r o y e d d u r i n g anaerobic digestion , This
can s u b s t a n t i a l l y reduce the c o s t o f s l u d g e d i s p o s a l .
6 -4
• I s s u s c e p t i b l e t o u p s e t s. Microorganisms involved in
a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e sensitive t o small c h a n g e s in
their environment. Monitoring of p e r f o r m a n c e and close
p r o c e s s control are required t o p r e v e n t u p s e t s.
• K e e p s m e t h a n e - p r o d u c i n g bacteria g r o w t h at a slow r a t e .
L a r g e reactors are required t o hold the sludge for 1 5 t o
3 0 d a y s t o stabilize t h e o r g a n i c s o l i d s e f f e c t i v e l y .
This slow g r o w t h r a t e a l s o limits the s p e e d with which
the process can adjust to changes in waste loads,
t e m p e r a t u r e , and o t h e r environmental conditions ( 4 0 ) .
6 . 2.1 . 4 Microbiology
ACID METHANE
FORMATION PRODUCTION
A_ A.
7 MICRO -
7 \
MICRO - - * .
amanpw gwra * m
COMPLEX
SUBSTRATE
PRINCIPALLY
ACID FORMERS
ORGANIC ACIDS, CO
H O, AND CELLS
2
-. METHANE
BACTERIA
H2O, H 2 S
FICURE 6- 1
6-5
organic acids tend t o reduce the pH, although alkaline buffering
materials are also produced . Organic matter is converted into a
form suitable for breakdown by the second group of bacteria.
In the second p h a s e , strictly anaerobic bacteria ( called
methanogens ), convert the volatile acids to methane ( CH 4 ), carbon
dioxide ( CO 2 ) , and other trace gases, There are several groups
of methanogenic bacteria , each with specific substrate require-
m e n t s , that w o r k in c o n c e r t t o reduce c o m p l e x w a s t e s such a s
sewage s l u d g e. Tracer studies indicate that there are two major
pathways of methane formation :
CH 3 COOH CH 4 + C02
• T h e reduction of c a r b o n dioxide , b y u s e o f h y d r o g e n
g a s or formate p r o d u c e d by o t h e r bacteria , t o form
methane .
C 02 + 4 H 2 CH4 + 2 H 20
6 -6
6.2.2 P r o c e s s Variations
E x p e r i m e n t a t i o n over t h e y e a r s h a s y i e l d e d four basic variations
in anaerobic sludge digestion: low-r a t e digestion , high- rate
digestion , anaerobic contact , and phase s e p a r a t i o n.
Heating
6 -7
control of the temperature in a digester helps maintain the
microbial balance and improves the balance of the digestion
process .
DIGESTER GAS
GAS
SCUM
c \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\
RAW SLUDGE \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \ \ V\ A
SUPERNATANT
SUPERNATANT
\ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\ \\\ \ v\ \W\\\\\“
ACTIVELY
DIGESTING SLUDGE
,\\\\ \\\\\ \\\\\\\ \ \ \ \ \ s \ \ \\\
\ \ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\ \\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \\\ \\ I
STABILIZED
SLUDGE
DIGESTED SLUDGE
UNHEATED
UNMIXED
INTERMITTENT FEEDING AND WITHDRAWAL
DETENTION TIME : 30- 60 DAYS
LOADING RATE: 0.03- 0.10 lb VSS /cu ft /day
( 0.4- 1.6 kg VSS/m3 /day )
FIGURE 6- 2
6-8
and poorer process stability , Thermophilic organisms are
particularly sensitive t o temperature fluctuation, More detailed
information on the effects of temperature on digest ion is
included in Section 6.2 4 . .
Design of digester heating systems i s
discussed in Section 6.2 6.2 . .
O
DIGESTER GAS
GAS
HEAT
RAW ACTIVE
SLUDGE T ZONE
EXCHANGER
<
* MIXING
DIGESTED SLUDGE
Auxiliary Mixing
S l u d g e i n h i g h-r a t e d i g e s t e r s i s m i x e d c o n t i n u o u s l y t o create
a homogeneous environment throughout the reactor . When
stratification is prevented , the entire digester is available
for a c t i v e d e c omposition, thereby increasing the effective
detention t i m e .
Furthermore , mixing quickly brings the
raw sludge into contact with the microorganisms and evenly
distributes metabolic waste products and toxic substances .
Methods of mixing and mixing system designs are described in
Section 6.2 6.3 . .
6-9
"mfc
'
P r e- thickening
T h e b e n e f i t s o f t h i c k e n i n g raw s l u d g e b e f o r e d i g e s t i o n were
first demonstrated b y T o r p e y i n t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0 s ( 2 4 ) . By
gravity thickening a combination o f primary and excess secondary
s l u d g e before digestion , he was able to achieve stabilization
equivalent to digestion without thickening in o n e q u a r t e r o f the
digester volume. I n addition , liquid that had previously been
r e m o v e d a s d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t was instead r e m o v e d in t h e
preceding t h i c k e n e r . S i n c e t h i c k e n e r s u p e r n a t a n t is o f f a r
better quality than digester s u p e r n a t a n t , it had significantly
less adverse impact when returned t o the w a s t e w a t e r treatment
stream . Also, heating requirements were considerably reduced by
p r e- thickening , since smaller v o l u m e s o f raw s l u d g e e n t e r e d the
digesters . / >
PRIMARY RECIRCULATING
SLUDGE DIGESTED SLUDGE
THICKENED DIGESTED
^.\/ DIGESTER
GRAVITY ANAEROBIC TO
DISPOSAL
^
MODIFIED
AERATION
SLUDGE
TO WASTEWATER
SUPERNATANT
’
TREATMENT STREAM
FIGURE 6- 4
T h e r e is , h o w e v e r , a p o i n t b e y o n d which f u r t h e r t h i c k e n i n g
of feed sludge has a detrimental effect on digestion, Two
problems can result from over -concentration of feed s l u d g e.
6-10
1. Good mixing becomes difficult to maintain , The solids
concentration in the digester affects the viscosity ,
which , in turn , affects mixing . Sawyer and Grumbling
( 49 ) experienced difficulty in mixing when the solids
content in the digester exceeded six percent. Because
of the reduction of volatile solids occurring during
digestion , the solids concentration within the digester
is less than the feed solids concentration , Therefore ,
feed solids concentrations may reach eight to nine
percent before mixing is impaired.
2 . Chemical concentrations can reach levels that can inhibit
microbial activity. A highly thickened feed sludge
means that the contents of the digester will be very
concentrated. Compounds entering the digester , such as
salts and heavy metals , and end products of digestion ,
such as volatile acids and ammonium salts , may reach
concentrations toxic to the bacteria in the digester
( 50 ). For example , in one case , digester failure
followed a three- month period during which feed solids
concentrations ranged from 8.2 to 9.0 percent ( 51 ). It
is believed that this caused ammonium alkaline products
to reach toxic concentrations.
TABLE 6- 2
RESULTS OF RECIRCULATING DIGESTED SLUDGE TO
THE THICKENER AT BOWERY BAY PLANT , NEW YORK ( 48 )
Without With
recirculation recirculation ^
Raw sludge
Dry weight , lb/day 108 ,000 101 , 500
Digester feed ( includes recircula -
tion)
Dry weight, lb/day 108 , 000 144 , 300
Solids concentration , percent 8.2 9.9
Digested sludge to disposal
Dry weight , lb/day 60 , 000 47 , 500
Solids concentration , percent 4.6 6.1
Volume , cu ft/day 20,700 12 , 300
aAverages for operation in 1961. Average treatment plant flow = 105 MGD.
^of
Averages for 15 months of operation with 33 , 50 , or 67 percent recirculation
digested sludge. Average treatment flow = 101 MGD.
Uniform Feeding
- '-' I'
^
‘
-
Feed is introduced into a high rate digester at frequent
intervals to help maintain constant conditions in the reactor.
-
6 11
In the p a s t , many digesters were fed only once a d a y o r e v e n l e s s
frequently . T h e s e s l u g loadings p l a c e d a n unnecessary s t r e s s o n
t h e biological s y s t e m a n d destabilized t h e p r o c e s s. Although
c o n t i n u o u s f e e d i n g i s ideal , it is a c c e p t a b l e t o c h a r g e a
digester intermittently , a s long a s this is done frequently ( for
e x a m p l e , e v e r y t w o h o u r s ). Methods of automating digester
feeding a r e described in Section 6 . 2 . 6 . 5.
T w o-Stage _ Digestion
F r e q u e n t l y , a h i g h - r a t e d i g e s t e r i s c o u p l e d i n s e r i e s with
a second digestion tank ( Figure 6- 5 ). Traditionally , t h i s
s e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r is similar in d e s i g n t o t h e primary d i g e s t e r,
e x c e p t that it is neither heated n o r mixed , I t s main function is
t o a l l o w g r a v i t y c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s o l i d s and
decanting o f s u p e r n a t a n t liquor. This reduces the volume o f the
s l u d g e requiring further processing and disposal, Very little
solids reduction and g a s production takes p l a c e in t h e s e c o n d
s t a g e ( 23 ).
DIGESTER
1 GAS
GAS GAS
EXCHANGER
MIXING
DIGESTED
SLUDGE
DIGESTED
SLUDGE
FIGURE 6- 5
U n f o r t u n a t e l y , m a n y s e c o n d a r y digesters h a v e p e r f o r m e d poorly
a s thickeners , p r o d u c i n g d i l u t e s l u d g e a n d a h i g h s t r e n g t h
s u p e r n a t a n t. T h e basic cause of t h e p r o b l e m is t h a t , in m o s t
c a s e s, a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s d o n o t s e t t l e r e a d i l y .
Basically , t w o factors contribute t o this p h e n o m e n o n ( 5 2 ).
6 -12
1 . F l o t a t i o n o f s o l i d s. T h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e p r i m a r y
digestion tank may become s u p e r s a t u r a t e d with digester
g a s. When this sludge is transferred into the secondary
d i g e s t i o n tank , t h e g a s will come o u t o f solution ,
forming small bubbles. These bubbles attach t o sludge
p a r t i c l e s and p r o v i d e a b u o y a n t force t h a t hinders
settling .
2. H i g h p r o p o r t i o n o f fine - sized p a r t i c l e s. Fine - sized
solids are produced during digestion by both mixing ( 53 )
and the n a t u r a l breakdown of p a r t i c l e size t h r o u g h
biological decomposition ( 54 ). These fines settle poorly
and enter the s u p e r n a t a n t. The problem is compounded
w h e n s e c o n d a r y and t e r t i a r y s l u d g e s are fed into the
digesters. The solids in these s l u d g e s have quite often
been flocculated and , thus, are more easily broken up
during digestion than primary sludge solids.
120 12
100 :! 10
03 03
LO
80 *
*
in
_Q 8
R
-Q V
-
Q Q
T3 60 D
“
C
6 •:
C
03 03
to
3 3 .
o I, /
yj
- O
JZ c . ,ifc-Si
r <H
K
X
40
-
h
X
o
4
4
<
o i-
.4
LU LD
§ §
TTi
-.
20
•r K,w t
=
2 i
I
-
FEED 1 ST 2ND FEED 1ST 2ND
STAGE STAGE STAGE STAGE
CARBON NITROGEN
20,000 = 9.1kg x 103 2000lb = .91kg x 103
4000tb = 1.82
6000lb = 2.72
LEGEND 8000lb = 3.63
10,0001b = 4.54
GAS = SUPERNATANT
E!
'!
i
FIGURE 6- 6
6 - 14
RAW SEWAGE PRIMARY AERATION SECONDARY FINAL EFFLUENT
16,035 15,969 CLARIFIER —
i
TANK 9,501
ft
CLARIFIER 2,836
( 10,520 ) ( 36,801 ) ( 15,306 ) ( 3,467 )
RETURN SLUDGE
FIGURE 6- 7
DIGESTER
GAS
GAS
'
HEAT ACTIVE
K/vP*-
RAW POSITIVE CLARIFIED
• ZONE LILIUID - SOLIDS
SLUDGE SEPARATION LIQUID
EXCHANGER
MIXING
-
n e t s FD
UDGP
BIOMASS H£ CYCLE
^ ^
FIGURE 6- 8
6-15
the contents of the digester. The difficulties in thickening
anaerobically digested sludge have been discussed above , Vacuum
degasifiers have been used in anaerobic contact systems to reduce
the buoyancy effect of entrapped gas , thereby improving cell
settling ( 56 ).
The anaerobic contact process has found application in the
treatment of high strength industrial wastes ( 56 , 58 , 59 ), and it
has been operated successfully at a laboratory scale to stabilize
primary sludge ( 60 ). Nevertheless , this system configuration is
rarely considered in municipal anaerobic sludge digestion because
of the difficulty in achieving the necessary concentration within
the return stream.
DIGESTER
GAS
DIGESTED
'' 4
SLUDGE
BIOMASS RECYCLE
BIOMASS RECYCLE
4
FIGURE 6- 9
6-16
-
Operating data for a bench scale system , summarized in Table 6 3 ,
show the differences between the reactors in a two phase system. -
-
The acid digester has a very short detention time ( 0.47 to
1.20 days ), low pH ( 5.66 to 5.86 ), and produces negligible
amounts of methane. Conditions in the methane digester are
similar to those found in a conventional high rate digester ,
which is operated to maintain the optimum environment for the
-
methanogenic bacteria. The detention time listed in Table 6 3 -
for the methane digester ( 6.46 days ) is significantly lower
than the detention time in a conventional high rate digester. -
However , this is probably because the two phase system was -
-
operated in a bench scale system rather than in a full scale
system where conditions are not ideal. The main advantage of a
-
-
two phase system is that it allows the creation of an optimum
environment for the acid fermenters. As of 1979 , a two phase
system has never been operated at a plant scale.
-
TABLE 6- 3
OPERATING AND PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS FOR
THE BENCH - SCALE , TWO- PHASE ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
OF WASTE ACTIVATED SLUDGE ( 63 )
Combined
Acid Methane two-phase
Parameter digester digester system
Temperature, C ° 37 37 37
Detention time, day 0.47- 1.20 6.46 -
6 .86 7.66
Loading ,
lb VS/day/cu ft -
1.54 2.67 0.18 0.20
PH -
5.66 5.86 7.12 7.12
Ammonia nitrogen, mg/1 490-600 766 766
Averaqe alkalinity ,
790 4 ,127 4 ,127
mg/1 CaCC>3
Gas composition , mole percent
CH 4 19- 44 69.7 65.9
C02 73- 33 29 . 0 32.3
N2 8- 23 1.3 1.8
Gas yield , standard cu ft/lb 0.2- 0.9 17.7 15.7
VS reduced
Methane yield , standard 0.1- 0.3 11.9 10.7
cu ft/'lb VS reduced
VS reduction, percent 8.5-31.1 29. 3 40.2
Effluent volatile acid, 3 ,717 134 134
mg/1 HAc
v*
< < **•«••«
6 . 2. 3 . 1 Loading Criteria
6-1 8
r e p r o d u c e s o that t h e y can ( 1 ) r e p l a c e c e l l s l o s t with t h e
withdrawn s l u d g e , and ( 2 ) adjust their p o p u l a t i o n size t o follow
fluctuations in o r g a n i c loading .
I n a c o m p l e t e l y mixed anaerobic digester , cells are e v e n l y
distributed t h r o u g h o u t t h e t a n k , A s a r e s u l t , a p o r t i o n o f
t h e bacterial p o p u l a t i o n is r e m o v e d with e a c h withdrawal o f
digested sludge, T o m a i n t a i n t h e s y s t e m in s t e a d y s t a t e ,
the r a t e of cell g r o w t h must at least match the r a t e a t which
cells are removed . Otherwise , the population of bacteria in the
digester declines and the process eventually fails.
TABLE 6- 4
Low-rate High-rate
Parameter digestion digestion
—- —
W«Mr
V .
Volume criteria ,
cu ft/capita
Primary sludge -
2 3 1.3
Primary sludge +
Trickling filter humus -
4 5 2.7 - 3.3
Primary sludge +
Activated sludge -
4 6 2.7-4
Solids loading rate , 0.04-0.1 0.15 - 0.40
lb VSS/day/cu ft
S o l i d s retention time , d a y s -
30 60 10 - 20
T h e k e y d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r f o r anaerobic b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t
is t h e b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s r e t e n t i o n t i m e ( S R T ), which i s t h e
-
6 19
average time a unit o f microbial mass is retained in the s y s t e m
( 68 ). S R T c a n b e o p e r a t i o n a l l y defined a s t h e t o t a l s o l i d s
mass in the t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m divided b y t h e quantity of solids
withdrawn d a i l y. In anaerobic digesters without r e c y c l e , the S R T
is equivalent t o the hydraulic detention time. Recycling of a
concentrated stream back t o the head of the s y s t e m , which is the
unique feature of the anaerobic contact process, increases the
S R T relative t o t h e h y d r a u l i c detention time.
F i g u r e 6 -1 0 illustrates t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S R T a n d
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a l a b - s c a l e anaerobic d i g e s t e r fed with
r a w p r i m a r y s l u d g e. Specifically, the figure shows how the
production of methane , a s well a s the reduction o f degradable
p r o t e i n s , c a r b o h y d r a t e s , l i p i d s , chemical o x y g e n d e m a n d , a n d
volatile solids, are related to the S R T. As the S R T is r e d u c e d ,
t h e concentration of each c o m p o n e n t in the effluent g r a d u a l l y
increases until the S R T r e a c h e s a value b e y o n d which the
concentration r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e s. T h i s b r e a k p o i n t i n d i c a t e s
t h e S R T at which washout o f microorganisms begins--that i s , the
point where the rate at which the organisms leave the system
exceeds their rate of reproduction. Figure 6 -10 shows t h a t the
lipid - metabolizing bacteria have the slowest g r o w t h r a t e and ,
therefore, are the first to washout. As t h e SRT is shortened
beyond the first breakpoint ( occurring at an S R T between eight
t o t e n d a y s a t 9 5 ° F [ 3 5°C ] ), more t y p e s o f bacteria are washed
out and performance is increasinglyinhibited. The SRT can
b e l o w e r e d t o a c r i t i c a l p o i n t ( SRTC ) b e y o n d w h i c h t h e
p r o c e s s will fail c o m p l e t e l y. Calculations based o n p r o c e s s
kinetics predict an SRTC of 4 . 2 d a y s f o r the d i g e s t i o n o f
wastewater s l u d g e at 9 5° F ( 35 ° C ) ( 6 9 ), which c o r r e s p o n d s with
T o r p e y' s p i l o t - s c a l e s t u d y ( 7 0 ) , in w h i c h anaerobic s l u d g e
digesters o p e r a t i n g a t 9 9 ° F ( 3 7° C ) failed a t a n S R T o f 2 . 6 d a y s.
Performance b e g a n deteriorating sharply a s the S R T w a s reduced
below five d a y s.
T e m p e r a t u r e has a n important effect on bacterial growth rates
a n d , a c c o r d i n g l y, c h a n g e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n S R T a n d
digester performance . The effect of temperature on methane
production and volatile solids reduction is shown o n Figure 6 -1 1.
The significance of this relationship is t h a t stabilization is
slowed at lower temperatures , with 6 8 ° F ( 20°C ) appearing t o be
t h e m i n i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e a t which s l u d g e s t a b i l i z a t i o n c a n b e
accomplished within a practical solids retention time ( 6 9 ). The
critical minimum solids retention time ( SRTC ) is a l s o affected
b y t e m p e r a t u r e. O' R o u r k e ( 6 9 ) f o u n d t h a t t h e SRTC f o r t h e
digestion of a primary sewage s l u d g e in a bench-scale digester
was 4 . 2 d a y s at 9 5 ° F ( 35 °C ), 7.0 d a y s at 7 7° F ( 25°C ), and 10.1
d a y s at 50 ° F ( 10° C ).
6- 20
6
\ METHANE
5 x>
5
H
3
U
—
4 2 a>
C3
- t—
4UIM
IVUIUI {
I
uw
3 «D
3 a ii
On
— VOLATILE SOLIDS
2
** —
l
£
«
3
UJ
5
COD 1
O
0
BENCH-SCALE DIGESTION OF
°
PR IMARY SLUDGE AT 95 F (35
°CJ
VOLATILE ACIDS
LIPIDS
CELLULOSE PROTEIN
40 50 60
FIGURE 6- 10
-
6 21
6
35 C°
A
n
5
25 G
°
u
°
20 C
2l 4 METHANE
H
U
rs it
O _Q
a:~ 3
« ** -
LU 3
<
X“
<“
H
LLl
5
20
0
*
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
FIGURE 6- 11
6- 2 2
( SRT ) and the conditions under which it must be met should be
^
selected with care. A margin of safety must be provided , since
-
SRTC was determined on the basis of bench scale digesters
maintained at such ideal conditions as complete mixing , uniform
feeding and withdrawal rates , and closely controlled digestion
temperature. -
However , in a full scale facility , the ideal
condition of complete mixing is not achieved . Both the quantity
and the chemical characteristics of the feed sludge vary over
time , and sludge temperature may fluctuate. All these actual -
system characteristics tend to slow the rate of the microbial
digestion process. As a result , SRT must be considerably
^
greater than SRTC. McCarty ( 71 ) recommends a minimum safety
factor of 2.5.
Several researchers ( 43 ,49 ,57 ,72,73 ,74 ,75) have recommended ten
-
days as a minimum acceptable solids retention time for high rate
digesters operating near 95°F ( 35°C ). ( Values for systems
sizing criterion is reasonable , since it
-
operated at other temperatures are shown in Table 6 5.) This
corresponds with the
replication time of the slowest growing bacteria , However , this
criterion must be met under all expected conditions , including:
Peak hydraulic loading , This value should be estimated
by combining poor thickener performance with the maximum
plant loading expected during seven continuous days
during the design period .
Maximum grit and scum accumulations. Considerable
amounts of grit and scum may accumulate before a digester
is cleaned. This reduces the active volume of the tank.
Liquid level below highest level , Several feet of liquid
level variability ( two to three , usually ) must be
retained to allow for differences in the rate of feeding
and withdrawal and to provide reasonable operational
flexibility.
These conditions may very well occur simultaneously and ,
therefore , the designer should compound them when applying
-
the ten day SRT sizing criterion ,
^ In the past , " liberal "
detention time criteria have been applied at the average
conditions. However , problems arise during critical periods ,
not when conditions are average , For this reason , the most
-
rational approach to sizing a full scale facility is to apply
experimentally based design criteria ( increased by a reasonable
margin of safety ) to the actual set of expected peak conditions.
( An example is included in Section 6.2.9.3 ).
-
6 23
l a r g e p o r t i o n are c o n v e r t e d into g a s , primarily methane ( C H 4 )
a n d c a r b o n d i o x i d e ( C O 2 ). Pathogens are reduced through
n a t u r a l d i e-o f f b e c a u s e t h e a n a e r o b i c environment is unsuitable
f o r their survival , ( R e f e r t o C h a p t e r 7 ). M a n y o t h e r chemical
a n d p h y s i c a l c h a n g e s occur during anaerobic s l u d g e d i g e s t i o n ,
some o f which a r e described l a t e r in this section.
TABLE 6- 5
Operating Suggested
temperature , Minimum for design
Op (SRTC ) ( )
SRTd
65 11 28
75 8 20
85 6 14
95 4 10
105 4 10
E s s e n t i a l l y , a l l stabilization o c c u r r e d in t h e p r i m a r y d i g e s t e r.
In this first stage , 57 percent of the volatile solids were
c o n v e r t e d t o l i q u i d o r g a s. O n l y 2 . 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e volatile
solids in t h e r a w s l u d g e w e r e r e d u c e d in t h e s e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r.
A s i m i l a r p a t t e r n o f p e r f o r m a n c e i s s h o w n i n T a b l e 6-7 f o r
c a r b o h y d r a t e, l i p i d , a n d protein reduction. While d a t a indicate
6- 2 4
***»»*{
; »< «
*
TABLE 6- 6
Concentration , mg/la
Feed Transfer Stabilized
Component sludge sludge Supernatant sludge
pH 5.7 7.7 7.8 7.8
Alkalinity 758 2, 318 2 ,630 2 ,760
Volatile acids 1, 285 172 211 185
Total solids 35,600 18 ,200 12, 100 32,800
Fixed solids 9 ,000 6 , 600 3 , 310 12 , 300
Carbohydrates 9 ,680 1, 550 1,020 3 ,100
Lipids 8, 310 2,075 1 , 321 3,490
Carbon 15,450 6 ,950 4 ,440 10 ,910
Proteins , as gelatin 18 ,280 11, 200 6 , 580 17 , 200
Ammonia nitrogen , as NH 213 546 618 691
Organic nitrogen , as NH3
Total nitrogen, as NH 3
^ 1, 346
1,559
879
1,425
564
1, 182
1,455
2,146
aExcept pH.
TABLE 6- 7
a
MATERIALS ENTERING AND LEAVING TWO- STAGE DIGESTER SYSTEM ( 23 )
Quantity , tons
Gas
Feed Transfer Stabilized
sludge sludge Supernatant sludge 1st stage 2nd stage
6-25
Reduction o f solids during digestion has t h e effect o f producing
a m o r e d i l u t e s l u d g e, F o r e x a m p l e, in t h i s c a s e, t h e r a w
s l u d g e fed t o t h e s y s t e m h a d a t o t a l s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f
3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t , y e t t h e s o l i d s concentration w a s r e d u c e d t o
1 , 8 6 p e r c e n t in t h e first stage of digestion . Although gravity
concentration did occur in the second -s t a g e tank. , t h e largest
portion o f the digested solids w a s contained in the s u p e r n a t a n t .
A t t h i s p l a n t, t h e s u p e r n a t a n t w a s r e c y c l e d t o t h e p r i m a r y
clarifiers and t h e n t h e solids it contained either r e t u r n e d t o
the primary digester o r left the p l a n t in t h e final effluent.
T h e p r e c e d i n g e x a m p l e illustrates t h e g e n e r a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f
anaerobic digesters, In the remainder of this section, three
t o p i c s a r e d i s c u s s e d in m o r e detail : solids r e d u c t i o n , g a s
production a n d s u p e r n a t a n t quality .
6 . 2.4 . 1 Solids Reduction
Solids reduction is one of the main objectives of anaerobic
digestion. I t n o t o n l y makes the s l u d g e less putrescible but
a l s o r e d u c e s t h e a m o u n t o f s o l i d s f o r u l t i m a t e d i s p o s a l.
I t is usually assumed t h a t this reduction takes place only in the
v o l a t i l e p o r t i o n o f t h e s l u d g e s o l i d s , T h e r e f o r e, a c o m m o n
measure of digester p e r f o r m a n c e is t h e p e r c e n t of the volatile
s o l i d s d e s t r o y e d, Volatile solids reduction in anaerobic
digesters u s u a l l y r a n g e s between 35 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t. T h e d e g r e e o f
volatile solids reduction achieved in any p a r t i c u l a r a p p l i c a t i o n
d e p e n d s o n both the character of the sludge and t h e operating
p a r a m e t e r s o f the digestion s y s t e m .
The character of the sludge determines the upper limit for
v o l a t i l e s o l i d s r e d u c t i o n. N o t all of t h e v o l a t i l e solids
c a n be converted by t h e anaerobic bacteria. Limited r e s e a r c h
( 7 7 t o 8 0 ) suggests that only 6 0 t o 8 0 p e r c e n t of the volatile
solids in municipal w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e is readily biodegradable.
T h e remaining fraction consists chiefly o f inert o r g a n i c s s u c h a s
lignins a n d tannins, T h e s e complex organic molecules m a y even-
tually b e degraded w h e n held f o r s e v e r a l m o n t h s in a facultative
s l u d g e l a g o o n, b u t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e d i n d i g e s t i b l e w i t h i n t h e
c o n t a c t times n o r m a l l y associated with anaerobic d i g e s t i o n .
T h e m o s t important operating p a r a m e t e r s affecting volatile solids
reduction a r e solids retention t i m e and d i g e s t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e.
A s shown o n Figure 6 -1 2, volatile solids reduction climbs rapidly
t o 5 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t a s the S R T is increased. Beyond this point ,
further reduction is minimal even with substantial increases in
t h e S R T. Similar curves h a v e been p r o d u c e d b y o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s
( 4 3,6 0 ,8 1 ). T h e s h a p e of the r e s p o n s e curve and t h e point a t
which it levels o u t a r e influenced s t r o n g l y b y t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f
t h e digester. F i g u r e 6 -1 2 s h o w s t h a t a t a n y given S R T, raising
t h e o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e t o 9 5 ° F ( 3 5 ° C ) w i l l increase t h e
proportion of volatile solids d e s t r o y e d during digestion. This
r e s p o n s e t o t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e is n o t instantaneous but would
6- 2 6
70
60
PRIMARY SLUDGE ONLY
A A
ft
50 «
40
00
20
j i
0 JL 1 1 1
50 ft li
O 4 ft 9
A
d
Z3
A
A
Q 40 A ft
• 9•* ft ft
9
ft
i
- a
30 • ft
* ft
ft
g ft ft *
UJ
20 A PILOT PLANT REF . ( 13)
h- PILOT PLANT REF. < 14 )
5 10 ft PILOT PLANT REF . (85 }
§
0 i
ft
ft
ft
PRIMARY AND
60 ACTIVATED SLUDGE
a
ft
50 A * A
A
f
AA A
A
40 M
A
ft
30
0 1 1 1 i
0 200 400 600 800 1200 1400 1600 1600 2000 2200
6- 2 8
6.2 . 4.2 G a s Production
A p a r t i c u l a r a d v a n t a g e o f anaerobic d i g e s t i o n o v e r o t h e r m e t h o d s
o f s l u d g e s t a b i l i z a t i o n i s t h a t it p r o d u c e s a m e d i u m - e n e r g y
g a s as a b y- p r o d u c t . D i g e s t e r g a s c a n be burned t o p r o v i d e heat
and generate electricity for the treatment plant, Several
o f f-s i t e u s e s o f d i g e s t e r g a s a r e a l s o f e a s i b l e, i n c l u d i n g:
b l e n d i n g w i t h t h e d o m e s t i c g a s s u p p l y, g e n e r a t i o n o f s t e a m o r
e l e c t r i c i t y f o r s a l e t o a d j a c e n t industries , bottling f o r use as
a p o r t a b l e f u e l , and p r o d u c t i o n o f chemicals s u c h a s ammonia a n d
methanol . Utilization o f d i g e s t e r g a s is described further in
Sections 6 . 2.6 . 2 , 6 . 2.7, and C h a p t e r 1 8. B e f o r e a n y utilization
p r o g r a m c a n be established , t h e q u a n t i t y a n d q u a l i t y o f available
d i g e s t e r g a s m u s t b e determined.
TABLE 6- 8
Specific gas
production , cu ft/lb CH4 content ,
Material destroyed percent
—..
v '
Fats 18 - 23 62 - 72
Scum 14 - 16 70 - 75
Grease 17 68
Crude Fibers 13 45 - 50
Protein 12 73
1 c u ft/lb = .0 6 2 3 m
'
Vkg
Specific gas production for anaerobically digested municipal
sludges generally ranges between 12 to 17 cu ft per lb of
6- 2 9
o c c u r a f t e r a period o f acclimatization , T h e g r a p h a l s o p o i n t s
out t h a t a t h i g h e r S R T s, t h e e f f e c t o f t e m p e r a t u r e i s l e s s
pronounced.
TOO
90 R A W S L U D G E CHARACTERfSTfCS
TYPE PRIMARY
80 SOLIDS C O N C. 2.3%
z VOLATILE CONTENT 8 0%
o
f— 70
a
a
uu
cc
35°C
£ 50 „
25°C
Q
an 40 20°C
IXi
30
H
< °
15 C
O 20
>
10
!
10 20 30 40 50 60
FIGURE 6- 12
6- 27
v o l a t i l e solids destroyed ( 0.75 t o 1 . 1 m /kg ) ^ .
F i g u r e 6 -1 4
shows how s p e c i f i c g a s production i s a f f e c t e d by temperature .
Conversion of v o l a t i l e solids i s most e f f i c i e n t a t about 95°F
( 35°C ) and 130° F ( 54 °C ) .
Detention time , o r SRT , has e s s e n t i a l l y
no e f f e c t on s p e c i f i c g a s production s o long a s t h e SRT i s
exceeded .
Lengthening t h e SRT , however , i n c r e a s e s t h e t o t a l
quantity of gas produced because volatile solids reduction i s
increased .
As discussed e a r l i e r , the mix of organic compounds in
the feed sludge strongly influences specific gas production
v 'a l u e s .
20 r -
15
o
-
I
u
-a
3 b“O
a
°
? XJ
CL
SB
10
<
tD !
£ 3
u
o
LU
L
C/3 5
BASED ON DATA FROM 23 STUDIES
j
80 90 100 110 120 130 140
TEMPERATURE , °F
FIGURE 6- 14
TABLE 6- 9
T h e h y d r o g e n s u l f i d e c o n t e n t o f t h e g a s is a f f e c t e d b y t h e
chemical c o m p o s i t i o n of t h e s l u d g e ( 8 4 ). Sulfur-bearing
industrial w a s t e s a n d saltwater infiltration t e n d t o increase
H 2S levels in s l u d g e g a s. H o w e v e r, metal w a s t e s and m e t a l ions
a d d e d during chemical t r e a t m e n t o r conditioning c a n r e d u c e the
a m o u n t o f H 2 S in t h e s l u d g e by f o r m i n g i n s o l u b l e s a l t s . H 2 S ,
a major source o f o d o r s in digested s l u d g e , c a n a l s o be corrosive
in the p r e s e n c e of moisture, by forming sulfuric acid .
Although the hydrogen content has some effect on the heat
value, m e t h a n e is t h e chief combustible constituent in d i g e s t e r
g a s. T h e high h e a t value for digester g a s r a n g e s between 5 0 0 t o
7 0 0 B t u p e r c u f t ( 4.5 t o 6 . 2 k g -k c a l/m 3 ), with a n a v e r a g e of
a b o u t 6 4 0 B t u p e r cu ft ( 5.7 kg -k c a l/ m ) ( 8 4 ). ^ T h e high h e a t
value is the h e a t released d u r i n g combustion a s measured in a
calorimeter. H o w e v e r, g a s engine efficiencies a r e usually based
o n t h e l o w h e a t value , which is t h e heat value of g a s w h e n n o n e
o f the w a t e r v a p o r f o r m e d by combustion h a s b e e n condensed , By
w a y o f comparison , s l u d g e g a s containing 7 0 p e r c e n t m e t h a n e and
n o o t h e r combustibles h a s a low h e a t v a l u e of 6 4 0 B t u p e r c u f t
^
( 5 . 7 k g - k c a l/ m ) a n d a h i g h h e a t v a l u e o f 7 0 3 B t u p e r c u f t
( 6 . 2 6 k g -k c a l/ m ) ( 8 4 ).
^
6.2 . 4.3 S u p e r n a t a n t Quality
S u p e r n a t a n t f r o m a n anaerobic digestion s y s t e m can contain high
concentrations o f o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l , d i s s o l v e d a n d s u s p e n d e d
6-3 1
s o l i d s, n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s, a n d o t h e r m a t e r i a l s t h a t , w h e n
returned t o the p l a n t , m a y impose extra l o a d s o n other treatment
p r o c e s s e s a n d effluent r e c e i v i n g w a t e r s. Mignone ( 89 ) has
reviewed t h e literature o n anaerobic d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t
quality. Methods of treating digester s u p e r n a t a n t are described
in C h a p t e r 16 and in other references ( 9 0,9 1 , 9 2 ). However , in
most cases it is p r e f e r a b l e t o minimize or eliminate , rather than
treat , h i g h l y p o l l u t e d d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t ( 5 2 ).
It is v e r y difficult t o g e n e r a l i z e a b o u t s u p e r n a t a n t q u a l i t y
because it can vary w i d e l y, even at a single treatment plant.
T a b l e 6 - 1 0 p r e s e n t s r e p o r t e d characteristics o f a n a e r o b i c
digester s u p e r n a t a n t for three common t y p e s of feed sludge. Many
factors contribute to the wide r a n g e o f variation in s u p e r n a t a n t
quality ( 9 0 ,9 1 ,9 7, 9 8 ).
T h e s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s , biochemical o x y g e n demand , s o l u b l e
p h o s p h o r u s , p h e n o l s , and ammonia in the s u p e r n a t a n t can a l l cause
p r o b l e m s in a treatment plant . If the anaerobic s u p e r n a t a n t must
b e r e t u r n e d t o t h e p l a n t f l o w f o r t r e a t m e n t , it s h o u l d b e
recycled continuously t o spread the loading .
Suspended Solids
Biochemical O x y g e n Demand
Because suspended and dissolved solids from an anaerobic digester
are in a chemically reduced s t a t e , t h e y i m p o s e a l a r g e o x y g e n
demand w h e n returned t o the liquid process s t r e a m , T h e aeration
requirement for aerobic biological treatment is often increased
s u b s t a n t i a l l y b y t h e recycling of high B O D d i g e s t e r supernatant.
Soluble Phosphorus
T h e recent emphasis o n removal of phosphorus from wastewaters h a s
created s l u d g e s that contain h i g h proportions of this element.
I n b i o l o g i c a l p h o s p h o r u s r e m o v a l , p h o s p h o r u s is t a k e n u p b y
the growing cell mass and is removed from the wastewater s t r e a m
in t h e w a s t e d b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e ( 9 9 , 1 0 0 ). Chemical m e t h o d s
of phosphorus removal entail the precipitation of phosphates
with metal ions — predominantly f e r r o u s, ferric , aluminum , and
calcium. T h e fate o f p h o s p h o r u s d u r i n g the anaerobic digestion
o f p h o s p h o r u s- laden biological and chemical s l u d g e s has b e e n the
subject of several studies ( 55 , 1 0 1- 1 0 4 ). T h e results o f these
studies are not entirely consistent. In some cases ( 99 , 101 ),
bound phosphorus was resolubilized during anaerobic digestion
6-3 2
and released to the digester supernatant , The return of this
phosphorus-laden supernatant to the liquid treatment stream can
substantially reduce the net phosphorus removal efficiency of the
plant ( 101 ) and /or increase chemical demand , However , in most
studies ( 55 ,102-104 ), release of soluble phosphorus into digester
supernatant was minimal.
TABLE 6- 10
BOD
Average 713 1 ,238 515 667
Maximum 1 , 880 6 ,000 2,700
Minimum 200 135 100
-
NH 3 N
Organic N
853
291 678
253
53
559
91 360
480
560
8.0 7.3 7.2 7.0 7.8 7.0 7.3
PH
Volatile acids 264 322 250
Alkalinity (as CaC03) 2 ,555 3,780 1 , 349 1 ,434
Phenols '
aUnless noted , all values are average for the sampling period studied.
bValues indicated are a composite from seven treatment plants.
cValues indicated are a composite from six treatment plants.
Phenols
Phenols have been found in digester supernatants in concentra-
t ions sufficient to inhibit biological activity ( 56 ). Typical
phenol concentrations are included in Table 6 - 10 . The source
o f p h e n o l s is not u s u a l l y industrial w a s t e d i s c h a r g e s but
putrefaction of proteins , which begins in the h u m a n b o d y and
continues in the sewage system , Phenols are very toxic and are
used commercially as an antiseptic . In dilute concentrations ,
phenols do not necessarily kill bacteria but slow their growth
6- 33
and inhibit their normal metabolic activity , As a result , the
p h e n o l s contained in digester s u p e r n a t a n t , combined with phenolic
c o m p o u n d s already in the sewage , may be an important cause of
s l u d g e bulking ( 9 0 ). In addition , the recycling of phenols in
s u p e r n a t a n t m a y contribute t o odor p r o b l e m s .
Ammonia
As shown in Table 6 -10 , high levels of ammonia are often found in
digester s u p e r n a t a n t. In p l a n t s that are nitrifying , the s u p e r-
natant r e t u r n will provide a large portion of the ammonia feed t o
t h e w a s t e w a t e r p r o c e s s. The conversion of this ammonia to
nitrate will therefore result in increased c o s t s t o p r o v i d e the
required o x y g e n for t r e a t m e n t , In plants that must achieve a
n i t r o g e n limitation in t h e i r e f f l u e n t , the recycle ammonia
loadings must be c a r e f u l l y evaluated a s t o their overall effect
in meeting the standards.
6.2.5 O p e r a t i o n a l Considerations
6.2 . 5.1 pH
6-3 4
p H m u s t increase. F o r a n y fixed g a s- p h a s e C O 2 c o m p o s i t i o n, t h e
a m o u n t o f sodium bicarbonate r e q u i r e d t o achieve t h e d e s i r e d p H
c h a n g e i s g i v e n b y t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n:
w h e r e:
D = sodium bicarbonate d o s e, m g /1
ou
Co
f OPERATING
TEMPERATURE
40
°
96 F (35 C )°
& Q
CO Q?
<
o
a: 3 0
LU
£
LU
C3
G 20
2
CN
o
a
0
250 500 1000 2500 5000 10,000 25,000
FIGURE 6- 15
6-35
Bicarbonate alkalinity can be calculated from t o t a l alkalinity b y
the following equation:
BA TA - 0.71 ( VA ) ( 6-2 )
where:
Second , t o x i c i t y i s a relative t e r m. T h e r e a r e m a n y o r g a n i c
a n d i n o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l s w h i c h , if s o l u b l e , c a n b e either
6 -3 6
stimulatory or toxic. A g o o d e x a m p l e is the effect , shown in
T a b l e 6 -11 , o f ammonia nitrogen o n anaerobic digestion .
TABLE 6- 11
EFFECT OF AMMONIA NITROGEN ON ANAEROBIC DIGESTION ( 113 , 114 )
Ammonia
concentration , as N ,
mg/l Effect
50 - 200 Beneficial
200 - 1,000 No adverse effects
Volatile acids
H e a v y metals
Light metal cations
Oxygen
Sulfides
Ammonia
Volatile Acids
Until t h e 1 9 6 0 s , it w a s c o m m o n l y believed t h a t volatile acid
concentrations over 2, 0 0 0 mg /l w e r e toxic t o anaerobic digestion.
T h e r e w a s a l s o considerable c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t w h e t h e r or n o t
alkaline substances should b e added t o maintain a d e q u a t e buffer
capacity.
6- 3 7
..
..
TABLE 6- 12
6 -3 8
T a b l e 6 - 1 2 gives t h e t y p i c a l r a n g e of r e m o v a l that can be
expected from standard secondary treatment . Published data seem
to indicate that the p e r c e n t removal , without chemical addition ,
is a function of influent concentration : the higher the influent
concentration , the higher the p e r c e n t removal.
The l a s t c o l u m n of Table 6 - 1 2 shows removals of h e a v y m e t a l s
achieved with additions o f alum , In treatment systems that
add chemical c o a g u l a n t s for p h o s p h a t e removal , a significant
amount of influent heavy metals will also be removed ( 122 ).
TABLE 6- 13
6 - 39
TABLE 6- 14
TABLE 6- 15
Concentration , mg/1
Moderately Strongly
Cation Stimulatory inhibitory inhibitory
Calcium
Magnesium
100 -200
75 - 150
2 ,500
1,000
- 4 , 500
1.500
8 ,000
3 ,000
Potassium 200 - 400 2.500 4 , 500 12 ,000
Sodium 100 -200 3.500 5.500 8 ,000
6 -4 0
TABLE 6- 16
O x y- •g e n
BIWT
'
/ !»
*
“
M a n y e n g i n e e r s h a v e e x p r e s s e d concern o v e r t h e possibility
o f o x y g e n toxicity c a u s e d by using dissolved a i r flotation
thickeners f o r s l u d g e thickening. Fields and A g a r d y ( 1 3 4 )
injected oxygen into a b e n c h - s c a l e d i g e s t e r a t t h e r a t e of
0.1 ml O 2 p e r liter per hour ( equivalent t o one volume of air
p e r 2 , 1 0 0 v o l u m e s o f digester c o n t e n t s p e r h o u r ). T o t a l g a s
production fell 36.5 percent after 19 hours and ceased completely
after 6 9 h o u r s . H o w e v e r , this r a t e of oxygen injection is
significantly higher than would be p r o d u c e d by a dissolved air
flotation t h i c k e n i n g s y s t e m . C o n s e q u e n t l y , n o p r o b l e m s are
expected under normal circumstances.
Sulfides
S o l u b l e sulfide concentrations over 2 0 0 mg /1 are toxic t o
anaerobic digestion s y s t e m s ( 1 2 5 , 1 3 5 ). T h e s o l u b l e sulfide
concentration within t h e digester is a function of the incoming
source of sulfur, the pH , the rate of g a s production , and t h e
amount of heavy metals available to act as precipitants. High
levels o f soluble sulfide can be reduced by the addition of iron
salts ( 136 ) t o the liquid , o r scrubbing of the recirculated gas.
Ammonia
Ammonia , produced during the anaerobic degradation of proteins
a n d u r e a , m a y r e a c h toxic l e v e l s in h i g h l y c o n c e n t r a t e d
s l u d g e s ( 1 1 3 , 1 1 4 , 1 3 3 ). T w o f o r m s o f ammonia a r e found in
anaerobic digestion: ammonium ion ( NH 4 + ) and dissolved ammonia
g a s ( NH 3 ). Both forms can inhibit anaerobic digestion, although
ammonia g a s h a s a toxic effect a t a much lower concentration than
ammonium ion.
T h e t w o forms of ammonia are in equilibrium a n d t h e relative
c o n c e n t r a t i o n of e a c h d e p e n d s o n pH , a s indicated b y the
following equilibrium equation:
6 -4 1
+
NH 4 + NH 3 + H
6.2.6 S y s t e m C o m p o n e n t Design
6 -4 2
are higher for this type of bottom because it requires more
complex excavation , form work , and piping than a conventional
bottom. It has been estimated that the incremental construction
cost for waffle bottoms on the 90-foot ( 27 m ) diameter digesters
in Oakland was estimated to be $120 ,000 per tank ( 1978 dollars )
( 139 ). However , it is expected that savings will be realized
during operation because cleaning requirements will be greatly
reduced .
-
WITHDRAWAL '
PIPE
X//
/
\ /
\
w \ /
/ \.
\ /
\
/ \
WH •••
N
\ * / ill
/
/ \
\I /
\
/
j
/ %
WITHDRAWAL-1
t \ -4t-
PORTS
r/P "
BOTTOM SECTION
'
V PLAN
FIGURE 6- 16
-
6 43
a rectangular digester uniformly mixed because " dead s p o t s " t e n d
t o form a t t h e corners ,
F i g u r e 6- 1 7 s h o w s a p l a n and section o f
a rectangular digestion tank.
INLET
PLAN
GAS OUTLET
Tt m
i
CJ .
air V'' ~aup
1*
*53
r+t
ej
I.15
SECTION
FIGURE 6- 17
A l t h o u g h e g g - s h a p e d d i g e s t e r s h a v e b e e n used e x t e n s i v e l y in
E u r o p e , originating in G e r m a n y over 20 y e a r s a g o, t h e y are o n l y
now entering American practice , T h e first egg -s h a p e d digesters
in the United S t a t e s were built in Kansas City , K a n s a s , in the
mid -1 9 7 0 s , and four more are now under construction ( 1979 ) in
L o s A n g e l e s, C a l i f o r n i a , a t t h e T e r m i n a l I s l a n d W a s t e w a t e r
T r e a t m e n t P l a n t . E a c h o f t h e Terminal I s l a n d d i g e s t e r s w i l l
h a v e a c a p a c i t y o f 1 8 4 , 0 0 0 c u b i c f e e t ( 5, 2 0 0 m 3 ) a n d m e a s u r e
1 0 0 feet ( 30 m ) from t o p t o b o t t o m , with a maximum horizontal
diameter of 6 8 feet ( 21 m ) ( 1 4 0 ).
6-44
MIXER
*
—- SCUM DOOR
PLATFORM TO PLATFORM
OTHER \\ SUPERNATANT
DIGESTERS FEED
/ / — WITHDRAWAL
* wwwa'
i
H XV
PIPES
ELEVATOR
70'
iH-
;
WITHDRAW
1 BOTTOM
GAS SLUDGE
u j
- SPARGERS
4
i
ty
11
29'
IOI
FIGURE 6- 18
6 -45
h i g h e r t h a n f o r o t h e r t a n k d e s i g n s, T h e 1 9 7 6 construction
c o s t estimate for t h e four digesters in L o s A n g e l e s was about
$ 5 , 000 , 0 0 0.
Methods o f Heating
Heating equipment must be capable of delivering enough heat
t o raise the t e m p e r a t u r e o f incoming s l u d g e t o operating levels
and to offset losses of heat through the walls, floor, and
cover of the digester. Methods used t o transfer heat t o sludge
include:
S t e a m i n j e c t i o n d i r e c t l y into t h e s l u d g e
6 -4 6
i n c r e a s e h e a t t r a n s f e r, The heat exchanger and boiler are
c o m b i n e d i n a s i n g l e u n i t , a f e a t u r e w h i c h c a n increase t h e
explosion hazard in the digester area, In a jacketed pipe
e x c h a n g e r , h o t w a t e r i s p u m p e d c o u n t e r- c u r r e n t t o t h e s l u d g e
f l o w, t h r o u g h a concentric p i p e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s l u d g e p i p e , T h e
s p i r a l e x c h a n g e r i s a l s o a c o u n t e r- f l o w d e s i g n ; h o w e v e r , t h e
s l u d g e a n d w a t e r p a s s a g e w a y s a r e c a s t in a s p i r a l , O n e side o f
the heat exchanger is liquid , providing ready access to the
interior o f t h e s l u d g e p a s s a g e w a y f o r c l e a n i n g , H e a t t r a n s f e r
coefficients f o r d e s i g n o f e x t e r n a l h e a t e x c h a n g e r s r a n g e between
1 5 0 t o 2 7 5 B t u/h r/s q f t/d e g r e e F ( 7 4 0 t o 1,3 5 0 k g -c a l/h r/m 2/°c )
d e p e n d i n g o n h e a t e x c h a n g e r construction a n d fluid t u r b u l e n c e.
T o minimize c l o g g i n g w i t h r a g s a n d debris , s l u d g e p a s s a g e w a y s in
a h e a t e x c h a n g e r s h o u l d b e a s l a r g e a s p o s s i b l e , T h e interior o f
'
t h e s e p a s s a g e w a y s s h o u l d be e a s i l y a c c e s s i b l e t o a l l o w t h e
operator to quickly locate and clear a blockage.
TABLE 6- 17
Transfer
Material surrounding coefficient (u),
h o t water coils Btu/hr/sq ft/°F
Thin supernatant 60 - 80
Thin sludge 30
Thick sludge 8 - 15
6 -4 7
Each digester should have a separate heat exchanger and in
larger plants , addition of a single heat exchanger for warming
raw sludge should be considered. Cold raw sludge should never be
added directly to the digester . The thermal shock will be
detrimental to the anaerobic bacteria , and isolated pockets of
cold sludge may form. Raw sludge should be preheated or mixed
with large quantities of warm circulating sludge before being fed
to the digester.
HEAT
SOURCE 200
PRIMARY LOOP
CIRCULATION PUMP
SECONDARY HEAT
HEAT EXCHANGER
BALANCING LOOP
VALVES
^
t SLUDGE INLET
r
7
FIGURE 6- 19
Heat Sources
The hot water or steam used to heat digesters is most commonly
generated in a boiler fueled by sludge gas. Up to 80 percent of
the heat value of sludge gas can be recovered in a boiler.
Provisions for burning an alternate fuel source ( natural gas,
propane , or fuel oil ) must be included to maintain heating during
periods of low digester gas production or high heating demand.
-
6 48
Natural gas is the most compatible alternate fuel because it has
a low heat content and , consequently , can be blended and burned
in a boiler with minimal equipment adjustment.
FIGURE 6- 20
SPIRAL HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING OFF
SECONDARY HEAT LOOP AT SUNNYVALE , CALIFORNIA
-
Often , waste heat from sludge gas powered engines used to
generate electricity or directly drive equipment is sufficient to
meet digester heating requirements. Typically , 18 to 20 percent
of the low heating value of engine fuel can be recovered from
the engine cooling system ( 38 ). Engines can be cooled by
either a forced draft system in which water is pumped through the
engine or a natural draft system ( termed ebullient cooling ) in
which water is vaporized and circulates without pumping , The
latter method yields a higher temperature ( and thus more useful )
source of heat and also increases engine life , A combination
-
exhaust silencer and heat recovery unit can be used to extract
from the exhaust an additional ten to thirteen percent of the low
-
6 49
heating v a l u e o f t h e e n g i n e f u e l ( 3 8 ). T o p r e v e n t formation o f
corrosive a c i d s , e x h a u s t g a s e s s h o u l d n o t b e c o o l e d b e l o w 4 0 0 ° F
( 2 0 0 ° C ).
Qs - ( gal of sludge
hr )( 8.34 lb
gal ) ( Cp ) ( T 2 - Ti ) ( 6 -3 )
w h e r e:
Qs = h e a t r e q u i r e d t o r a i s e i n c o m i n g s l u d g e s t r e a m f r o m
t e m p e r a t u r e Tg t o T 2 , B t u/h r
T = temperature of raw s l u d g e s t r e a m , ° F
^
T 2 = t e m p e r a t u r e desired w i t h i n t h e d i g e s t i o n t a n k , ° F
A s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6-2 1 , t h e s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e r a w
s l u d g e h a s a d i r e c t i m p a c t o n t h e h e a t i n g r e q u i r e m e n t. T h e
6- 5 0
s i g n i f i c a n c e o f this g r a p h i s t h a t a s e e m i n g l y s m a l l c h a n g e
in f e e d s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n c a n h a v e a s u b s t a n t i a l e f f e c t
o n the r a w s l u d g e heating requirement.
60
- .
z %
IX
>
50
2o ~ 40
iu ' a a
cc 5 V
D Q ^
O 30
IU II
** .
li
h ffl 3
20
< -M
UJ G3
X
10
0 2 4 6 6 10
FIGURE 6- 21
Q = ( U ) ( A ) ( T2 - T3 ) -
(6 4)
where:
Q = h e a t- l o s s r a t e , B t u/h r
T 2 = t e m p e r a t u r e within t h e digestion t a n k , ° F
6 - 51
T 3 = temperature outside t h e digestion tank , ° F
U h e a t t r a n s f e r coefficient , B t u/ hr/ s q ft /° F , which
is directly affected by the film coefficient for
interior surface of tank, and the film coefficient for
exterior surface of t a n k , and inversely affected by the
thickness o f individual wall material , and the thermal
conductivity o f individual wall material.
Several other factors may affect the heat transfer coefficient U ;
however, they m a y be considered negligible for the purposes of
digester design . Further discussion o f heat transfer principles,
a l o n g with lists o f v a l u e s f o r film coefficients a n d t h e r m a l
conductivities, is available ( 8 4 , 145,146 ). Various values of U
for different d i g e s t e r c o v e r s , w a l l construction , a n d f l o o r
conditions are given in Table 6 -1 8.
TABLE 6- 18
2
1 Btu/hr/sq ft/ F ° = -
4.9 kg cal/hr/m / C.
°
1 in. 2.54 cm
1 ft 0.304 m
H e a t l o s s e s c a n be r e d u c e d b y i n s u l a t i n g t h e cover a n d t h e
e x p o s e d w a l l s o f the d i g e s t e r . C o m m o n i n s u l a t i n g materials
a r e g l a s s w o o l , insulation b o a r d , u r e t h a n e f o a m , l i g h t w e i g h t
i n s u l a t i n g c o n c r e t e a n d dead air s p a c e. A f a c i n g i s p l a c e d
over t h e insulation for protection and t o improve aesthetics.
C o m m o n facing materials are brick, metal siding , s t u c c o, p r e c a s t
c o n c r e t e p a n e l s , and sprayed -o n mastic.
6- 5 2
Maintaining intimate contact between the active biomass
and t h e f e e d s l u d g e.
A c e r t a i n a m o u n t o f n a t u r a l m i x i n g o c c u r s in a n anaerobic
digester, c a u s e d by both t h e rise of s l u d g e g a s bubbles and t h e
t h e r m a l convection c u r r e n t s created by t h e addition of heated
s l u d g e s. T h e effect o f natural mixing is significant ( 1 5 0 ,1 5 2 ) ,
particularly in digesters fed continuously and a t high loading
r a t e s . H o w e v e r , natural mixing does n o t maximize t h e benefits of
mixing and is insufficient t o ensure stable p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
digestion process , Therefore, mixers a r e an essential c o m p o n e n t
in a high-r a t e digestion s y s t e m, Methods used f o r mixing include
e x t e r n a l p u m p e d c i r c u l a t i o n , i n t e r n a l mechanical m i x i n g , a n d
i n t e r n a l g a s m i x i n g , A r e v i e w o f d i g e s t e r m i x i n g m e t h o d s is
available ( 5 7 ).
External Pumped Circulation
P u m p e d c i r c u l a t i o n , w h i l e r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e , is l i m i t e d in a
physical sense because l a r g e flow r a t e s a r e n e c e s s a r y for high-
r a t e d i g e s t e r m i x i n g. H o w e v e r, t h i s m e t h o d c a n e f f e c t
substantial mixing , provided t h a t sufficient e n e r g y ( 0 . 2 t o 0 . 3
h p p e r thousand cu ft o f reactor ( 5 t o 8 W/m ) is dissipated in
t h e tank ( 7 5 ).
^
G r e a t e r p u m p p o w e r will b e required if piping
6-5 3
l o s s e s a r e s i g n i f i c a n t. P u m p e d circulation is u s e d m o s t
a d v a n t a g e o u s l y in combination with other mixing s y s t e m s, Besides
augmenting agitation, circulation allows external e x c h a n g e r s t o
b e used f o r h e a t i n g t h e d i g e s t e r a n d uniform b l e n d i n g o f r a w
sludge with heated circulating s l u d g e prior t o the r a w sludge's
entering t h e digester.
6- 5 4
The injection of sludge gas sequentially through a series
of lances suspended from the digester cover to as great a
depth as possible, depending on cover travel .
The free or unconfined release of gas from a ring of
spargers mounted on the floor of the digester .
The confined release of gas within a draft tube
positioned inside the tank .
The f i r s t method generally has a low power requirement, and
consequently , produces only a low level of mixing . As a r e s u l t ,
the major benefit derived from i t s use i s in scum control . Lance
free gas l i f t , and draft tube gas mixing , however, can be
scaled t o induce strong mixing of the digester contents . The
circulation patterns produced by these two mixing methods differ .
As shown on F i g u r e 6-22 i n t h e f r e e g a s l i f t system , t h e g a s
b u b b l e v e l o c i t y a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k i s z e r o, a c c e l e r a t i n g
t o a maximum a s t h e bubble reaches the l i q u i d surface .Since the
pumping action of the gas i s directly related t o the velocity of
the bubble, there i s no pumping from the bottom of the tank with
a free gas l i f t system . I n c o n t r a s t, a d r a f t tube a c t s a s a gas
l i f t pump which, by the law of continuity , causes the flow of
sludge entering the bottom of the d r a f t tube t o be the same as
that exiting at the top . Thus , the pumping rate i s largely
i n d e p e n d e n t o f h e i g h t , a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 -2 3. The significance
of this difference is that draft tube mixers induce bottom
currents to prevent or at least reduce accumulations of settle -
able material . Ve locity p r o f i l e s shown on Figure 6 24 ( see -
page 6-58 ) i n d i c a t e t h a t l a n c e t y p e m i x e r s induce comparable
bottom velocities . Another difference among internal gas mixing
systems is that the gas injection devices in a free gas l i f t
system are fixed on the bottom of the digester and thus cannot be
removed for cleaning without draining the tank , To reduce
clogging problems , provisions should be made for flushing the gas
lines and diffusers with high pressure water, With the lance and
draft tube systems , the gas diffusers are inserted from the roof
and, therefore, can be withdrawn for cleaning without removing
the contents of the tank . A drawback of these systems , though ,
is that the d r a f t t u b e a n d gas lines suspended inside the tank
may f o u l with rags and d e b r i s contained i n t h e d i g e s t i n g sludge .
Basis for Sizing Gas Lift Mixers . Three basic criteria have been
u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e s i z e o f g a s l i f t m i x i n g s y s t e m s:
•i ,
, i
t
11 .
i
11 ' 1
!
POINT OF
GAS INJECTION
POINTS OF
GAS INJECTION
FREE GAS LIFT MIXER
FIGURE 6- 22
6-5 6
m i x i n g s y s t e m s h a s t e n d e d t o i n c r e a s e in r e c e n t y e a r s a s t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f s t r o n g m i x i n g in anaerobic d i g e s t e r s h a s become
more w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d , H o w e v e r , oversizing o f mixing s y s t e m s
n o t o n l y r e s u l t s in excess e q u i p m e n t a n d o p e r a t i n g c o s t s b u t a l s o
m a y a g g r a v a t e foaming p r o b l e m s.
S
O LIQUID SURFACE
A .
o
CD
<
st
O
m
FREE GAS
LIFT
DRAFT TUBE
<
h
I
LU
PUMPING RATE
FIGURE 6- 23
V e l o c i t y Gradient , C a m p a n d S t e i n ( 1 5 4 ) h a v e s u g g e s t e d use o f
t h e r o o t - m e a n- s q u a r e v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t ( G ) a s a m e a s u r e o f
mixing i n t e n s i t y e x p r e s s e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y:
G ( 6- 5 )
w h e r e:
f t/s e c
G = r o o t- mean- s q u a r e v e l o c i t y g r a d i e n t , ft s e c-1
6-5 7
W = power dissipated per unit volume
ft -l b f o r c e/s e c
cu f t = l b f /s q f t/s e c
E
W ( 6 -6 )
V
w h e r e:
E r a t e o f w o r k o n e n e r g y t r a n s f e r ( p o w e r ) , f t -l b f / s e c , a n d
V v o l u m e o f r e a c t o r, c u f t
—
n r *• r v mi
—
l i f fr m i Y I n n i n H i n p c f p r c i c H p c r r i h p- H h ^ 1- n u r
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j w iwr w rfc mm -m m mm, m m mm m -m vi j
—
r r mr w B& par iw **w iwr nr mat mm iur u? ui u 1
m
—
n r nr w
0 0
a
E
_ «•
o
d 7
ii
10 h FROM 20 ft FROM t
AIR SOURCE AIR SOURCE 10 30 ft
£ AIR SOURCE
x
K A
CX-
LU * P
Q \ is'
20 * 1.0
bn
0.5
-O—— - — DRAFT
O 12.5 ( 3.8 )
6 58 -
W h e n g a s is d i s c h a r g e d i n t o a d i g e s t e r , l i q u i d f l o w r e s u l t s
from the transfer of energy from the gas to the liquid as
the gas isothermally expands and rises to the surface , If
the liquid vapor pressure and the kinetic energy of the gas
are ignored , t h e p o w e r transferred f r o m t h e g a s t o the l i q u i d m a y
be e x p r e s s e d a s ( 1 5 5 ):
E = 2 . 4 0 P1 ( Q ) l n ( 6 -7 )
w h e r e:
E = r a t e o f w o r k o r e n e r g y t r a n s f e r ( p o w e r ) , f t -lbf/s e c
P j = a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e a t t h e l i q u i d s u r f a c e, p s i
P 2 = a b s o l u t e p r e s s u r e a t t h e d e p t h o f g a s i n j e c t i o n, p s i
T h e r e f o r e, g i v e n a g a s f l o w t h r o u g h a m i x e r s y s t e m a n d t h e
d e p t h o f t h e d i f f u s e r , E q u a t i o n 6 -7 c a n b e u s e d t o c a l c u l a t e
t h e p o w e r t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e d i g e s t e r l i q u i d ( E ). T h e p o w e r
dissipated per unit volume ( W ) can then be calculated by
d i v i d i n g t h e r a t e of e n e r g y transfer ( E ) b y t h e v o l u m e o f t h e
d i g e s t e r ( V ).
T h e r e i s little information o n t h e r h e o l o g y ( f l o w p r o p e r t i e s )
o f unstabilized w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s a l t h o u g h some d a t a d o e s exist
o n t h e r h e o l o g y o f a n a e r o b i c a l l y d i g e s t e d s l u d g e ( 156 , 1 5 7 ). T h i s
is p a r t l y because it is e x t r e m e l y difficult t o d o s u c h studies
c o r r e c t l y ( 1 5 8 ). I n g e n e r a l , d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e s e e m s t o b e a
pseudoplastic material exhibiting only slight thixotropic
p r o p e r t i e s ( 1 5 6 ). P s e u d o p l a s t i c l i q u i d s b e c o m e l e s s viscous a t
higher s h e a r i n g r a t e s , T h i x o t r o p i c l i q u i d s b e c o m e l e s s viscous
with time a t a c o n s t a n t s h a r i n g r a t e , C h a p t e r 1 4 h a s additional
information o n s l u d g e r h e o l o g y.
Three p a r a m e t e r s — t e m p e r a t u r e , solids concentration , a n d volatile
c o n t e n t a p p e a r t o affect s l u d g e v i s c o s i t y . A s t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f
s l u d g e i s increased , its v i s c o s i t y i s r e d u c e d . T h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between temperature and viscosity for water is presented on
F i g u r e 6 -2 5. ( A similar r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t e m p e r a t u r e a n d
s l u d g e v i s c o s i t y e x i s t s, a l t h o u g h this h a s n o t b e e n d o c u m e n t e d.)
T h e v i s c o s i t y o f s l u d g e increases e x p o n e n t i a l l y a s t h e solids
concentration increases ( 1 5 9 ), a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 - 2 6. This
graph also shows that viscosity increases with the volatile
c o n t e n t o f t h e s l u d g e ; h o w e v e r , t h e e f f e c t is o n l y noticeable
w h e n t h e solids c o n t e n t of t h e d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e i s g r e a t e r t h a n
t h r e e p e r c e n t. T h e e n t r a p m e n t o f g a s b u b b l e s in d i g e s t i n g s l u d g e
m a y a l s o a f f e c t v i s c o s i t y , a l t h o u g h t h e m a g n i t u d e o f this effect
6 -5 9
has not been measured .
I n g e n e r a l , t h e n , it is n o t p o s s i b l e
to pinpoint the viscosity of digesting sludge although major
influences can be identified.
4.0
3.0
a.
t)o
V ^
O X
«C zo
> ST
PH
D U-
“
8
cd
< 1.0
1
50 70 90 110 130 150
TEMPERATURE, oF
FIGURE 6- 25
6-6 0
2000
AC J
1750 o
fs
cc
MEASUREMENTS MADE Uj
O
n_ 1500 WITH BROOKFIELD it 0
<*o
LVF VISCOMETER - £
SPINDLE 2 a
E AT
CL 1250
o
O-
0>
V
50
(“
<
> 1000
H
t/J
o
o
co
> 750
H
LU
EE
<
CL
CL 500
<
250
0
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TOTAL SOLIDS , %
3
THE BROOKFIELD VISCOMETER OPERATES IN A VERY
LOW SHEAR STRESS RANGE, SO APPARENT VISCOSITIES
ARE VERY HIGH. THIS DATA SHOULD NOT BE USED TO
CALCULATE SLUDGE FLOW IN PIPES IN THE LAMINAR
FLOW REGIME.
FIGURE 6- 26
6 -61
d i g e s t i o n. T h e u s e o f a t w o-s p e e d c o m p r e s s o r p r o v i d e s t h e
c a p a b i l i t y t o m a t c h m i x i n g intensity with variations in o p e r a t i n g
c o n d i t i o n s.
A n e x a m p l e o f g a s mixer s i z i n g is f o u n d in S e c t i o n 6 . 2.9 . 3.
U n i t G a s F l o w. A s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e p r e c e d i n g p a r a g r a p h s, g a s
flow through a mixing system can be related to the mixing energy
d e l i v e r e d t o t h e l i q u i d . T h e r e f o r e, a s i m p l e w a y t o s i z e a
g a s lift mixer is t o specify a u n i t g a s f l o w , F o r a d r a f t-t u b e
s y s t e m , 5 t o 7 s c f m /t h o u s a n d c u b i c f o o t o f d i g e s t e r ( 5 t o
7 m 2 / m i n /k m 2 ) a t a b o u t 6 p s i g ( 4 1 . 4 k N / m 2 ) i s s u f f i c i e n t t o
p r o d u c e s t r o n g m i x i n g . L e s s g a s i s r e q u i r e d f o r a f r e e- l i f t
s y s t e m , 4.5 t o 5 c f m p e r t h o u s a n d cubic f e e t ( 4 . 5 t o 5 m 2/m i n/
k m 2 ) o f r e a c t o r ; h o w e v e r , t h e p r e s s u r e m u s t be h i g h e r s i n c e t h e
g a s is d i s c h a r g e d a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e t a n k ( 7 5 ). 1.5 to
2 . 0 cfm per foot ( 0 . 1 4 to 0 . 1 9 m 2/min/m ) of diameter ( 0 . 1 4 to
0 . 1 9 mVmin/m ) has also been recommended for free gas lift
mixers ( 1 3 7 ).
The unit gas flow can be related to the velocity gradient by
c o m b i n i n g e q u a t i o n s 6 - 5 , 6 -6 a n d 6 -7 a n d s o l v i n g f o r ' t h e
unit g a s f l o w:
_
V
^
Q G 2M
V
In
-
(6 8 )
T h e v a l u e s in T a b l e 6 -1 9 w e r e c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h i s e q u a t i o n.
6.2.6.4 Covers
Anaerobic s l u d g e d i g e s t i o n t a n k s a r e c o v e r e d t o contain o d o r s,
m a i n t a i n o p e r a t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e, k e e p o u t o x y g e n, a n d c o l l e c t
d i g e s t e r g a s. Digester covers can be classified as either
f i x e d o r f l o a t i n g. Cross sections of both types are shown on
F i g u r e 6 - 2 7. Floating covers are more expensive but allow
i n d e p e n d e n t a d d i t i o n s a n d w i t h d r a w a l s o f s l u d g e, r e d u c e g a s
h a z a r d s , a n d c a n b e d e s i g n e d t o c o n t r o l formation o f a s c u m- m a t.
6-6 2
can draw air into the tank , producing an explosive mixture of
sludge g a s and oxygen. The explosive range of sludge g a s in air
is 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t by volume ( 5 2 ). In addition , there have
been cases in which the liquid level under the fixed cover
has been allowed to increase sufficiently to damage the cover
structurally. Usually , this involves a tightly clogged overflow
system and a forgotten feed valve.
TABLE 6- 19
G Q/V
Velocity gradient , Unit gas flowa ,
sec l “
cfm/1 , 000 cu ft
40 2.1
50 3.3
60 4.4
70 6.4
6 -6 3
the c e n t r a l gas dome .
This keeps floating matter submerged and
subject to mixing action, reduces the area exposed to corrosive
sludge gas , and adds to cover stability , The fundamental
principle used to calculate ballast requirements i s that at
equilibrium , a floating cover displaces a volume of liquid equal
in weight to the total weight of the cover Ballast can be added .
as concrete blocks or as a layer of concrete spread across the
upper surface of the cover .
(f ? A. ~
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Pj 2 p ilhj
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.
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DOMED
FIXED COVERS
. “. .IW
—
d
FI VV7 ¥ rr
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V - N
4
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WIGGINS TYPE DOWNES TYPE GAS HOLDER
FLOATING COVERS
FIGURE 6- 27
-
. v. v ,
FIGURE 6- 28
6 -6 5
6.2 . 6.5 Piping
T h e piping s y s t e m for a n anaerobic d i g e s t e r is a n important
c o m p o n e n t of the design. M a n y activities t a k e p l a c e during
the operation of a digester: feeding of raw sludge, circulation
of s l u d g e t h r o u g h the heat exchanger , withdrawal of digested
sludge and supernatant , and collection of sludge gas. The piping
s y s t e m s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d t o allow these activities t o occur
c o n c u r r e n t l y , y e t independently . F l e x i b i l i t y should also be
built into the piping system t o allow operation in a variety of
modes and to ensure that digestion can be continued in the event
of equipment breakdown or pipe clogging.
6-66
in s m a l l p l a n t s , where four - inch ( 100 mm ) diameter p i p e s m a y
be acceptable. Where possible, considering these minimum pipe
size recommendations , velocities in s l u d g e pipelines should
b e maintained a b o v e four feet per s e c o n d ( 1 . 2 m / s e c ) t o k e e p
sludge solids in suspension. The hydraulics of sludge piping is
described in detail elsewhere ( 8 4 , 160 ). Glass lining of cast
iron and steel pipe will p r e v e n t the buildup of grease and is
recommended for all pipes conveying scum and raw sludge. The
grease content of sludge is typically reduced by 50 percent or
more during digestion , s o that glass lining is not warranted for
pipes carrying digested or circulating sludge. Sludge piping is
generally kept as short as practicable, with a minimum number of
bends . L o n g radius elbows and s w e e p t e e s are p r e f e r r e d f o r
changes in direction. Provisions are commonly made for cleaning
s l u d g e lines with s t e a m , high p r e s s u r e water , o r mechanical
devices. These provisions should include blind flanges, flushing
cocks, and accommodation for thermal expansion.
A problem unique t o anaerobic digestion s y s t e m s is the buildup of
crystalline inorganic phosphate deposits on the interior walls of
the tank and downstream piping . This encrustation will increase
pipeline friction, displace volume in the digestion tank , and
foul d o w n s t r e a m mechanical equipment ( 1 0 2 ). This chemical
scale h a s formed not only in digested sludge lines , but also o n
mechanical aerators for facultative sludge lagoons and in pipes
c a r r y i n g either d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t o r fi 1 t r a t e / centrate .
Laboratory analyses have identified this material as magnesium
ammonium p h o s p h a t e ( M g N H 4 PC> 4 • 6 H 2 O ) , more c o m m o n l y k n o w n
a s g u a n i t e or struvite. It h a s a s p e c i f i c gravity o f 1 . 7 ,
d e c o m p o s e s when h e a t e d , and is r e a d i l y s o l u b l e o n l y in acid
solutions. Methods successfully used t o prevent this buildup
include ( 161 ):
Dilution of d i g e s t e d s l u d g e f l o w s t o p r e v e n t s u p e r -
saturation and t o raise pipeline velocities
6.2.6.6 Cleaning
6 -6 7
deposits removed
unpleasant . . This cleaning process i s usually expensive and
Furthermore , i t can disrupt normal processing of
sludge f o r as long as several months .
Therefore , attention
should be given during design to ( 1) reducing the rate at which
g r i t and scum can accumulate , and ( 2 ) making i t easy t o clean the
digester when i t becomes necessary .
TOP OF DIGESTER
VENT
*1
I SUPERNATANT
.1 COLLECTION BOX
. TELESCOPIC VALVE
X7
.
MAX, W S, ELEVATION
DIGESTER
a
OVERFLOW t
fJ
4
GROUT
r
•a
MIN, W.S. ELEVATION
0 77?*
c,
|
C
T
.*
r
>* t
r# n
SUPERNATANT
DRAWOFF PORTS
l
i
\ \
— —
L 1J C3 C3 C~1
* w
/*
- * ** -y
^ A *• - >
TO PLANT HEADWORKS «3 mu
TO SECONDARY DIGESTER,
HEADWORKS OR SUPERNATANT .
TREATMENT
FIGURE 6- 29
-
6 68
Prevention o f Grit and Scum B u i l d u p
T h e m o s t sensible a p p r o a c h t o minimizing digester cleaning is t o
p r e v e n t g r i t a n d scum from e n t e r i n g t h e s y s t e m . T h i s can be
accomplished through effective g r i t removal in the headworks o f
the p l a n t coupled with s e p a r a t e processing o f scum ( for e x a m p l e,
incineration or hauling t o a rendering p l a n t ). A second mitiga-
tion m e a s u r e , w h i c h is a l m o s t a s effective , is t o maintain a
h o m o g e n e o u s mixture within the digester so t h a t the grit and scum
c a n n o t s e p a r a t e o u t. This is best achieved by strong mixing and
positive s u b m e r g e n c e of the liquid surface under a floating cover
( refer t o t h e preceding sections o n mixers and covers ).
Provisions can also be made t o remove grit and scum easily from
the digester while normal digestion continues. Grit removal from
the digester can b e improved by providing multiple withdrawal
p o i n t s , o r s t e e p f l o o r s l o p e s ( a s in a w a f f l e b o t t o m o r
egg -s h a p e d digester ). An access hatch in the digester cover, o r
pipes e x t e n d i n g into t h e u p p e r levels of t h e digesting s l u d g e ,
can be used t o remove floating material in the tank before it
f o r m s a m a t . S t r o n g mixing in t h e t a n k will c a r r y f l o a t i n g
material down into the zone of active digestion , where it will be
b r o k e n d o w n . O t h e r m e t h o d s o f s c u m c o n t r o l in d i g e s t e r s a r e
described in References 4 1 and 1 6 2.
Facilities for Digester Cleaning
T r a d i t i o n a l l y , d i g e s t e r c l e a n i n g h a s b e e n a difficult , d i r t y
task. A s a result , it is often p o s t p o n e d until tank capacity is
severely reduced , C l e a n i n g t h e n b e c o m e s e v e n more o n e r o u s
because o f t h e increased u r g e n c y and s c o p e of the operation. If
a digester can be cleaned easily , it is much more likely that it
will be cleaned r e g u l a r l y.
T o e n s u r e t h a t t h e d i g e s t e r s c a n b e e a s i l y c l e a n e d , it is
important for the designer t o consider t h e following questions:
• W h a t will be d o n e with t h e r a w s l u d g e w h i l e t h e t a n k
i s o u t o f service ? T y p i c a l l y , r a w s l u d g e f l o w Ts
distributed t o t h e remaining t a n k s a s l o n g as t h e r e
i s a d e q u a t e c a p a c i t y. T h e p r o b l e m , h o w e v e r , b e c o m e s
m u c h more s e r i o u s in a p l a n t with o n l y o n e d i g e s t e r.
P o s s i b l y , a t e m p o r a r y aerobic digester o r a n anaerobic
l a g o o n can b e devised , a l t h o u g h o d o r s m a y be a problem
with the latter. Lime m a y b e added t o the raw s l u d g e t o
disinfect it and control odors ( see Section 6 . 4 ) .
How will the tank be drained ? There is a risk of
explosion during the period in which the t a n k is being
emptied , making it important t o speed this s t e p in the
cleaning p r o c e s s. Addition of a s e p a r a t e digester drain
p u m p in t h e S u n n y v a l e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t in California
a l l o w s each tank t o be emptied in less than t w o d a y s. A s
s h o w n o n Figure 6 - 3 0 , t h e intake o f the drain p u m p is
6 -6 9
**»!»*»* :
6 -70
combined capacity of 5.7 million cu ft ( 21 , 2 0 0 m 3 ). A
f ul 1 - t i m e s e v e n - m a n c r e w i s r e q u i r e d f o r d i g e s t e r
c l e a n i n g , a l l o w i n g a five - y e a r c l e a n i n g c y c l e . New
d i g e s t e r a d d i t i o n s u n d e r c o n s t r u c t i o n in 1 9 7 9 w i l l
l e n g h t e n this period t o seven y e a r s. In 1973 , t h e bid
for construction of t h e digester cleaning facility was
approximately $ 3 , 0 0 0 ,0 0 0.
• H o w will a c c e s s b e p r o v i d e d i n t o t h e t a n k ? Manholes
should be provided through both the cover and the
sidewalls o f t h e tank t o allow for ventilation , entrance
o f equipment and p e r s o n n e l , and removal of organic and
inorganic debris. Often in the p a s t , the number and size
of these openings has not been sufficient for easy
cleaning .
• I s t h e r e a source o f w a t e r f o r w a s h i n g t h e t a n k a n d
refilling it f o r s t a r t- u p ? Washdown w a t e r should be air-
g a p p e d and c a p a b l e o f supplying a p r e s s u r e in excess of
^
6 0 psi ( 414 kN/m ) t h r o u g h a h o s e o f at least one- inch
( 2.5 cm ) diameter . L a r g e r capacities are required for
digesters g r e a t e r than 5 5 feet ( 1 7 m ) in diameter. Once
the tank has been cleaned , s t a r t - u p begins b y filling the
tank with either raw wastewater , primary effluent , o r
unchlorinated s e c o n d a r y effluent , and bringing the entire
contents u p t o operating t e m p e r a t u r e. If seed s l u d g e is
t o be used , it should b e fed into t h e digester a s s o o n as
its liquid c o n t e n t s h a v e achieved operating t e m p e r a t u r e.
ANAEROBIC SLUDGE
DIGESTER LAGOON
/// /
RECESSED IMPELLER
DRAIN PUMP
FIGURE 6- 30
6 -7 1
.
FI
*
V •
'
vf:'
'*
S
Vs
im- ••;•
M: •
;;
i .
>
* .%
m m %
i- X i?
3
FIGURE 6- 31
6-72
MIXING *
0.2 SURPLUS GAS
TOTAL GAS PRODUCTION a 4,8
4 7.3
2.5
CIRCULATING
SLUDGE HEATING
*
1 76
,
ANAEROBIC
DIGESTER 0.5 80 HERd
.75
RAW
SLUDGE
n Rtu/lb = 0,56 kg-cal/kg)
FIGURE 6- 32
6 -73
i n a w a s t e-g a s burner, The energy flow through a more c o m p l e x
g a s utilization s y s t e m , in which g a s is used t o fuel an engine -
g e n e r a t o r , is described in C h a p t e r 1 8.
The e n e r g y f l o w d i a g r a m s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 -3 2 c o n v e y s v e r y
e f f e c t i v e l y t h e r e l a t i v e m a g n i t u d e a n d direction of e n e r g y
e x c h a n g e s in a n anaerobic d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m , This type of diagram
is h e l p f u l in the design o f a g a s utilization s y s t e m , However,
m o r e d e t a i l m u s t b e a d d e d a n d t h e f u l l r a n g e of e x p e c t e d
conditions m u s t be e v a l u a t e d , rather than just the average
conditions depicted f o r this case.
M o r e c o m p l e t e discussions o f d i g e s t e r g a s utilization s y s t e m s c a n
be found in C h a p t e r 1 8 and elsewhere ( 3 8 , 39 ) .
6.2.8 Costs
C o s t c u r v e s h a v e been compiled t h a t p l o t construction costs f o r
anaerobic digestion s y s t e m s versus either digester volume ( 166 ),
s l u d g e solids loading ( 167, 1 6 8 ,1 6 9 ), o r total t r e a t m e n t plant
flow ( 1 7 0,171 ,172 ). However, these curves differ significantly ,
even w h e n converted t o a common cost index and p l o t t e d in t e r m s
o f a s i n g l e s i z i n g p a r a m e t e r ( F i g u r e 6 - 3 3 ). Cost curves
are generally constructed to allow comparison of equivalent
alternatives and consequently do not always describe actual
c o s t s.
T h i s s e c t i o n illustrates t h e basic l a y o u t a n d s i z i n g of t h e
m a j o r c o m p o n e n t s in a n anaerobic s l u d g e digestion s y s t e m, For
this e x a m p l e, it is assumed t h a t t h e treatment plant provides
activated sludge secondary treatment to a typical municipal
w a s t e w a t e r. A mixture of primary sludge and thickened
w a s t e-activated s l u d g e is t o be anaerobically digested , held in a
facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n, and ultimately spread a s a stabilized
liquid o n t o land.
S l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n e s t i m a t e s f o r t w o f l o w conditions , a v e r a g e
a n d p e a k d a y , a r e listed in T a b l e 6 - 2 0 ( s e e p a g e 6 - 7 9 ). T h e
p e a k l o a d i n g is listed b e c a u s e s e v e r a l c o m p o n e n t s m u s t be sized
6-7 4
to meet this critical condition .
Refer to Chapter 4 for a
discussion of the procedures to determine sludge production
values .
Sludge solids concentrations and the resulting sludge
v o l u m e s a r e a l s o i n c l u d e d i n T a b l e 6-2 0 .
i o+ o
9
7
6
§ %
5
4
P
P 3
EE
2
2 - REFERENCE 171
£
I
c
o 10
9
-
6 8
if .
H
«
7
m 6
O
U 5
Z
O 4 REFERENCE 106
§ 3
G£
•CONSTRUCTION COST ONLY ,
Z 2 DOES NOT INCLUDE ENGINEERING
8 OR CONTINGENCIES,
0,1 i i j
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 10O 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 0 1,000 2 3 4 5
FIGURE 6- 33
6-7 5
AVERAGE PLANT FLOW, MGD ftMGD = 3,785jn3/daV >
FIGURE 6- 34
Raw primary and secondary sludges are first combined and then
heated t o 9 5 ° F ( 3 5 ° C ) in a jacketed pipe heat e x c h a n g e r.
T h e r a t e of t h e r a w s l u d g e flow is measured with a magnetic
flowmeter. The signal from this meter is integrated t o indicate
the hydraulic loading to digestion. This information is also
used t o indicate e q u a l volumes of raw sludge for even distribu -
tion t o each d i g e s t e r. T h e c o n t r o l s are s e t s o that each
digester is fed approximately ten times each day. Raw sludge
is mixed with c i r c u l a t i n g s l u d g e and added t o the digester
through the g a s dome in the center of the cover. The operating
t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e digester is maintained b y circulating a
6-76
small volume o f sludge through a n external spiral heat exchanger .
D i g e s t e d s l u d g e i s w i t h d r a w n d a i l y f r o m t h e bottom o f t h e
tank and transferred by gravity t o facultative s l u d g e lagoons.
For monitoring p u r p o s e s, a flowmeter is included in the digested
s l u d g e withdrawal line . This p r o v i d e s a m e a n s for e v e n l y
distributing the sludge to several lagoons, Both tanks
a r e o p e r a t e d a s c o m p l e t e l y mixed p r i m a r y d i g e s t e r s without
s u p e r n a t a n t removal.
Digestion Tanks
Sizing critera:
Tank v o l u m e:
Active volume ( Va )
4- ft grit deposit
2- f t scum blanket
2- ft cover below maximum
8 - f t total displaced height
6 -77
Therefore , if original sidewater depth of the tank is 30 feet,
30 — 8
active volume is only 0.73 of the total tanks volume.
30
Tank volume ( Vt )
= 47
, 200 cu ft 1
vt tank .73
= 64, 700 cu ft per tank
Say 65, 000 cu ft per tank = ( 1,800 m 2/tank )
Tank dimensions:
Diameter ( D )
Assuming initially , a 30- foot sidewater height and
neglecting the volume in the bottom cone:
D = V 4( 65 , 000 cu ft )
( 30 ft )
_
52.5 ft ( 16.0 m )
Sidewater height ( h )
Since floating covers come in 5 -foot diameter increments,
enlarge diameter and adjust sidewater height:
4 ( 65,000 cu ft ) ( 8.4 m )
h = 27.4 ft
( 55 ft ) 2
6 -78
TABLE 6- 20
Flow condition
Peak
Parameter Average day
Solids concentration ,
percent
Primary sludge 5.0 4.0
Waste activated
sludge 4.0 3.5
3
Sludge volume , cu ft/day
Primary sludge 3 , 200 6 ,010
Waste activated sludge 2,000 3 ,430
Sludge volume =
sludge production — — twit
^ ma*/ u>
(solids concentration) (density of sludge)
Assume:
6 -79
Makeup h e a t exchanger capacity ( Qm )
A s s u m e:
• Minimum a i r temperature = 10 °F
WASTE FE
ACTIVATED FEED CONTROL VALVE
SLUDGE
MAKE-UP HEAT EXCHANGER
FLOATING
COVER
#
- L n /
l
/
/
/
!
- CIRCULATING
SLUDGE PUMP
/
/
/
*-
DRAFT TUBE
GAS MIXER
—-
DIGESTER 1 DIGESTER 2
DIGESTED SLUDGE
0 [ TO FACULTATIVE
SLUDGE LAGOONS !
DIGESTED SLUDGE
FLOW METEH
FIGURE 6- 35
6 -8 0
Mixing ( See Section 6.2.6.3 )
Sizing criterion:
Assumptions:
E = V M G2
Q
E
.4 ( f) -
(6 8 )
( Pl ) in
^
3 , 510 ft- lb/sec/tank
20.3 psi
2.4 ( 14.7 psi ) In (14.7 psi )
= 308 cfm/tank ( 0.145 m 2/sec/tank )
6- 81
6.3 Aerobic Digestion
Aerobic digestion is t h e biochemical oxidative stabilization of
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e in o p e n o r closed tanks that are s e p a r a t e from
t h e liquid process s y s t e m.
6 . 3 .1 P r o c e s s Description
6 . 3.1 . 1 History
Studies on aerobic d i g e s t i o n o f municipal w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e
h a v e b e e n c o n d u c t e d s i n c e t h e e a r l y 1 9 5 0's ( 1 7 5 , 1 7 6 ). E a r l y
studies ( 1 7 7 ,1 7 8 ) indicated t h a t aerobic digestion performed as
w e l l a s , if n o t b e t t e r t h a n , a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n i n r e d u c i n g
v o l a t i l e s o l i d s in s l u d g e. A e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s e s w e r e
economical to construct, had fewer operating problems than
anaerobic processes , and produced a digested sludge that drained
w e l l. B y 1963 , at least one major equipment supplier ( 179 ) had
approximately 1 3 0 installations in plants with flow from 1 0 , 0 0 0
t o 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 3 7 . 8 t o 3 7 8 m /d a y ).
^ By the late
1960's and early 1 9 7 0's, consulting engineers across t h e country
w e r e s p e c i f y i n g aerobic d i g e s t i o n facilities f o r m a n y o f t h e
p l a n t s t h e y were designing.
6 -8 2
D o n o t g e n e r a t e nuisance o d o r s ( 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 ).
:
, . i ,
W i l l p r o d u c e a s u p e r n a t a n t l o w in B O D5 , s u s p e n d e d
solids , a n d ammonia nitrogen ( 1 9 9 , 2 0 0 ).
R e d u c e t h e quantity o f g r e a s e o r hexane solubles in the
s l u d g e m a s s.
Reduce the number of pathogens to a low level under
n o r m a l design .U n d e r auto-heated design , many s y s t e m s
provide 1 0 0 p e r c e n t pathogen destruction ( 187 ).
TABLE 6- 21
iron 189
alum 189 ;( 190)
-
waste activated + iron
. trickling filter ..
190
131
waste paper 191
Contact stabilization sludge 192 192 , 197 ; (199)
Contact stabilization sludge plus
iron (190)
alum ( 190), (194)
-
Waste activated sludge
Trickling filter sludge
, 195
181, 196
A s w i t h a n y p r o c e s s , t h e r e a r e a l s o c e r t a i n d i s a d v a n t a g e s.
I n aerobic digestion processes , the disadvantages are:
6 . 3.1.5 Microbiology
6-83
actual o p e r a t i o n , aerobic d i g e s t i o n involves t h e direct oxidation
of a n y b i o d e g r a d a b l e m a t t e r a n d t h e o x i d a t i o n o f microbial
cellular material b y o r g a n i s m s, T h e s e t w o s t e p s are illustrated
b y t h e f o l l o w i n g reactions:
Cellular Digested
material
+ 02
sludge
+ co 2 + H 2 O -
( 6 10 )
T h e p r o c e s s d e s c r i b e d b y E q u a t i o n 6 -1 0 i s r e f e r r e d t o a s
" e n d o g e n o u s r e s p i r a t i o n " ; t h i s is n o r m a l l y t h e p r e d o m i n a n t
reaction in aerobic d i g e s t i o n.
6 . 3 .2 P r o c e s s Variations
6-8 4
UNSTABILIZED AEROBIC CLARIFIER \ SUPERNATANT
SOLIDS DIGESTER THICKENER
RECYCLE
STABILIZED SOLIDS
FIGURE 6-36
PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM FOR A CONVENTIONAL
CONTINUOUSLY OPERATED AEROBIC DIGESTER
6 -8 5
6.3.3 Design Considerations
dM = ( 6-11 )
dt -KdM
where:
-
6 86
considerably greater than the theoretical hydraulic residence
time .
T h e r e a c t i o n r a t e t e r m K <j i s a f u n c t i o n o f s l u d g e t y p e ,
temperature , and solids concentration, I t is a pseudoconstant,
s i n c e t h e t e r m 's v a l u e i s t h e a v e r a g e r e s u l t o f many i n f l u e n c e s .
-
Figure 6 37 shows a plot of various reported values as a
function of the digestion temperature .
The data shown are for
several different types of waste sludge , which partially explains
the scatter . Furthermore , there has been no adjustment in the
v a l u e o f K <j f o r s l u d g e a g e .
At this time, not enough data are
available to allow segregation of by sludge type; therefore ,
the line drawn through the data points represents an overall
average value .Little research has been conducted on the
effect of solids concentration on reaction rate The results.
-
of one study with waste activated sludge a t a temperature of
-
6 8 °F ( 2 0°C ) a r e s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6 3 8 , w h i c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t
decreases with increasing solids concentration .
.4 0
- PILOT PLANT REF ( 207 )
,35 • -
x -
PILOT PLANT REF
FULL SCALE REF
( 208)
{ 185!
(185)
O - PILOT PLANT REF
- PILOT PLANT REF ( 200 )
, 30 ( 209) O
- PILOT PLANT REF
vs A - PILOT PLANT REF ( 196)
+ - PILOT PLANT REF ( 2101
o .2 5 O
U
"
yj
+
H , 20
< A*
x
£E . + "A
#
o .15 + a
b o
<
LU Q
cc , 10
A
, 05
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
6 -8 7
,7 ©
>
nj
.6
TJ
*
D
X
.5
LU
I—
<
DC
.4
O
I—
o
<
in
.3
cc
FIGURE 6- 38
C 5 H 7 N02 + + + NO -
5 C02 + 3 H 20 + HT ( 6 -1 2 )
702 3
-
6 88
“SffiSSiUw
a n d d e v e l o p e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o w n o n F i g u r e 6- 3 9
oxygen utilization i s seen to decrease with increase in sludge
Specific.
age and decrease in digestion temperature .
UJ
8.0
V "v .
tD >
2
LLt
J
(
> «
-
_
-
6.0
4.0
TEMPERATURE RANGE
< 49°F (( 10°C
< 49°F ° 10 C|
)
O
—
C!
oo
(j o>
£ £
u UJ
Uj J
_ 2.0 p
oo o
CL <
20 60 100 140 180 220
FIGURE 6- 19
6 -8 9
the process for a particular tank geometry , Figure 6- 40 shows
the chart developed by Envirex Incorporated for low speed
mechanical aerators in noncircular basins .
The use of this chart
is explained in the design example in Section 6.3.5.
SURFACE AREA
A txiun fort]
^
Oft * O.OGG
PIVOT
REQUIRED
REDUCER SHAFT
HOBSEMRCN
oco SFT-Hf-
1000 tooo
000
000
TOO
1500 000
MASS TRANSFER
COEFFICIENT BOO
2000
30
2W - 26 360
20 300
TANK DEPTH X0Q
fleet!'
h fi = o oe ml
- 15 250
^ 25 - 4000
10
200
3
5000 6 150
20
- 6
5
15 700(1 -- -- 10Q
TO
ROOD P
IF
-- 4
H
3 70
•
ID .-
•
60
9 2 50
0 1,5
15000 40
36
l.D - - 30
T 2ODC0
25
it 2500C
20
4- 30000
ii
10
AOOQO
-COPYRIGHT .
BY ENVlflEK W4C 10
FIGURE 6- 40
6.3.3.5 pH Reduction
6 -90
s y s t e m will acclimate a n d p e r f o r m j u s t a s w e l l a t t h e l o w e r p H
v a l u e s ( 1 8 6 , 1 9 2 , 2 1 3 ). I t s h o u l d b e n o t e d t h a t if nitrification
d o e s n o t t a k e p l a c e, p H will d r o p little if a t a l l. T h i s c o u l d
h a p p e n a t low l i q u i d t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d s h o r t s l u d g e a g e s o r in
t h e r m o p h i l i c o p e r a t i o n ( 203 ). Nitrifying bacteria a r e sensitive
t o h e a t a n d d o n o t s u r v i v e i n t e m p e r a t u r e s o v e r 1 1 3 °F ( 4 5 °C )
( 2 1 4 ).
.
8.0 rnmwt
7.0
6.0
3.0
10
FIGURE 6- 41
6-9 1
production rate of 1.5 pounds of dry solids per square foot per
h o u r ( 7 . 4 k g/m2/ h r ) , a c a k e s o l i d s c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 1 6 p e r c e n t ,
with a FeClg dose of 140 pounds ( 63.5 kg ) , and a lime dose
( CaO ) of 240 pounds (109 kg ) , This assumes an aerobic solids
concentration of 2.5 percent solids , For more detailed
information on results of various types of dewatering systems,
see Chapter 9 .
.
6.3 4 Process Performance
.
6.3 4.1 Total Volatile Solids Reduction
-
FULL SCALE REF
PILOT SCALE REF
( 194 )
( 178 )
W
LU
30 o
d * A
+-
- FULL SCALE REF ( 185 )
PILOT PLANT REF ( 208)
-
( * jimii
-
I
Hi
O
tr
Ui
o - 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000
FIGURE 6- 42
-
6 92
6.3.4.2 Supernatant Quality
TABLE 6- 22
CHARACTERISTICS OF MESOPHILIC
AEROBIC DIGESTER SUPERNATANT
d Q
Reference I96 Reference 199 Reference 213
-- - -
Turbidity JTU 120
NO N mg/1 40 30
TKN
-
rrmg/1 115 -
2.9 1 , 350
COD
- -
mg/1 700 -
24 25 ,500
PO. P mg/1 70 -
2.1 930 35
Filtered P
BODc “ mg/1
- mg/1
50 -
-
0.4 120
5 6 , 350 -
2 5
Filtered BOD <- - mg/1 -
3 280
Suspended
Alkalinity
solids
- -
mg/1
mg/1 CaC03
300 -
9 41 ,800 6.8
150
SO - mg/1 70
Silica
PH
- mg/1
6.8 5.7-8.0
26
6.8
Given
6 -93
System m u s t a c h i e v e -g r e a t e r t h a n 4 0 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l e
solids reduction during t h e winter.
E x p e c t e d w a s t e s l u d g e s o l i d s concentration t o t h e a e r o b i c
d i g e s t e r is 8, 0 0 0 m g/ 1 .
Expected thickened solids concentration for the
stabilized s l u d g e is t h r e e p e r c e n t (; 3 0,0 0 0 m g/1 ), based
o n d e s i g n e r ' s e x p e r i e n c e.
TABLE 6- 23
Liquid
Days : temperature
Solids residence time required to achieve
40 percent volatile solids reduction 108 °
40 F
31 °
60 F
18 °
80 F
55 percent volatile solids reduction 386 °
40 F
109 °
60 F
64 °
80 F
2.0 pounds of oxygen per pound of volatile
Oxygen requirements
solids destroyed when liquid temperature
°
113 F or less
1.45 pounds of oxygen per pound of volatile
solids destroyed when liquid temperature
greater than 113 F
°
Oxygen residual 1.0 mg/1 of oxygen at worst design
conditions
Expected maximum solids concentration 2.5 to 3.5 percent solids when dealing with
achievable with decanting a degritted sludge or one in which no
chemicals have been added
Mixing horsepower Function of tank geometry and type of
aeration equipment utilized , Should
consult equipment manufacturer.
Historical values have ranged from 0.5
to 4.0 horsepower per 1,000 cubic feet
of tank volume
1 lb = 0.454 kg 3
1 hp/1,000 cu ft - 26.6 kw/1,000 m
6 -9 4
T h e r e f o r e , t h e volume o f t h e a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r m u s t b e a d e q u a t e
t o p r o v i d e 47.5 d a y s s l u d g e a g e t o m e e t minimum volatile solids
r e d u c t i o n d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r.
During t h e s u m m e r, t h e basin t e m p e r a t u r e will be 7 7 °F ( 2 5 ° C ):
2 5 °C x 4 7 . 5 d a y s l u d g e a g e = 1 ,1 7 5 d e g r e e-d a y s.
F r o m F i g u r e 6-4 2, a t 1 , 1 7 5 d e g r e e-d a y s, t h e r e w o u l d b e 4 9 p e r c e n t
v o l a t i l e s o l i d s r e d u c t i o n.
Volatile S o l i d s Reduction
For winter conditions, there would be a 40 percent volatile
solids ( VS ) reduction, The actual pounds of solids reduced
a r e:
985 lb VS l b V S r e d u c e d ( 1 7 9 k g /d a y )
day x 0.4 = 394 day
F o r s u m m e r c o n d i t i o n s, t h e r e w o u l d b e a 4 9 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l e
solids reduction . T h e a c t u a l p o u n d s of solids r e d u c e d a r e:
9 8 5 l b V S x 0 . 4 9 = 4 8 3 l b V S r e d u c e d ( 219 k g/d a y )
day day
Oxygen Requirements
Winter conditions: 394 lb VS dest x 2.0 lbs O2 _ 788 lbs Q2 ( 358 kg/day )
day lb VS dest. day
Summer conditions: 483 lb VS dest x 2.0 lbs O2 _ 966 lbs O2 ( 438 kg/day )
day lbs VS dest. day
w h e r e S S = s u s p e n d e d s o l i d s.
6-95
The suspended solids concentration in the digester will range
from the value of the influent suspended solids concentration or
8, 000 mg/1 to the maximum value of the thickened and stabilized
solids concentration of 30 , 000 mg / 1 , On the average , the
suspended solids concentration within the digester is equal to
70 percent of the thickened solids concentration, or 21 , 000 mg /1.
An average poundage of suspended solids in the supernatant
can be approximated by the following equation.
_
£ = influent
-
SS concentration
X
fraction of solids
thickened SS concentration not destroyed
8 , 000 mg/1
x 0.69 0.18
30 , 000 mg/1
6 -96
It is now possible to solve for the required tank volume for any
given sludge age. In this example , winter conditions govern ,
and it was previously calculated that a 47.5 day minimum was-
required. From the values previously discussed:
Power Requirements
-
The designer has decided to use low speed mechanical aerators
for mixing and oxygen transfer in the aerobic digester.
-
6 97
could mix an area 40 f e e t by 40 f e e t ( 1 2 . 1 m by 1 2 . 1 m )
making some calculations , the designer decides to use two
After .
1 0- h o r s e p o w e r ( 7 . 5 k W ) u n i t s i n e a c h t a n k , e a c h t a n k b e i n g
36 feet ( 10.9 m ) wide by 72 feet ( 24.5 m ) long and having a total
tank depth of 14 feet ( 4.2 m ) allowing 2 feet ( 0.61 m ) of
free board .F i g u r e 6- 4 3 s h o w s a v i e w o f t h e p l a n .
SUMMER CONDITIONS : 463 lbs VS REDUCED /DAY - 566 lbs OjAlay
WINTER CONDITIONS: 354 lbs VS REDUCED/DAY -
738 lbs 02/day
EACH TANK ; 72 ft LONG BY 36 ft WIDE x 12 ft: LIQUID DEPTH PLUS
? ft OF FREEBOARD
ir
18 '
72*
-
*
FIGURE 6- 43
C = 1.47 x 105 Ql - 14 ( 6 -1 3 )
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t o f p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s
Q = plant design flow in million g a l l o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r
flow per day
T h e a s s o c i a t e d c o s t s i n c l u d e d t h o s e f o r e x c a v a t i o n, p r o c e s s
p i p i n g , e q u i p m e n t , c o n c r e t e, a n d s t e e l , I n a d d i t i o n, s u c h
costs as those for administrating and engineering are equal to
0 . 2 2 6 4 t i m e s E q u a t i o n 6 -1 3 ( 1 9 8 ).
.
6.3 6.2 O p e r a t i o n a n d Maintenance C o s t
Although there are many items that contribute to operation
a n d maintenance c o s t, i n m o s t a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n s y s t e m s , t h e t w o
m o s t p r e v a l e n t a r e s t a f f i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d p o w e r u s a g e.
Staffing Requirements
T a b l e 6-2 4 l i s t s l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b o t h o p e r a t i o n a n d
maintenance, T h e l a b o r indicated includes: c h e c k i n g mechanical
e q u i p m e n t , t a k i n g d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n a n d s o l i d s a n a l y s e s, a n d
g e n e r a l m a i n t e n a n c e a r o u n d t h e clarifier.
Power Requirements
I n 1 9 7 9, t h e c o s t o f p o w e r f o r o p e r a t i n g a e r a t i o n e q u i p m e n t h a s
b e c o m e a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r. I t is p o s s i b l e t o minimize p o w e r
c o n s u m p t i o n t h r o u g h t w o d e v e l o p m e n t s in environmental s c i e n c e.
M a k e s u r e t h a t t h e t a n k g e o m e t r y , a n d aeration e q u i p m e n t
a r e c o m p a t i b l e ( 2 1 2 ). The difference between optimized
and unoptimized design can mean as much as a 50 percent
difference in p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n .
P a c e d e v i c e s t o c o n t r o l o x y g e n ( p o w e r ) i n p u t ( 2 1 8 ).
B e c a u s e o f t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s, o x y g e n r e q u i r e m e n t s
for any given aerobic digestion system can vary as
6 -9 9
much as 20 to 30 percent between summer and winter.
One must design to meet the worst conditions ( summer ),
for without some type of oxygen controller, considerable
power is wasted during other times of the year.
TABLE 6- 24
Labor ,
man hours per year
Plant design flow ,
MGD Operation Maintenance Total
0.5 100 20 120
1 160 30 190
2 260 50 310
5 500 100 600
10 800 160 960
25 1, 500 300 1, 800
Other Requirements
6 -100
mass of dry sludge solids is increased by the lime added and by
the chemical precipitates that derive from this addition. Thus ,
because of the increased volumes, the costs for transport and
ultimate disposal are often greater for lime-stabilized sludges
than for sludge stabilized by other methods.
6.4.1 .1 History
Lime has been traditionally used to reduce odor nuisances from
open pit privies and the graves of domestic animals, Lime has
been used commonly in wastewater sludge treatment to raise the
pH in stressed anaerobic digesters and to condition sludge prior
to vacuum filtration . The original objective of lime condi -
tioning was to improve sludge dewaterability but , in time, it was
observed that odors and pathogen levels were also reduced. In
1954, T.R. Komline filed a patent ( No. 2 ,852, 584 ) for a method of
processing raw sludge in which heavy dosages of hydrated lime
( 6 to 12 percent of total dry solids ) were added specifically
to cancel or inhibit odors . However , only recently has
lime addition been considered a major sludge stabilization
alternative.
Many studies describe the effectiveness of lime in reducing
microbiological hazards in water and wastewater , but the
bactericidal value of adding lime to sludge has been noted only
recently ( 219 - 222 ). A report of operations at the Allentown,
Pennsylvania wastewater treatment plant states that lime
conditioning an anaerobically digested sludge to a pH of 10.2 to
11 , and then vacuum filtering and storing the cake, destroyed all
odors and pathogenic enteric bacteria ( 233 ). Kampelmacher and
Jansen reported similar experiences ( 224 ). Evans noted that lime
addition to sludge released ammonia and destroyed coliform
bacteria and that the sludge cake was a good source of nitrogen
and lime to the land ( 225 ).
6-101
g r e a t e r t h a n 1 2. Counts conducted g r o w t h studies o n g r e e n h o u s e
,
a n d o u t d o o r p l o t s w h i c h indicated t h a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f l i m e -
stabilized domestic sludge on c r o p l a n d w o u l d have no detrimental
e f f e c t o n p l a n t g r o w t h a n d s o i l characteristics , Disposal
of the lime-stabilized domestic sludge a t loading rates u p to
1 0 0 t o n s d r y solids p e r acre ( 224 t/h a ) o n g r e e n-h o u s e p l o t s and
.
6 . 4.1 . 3 Applicability
6-102
s h o r t a g e s. Full s l u d g e flows c a n be lime-treated w h e n
existing facilities a r e o u t o f service f o r cleaning o r
r e p a i r.
6 . 4.1 . 4 T h e o r y of t h e P r o c e s s
Lime addition t o s l u d g e r e d u c e s o d o r s a n d p a t h o g e n l e v e l s b y
creating a high p H environment hostile t o biological activity.
Gases containing nitrogen and sulfur that are evolved during
anaerobic decomposition of organic matter are the principal
s o u r c e o f o d o r s in s l u d g e ( 2 2 8 ). When lime is added , the
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s i n v o l v e d in t h i s d e c o m p o s i t i o n a r e s t r o n g l y
inhibited o r d e s t r o y e d in t h e h i g h l y a l k a l i n e e n v i r o n m e n t .
Similarly, pathogens are inactivated or destroyed by lime
addition.
High lime dosing o f s l u d g e a l s o affects t h e chemical and physical
characteristics o f s l u d g e . Although the complex chemical
reactions between lime a n d s l u d g e a r e n o t well understood , it
is likely t h a t mild reactions , s u c h a s t h e splitting of c o m p l e x
molecules by hydrolysis, saponification, and acid neutralization ,
occur in t h e high pH environments c r e a t e d in lime stabilization
( 2 2 8 ). T h e s e reactions r e d u c e t h e f e r t i l i z e r v a l u e o f t h e
stabilized s l u d g e , improve its dewaterability , and c h a n g e t h e
c h a r a c t e r of liquid sidestreams. T h e n a t u r e o f these chemical
c h a n g e s is described in Section 6 . 4.3.4 .
6 . 4. 2 D e s i g n Criteria
6-1 0 3
6.4 . 2.1 p H a n d Contact Time
• T r e a t s l u d g e in the liquid s t a t e.
6.4.2.2 Lime D o s a g e
T h e a m o u n t of lime required t o stabilize s l u d g e is determined b y
t h e t y p e o f s l u d g e, i t s c h e m i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n , and t h e s o l i d s
concentration. T a b l e 6- 2 5 summarizes t h e results o f p l a n t-s c a l e
t e s t s a t L e b a n o n, O h i o, and s h o w s t h a t lime additions ranging
from 6 t o 5 1 p e r c e n t of the total dry solids in t h e s l u d g e were
required t o raise t h e pH t o t h e levels indicated in the table.
T h e s e lime d o s a g e s were sufficient t o k e e p t h e s l u d g e p H a b o v e
6-1 0 4
12.0 for 30 minutes. Primary sludges required the lowest
dosages, while the highest average dosages were required to r a i s e
the pH level of waste-activated sludges, The results of studies
conducted by Paulsrud and Eikum ( 227 ) agree generally with the
Lebanon tests and are displayed in Table 6 - 26. Iron and alum
sludges required the highest dosages , Farrell, and others ( 226 )
also found that alum additionally increased the lime requirement
and suggested that part of the lime added to alum sludge may be
bound as a calcium-aluminum compound.
TABLE 6- 25
Primary sludge3 -
3 6 4.3 0.06 - 0.17 0.12 6.7 12.7
Waste activated sludge 1- 1.5 1.3 0.21- 0.43 0.30 7.1 12.6
Anaerobically digested mixed
sludge 6-7 5.5 0.14 -0.25 0.19 7. 2 12.4
Septage 1-4.5 2.7 0.09 -0.51 0.20 7 .3 12.7
aincludes -
some portion of waste activated sludge.
1 lb/lb = 1 kg/kg .
TABLE 6- 26
Lime dose ,
lb Ca(OH)2/lb
Type of sludge suspended solids
a
Precipitation of primary treated effluent.
Ecrual proportions by weight of each type
of sludge.
1 lb/lb 1
6-105
F i g u r e 6-4 4 d i s p l a y s t h e g e n e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n l i m e d o s a g e
and pH for a typical municipal sludge a t several solids concen
. - -
trations Table 6 26 calculated from data on Figure 6 44, shows
that the lime dose per unit mass of sludge solids required to
-
a t t a i n a p a r t i c u l a r pH l e v e l i s r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t, That is,
lime requirements are more closely related to the t o t a l mass of
sludge solids , rather than the sludge volume , Consequently ,
reduction in volume by thickening may have l i t t l e or no effect
on the amount of lime required , because the mass of sludge solids
is not changed .
13
12
11
10
X
a
9
o 1.0% SOLIDS
A 2.0% SOLIDS
8 o 3.0% SOLIDS
3.5% SOLIDS
7
*
4.4% SOLIDS
6 1
0 2,000 4,000 6,000 8, 000 10.000
Ca ( OH ) 2 DOSE , mg /I
FIGURE 6- 44
10
xft
8
0.056
6
SS= 5.07% , VSS/SS=74.69fc 0.028
°
TEMP =68 F ( 20 ° )
4
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28
DAYS OF STORAGE
llb / lb = 1 kg /kg
FIGURE 6- 45
100
in
Li. 80
->
z
J
-
H$
< 60
t-
o
i-
ix.
O 40 TO 3 MOLAR SOLUTION
-
l
z- H S
a
LU ^ g=
a: 20
LU
CL.
0
6 7 8 9
pH
FIGURE 6- 46
6-108
ammonia o d o r w a s m o s t intense with anaerobically digested s l u d g e
a n d w a s s t r o n g e n o u g h t o c a u s e n a s a l irritation , As m i x i n g
p r o c e e d e d , t h e treated s l u d g e acquired a m u s t y , mucus- like o d o r.
TABLE 6- 27
Raw
>
Primary
Waste-activated
Septage
Anaerobically digested
Mixed primary and
2.9 x 10
8.3 x 10°:
2.9 x 108-^ 8 . 3 x 1 08
2 . 7 x 10
1 . 5 x 1 07
Z
3.9 x 10
-
1.0 x J j f c
6.7 4f io 5
'
62
6
6
5.5 x
195
754
103
-
waste activated 2.8 x 10
1 1.5 x 106 2.7 x 105 6 42
Lime stabilized
Primary
^ 1.2 x 10 5.9 x 103 1.6 x 10 * <3 <3
-
Waste activated
Septage
2.2 x 101
2.1 x 103
1.6 x 10
265
6.8 x 1 CT
665
<3
<3
13
<3
Anaerobically
digested 18 18 8.6 x 103 <3 <3
< «AH ii»
***•“ *
#
aMillipore
septage.
-
filter technique used for waste activated sludge and
MPN technique used for other sludges.
^
c
To pH equal to or greater than 12.0.
,
Detection limit = 3 .
•
6-1 0 9
Qualitative observation under a microscope has shown substantial
survival of higher organisms , such as hookworms, amoebic cysts ,
and Ascaris ova , after contact times of 24 hours at high
pH ( 226 ). It is not known whether long - term contact would
eventually destroy these organisms , A more complete discussion
of sludge disinfection is contained in Chapter 7.
6-110
which s l u d g e c a n be applied , w o u l d allow more sludge t o be
applied per acre of land . A reduction in the soluble ( filter-
able ) phosphate concentration is caused by the reaction between
lime a n d dissolved o r t h o p h o s p h a t e t o f o r m calcium - p h o s p h a t e
precipitate. For this reason, residual phosphate in the super-
natant/filtrate after lime treatment is believed t o be largely
organic in n a t u r e ( 228 ). Nitrogen levels can be reduced during
lime stabilization if g a s e o u s a m m o n i a is stripped during a i r
mixing of the treated sludge. As the pH of the s l u d g e increases
from near neutral t o 12 , the predominant form of ammonia shifts
from t h e ammonium ion ( NH 4 + ) t o dissolved ammonia g a s ( NH 3 ).
Some of this g a s is carried off by t h e air bubbled through the
sludge for mixing.
TABLE 6- 28
Primary
Before lime addition 1, 885 54 ,146 3,046 350 69 1, 656 22 3 48 , 700 36 , 100
After lime addition 4 , 313 41,180 3,556 283 36 1, 374 145 38 , 370 23 , 480
Waste activated
Before lime addition 1, 265 12 ,810 1,043 218 85 711 51 12 , 350 10,000
After lime addition 5,000 14 , 700 1, 619 263 25 1, 034 64 10 , 700 7 , 136
Anaerobically digested
mixed sludge
Before lime addition 3, 593 60,372 1 ,011 580 15 2 , 731 709 61,140 33, 316
After lime addition 8 , 467 58,670 1, 809 381 2.9 1, 780 494 66 , 350 26 , 375
Septage
Before lime addition " 1, 897 24 ,940 1, 223 172 25 820 92 21,120 12 ,600
After lime addition 3 , 475 17 , 520 1 ,537 134 2.4 597 110 23 , 190 11, 390
6-111
p l a n t -s c a l e studies a t L e b a n o n ( 2 2 9 ), a s s h o w n i n T a b l e 6- 2 8 .
R e d u c t i o n s i n t o t a l solids concentration a f t e r lime stabilization
w e r e m e a s u r e d by C o u n t s a n d S h u n c k r o w ( 2 2 8 ). T h e s e reductions,
displayed in T a b l e 6- 2 9 , a r e g r e a t e r t h a n c a n be a c c o u n t e d f o r
s i m p l y by dilution with lime s l u r r y. I t m a y be simply t h a t t h e
l i m e i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e v o l a t i l e s o l i d s a n a l y s i s , H o w e v e r,
reactions b e t w e e n lime a n d n i t r o g e n o u s o r g a n i c m a t t e r m a y c a u s e a
l o s s o f s l u d g e solids. H y d r o l y s i s o f p r o t e i n s a n d d e s t r u c t i o n o f
amino acids a r e k n o w n t o occur by r e a c t i o n with s t r o n g b a s e s.
Volatile s u b s t a n c e s s u c h as ammonia , w a t e r, a n d l o w m o l e c u l a r
weight amines o r o t h e r volatile o r g a n i c s m a y possibly b e f o r m e d
a n d l o s t t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e.
6.4.4.1 D e s i g n o f Lime H a n d l i n g F a c i l i t i e s
L i m e , in i t s v a r i o u s f o r m s , i s t h e p r i n c i p a l a n d l o w e s t c o s t
alkali used in industry a n d w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t. A s a r e s u l t , a
substantial b o d y o f k n o w l e d g e h a s e v o l v e d c o n c e r n i n g t h e m o s t
e f f i c i e n t h a n d l i n g o f l i m e. O n l y t h e b a s i c e l e m e n t s o f l i m e
s y s t e m d e s i g n a r e described in this m a n u a l. Detailed i n f o r m a t i o n
is contained in s e v e r a l r e f e r e n c e s t h a t f o c u s o n t h e selection,
h a n d l i n g , a n d u s e o f l i m e ( 2 3 6-2 3 9 ).
L i m e Characteristics
Lime is a g e n e r a l t e r m a p p l i e d t o s e v e r a l c h e m i c a l c o m p o u n d s t h a t
s h a r e t h e c o m m o n characteristic o f b e i n g h i g h l y alkaline , The
t w o f o r m s commercially available are q u i c k l i m e ( C a O ) a n d hydrated
l i m e ( C a( O H ) 2 ) • The characteristics of these two chemicals
a r e summarized in T a b l e 6-3 0 . L i m e i s a caustic m a t e r i a l a n d c a n
c a u s e s e v e r e i n j u r y t o t i s s u e, p a r t i c u l a r l y t o e y e s , E q u i p m e n t
m u s t b e d e s i g n e d with s a f e h a n d l i n g in mind ; e y e w a s h fountains
and safety showers should be provided, and operating procedures
should mandate use of proper handling procedures and protective
c l o t h i n g.
6-112
TABLE 6- 29
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SLUDGE AND SUPERNATANT
BEFORE AND AFTER LIME STABILIZATION3 ( 227 )
Supernatant
TOC (mg/1)
Before lime addition 1 , 000 917 1 , 175
After lime addition 2 ,083 1 ,883 2, 250
BOD (mg/1)
Before lime addition 1,120 964 1,137
After lime addition 1 ,875 1 ,981 2,102
Threshhold odor number*5
aValues in this table are averages of three tests for each sludge type.
^ -
The greatest dilution with odor free water to yield the least perceptible odor.
6-113
During slaking , t h e generally coarse C a O p a r t i c l e s a r e r u p t u r e d ,
splitting into m i c r o p a r t i c l e s of Ca (0H )2 * T h e s e smaller p a r-
t i d e s h a v e a large t o t a l s u r f a c e a r e a a n d a r e highly reactive.
T h e s l a k i n g reaction is carried o u t u n d e r c l o s e l y c o n t r o l l e d
conditions t o p r o m o t e maximum lime reactivity.
TABLE 6- 30
Quicklime/
CaO
Pebble
Crushed
-
80 100 lb moisture
proof bags , wooden
- White (light grey ,
tan) lumps to
55 to 75; to calcu
late hopper capa
-
-
70 to 96 percent CaO Reacts to form Ca(OH)2
(Below 88 percent each lb of quicklime
Lump
Ground
barrels , and car
loads. Store dry ;
- powder. Unstable ,
caustic irritant.
city --
use 55; Sp.
G., 3.2 3.4.
can be poor quality) will form 1.16 to
1.32 lb of Ca(OH)2,
Pulverized maximum 60 days in Slakes to hydrox - with 2 to 12 percent
tight container
3 months in mois-
- ide slurry evolving
heat (490 Btu/lb).
grit, depending on
purity.
-
ture proof bag. Air slakes to
CaC03. Sat. sol.
approximately pH
12.5
Hydrated lime/
Ca(OH)2
Powde r
(Passes 200
50 lb bags , 100 lb
barrels, and car - -
powder free of
-
White , 200 400 mesh ; 25 40; to calculate
hopper capacity -
Ca(OH )2- 82 to 98
percent; CaO -
62
10 lb/1,000 gal at
°
7Q F
mesh) loads. Store dry ; lumps; caustic , use 30; Sp. G., to 74 percent (Std. 5.6 lb/1 ,000 gal at
maximum one year. dusty irritant ; ab-
sorbs H2O and CO2
-
2.3 2.4 70 percent) 175 F
°
from air to form
Ca(HCO3)2. Sat.
sol. approximately
pH 12.4.
1 lb ^ 0.454 kg
-
100 Btu/lb = 55 kg cal/kg
1 lb/cu ft = 16 kg/m 3
1 lb/1,000 gal = 0.120 g/1
T h e d e c i s i o n w h e t h e r t o p u r c h a s e q u i c k l i m e o r h y d r a t e d lime
in a p a r t i c u l a r situation is influenced by a number of factors
s u c h a s size of t r e a t m e n t facility , material c o s t, a n d s t o r a g e
6-1 1 4
requirements. The cost of hydrated lime is about 30 percent
greater thanthe cost of quicklime with an equivalent calcium
oxide content. The difference is due to the higher production
and transportation costs for hydrated lime , Nevertheless ,
-
hydrated lime is preferred for small scale operations mainly
because its use eliminates the labor and equipment required for
slaking . Hydrated lime is also more stable and therefore is
easier to handle and to store. When lime use exceeds three to
four tons per day ( 3 , 000 - 4 , 000 kg / day ) , quicklime should be
considered because of its inherent economy ( 236 ). Selection
of the type of lime to be used should be based on a detailed
economic analysis, taking into account all the unique factors of
the particular application.
Both quicklime and hydrated lime react spontaneously with
atmospheric CO 2.
CaO + CO 2 — » CaC03
6-115
producing heat and swelling that can cause the bags to burst .
B e c a u s e h e a t c a n b e g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g accidental slaking o f
q u i c k l i m e , b a g s s h o u l d never be s t o r e d close t o combustible
materials.
Hydrated lime may be stored under dry conditions for periods up
to a year without serious deterioration by reaction with atmos-
pheric CC> 2 ( recarbonation ). Quicklime deteriorates more rapidly .
Under good storage conditions , with multiwall moisture- proofed
bags , quicklime may be held as long as six months , but in general
should not be stored for more than three months ( 236 ).
Lime Feeding
Lime is nearly always delivered to the sludge mixing vessel as a
Ca ( OH ) 2 slurry ( milk-of -1 ime ). This facilitates transport t o
the point of application and improves lime dispersion and
reaction efficiency. The exact series of steps through which dry
lime is wetted and introduced to the sludge varies according to
such factors as the scale of the operation , the type of lime
purchased , and the method of storage , T h e following paragraphs
outline the basic lime - feeding schemes , T h e discussion is
largely derived from a bulletin published by the National Lime
,
Association ( 236 ) which should be referred to for more detail.
6-116
on o p e r a t o r p r e f e r e n c e. T h e milk-of- lime can be discharged t o
t h e s l u d g e in o n e b a t c h o r m e t e r e d c o n t i n u o u s l y t o t h e b a s i n
t h r o u g h a solution feeder.
• V o l u m e t r i c f e e d e r s , which d e l i v e r a c o n s t a n t , p r e s e t
v o l u m e o f c h e m i c a l in a u n i t o f time , r e g a r d l e s s o f
c h a n g e s in material density.
6-117
Direct addition of d r y hydrated lime t o centrifuge c a k e w a s
tested in a pilot -scale study at the wastewater treatment plant
in Downington , Pennsylvania. An undigested mixture of primary
and secondary sludges was dewatered t o a solids concentration of
20 p e r c e n t , and t h e n blended with p o w d e r e d Ca( OH )2 for t e n
minutes in a twin- p a d d l e mixer. Addition of 2 0 0 p o u n d s o f
hydrated lime per ton dry ( 1 0 0 kg /t ) raised sludge pH t o 11.8 ,
r e d u c e d p a t h o g e n levels t o below t h e detection limit , and
controlled odor and fly problems.
6 -1 1 8
T h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s discuss t w o a s p e c t s o f m i x i n g t a n k
design - tank sizing and mixing , T o d e t e r m i n e t a n k s i z e, a
designer m u s t first select a flow m o d e, T h e following section
o n t a n k sizing describes flow modes. T h e s u b s e q u e n t section o n
t a n k mixing c o v e r s the g e n e r a l t y p e s o f mixers a n d s u g g e s t s
criteria for sizing mixing s y s t e m s.
6 -1 1 9
T h e m o s t important d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r for a continuous flow ,
w e l l- mixed r e a c t o r is the nominal detention time ( defined as tank
volume divided by volumetric input flow r a t e ), Unlike a batch
t a n k , where c o n t a c t time of a l l p a r t i c l e s is t h e s a m e , some
particles in a well- mixed , continuously fed tank escape after
relatively short contact, Thus, 30 minutes of pH a t 12.5 in a
batch mixer might not be the same as 3 0 minutes residence time
in a well- mixed , continuously fed r e a c t o r.
In making a recommendation for detention time , the nature of the
t r e a t m e n t t h a t o c c u r s m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d . Unlike some
t r e a t m e n t s , s u c h a s irradiation , t h e t r e a t m e n t d o e s n o t s t o p
after the treated sludge leaves the vessel. If pH is 12.5 as
the sludge leaves the mixing t a n k , it remains a t this pH after
l e a v i n g. C o n s e q u e n t l y , a 3 0 - m i n u t e d e t e n t i o n t i m e in a
continuously fed , well- mixed reactor is adequate, provided the pH
is measured in an exit line. If pH of the limed sludge appears
t o fall too rapidly upon standing , it is a simple matter t o move
the pH sensor and t o control lime feed rate t o a position further
downstream.
-
6 120
problem with air mixing is that CO 2 is absorbed by the sludge/
lime mixture , tending to raise the quantity of lime required to
reach the desired pH. The selection of the method of mixing
should be based on the factors described above , coupled with an
economic evaluation.
With air mixing , coarse bubble diffusers should be used , mounted
pattern.
-
along one of the tank walls to induce a spiral roll mixing '
6-121
TABLE 6- 31
Assumptions:
Bulk fluid velocity > 26 ft/min. (8.5 m/min.).
Impeller Reynolds number > 1 ,000.
Mixing tank configuration.
Liquid depth equals tank diameter.
Baffles with a width of 1/12 the tank diameter ,
placed at 90 degrees spacing.
Mixing theory and equations after References 155 and 242.
1 gal = 3.785 1
1 ft 0.305 m
1 hp = 0.746 kW
-
6 122
TABLE 6- 32
Treatment plant
capacity , mgd
Item 1 4 40e
Capital ^
Operation and main-
10 ,500 30 ,100 87 , 200
tenance0 12 ,600 35 ,900 257 ,400
Total 23 ,100 66 ,000 344 ,600
Unit cost , ^
(dollars/ton dry
sludge solids) 54.17 39.27 20.51
heat
CaCOg CaO + CO 2
6 . 4.6 Design E x a m p l e
This section illustrates the layout and sizing of the major
c o m p o n e n t s in a lime stabilization s y s t e m. F o r this e x a m p l e ,
it is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t h a s a c a p a c i t y o f
approximately 8 M G D ( 3 5 0 1/s ) and provides secondary t r e a t m e n t t o
typical municipal wastewater. A mixture of primary s l u d g e a n d
thickened w a s t e- activated s l u d g e is t o be stabilized with lime ,
t h e n mechanically dewatered , a n d ultimately s p r e a d o n t o land.
6.4.6 . 2 S y s t e m Description
6 -1 2 4
is first added to the tank to keep the sludge from turning septic
and producing odors. When the tank is filled , lime is added and
mixing is continued for at least 30 minutes.
QUICKLIME
STORAGE
SILO
VOLUMETRIC " - ”
R
n \
fN
FEEDERS
J. / SLAKERS
PRIMARY GRINDER
>
3k lOJ
SLUDGE
WASTE
£
a- * - MIXING TANK 1
!>
MIXING TANK 2
7M
L
/
PROGRESSING
CAVITY PUMP
S <1 &
ACTIVATED *
o_ p—
e o o TO DEWATERING
SLUDGE
.
)«
n n n n XJ EQUIPMENT
/
COARSE AIR ’
BUBBLE DIFFUSERS /
Ki
FIGURE 6- 47
To reduce odors , the mixing tanks are covered , and gases stripped
from the sludge during mixing are removed in an odor control
unit. This unit is a packed bed scrubber. The scrubbing
solution is dilute sulfuric acid , Ammonia gas is absorbed by the
sulfuric acid solution , All wetted parts are constructed of
-
acid resistant materials.
Quicklime is used in this installation , A bulk storage silo,
with capacity to hold a 30 day lime requirement under average -
conditions , supplies lime to two volumetric feeders , Each feeder
measures out quicklime to a slaker, where the lime is hydrated ,
slurried , and discharged into the mixing tank. The lime dose is
sufficient to maintain the sludge above pH 12.5 for 30 minutes.
6 125-
6.4.6.3 Component Sizing
Mixing Tank
Sizing criterion:
Conditions.
Volume requirement ( V ):
A 3 ,150 cu ft 315 ft 2
10 ft
39.3 m 2
Tank dimensions:
( Assume 2 feet freeboard )
18 ft x 18 ft x 12 ft
( 5.4 m x 5.4 m x 3.7 m )
30 cfm/1 ,000 cu ft
Blower capacity ( Q ):
( One blower per tank )
Q ( 3 ,150 cu ft ) ( 3 o cfm/1 , 000 cu ft )
tank
95 cfm/blower
^
( 2.6 m / min/ blower )
Lime Storage
Sizing criterion:
Quicklime characteristics:
6 -126
-
«w»
Lime dosage:
Primary sludge
Activated sludge
-- 0.12 lb Ca(0H )2/lb dry
0.30 lb Ca(0H ) /lb dry
solids
solids
2
Average daily lime requirement (W ):
Expressed as hydrated lime -
wCaOH2
(- Tb)
( 10 ,000 lb/day ) 12
I n t h e c h l o r i n e s t a b i l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s, s u f f i c i e n t acid is
p r o d u c e d t o r e d u c e t h e p H o f t h e s l u d g e t o a r a n g e o f 2 t o 3.
D i s s o c i a t i o n o f H 0 C 1 t o H + a n d 0 C 1“ i s s u p p r e s s e d b y l o w p H
and therefore is not significant, C 12 a n d H O C 1 a r e h i g h l y
reactive a n d p o w e r f u l bactericides a n d viricides. T h e chloride
ion h a s n o disinfection capability.
T h e p r o c e s s s t r e a m i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e chlorine a d d i t i o n
is substantially a chlorine solution containing sludge , The
s o l u t i o n contains ( in m o l e c u l a r f o r m ) a s m u c h a s t e n p e r c e n t o f
t h e t o t a l chlorine s p e c i e s p r e s e n t , T h e p r e d o m i n a n t s p e c i e s in
s o l u t i o n is undissociated H0C 1. H O C l a n d C l 2 r e a c t w i t h s l u d g e
t o oxidize ammonia t o chloramines a n d o r g a n i c n i t r o g e n t o o r g a n i c
c h l o r a m i n e s. O t h e r r e d u c e d i o n s , s u c h a s F e + 2 a n d S- 2 , a r e
o x i d i z e d a t t h e s a m e t i m e. S o m e o f t h e o x i d i z e d e n d p r o d u c t s,
s u c h a s c h l o r a m i n e s a n d o r g a n i c chloramines, a r e g e r m i c i d a l a n d
viricidal ( 2 4 4 ) .
T h e c h l o r i n e stabilization unit consists o f a d i s i n t e g r a t o r , a
recirculation p u m p, t w o r e a c t i o n t a n k s, a chlorine e d u c t o r, a n d a
p r e s s u r e c o n t r o l p u m p. A c h l o r i n e e v a p o r a t o r a n d /o r a
6-1 2 8
chlorinator , feed pump, and i n l e t flow meter can be purchased
with the unit or separately .
The unit i s often supplied by the
manufacturer as a complete package mounted on a skid plate and
ready for installation .
A detailed diagram of the unit i s
shown on Figure 6 48 - .
^
REACTOR REACTOR
SLUDGE
PRESSURE
EDUCTOR CONTROL
PUMP
RECIRCULATION CHLORINE
SUPPLY
METER
CHLORINATOR EVAPORATOR
DISINTEGRATOR
SLUDGE
SUPPLY
PUMP
FIGURE 6- 48
Flow patterns within the two reactor tanks are high , in the form
of velocity spirals, with tangential discharges The tanks are .
-
6 129
oriented with the spiral axis o f the first in a horizontal plane
a n d t h e s e c o n d in a vertical p l a n e. Solids t h a t s e t t l e ‘d u r i n g
periods of n o n-operation a r e easily r e s u s p e n d e d when t h e p r o c e s s
is s t a r t e d a g a i n , T h e s y s t e m is n e i t h e r d r a i n e d n o r c l e a n e d
between operating periods , A holding tank should be provided for
feed s t o r a g e and f o r flow equalization , Blending d o n e in t h e
tank also helps to maintain feed uniformity, thus providing
sludge of uniform chlorine demand and minimizing the need to
frequently adjust chlorine d o s e. S l u d g e blending is particularly
valuable for processing of primary s l u d g e s, which t e n d t o be more
concentrated when initially pumped from the sedimentation t a n k
t h a n a t the e n d of t h e pumping c y c l e. Similarly , where primary
and s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e s a r e t r e a t e d t o g e t h e r, b l e n d i n g c a n b e
accomplished in t h e holding t a n k. Continuously w a s t e d activated
s l u d g e, h o w e v e r , m a y be a d e q u a t e l y t r e a t e d w i t h o u t p r i o r
blending , provided that solids concentration is n e a r l y c o n s t a n t
w i t h t i m e. M i x i n g is u s u a l l y d o n e by m e c h a n i c a l o r a i r
agitation. Air mixing is p r e f e r a b l e , b e c a u s e it enhances aerobic
conditions, reduces o d o r s, a n d a v e r t s p r o b l e m s with fouling o f
t h e i m p e l l e r s by r a g s a n d s t r i n g s. O d o r can b e controlled in t h e
holding t a n k if a portion of t h e filtrate o r s u p e r n a t a n t from t h e
dewatering p r o c e s s is returned t o it.
• P r i m a r y p l u s w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d sludge f o u r p e r c e n t.
6-1 3 0
. 6 . 5.2 U s e s , A d v a n t a g e s, a n d Disadvantages
Chlorine oxidation has been used to treat raw and digested
p r i m a r y s l u d g e , r a w a n d d i g e s t e d s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e s , s e p t a g e,
d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t s, a n d sidestreams from d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s.
The chlorine stabilization process has several attractive
features . It can be operated intermittently , so long as
sufficient s t o r a g e v o l u m e is a v a i l a b l e p r i o r t o a n d f o l l o w i n g t h e
unit. U n l i k e b i o l o g i c a l s l u d g e p r o c e s s i n g s y s t e m s , t h e p r o c e s s
c a n b e s t a r t e d u p , r u n f o r a f e w h o u r s , a n d t u r n e d o f f. A
c o n s t a n t s u p p l y o f p r o c e s s feed is n o t required. A s a r e s u l t,
o p e r a t i n g c o s t s a r e directly d e p e n d e n t u p o n p r o d u c t i o n r a t e s, a n d
c o s t s attributable t o o v e r c a p a c i t y a r e eliminated .
C h l o r i n e o x i d a t i o n i s a c h e m i c a l p r o c e s s a n d i s t h u s o p e r a-
tionally insensitive t o factors s u c h a s toxic materials in t h e
s l u d g e, which a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t b i o l o g i c a l stabilization s y s t e m s .
I t c a n a l s o p r o c e s s feed s t r e a m s o f w i d e l y v a r y i n g c h a r a c t e r ,
s u c h a s d i g e s t e d s l u d g e a n d d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t , within a s h o r t
p e r i o d o f t i m e. This flexibility is not characteristic of
anaerobic o r aerobic d i g e s t i o n p r o c e s s e s.
Disadvantages of the chlorine stabilization process center
o n c h e m i c a l , o p e r a t i o n a l , a n d e n v i r o n m e n t a l f a c t o r s. F r o m a
chemical s t a n d p o i n t , t h e l o w p H o f c h l o r i n e- stabilized s l u d g e
may require the sludge to be partially neutralized prior to
m e c h a n i c a l d e w a t e r i n g o r b e f o r e b e i n g a p p l i e d t o a c i d s o i l s.
C o s t s of neutralization a r e in addition t o chlorine c o s t s. T h e s e
a r e discussed i n S e c t i o n 6 . 5.5 . 1. A s mentioned earlier, chlorine
stabilization d o e s n o t r e d u c e s l u d g e m a s s nor p r o d u c e m e t h a n e g a s
a s a b y - p r o d u c t f o r e n e r g y g e n e r a t i o n. T h e p r o c e s s c o n s u m e s
r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e a m o u n t s o f c h l o r i n e. Special safety and
h a n d l i n g p r e c a u t i o n s must b e used w h e n h a n d l i n g t h i s g a s. If
high alkalinity w a s t e s — f o r e x a m p l e , d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , d i g e s t er
superna tants— a r e p r o c e s s e d , CC > 2 g e n e r a t e d d u r i n g chlorination
m a y p r o m o t e cavitation in d o w n s t r e a m p u m p s.
T h e r e is concern t h a t chlorine o x i d a t i o n o f s l u d g e s, s e p t a g e,
and sidestreams from sludge treatment processes could result
i n i n c r e a s e d l e v e l s o f t o x i c chlorinated o r g a n i c s i n t h e
t r e a t e d m a t e r i a l s ( 2 4 5 ). D a t a a v a i l a b l e a r e i n c o n c l u s i v e.
Investigations are underway that will help clarify this
issue. I n t h e meantime,- m e a s u r e s- s h o u l d b e t a k e n t o m i t i g a t e
environmental c o n c e r n s w h e n t h e chlorine oxidation p r o c e s s e s is
u s e d. T h e s e a r e:
P r o v i s i o n s s h o u l d b e m a d e t o d e a l w i t h t h e f i l t r a t e,
c e n t r a t e , o r d e c a n t f r o m t h e p r o c e s s, i n c l u d i n g r e t u r n
t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t, u n l e s s t h i s p r a c t i c e
leads to wastewater treatment plant upset or to
violations of effluent standards ; or to treat by
a c t i v a t e d c a r b o n a b s o r p t i o n o r o t h e r m e a n s.
6 -1 3 1
• If the treated sludge leaving the pressurized chlorinator
is discharged to a tank sparged with air , the gases from
the tank should be vented away from workers.
6-132
TABLE 6- 33
6.5.4.1 Stabilized S l u d g e
Characteristics of freshly treated s l u d g e a r e a p H of 2 t o 3 and
a chlorine residual o f approximately 2 0 0 m g/1. Retention in a
downstream holding tank allows the chlorine residual t o d r o p t o
z e r o a n d t h e p H t o r i s e t o b e t w e e n 4.5 a n d 6 . 5 . N o r m a l l y , a
s l i g h t m e d i c i n a l o d o r is p r e s e n t. After adequate addition
o f c h l o r i n e, t h e c o l o r o f t h e s l u d g e c h a n g e s f r o m b l a c k t o
light brown.
6 -1 3 3
( 245 ). These results indicate that as much as 1 0 t o 20 p e r c e n t o f
initial s l u d g e solids had chemically reacted with t h e chlorine .
Additional studies by ASTRE for the BIF Company s u g g e s t e d that
total identifiable chlorinated organic c o m p o u n d s nearly doubled
w h e n t h e particular raw s l u d g e s studied were t r e a t e d by a
chlorine oxidation process. A six- fold increase was found in the
amount of chlorinated organic Consent Decree toxics ( see 43 FR
4109, January 31 , 1978 for Consent Decree list of toxic
s u b s t a n c e s ) following chlorine oxidation and a n eight - fold
increase in the amount of total organic Consent D e c r e e toxics .
T h e s e p r o c e s s s t r e a m s a r e p r o d u c e d by t h i c k e n i n g a n d / o r
dewatering operations after chlorine treatment. Filtrates from
sandbed dewatering are typically clear and colorless. T h e pH
varies from 4 to 6 , and no residual chlorine remains. Filtrate
from chlorine- treated sludge generally contains lower suspended
solids and B O D 5 t h a n t h e filtrate p r o d u c e d w h e n filtering
digested sludges. Typical filtrate composition is 5 0-1 5 0 mg/ 1
suspended solids and 100- 300 mg/1 B O D5 with low turbidity and
color.
6 . 5.5 Costs
6-1 3 4
.
6.5 5.1 Operating Costs
Because the chlorine stabilization process can be operated
intermittently , annual operating costs are proportional to the
quantity of material processed , Table 6 34 displays operating
cost data. Chlorine , the major expense factor , historically has
-
cost between 9 and 14 cents per pound (19.8 to 30.9 cents per
kg ). Chlorine unit costs vary with annual usage , method of
transportation and transportation distances, and competition , In
the last few years , prices have decreased because of an increased
demand for sodium hydroxide ( chlorine is a by product of sodium
hydroxide production ).
- »
•4
TABLE 6- 34
-
Waste activated sludge only
Fair Lawn, NJ 211 9.85 20.78 2.08 22.86
-
6 135
this is equivalent to a cost $ 0.80 to $ 2.40 per ton ( $ 0.88 to
$ 2.65/t ) of dry solids , Polymer costs are equivalent to those
required for dewatering of sludges stabilized by other means and
are generally greater than the cost of pH adjustment .( See
.
Chapter 8 )
6 -136
TABLE 6- 35
Capacity , gal/hr
Primary and
waste
activated
- Waste -
activated
Budgetary
cost ,d
sludge 3 * sludge onlyc dollars
-
6 137
6.6 References
6 -138
1 2. U S E P A. "Sludge Digestion of Municipal Wastewater
S l u d g e s , " S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l. V o l 1. U S E P A
, Environmental R e s e a r c h Information C e n t e r. Cincinnati ,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A- 6 2 5/4-7 8- 0 1 2. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
1 3. M a l i n a , J .F., J r. II r
Ihe Effect of Temperature on High
R a t e D i g e s t i o n o f Activated S l u d g e." Proceedings of the
1 6 t h I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e. Purdue University ,
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-
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-- C a p a b i l i t i e s a n d C o s t s — P u b l i c l y O w n e d T r e a t m e n t W o r k s.
A p p e n d i x F. KTatfoVial C o m n i s s i o n c m Walter Q u a l i t y .
"
W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. P B- 2 5 0-6 9 0- 0 3. M a r c h 1 9 7 6.
1 7 0. U S E P A. Construction Costs for Municipal Wastewater
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M C D-3 7.
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MWR.im
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% 'vzznmmxm
~-
-
1 7 4. R a n k i n, R.S. " D i g e s t e r C a p a c i t y R e q u i r e m e n t s." Sewage
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1 7 5. C o a c k l e y , P. "R e s e a r c h o n S e w a g e S l u d g e C a r r i e d O u t i n
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B i o l o g i c a l T r e a t m e n t o f S e w a g e a n d I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e.
V o l. 2 , P 2 8 7, R e i n h o l d P u b l i s h i n g C o• 1 N.Y. 1 9 5 8.
'
-
1 7 7. E c k e n f e l d e r, W.W., J r. " Studies o n t h e O x i d a t i o n Kinetics
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180 The Effect of Temperature on the Aerobic Digestion of
—
Wastewater Sludge. NTIS-PB- 245- 280 , June 1974.
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"
182. Burton, H.N. and J .F. Malina , Jr. " Aerobic Stabilization
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~
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R e s e a r c h. V o l. 6, P 8 0 7. 1 9 7 2.
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2 0 8. S m i t h , J .E . , J r. " B i o l o g i c a l O x i d a t i o n a n d Disinfection of
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212. R o o n e y , T . C . a n d N . A. M i g n o n e. " I n f l u e n c e of B a s i n
G e o m e t r y o n D i f f e r e n t G e n e r i c T y p e s o f A e r a t i o n E q u i p m e n t. "
P r o c e e d i n g s 3 3 r d P u r d u e I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e. Ann
A r b o r Science , A n n A r b o r , M i c h i g a n, 4 8 1 0 6 . 1 9 7 8.
2 1 6. B i s o g n i, J .J . a n d A.W. L a u r e n c e. "R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n
B i o l o g i c a l S o l i d s R e t e n t i o n T i m e a n d S e t t l i n g C h a r a c t e r-
i s t i c s o f A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e." W a t e r R e s e a r c h . V o l. 5 ,
P 7 5 3. 1 9 7 1.
-
2 1 7. U S E P A. S l u d g e H a n d l i n g a n d C o n d i t i o n i n g. O f f i c e o f W a t e r
P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n D.C. 2 0 4 6 0. E P A 4 3 0/9-
7 8-0 0 2. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
6-1 5 4
218 . Design Procedures for Dissolved Oxygen Control of Activated
S l u d g e P r o c e s s e s , N T I S P Q- 2 7 0 9 6 0 / 8B E April 19 77 .
' '
.
219 . R i e h1, M L
. . .
" E f f e c t o f L i m e -T r e a t e d W a t e r o n S u r v i v a l
of Bacteria " .
Journal American Water Works Association.
.
Vol 44, p 466 . 1952 . .
220 . Buzzell, J C , Jr . .
and C N Sawyer. ."Removal of Algal . .
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Pollution Control Federation V o l 3 9 , P R1 6 1967 . . - . .
221. Grabow , W 0 K . . .
"The B a c t e r i c i d a l E f f e c t of Lime
Flocculation Flotation as a Primary Unit Process in a
Multiple System for the Advanced Purification of Sewage
Works Effluent " Water Resources . Vol 3, p. 943 1969 . . . .
222. USEPA .
Lime D i s i n f e c t i o n of Sewage B a c t e r i a a t Low
Temperature .
Environmental Protection technology Series .
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 .
E P A- 6 6 0 / 2 - 7 3- 0 1 7 Sept 1973 . . .
223 . "H o w S a f e i s S l u d g e ? " Compost Science . M a r c h -A p r i l 1 9 7 0 .
224 . K a m p e1m a c h e r , and N
E .H . .
Van Noorle Jansen , L M . .
"R e d u c t i o n o f B a c t e r i a i n S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t " J o u r n a l W a t e r .
Pollution Control Federation Minwv
Vol 44 , P 309 . 1972
- . .
225 . . .
E v a n s , S C , "S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t a t L u t o n " J o u r n a l I n d u s t r i a l
Sewage Purification . . . .
Vol 5 p 381 1961 .
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r "Lime
S t a b i l i z a t i o n of Primary Sludges. " Journal Water Pollution
C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. Vol. 46 , P - 113. 1974.
2 2 7 . P a u l s r u d , B . a n d A .S . E i k u m. " L i m e S t a b i l i z a t i o n o f S e w a g e
Sludges. " Water Research.
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V o l . 9 , P 2 9 7 . 1 9 7 5.
2 3 0 . S t r a v c h , D . , H . S c h w a b , T . B e r g , a n d W . K o n i g . "V o r l a u f i g e
Mitleilung f o r Frage Der Entseuchenden Wirkung Von
Kalkstickstoff Und Kalk I n Der Abwassertechnik . " K o r r e s-
pondenz Abwasser. V o l 2 5. P. 3 8 7. 1 9 7 8 .
231. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water a nd ___
Wastewater .
T4 1 h e d i t i o n *
American P u b l i c H e a l t h .
Association, Washington, D C 1975 .. .
232 . Sawyer , C N . .
and McCarty , P L Chemistry . . for Sanitary
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6 155
2 3 3. B e r g , G • r R.B. D e a n , a n d D.R. D a h l i n g. " R e m o v a l o f P o l i o
V i r u s 1 f r o m S e c o n d a r y E f f l u e n t s b y Lime F l o c u l a t i o n a n d
R a p i d S a n d F i l t r a t i o n. " J o u r n a l o f t h e A m e r i c a n W a t e r
W o r k s Association. V o l. 6 0, P 1 9 3. 1 9 6 8.
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2 3 4. T r u b n i c k , E .H . a n d P . K . M u e l l e r. "S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g
Practice." S e w a g e a n d I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e s. V o l. 3 0 ,
P 1 3 6 4. 1 9 6 7.
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2 3 5. S o n t h e i m e r , H. " E f f e c t s o f S l u d g e C o n d i t i o n i n g w i t h Lime
o n D e w a t e r i n g ." A d v a n c e s in W a t e r P o l l u t i o n R e s e a r c h ,
P r o c e e d i n g s a n d I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r Pollution
R e s e a r c h. M u n i c h. 1 9 6 7.
2 3 7. L i m e f o r W a t e r a n d W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t s. B.I.E. Unit o f
G e n e r a l S i g n a l P r o v i d e n c e , R h o d e I s l a n d. 02901 R e f.
N o. 1 . 2 1 - 2 4. J u n e 1 9 6 9 .
2 3 8. U S E P A. Lime U s e in W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t: Design a n d C o s t
D a t a. M u n i c i p a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h L a b o r a t o r y.
C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8, E P A- 6 0 0/2- 7 5- 0 3 8. O c t o b e r 1 9,7 5.
239 . U S E P A. Process Design Manual for Suspended Solids
R e m o v a l. T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r. Cincinnati , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8.
E P A 6 2 5/l- 7 5- 0 0 3 a. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 5.
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Equipment and C o n t r o l s, " C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r i n g. April
1 9 6 5.
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.
N o 8. W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t D e s i g n W a t e r Pollution
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246. Williams, T.C. "Phosphorous Removed at Low Cost." Water
and Wastes Engineering. Vol. 13. 1975.
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6-157
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
Chapter 7. Disinfection
September 1979
CHAPTER 7
DISINFECTION
7.1 Introduction
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e disinfection , t h e destruction o r inactivation
of pathogenic organisms in t h e s l u d g e, is carried o u t principally
t o minimize public health concerns. Destruction is t h e physical
disruption or disintegration of a pathogenic organism, while
i n a c t i v a t i o n , a s u s e d h e r e , i s t h e r e m o v a l o f a p a t h o g e n' s
ability t o infect. A n important but s e c o n d a r y concern may b e t o
minimize the e x p o s u r e of domestic animals t o p a t h o g e n s in t h e
s l u d g e. A t t h e p r e s e n t time in t h e United S t a t e s , t h e u s e of
procedures to reduce the number of pathogenic organisms is a
requirement before s a l e o f s l u d g e o r s l u d g e-containing p r o d u c t s
t o t h e public a s a soil a m e n d m e n t , o r before recycling sludge
directly t o c r o p l a n d s , forests , o r p a r k s. Since t h e final u s e o r
disposal of sludge may differ greatly with respect to public
health concerns , a n d since a g r e a t n u m b e r of t r e a t m e n t o p t i o n s
effecting various d e g r e e s o f p a t h o g e n reduction are available ,
t h e s y s t e m c h o s e n f o r reduction o f p a t h o g e n s should be tailored
t o the d e m a n d s o f t h e particular situation.
7 -1
s l u d g e a s a r e s u l t o f h u m a n activity u p s t r e a m from t h e wastewater
treatment plant. Fungi are secondary pathogens and are only
numerous in sludge w h e n given t h e opportunity t o g r o w during some
t r e a t m e n t o r s t o r a g e process.
F o o d w a s t e s f r o m h o m e s a n d commercial establishments.
Industrial w a s t e s f r o m f o o d p r o c e s s i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y
m e a t packing p l a n t s.
7 . 2. 2 P a t h o g e n Characteristics
7-2
-
transmitted in feces are listed in Table 7 1 together with the
disease they cause , Viruses are excreted by man in numbers
several orders of magnitude lower than bacteria , Typical
total virus concentrations in untreated wastewaters are
-
1 ,000 to 10 ,000 plaque forming units ( PFU ) per 100 ml ; effluent
concentrations are 10 to 300 PFU per 100 ml . Wa s tewa te r
treatment , particularly chemical coagulation or biological
processes followed by sedimentation , concentrates v i r u s e s
in sludge. Raw primary and waste- activated sludges contain
10 ,000 to 100 ,000 PFU per 100 ml.
TABLE 7- 1
Name Disease
Adenoviruses Adenovirus infection
Coxsackie virus , Coxsackie infection ;
Group A viral meningitis ;
AFRIa , hand , foot ,
and mouth disease
Coxsackie virus , Coxsackie infection ,
Group B viral meningitis ;
viral carditis , end
emic pleurodynia ,
-
AFRIa
ECHO virus , ( 30 ECHO virus infection ;
types) aseptic meningitis ;
AFRIa
Poliovirus ( 3 types) Poliomyelitis
Reoviruses Reovirus infection
Hepatitis virus A Viral hepatitis
Norwalk agent Sporadic v.iral gastro-
enteritis
Rotavirus Winter vomiting dis-
ease
7.2.2.2 Ba cteria
-
7 3
reproduce under a variety of environmental conditions , Low
temperatures cause dormancy , often for long periods , High
temperatures are more effective for inactivation , although some
species form heat- resistant spores. Pathogenic bacterial species
are heterotrophic and generally grow best at a pH between 6.5 and
7.5. The ability of bacteria to reproduce outside a host is an
important factor. Although sludge may be disinfected , it can be
reinoculated and recontaminated.
Bacteria are numerous in the human digestive tract ; man excretes
up to 10 3 coliform and
^ ^^
10 - other bacteria in his feces every
day. The most important of the pathogenic bacteria are listed in
Table 7 - 2 , together with the diseases they cause.
TABLE 7- 2
Species Disease
Arizona hinshawii Arizona infection
Bacillus cereus B. cereus gastroenteritis; food poisoning
Vibrio cholerae
'
Cholera
Clostridium perfringens C. perfringens gastroenteritis ; food
poisoning
Clostridium tetani Tetanus
Escherichia coli Enteropathogenic E. coli infection ; acute
diarrhea
Leptospira sp Leptospirosis; Swineherd 's disease
Mycobacterium tuberculosis Tuberculosis
Salmonella paratyphi, A , B , C Paratyphoid fever
Salmonella sendai Paratyphoid fever
Salmonella sp (over 1,500 Salmonellosis; acute diarrhea
serotypes)
Salmonella typhi Typhoid fever
Shigella sp Shigellosis ; bacillary dysentery ; acute
diarrhea
Yersinia enterocolitica Yersinia gastroenteritis
Yersinia pseudotuberculosis Mesenteric lymphadenopathy
1 . 2 .2 . 3 Parasites
Parasites include protozoa, nematodes, and helminths , Pathogenic
protozoa are single- celled animals that range in size from 8 M to
25M . Protozoa are transmitted by cysts , the nonactive and
environmentally insensitive form of the organism , Their life
cycles require that a cyst be ingested by man or another
host. The cyst is transformed into an active organism in the
intestines , where it matures and reproduces , releasing cysts in
the feces , Pathogenic protozoa are listed in Table 7 - 3 , together
with the diseases they cause .
7- 4
Table 7 -3. They may invade tissues o t h e r than the intestine .
This situation is especially common when man ingests the ova
of a roundworm common t o another species such as the dog . The
nematode does not s t a y in the intestine but migrates t o other
body tissue such as the eye and encysts. T h e cyst, similar to
t h a t formed by p r o t o z o a , c a u s e s inflammation and fibrosis in
the host tissue. Pathogenic nematodes cannot spread directly
f r o m m a n t o m a n. T h e o v a discharged in f e c e s m u s t first
embryonate at ambient temperature, usually in the soil , for a t
least two w e e k s.
TABLE 7- 3
Species Disease
A. Protozoa
Acanthamoeba sp Amoebic meningoencephalitis
Balantidium coli Balantidiasis , Balantidial dysentery
Dientamoeba fragilis Dientamoeba infection
Entamoeba histolytica Amoebiasis ; amoebic dysentery
Giardia Iambiia Giardiasis
Isospora bella Coccidiosis
Naegleria fowleri Amoebic meningoencephalitis
Toxoplasma gordii Toxoplasmosis
B. Nematodes
Ancyclostoma dirodenale Ancylostomiasis; hookworm disease
Ancyclostoma sp Cutaneous larva migrans
Ascaris lumbricoides Ascariasis; roundworm disease ; Ascaris
pneumonia
Enterobius vermicularis Oxyuriasis ; pinworm disease
Necator americanus Necatoriasis ; hookworm disease
Strongyloides stercoralis Strongyloidiasis; hookworm disease
Toxocara canis Dog roundworm disease , visceral larva
migrans
Toxocara cati Cat roundworm disease ; visceral larva
migrans
Trichusis trichiura Trichuriasis ; whipworm disease
C. Helminths
Diphyllobothrium latum Fish tapeworm disease
Echinococcus granulosis Hydated disease
Echinococcus multilocularis Aleveolar hydatid disease
Hymenolepis diminuta Rat tapeworm disease
Tymenolepis nana Dwarf tapeworm disease
Taenia saginata Taeniasis; beef tapeworm disease
Taenia solium Cysticercosis ; pork tapeworm disease
Helminths are f l a t w o r m s , s u c h a s t a p e w o r m s , t h a t m a y be m o r e
than 1 2 inches ( 30 cm ) in length. The most common types in the
United S t a t e s ( listed in Table 7 -3 ) are associated with beef ,
p o r k , a n d r a t s . Transmission o c c u r s w h e n m a n i n g e s t s r a w o r
inadequately cooked m e a t o r the eggs of the t a p e w o r m. In the
l e s s serious form , t h e t a p e w o r m d e v e l o p s in t h e intestine ,
maturing a n d r e l e a s i n g eggs. I n t h e m o r e s e r i o u s f o r m , it
localizes in the ear, eye , heart , or central nervous s y s t e m.
7-5
7.2.2.4 Fungi
TABLE 7- 4
Species
Actinomyces sp Actinomycosis
Aspergillus sp Aspergillosis ; Asper-
gillus pneumonia
Otomycosis
Candida albicans
11«
Moniliasis ; candidiasis
oral thrush
7 -6
for one or more pathogenic parasites, A. lumbricoides, which
produces a resistant ova , was found in over two percent of the
samples ( 6,7 ).
The frequent occurrence of enteric pathogens in the United States
population indicates that pathogens should be expected in all
wastewaters and sludges.
7.3.1.1 Viruses
7-7
are apparently t h e m o s t important factors affecting virus
r e m o v a l. S t e r n and Farrell r e p o r t almost 5 0 p e r c e n t virus
inactivation with sludge storage at 6 7° F ( 20° C ) for two weeks
u n d e r laboratory conditions ( 1 1 ). Reduction continued with
longer storage. Increased operating temperature also improves
reduction.
TABLE 7- 5
PATHOGEN OCCURRENCE IN
LIQUID WASTEWATER SLUDGES
Concentration , number/100 ml
Unstabilized raw ,
Pathogen Name or species sludge 3 Digested sludge a b Reference
Virus Various 2.5 x 103 - 7 x 104 100 - 103 9 , 10 , 11
Bacteria ClQ 5 tridia sp 6 x 106 2 x 10 7 12
x 1093
Bacteria Fecal coliform 3 x 104 - 6 x 106 13, 12
Bacteria Salmonella sp. 8 ioJ BDL - 62 11
Bacteria Streptococcus faecalis 3 x 107 4 x 104 - 2 x 10° 11
Bacteria Total coliforms 5 x 109 6 x 104 7 x 10 7 II
Bacteria Mycobacterium tubercu - 107 106 14
losis
Thermophilic anaerobic d i g e s t i o n of s l u d g e at a t e m p e r a t u r e
o f 1 2 1 ° F ( 5 0 ° C ) with a 20 - d a y retention time a t t h e City o f
L o s A n g e l e s Hyperion T r e a t m e n t Plant s h o w e d a two log g r e a t e r
virus reduction than for comparable mesophilic digestion at a
t e m p e r a t u r e of 9 4° F ( 3 5° C ) and t h e same time period ( 19 ). Half
t h e thermophilic s a m p l e s , however , still showed measurable
viruses , which was unexpected ; this may be due t o t h e way that
digesters are operated , P l a n t - s c a l e digesters are usually
o p e r a t e d o n a fil 1- and - draw basis, If the digesters are mixed
continuously , the daily fraction of sludge which is removed t o
make room for the addition of raw sludge will contain s l u d g e t h a t
has been in the process for only a short time. Considering this
fact , t h e appearance of viable pathogens in digested s l u d g e is
not surprising .
7.3.1.2 Bacteria
Most bacteria in wastewater are readily sampled and measured.
Commonly found concentrations and types o f bacteria are shown in
Table 7 -5. The sensitivity o f assay techniques for different
7 -8
bacterial species do vary , from 3 MPN per 100 ml for Salmonella
to 1 , 000 MPN per 100 ml for total coliform , fecal coliform ,
and fecal streptococcus . In general , anaerobic digestion
reduces bacterial counts by one to four logs , Work conducted
at Hyperion , in parallel with the virus studies discussed
previously , showed thermophilic anaerobic digestion of sludge
decreased bacterial counts by two to three logs over mesophilic
d igest ion ( 19 ) . Increasing both the temperature and the
detention time increases bacterial inactivation. Fill- and -draw
operation , however, prevents digestion from removing as large a
fraction of the bacteria as it might in another operating mode.
Farrell and Stern reported the following bacterial concentrations
in an aerobically digested waste- activated sludge ( 13 ):
7.3.1.3 Parasites
There is a wide variation in the apparent level of parasite
infestation from region to region in the United States ( 6 , 7, 21 ).
Protozoa cysts should not survive anaerobic digestion , but
helminth ova definitely do and should be expected in digested
wastewater sludge unless testing proves the contrary .
7 -9
7.3.2 Long Term Storage
7 -10
d a t a are available o n the potential of chlorine for reducing t h e
n u m b e r o f p a t h o g e n i c o r g a n i s m s i n s l u d g e , S o m e samples o f sludge
treated with large d o s e s o f chlorine in S o u t h Miami , Florida,
and H a r t l a n d , W i s c o n s i n, s h o w e d l a r g e r e d u c t i o n s in b a c t e r i a
and coliphages ( 25 ). Chlorine doses o f 1 ,000 mg/1 applied t o
w a s t e- activated s l u d g e ( W A S ) with a 0 . 5 p e r c e n t solids c o n c e n t r a-
tion reduced total bacteria counts by four to seven logs and
coliform bacteria and coliphage to below detection limits.
Primary s l u d g e with a 0 . 5 t o 0 . 8 5 p e r c e n t solids concentration
w a s t r e a t e d with 1 , 0 0 0 m g / 1 c h l o r i n e , a n d t o t a l a n d f e c a l
coliform c o u n t s were reduced below detectable limits.
7.4.1 Viruses
Data f o r the survival of viruses , bacteria , and p a r a s i t e s in soil
a r e summarized in T a b l e 7 -6. F a c t o r s t h a t have b e e n found t o
affect survival include soil t e m p e r a t u r e, p H , c l a y concentration ,
cation exchange capacity , specific surface area, and organic
content. V i r u s a d s o r p t i o n t o soil p a r t i c l e s is t h e c h i e f
mechanism f o r their retention w h e n applied t o t h e l a n d , Virus
a d s o r p t i o n in s o i l is reversible , Viruses s u r v i v e b e s t a t
s l i g h t l y a l k a l i n e p H 's , C o o l e r t e m p e r a t u r e s p r o l o n g virus
i n f e c t i v e n e s s, a s d o e s a m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t b e t w e e n 1 5 a n d
2 5 p e r c e n t ( 8 ).
7 . 4. 2 Bacteria
Maximum recorded bacterial survival times vary with species , from
a little o v e r one m o n t h t o a l m o s t a year , a s s h o w n in Table 7 -6.
T h e i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s in b a c t e r i a survival a r e m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t , moisture holding capacity , t e m p e r a t u r e , p H , sunlight ,
o r g a n i c m a t t e r , a n d c o m p e t i t i o n o r p r e d a t i o n ( 2 6 ) . Moisture
c o n t e n t is m o s t i m p o r t a n t , since desiccation o f t e n l e a d s t o
7 -1 1
cellular death. Lower temperatures prolong survival, and a lower
pH increases the rate of inactivation , The presence of organics
may promote survival or even regrowth.
TABLE 7- 6
Virus Poliovirus Up to 84 8
Virus Poliovirus 1 Up to 170 10
Virus ECHO 7 Up to 170 10
Virus ECHO 9 Up to 170 10
Virus Coxsackie B3 Up to 170 10
Bacteria Clostridium sp Up to 210 15
Bacteria Leptospira sp Up to 43 27
Bacteria Mycobacterium tuberculosis More than 180 27
Bacteria Salmonella sp. Up to 570 28
Bacteria Salmonella typhi Up to 120 27
Bacteria Sh lgella sp. Up to 210 15
Bacteria Streptococcus faecalis Up to 210 15
Bacteria Total collform Up to 210
Parasite Entamoeba histolytica Up to 8 27
Parasite Ascaris lumbricoides Up to 2 ,550 27
Parasite Hookworm larvae Up to 42 27
7.4.3 Parasites
Protozoa cysts are reported to be destroyed in eight days after
land application , Helminth ova , however , are very durable and
may survive up to seven years , Hookworm larvae may be viable for
over a month.
7 -12
no firm scientific evidence to document a single confirmed case
where human disease i s d i r e c t l y linked t o exposure t o pathogens
from wastewater sludge, Viable pathogens have, however, been
isolated from intermediate points in the sludge management
system, such as from surface runoff from sludge treated fields .
These factors should be considered in the selection and design of
a process for reducing the number of pathogenic organisms .
M \ IK
* ANIMALS
ENVIRON - MEAT
MENTAL
SOURCES
I
CROSS CONTAMINATION
EDIBLE
,r
JI
INGESTION
PLANTS
HUMAN .
KJB iitm » f « 1 wnsnBBc un
vj. HANDLING
SLUDGE INGESTION , DIRECT CONTACT, INHALATION
OR
ANIMAL
SLUDGE - TREATMENT
mmmrnffm SOIL wmrnmmmMm m MAN
*
SOURCES PROCESSES UUU -
INGESTION
ma
AQUATIC INTERMED -
* BIOTA IATE HOST
SURFACE INGESTION
| WATER
DIRECT CONTACT
GROUND- INGESTION
WATER
FIGURE 7- 1
-
7 13
7 . 6.1 Sludge Pasteurization
Man has recognized for many years that heat will inactivate
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s a s w e l l a s t h e e g g s a n d c y s t s o f p a r a s i t e s.
Different s p e c i e s a n d their s u b s p e c i e s s h o w different sensitiv-
ities t o e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s a n d d u r a t i o n o f e x p o s u r e.
R o e d i g e r , S t e r n, a n d W a r d a n d B r a n d o n h a v e d e t e r m i n e d t h e
time-t e m p e r a t u r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r disinfection o f w e t s l u d g e s
with h e a t ( 3 0-3 2 ). T h e i r r e s u l t s , summarized f o r a n u m b e r o f
m i c r o o r g a n i s m s i n T a b l e 7 - 7, i n d i c a t e t h a t p a s t e u r i z a t i o n a t
1 5 8° F ( 7 0° C ) f o r 3 0 m i n u t e s inactivates p a r a s i t e o v a a n d c y s t s
and reduces population of measurable pathogenic viruses and
bacteria b e l o w d e t e c t a b l e l e v e l s . F o r bacteria, W a r d a n d B r a n d o n
found t h a t f e c a l s t r e p t o c o c c i w e r e m o s t h e a t-resistant , f o l l o w e d
b y coliforms and t h e n S a l m o n e l l a ( 3 2 ). N i c h o l s o n indicates t h a t
a h i g h e r t e m p e r a t u r e f o r a s h o r t e r t i m e period ( 1 9 5°F [ 9 1° C ],
1 0 minutes ) a l s o d e s t r o y s a l l p a t h o g e n s ( 3 3 ).
TABLE 7- 7
50 55 60 65 70
Viruses 25
_
Mycobacterium
*
—
«>
losis
.. . tubercu
Micrococcus pygogenes
— - 20
20
5
Escherichi coll 60
Salmonella typhi 30 4
Fecal streptococci 60
Fecal coliforms 60
Corynebacterium dipth
eriae
- 45 4
Brucella abortus 60 3
Cysts of Entamoeba his-
tolytica 5
Eggs of Ascaris lumbri
coides
- 60 7
Aspergillus flavus
conidia 60
°F - 1.8 °C + 32
7 -1 4
7.6 . 1.1 Process Description
I /" °
3 F TO THE VACUUM PUMPS
>
r; ^-
I
C
an
SLUDGE
EATER,/
d
Ol 4.5 psiC
- RECUPERATOR •
_
1 , 45 pst
BLOW -OFF
Ii
t CONDENSER
f. \ TANKS *
s >
I |b l \'
• **
86 ^F
l COOLING WATER
STEAM l 95° F
CONCENTRATED FROM INLET
TO 157 u f
DIGESTED SLUDGE
\ 64° F
A i TIME
3C MIN
1 ^
.0,83
Psi
V
* •
* 4 i
OUTLET
PASTEURIZED
/ V SLUDGE
/ /
100° F
/
/
°
95 F /
/
TO TANKER
/
/ /
HOLDING
e
/ /
/ TANK r >
——— —
•
VAPORS
VACUUM ( AIR )
WATER
TO CONVERT LB PER S Q U A R E INCH TO kN / m 2 ,
MULTIPLY BY 6.9.
FIGURE 7- 2
7 -1 5
t e m p e r a t u r e is raised from 6 4 to 1 0 0 °F ( 1 8 t o 3 8 °C ) by v a p o r s
f r o m t h e blow-o f f t a n k ; 3 0 t o 4 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l required
h e a t is t h u s p r o v i d e d by recovery . N e x t , direct s t e a m injection
raises t h e t e m p e r a t u r e t o 1 5 7 ° F ( 7 0 °C ) in t h e p a s t e u r i z e r where
t h e s l u d g e resides for at least 30 minutes. Finally t h e s l u d g e
is t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e blow-off t a n k s , w h e r e it is cooled first t o
113 °F ( 45 °C ) a t 1.45 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch ( 1 0 k N/ m 2 ) and t h e n
t o 9 8 °F ( 3 5 ° C ) a t 0 . 7 3 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch ( 5 k N/m 2 ) ( 3 1 ).
7 . 6.1.2 Current S t a t u s
There is o n l y o n e o p e r a t i n g m u n i c i p a l s l u d g e p a s t e u r i z a t i o n
facility in t h e United S t a t e s t o d a y , a h e a t conditioning s y s t e m
converted for pasteurization, P a s t e u r i z a t i o n is o f t e n u s e d
in E u r o p e a n d is r e q u i r e d in G e r m a n y a n d S w i t z e r l a n d b e f o r e
a p p l i c a t i o n of s l u d g e t o p a s t u r e lands during t h e spring -summer
,
7-1 6
prior to pasteurization , a minimum storage volume should be two
days average flow. Storage facilities must be equipped for odor
control or with aeration capacity to prevent septic conditions.
Storage capacity for pasteurized sludge should be adequate to
hold at least four days' amount of processed sludge at average
flow . Odor control must be provided , and pilot- scale testing may
be needed to determine the best odor control process design.
Sludge thickening prior to pasteurization may be cost- effective
for increasing overall energy efficiency , but the value of
thickening should be determined on a case - by - case basis.
Piping , pumps , valves, heat exchangers, flow meters , and other
mechanical equipment should , at a minimum , be comparable to those
for thermophilic digesters. The tanks for holding sludge during
pasteurization should be corrosion- resistant.
7 -17
the processes discussed under " Energy Impacts 11 ( 34 ) . It was
assumed that the processes would have parallel pasteurization
reactors and four-day storage volume for the pasteurized sludge.
The use ( volume of throughput per given size ) for the processes
increases with increasing system size.
1,000 100
0
8
7
6
5
>-
4
>
LfJ T3
o 3
_
k
UT5
> ~ <0
2
a
03
k
>
3
*
% m
I
& 100 10
9 o
1 *
0?
>
O
o
1
JC.
l e
fD
>
H
6 0J
JC:
_oc 4
h-
u
LJJ
£ 5
u
J
LU
3
-J
UJ
3 3
UL u.
10 1
2 3 4 5 6 7 89 2 3 4 5 6 789
1 10 100
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD of wastewater ( 1 MGD = 0,044 m3/s)
FIGURE 7- 3
7 -18
6
1/5
4
ow
Lft
o
UNTREATED SLUDGE
H
to
O
u 3
2!
O
rr
O
D
cc
to
;z:
O 2
a
DIGESTED SLUDGE
0
5 10 20 30 40 50 . 60 70 80 90 100
FIGURE 7 - 4
£0 5
<
~O
o UNTREATED SLUDGE
LA
o
H
in
O
CJ 4
o
u
D
IX
\—
tn
O
3
L>
DIGESTED SLUDGE
1
5 10 20 30 SO 60 70 80 90100
FIGURE 7- 5
.
7.6 1.7 Design Example
-
7 20
destroyed during digestion, the resulting digested sludge has
2.4 percent solids . The sludge flow rate i s about 4 ,800 gallons
per million g a l l o n s (
t h e f l o w r a t e i s 0 . 3 MGD - ^ .
4 . 8 l/m )
(
F o r t h e 5 0 -M G D ( 2 . 2 m / s ) p l a n t ,
1 3 . 0 1/ s ) . If the pasteurization
^
facility i s run 24 hours p e r day , five days per week , the flow
r a t e i s 0 . 4 2 M G D 1 8 . 9 1/ s
( ) o r about 300 gallons per minute
( 1 8 . 9 1/ s ).
12
10
>
WITH HEAT
% RECOVERY
CL
2 6
5
WITHOUT HEAT
RECOVERY
4
0 I I
5 10 20 30 50 6-0 70 B0 90 100
FIGURE 7- 6
-
7 21
16
14
ID
12
I
%
UNTREATED SLUDGE
_i*•
<
cc
ILI
-
(
<c
10
5
DIGESTED SLUDGE
J
6
5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90100
FIGURE 7- 7
To select the reactor size, assume that there are two parallel
units and each can be charged , held , and emptied , in 1.5 hours .
D e t e r m i n i n g t h e volume p e r r e a c t o r:
SC
V
NH
where:
-
7 22
H = total operating hours.
For this example ,
^
V = ( 2.1 x 10 gallons )(1.5 hr/cycle ) = 13,125 gallons ( 49.7 m3 )
( 2 reactors/cycle )( 120 hr)
E AT h W
e t
where:
7- 23
An a d d i t i o n a l allowance of t e n p e r c e n t should be added t o
maintain the reactor temperature for 30 minutes, giving a total
o f 1 9 . 5 m i l l i o n B t u/ h r ( 4 . 3 G J / h r ) o r a b o u t 6 0 0 h o r s e p o w e r .
F i g u r e 7 -8 p r o v i d e s a s c h e m a t i c l a y o u t f o r t h e m a j o r p r o c e s s
components .
PASTEURIZATION
REACTORS
°
157 F
^CXJTCXJ»- °
157 Is
^
\ TC 'C )
UNTREATED
OR
DIGESTED
SLUDGE RAW
es°F mDc\ SLUDGE
F ROM F ED
STORAGE PUMPS
Ci
LU
_- _r
HEAT
1
PASTE U R • Q UJ
N uiQ EXCHANGER
H G LH 1ZED
D a w SLUDGE
UJ
H PUMPS j Z V}
Lb
<_
Q
f
1 INLINE
•Mkaa>
PREHEATED STEAM
PASTEURIZED SLUDGE 131 CF (55 C1° [J * 345°f SOILER
SLUDGE 125 psi
STORAGE ( 175 C
° _
8S0 kN / m^>
SLUDGE
FOR
UTILIZATION
FIGURE 7- 8
.
7.6 2 Other Heat Processes
7 -2 4
M
-
«wsnw >w
7 . 6.2 . 1 H e a t-Conditioning
H e a t- c o n d i t i o n i n g includes p r o c e s s e s w h e r e w e t w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e
is pressurized with or without oxygen and the temperature is
r a i s e d t o 3 5 0 ° t o 4 0 0 ° F ( 1 7 7° t o 2 4 0 ° C ) a n d h e l d f o r 1 5 t o
4 0 minutes. T h e s e p r o c e s s e s d e s t r o y a l l p a t h o g e n s in s l u d g e, a n d
a r e discussed i n d e t a i l in C h a p t e r 8.
7 . 6. 2 . 2 H e a t-Drying
H e a t-d r y i n g i s g e n e r a l l y d o n e w i t h a f l a s h d r i e r o r a r o t a r y
kiln . Limited d a t a f r o m a n a l y s e s o n Milwaukee, Wisconsin's dried
s l u d g e , M i l o r g a n i t e, p r o d u c e d w i t h a d i r e c t- i n d i r e c t r o t a r y
c o u n t e r f l o w kiln t y p e d r y e r, indicates it is bacteriologically
s t e r i l e ( 1 3 ). D a t a o n s a m p l e s o f f l a s h- d r i e d s l u d g e t a k e n
in H o u s t o n, C h i c a g o, Baltimore, a n d G a l v e s t o n, s h o w e d n o coliform
b a c t e r i a i n t h e H o u s t o n s l u d g e a n d n o g r e a t e r t h a n 1 7 M P N/ g m
d r y s l u d g e in t h e o t h e r s l u d g e s. T o t a l n o n- c o n f i r m i n g l a c t o s e
f e r m e n t e r s ( s p o r e f o r m e r s ) r a n g e d f r o m 1 4 M P N t o 2 4 0, 0 0 0 M P N p e r
g m ( 3 5 ). N o t e s t s w e r e m a d e f o r v i r u s e s o r p a r a s i t e s ; o t h e r
p a t h o g e n s m a y a l s o s u r v i v e if s o m e bacteria d o.
D a t a f o r t h e C a r v e r-Greenfield p r o c e s s g a t h e r e d d u r i n g t e s t i n g by
L A/O M A s h o w e d a s e v e n o r d e r o f m a g n i t u d e reduction f o r t o t a l a n d
fecal coliform, to a detectable level of less than one organism
p e r g r a m ( 3 6 ). Fecal streptococci were reduced six orders of
m a g n i t u d e t o t w o M P N p e r g r a m a n d S a l m o n e l l a f r o m 5 0, 0 0 0 M P N p e r
g r a m t o less t h a n 0 . 2 M P N p e r g r a m , Ascaris o v a w e r e r e d u c e d t o
l e s s t h a n 0 . 2 o v a p e r g r a m.
H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e incineration, p y r o l y s i s, o r a
combination t h e r e o f ( s t a r v e d -a i r combustion ). These processes
r a i s e t h e s l u d g e t e m p e r a t u r e a b o v e 9 3 0° F ( 5 0 0°C ) d e s t r o y i n g
t h e physical s t r u c t u r e o f a l l s l u d g e p a t h o g e n s a n d e f f e c t i v e l y
s t e r i l i z i n g t h e s l u d g e. The product of a high temperature
process is sterile unless shortcircuiting occurs within the
p r o c e s s.
7 . 6. 2 . 4 Composting
C o m p o s t i n g is considered h e r e a s a h e a t p r o c e s s b e c a u s e a m a j o r
aim o f s l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g o p e r a t i o n s is t o p r o d u c e a p a t h o g e n- f r e e
c o m p o s t b y a c h i e v i n g a n d h o l d i n g a t h e r m o p h i l i c t e m p e r a t u r e.
A v a i l a b l e d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t a w e l l- r u n c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s
g r e a t l y r e d u c e s t h e n u m b e r s o f p r i m a r y p a t h o g e n s ( 3 7 - 4 0 ).
H o w e v e r, windrow o r a e r a t e d p i l e o p e r a t i o n s h a v e n o t achieved a
sufficiently uniform internal temperature to inactivate all
p a t h o g e n s. A d v e r s e environmental conditions , p a r t i c u l a r l y h e a v y
r a i n s , c a n s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r c o m p o s t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s. An
7- 2 5
additional problem with composting is the potential regrowth of
bacteria. This is particularly true with windrows where mixing
moves material from the outside of the mound to the center ( 40 ).
However , storage of compost for several months following windrow
or pile composting helps to further reduce pathogen levels .
Secondary pathogens , particularly heat - resistant fungi such
as Aspergillus , have been found to propagate rapidly during the
composting of wastewater sludges. Aspergillus apparently will
die out during storage of several months or more ( 22 ).
Enclosed mechanical composting systems may achieve sufficient
temperature , 157 ° F ( 70° C ) or greater , for an adequate time ; more
research can verify the efficiency of mechanical systems for
pathogen reduction.
7 - 26
o f d i s i n f e c t i o n with a n irradiation s y s t e m i s e s s e n t i a l l y
i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e s l u d g e s o l i d s concentration within t h e m a x i m u m
effective p e n e t r a t i o n d e p t h o f t h e radiation , T h e penetrating
p o w e r of electrons is limited , with a maximum r a n g e of 0 . 2 inches
( 0.5 c m ) in w a t e r or sludge slurries, when the electrons h a v e
been accelerated by a p o t e n t i a l o f one million volts ( MeV ).
A c c e l e r a t e d e l e c t r o n s c a n i n d u c e r a d i o a c t i v i t y in s u b s t a n c e s
which they impact, However, the electron energy levels for
sludge irradiation , u p t o a b o u t 2 MeV , are well below t h e 1 0 MeV
needed t o induce significant radioactivity with e l e c t r o n s.
7 . 7 .1 . 1 Process Description
T h e e l e c t r o n s a r e first accelerated , T h e y l e a v e t h e a c c e l e r a t o r
in a continuous beam t h a t is s c a n n e d back and f o r t h a t 4 0 0 times
per second across the sludge as it falls free in a thin film from
the end of the inclined ramp. T h e d o s a g e is varied by adjusting
the height of the underflow weir and hence the sludge flow r a t e.
7 -2 7
HIGH VOLTAGE CABLE
ELECTRON
BEAM
POWER
SUPPLY
ELECTRON
ACCELERATOR
CONCRETE
SHIELDING
ELECTRON
BEAM
SCANNER - A/ VIEWING
/ />
WINDOW
FEED
SLUDGE
/ 4 CL //
SLUDGE 77J
SLUDGE SLUDGE FEED // /
SCREEN GRINDER /Y / / / SLUDGE
PUMP /
REMOVAL
PUMP
SLUDGE
SPREADER
FIGURE 7- 9
.
7.7 1.2 Status
-
E beam sludge i r r a d i a t i o n must be considered a developing
technology . The Deer Island irradiation f a c i l i t y , as of
-
August 1979 , i s t h e only e beam f a c i l i t y now operated i n t h e
United States for sludge disinfection, This pilot project is
d e s i g n e d t o t r e a t 0 . 1 M G D ( 4 1/ s ) s l u d g e a t u p t o e i g h t p e r c e n t
solids with a dosage of 400 , 000 rads , According to Shah, the
f a c i l i t y has been operated about 700 hours since i t was brought
o n l i n e i n 1 9 7 6 , w i t h t h e l o n g e s t c o n t i n u o u s o n- l i n e t i m e b e i n g
eight hours ( 42 ) .
7 . 7 .1 . 3 Design Considerations
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r a n e- b e a m s l u d g e f a c i l i t y a r e d i f f i c u l t t o
establish because operational data are available from only one
pilot facility, However , the work a t Deer Island provides good
baseline information . A minimum level of electron irradiation
should be 400 , 000 rads , which can best be supplied with a one to
two MeV e l e c t r o n a c c e l e r a t o r . This energy level provides good
-
7 28
penetration for 0.2- inch ( 0.5 -cm ) thick sludge layers, making the
.
ELECTRON
INPUT BEAM
( UNTREATED OR
DIGESTED SLUDGE )
ELECTRON BEAM
SCANNER
CONSTANT
HEAD HIGH ENERGY
TANK
DISINFECTION
ZONE
UNDERFLOW
WEIR
INCLINED SLUDGE
FEED RAMP RECEIVING
— TANK
OUTPUT
( DISINFECTED
SLUDGE )
FIGURE 7- 10
7- 29
Owing to the limited penetrating power of high energy electrons ,
this method of t r e a t m e n t is probably only feasible f o r liquid
sludge . Piping p u m p s , v a l v e s , and flow m e t e r s s h o u l d be
specified as equal to those used for anaerobic sludge digestion
systems.
7 - 30
untreated primary sludge, a dose of 400 kilorads ( krads ) with
3 MeV e l e c t r o n s r e d u c e d t o t a l b a c t e r i a c o u n t b y f i v e l o g s , t o t a l
coliform by more than six logs , below detectable l i m i t s , and
t o t a l Salmonel l a by over four logs , also below detectable
1 imits. Fecal streptococci were only reduced by two logs with
data indicating t h a t some fecal streptococci are sensitive t o
radiation while others are resistant .
For samples of anaerobically digested sludge irradiated a t Deer
I s l a n d w i t h 0 . 8 5 MeV e l e c t r o n s , t o t a l b a c t e r i a w e r e r e d u c e d by
four logs a t a dose of 280 krads , t o t a l coliform by five to s i x
logs a t a dose of 150 to 200 krads; a dose of 400 krads reduced
fecal streptococci by 3.6 logs .
Data for parasite reduction are scarce but 400 krads will
apparently destroy a l l Ascaris ova ( 41) .
C o m p a r i n g t h e s e p e r f o r-
m a n c e d a t a w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m T a b l e 7-5 o n t h e q u a n t i t y o f
pathogens i n sludge indicate t h a t a dose of 400 krads may be
adequate to disinfect anaerobically digested sludge , but raw
sludge or aerobic sludge may require higher doses .
1.1 .1.1 Product Production and Properties
• E l e c t r o n b e a m p o w e r o f 7 5 kW ( 7 5 k J /s ) .
• A c c e l e r a t o r v o l t a g e o f 1 . 5 MeV .
7 -3 1
Disinfection dose of 400 krad .
The total capital cost was $ 600 , 000. The cost included the
following : --
accelerator component with scanner $ 350 ,000 ;
— ----
automatic controls ? 30 ,000 ; sludge handling equipment $l 00 ,000 ;
and building construction and facility installation $l 20 ,000 .
Annual costs were as follows: capital ( 20 years at 10 percent )
--
$ 30 ,000 ; depreciation $ 30 ,000 ; operation and maintenance
$40 ,000 ; electric power at three cents per kWhr (.83 cents per
--
--
mJ ) $ 28 ,000 ; and water $ 2 ,000. This cost estimate was carried
out in Boston in late 1977. At that time the ENR construction
cost index was about 2 ,650 . The net cost was $ 2.53 per
1 ,000 gallons ($ 0.67/m 3 ) of liquid sludge treated.
-
sources for sludge irradiators.
-
Two isotopes, Cs 137 and Co 60 , have been considered as "fuel"
-
Cs 137 has a half life of
30 years and emits a 0.660 MeV gamma ray. In the late 1970's ,
-
it was available in the United States as a by product from the
processing of nuclear weapons wastes. If the United States
-
establishes a nuclear reactor spent fuel rod reprocessing
program , it would also be available at a rate of about 2 pounds
-
per ton ( 1 kg/t ) of fuel. Co 60 has a half life of five years
and emits two gamma rays with an average energy of 1.2 MeV. It
is made by bombarding normal cobalt metal , which is stable cobalt
isotope 59 , with neutrons.
7 32-
mvwstm*
7 -3 3
SLUDGE
GROUND
LEVEL
% VA? y&z 6
?
VALVE
CONCRETE
SHIELDING
OUTLET
«*
'
^
KQ ijCeM
FIGURE 7- 11
7-35
.
7.7 2.6 Energy Impacts
%
4
£ 3
£
M Xf
%r-
Mi
<
*
1
.
O''
5 9
UJ
cc
1
3uu 6
6
—
BE
GC
L4I 4
3
- I
2
<
I '
!
to
2 3 4 6 6 7 5 9100 2 3 4 5 6 1,000
10
5 3
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY , 0.0C 1 MGD ( 4.4 x 1 G m /s)
"
FIGURE 7- 12
7-3 6
100
9
8
>
“
a >
; '
7
CO
H ,6
>
5 rwn
% 4
O
H
2!
LU
£
LU
CC
D
a
LU
3
p - '
ir
cc . -.
LU 2 " ;" - ". I II
5
o
0.
z<>
<
10
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
100 200
FIGURE 7- 13
Radiation alarm.
Fire suppression system.
A capital cost graph for the wet facility is given on
Figure 7 -14 ; the estimates were made in May 1977. Graphs for
labor hours per year and operations and maintenance materials and
supplies are given on Figure 7 -15 and 7 -16 , respectively . The
additional operating cost is $ 2.00 per 1000 gallons ( $ 0.53/m 3 )
for the Cs-137 ( the irradiator ).
The dry system uses a bucket conveyor to move the sludge past the
radiation source ( see Figure 7 - 17 ). This dry system would
include the following:
Loading and unloading conveyors.
Concrete shielding .
Source- handling pool.
Steel building .
Pumps.
Ventilators.
7-38
Filters .
Hoists .
• Radiation alarm system .
• Pool water testing tank .
%
3
1
. O'"
%
H *
° 1 ,000
s
< u -
cr
<
a
e
s
4
.- - cr ~
3
100 L I i I
2 3 4 & 2 3 4 6 6 7 8 6
10 100 1 0QQ
?
FIGURE 7- 14
£c &
-«
(
E 4
cc
O
D
.cr
— ——
5 3
o- "
«•
^
<
*^
^5
z -O o M !
<
2
1,000 1
2 3 4 5 7 a a 2 3 4 6 6 7 S 9
10 100 1000
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY, 0.001 MGD ( 4,4 1C5 m3/s)
*
FIGURE 7- 15
7-40
TOO
9
a
7
6
5
4
a
S
% » cr
k
</3
8 io
9
< 3
D 7
Z 5
2
< 5 *
4
i
T 1 L 1 . 1
2 3 4 & 6 7 8 9 2 3 4 5 G 7 0 &
TO TOO 1 rQGti
FIGURE 7- 16
ssialiligip LOADING
AREA
I
SOURCE
PLAQUES
' ffiSB
*
ill® § g
g| *
(j gfl
J s&ss&
v
UNLOADING
AREA
0 * »
l
mfk
A? j
l #i L S
^Jgg
jFrH? 5 * CONVEYOR
^^
$ O
FIGURE 7- 17
7 -41
e
6 .. ,
V
.
4
*
«
> 0'
_C
2 *<
XL
O
5 *
4
CC ** **
°_<
co 1 rOOO(
9
V^
i
!D
Z 5
Z
< 4
I
7 8 9
200
FIGURE 7- 18
7 -4 2
10fQ0Q
(A
IK
fa 2
O
%
1,000 *
p
_
o
O
<
l 7
9
I— 6 ^
CL 5
<
O
2 3 6 7 8 9
10
SLUDGE TREATMENT CAPACITY , ton/day ( 0.907 tonne /day )
FIGURE 7- 19
GAMMA RADIATION TREATMENT OF DEWATERED SLUDGE -
LABOR REQUIREMENTS ( 46 )
7-43
.
fi v iSCttSSa
*
*
e /
& *
4
«*
t?
o
13
H
-
o ^
U3
O
u
3
«J
<
=>
z
<
i
2 2 4 5 7 a s
100 200
FIGURE 7- 20
7.8 References
1. Branden, J . R . 11 P a r a s i t e s i n S o i l / S l u d g e S y s t e m s . "
Proceedings of Fifth National Conference on Acceptable
S l u d g e D i s p o s a l T e c h n i q u e s , O r l a n d o, F l o r i d a, J a n u a r y 3 1 t o
F e b r u a r y 2 , 1 9 7 8. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r, I n c. Rockville ,
M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2 , p. 1 3 0.
2. O l i v e r, W. M . " T h e L i f e a n d T i m e s o f A s p e r g i l l u s F u m i g a t u s,"
C o m p o s t S c i e n c e/L a n d U t i l i z a t i o n. V o l. 2 0 , N o. 2 , M a r c h/
April 1979 .
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D i s e a s e s S u r v e i l l a n c e, 1 9 7 1 - 1 9 7 5 . Center for Disease
C o n t r o l , A t l a n t a , G e o r g i a 3 0 3 3 3. I s s u e d J a n u a r y 1 9 7 7 .
7 -4 4
4. U.S. Public Health Service. "Shigella Surveillance , Annual
Summary 1976. " Center for Disease Control , Atlanta , Georgia
30333. Issued October 1977.
5. U . S. Public Health Service. Salmonella Survei 1 lance ,
Annual Summary 1977. Center for Disease Control , Atlanta,
Georgia 30333. Issued March 1979.
6. U.S . P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e. Intestinal Parasite
Surveillance , Annual Summary 19 7j5 . Center for Disease
Control , Atlanta , Georgia 30333. Issued August 1977.
7. U . S . P u b l i c H e a l t h S e r v i c e. "1ntestinal Parasite
Surveillance , Annual Summary 1977. " Center for Disease
Control , Atlanta , Georgia 30333 , Issued September 1978.
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of Williamsburg Conference on Management of Wastewater
Residuals , Williamsburg , Virginia , November 13 14 , 1975. -
U.S. Science Foundation , Washington D.C. 20550 , RANN AEN -
9.
-
Metcalf , T.G.
-
74 08082 , P 30.
" Role of Viruses in Management of Environ -
mental Risks " .Proceedings of Williamsburg Conference on
Management of Wastewater Residuals , Williamsburg , Virginia ,
November 1975. U.S. National Science Foundation , Washington
D.C. 20550. RANN AEN 74 08082 p. 53.
- -
10. Moore , B.F • B.P. Sagik , and C.A. Sorber. " An Assessment of
/
12.
Maryland 20852. P 142.
-
Fenger , B . , O. Krogh , K . Krongaard , and E . L u n d , "A
Chemical , Bacteriological , and Virological Study of Two
Small Biological Treatment Plant. " Fifth Meeting of the
North West European Microbiological Group. Bergen , Norway
1973.
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Infection Hazard of Wastewater Sludge." Radiation for a
Clean Environment , Symposium Proceeding . International
Atomic Energy Agency , Vienna. 1975.
14. Lund , E. "Public Health Aspects of Wastewater Treatment. "
Radiation for a Clean Environment , Symposium Proceeding.
International Atomic Energy Agency. Vienna. 1975.
-
7 45
ctBS8tt S&bt
*
-
maw IJUJ 1 1inui m a i a•
, Inc.
^
Information Transfer
Rockville , Maryland , 20852. P * 138.
19. Ohara , G.T. and J . E. Colbaugh.
" A Summary of Observations
in Thermophilic Digester Operations." Proceedings of the
1975 National Conference on Municipal Sludge Management
and Disposal , Anaheim , California , August 18 20 , 1975. -
Information Transfer , Inc. , Rockville , Maryland 20852.
20 .
-
P 218.
Ornevich , R.F. and J .E. Smith , Jr. " Pathogen Reduction in
the Thermophilic Aerobic Digestion Process. " Proceedings
of the 48 th Water Pollution Control Federation Conference ,
Miami Beach , Florida. October 1975.
21 . Theis , J.H ., V. Bolton , and D.R. Storm. "Helminth Ova in
Soil and Sludge from Twelve U.S. Urban Areas. " Journal
Water Pollution Control Federation.
1978.
Vol. 50 , P 2485
-
22 . USEPA . Agricultural Benefits and Environmental Changes
Resulting from the Use of Digested Sludges on Field Crops.
an Interim Report on a Solid Waste Demonstration Project.
Office of Research and Development , Cincinnati , Ohio 45268.
Report SW 30d. 1971.
-
23. Sacramento Area Consultants . Sewage Sludge Management
Program Final Report , Volume 6 Miscellaneous Use Deterinina-
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Pollution Control— Federation
i an ~
»- - •»
. Vol. 46 , P * 113. 1974.
miiiii ^ ii yiiTff iriwi "i iiri" 1
•
——
v ,“
25. Data from B.E.F. Unit of General Signal , West Warwick , Rhode
Island 02893. Personal Communication from D.L. Moffat.
January 2 , 1979.
7 46-
26. G e r b a , C .P . , C . W a l l i s , a n d J . L . M e 1 n i c k . "Fate of
W a s t e w a t e r B a c t e r i a a n d V i r u s e s i n S o i l. " Journal
I r r i g a t i o n and D r a i n a g e Division. A S C E. p. 1 5 2. September
1 9 7 5.
2 7. P a r s o n s, D • / C. B r o w n l e e, D. W e l t e r, A. M a u e r, E. H a u g h t o n,
L. K o r n d e r , a n d M . S e l z a k. Health Aspects of Sewage
E f f l u e n t I r r i g a t i o n. P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l B r a n c h , B r i t i s h
C o l u m b i a W a t e r R e s o u r c e S e r v i c e, D e p a r t m e n t o f L a n d s ,
F o r e s t s a n d W a t e r R e s o u r c e s. V i c t o r i a, British C o l u m b i a.
1 9 7 5.
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F e r t i l i z i n g o f G r a s s l a n d with S e w a g e S l u d g e." Z e n t r a b b l a t t
B a k t e r i o l i o g i e Parasitenkunde. Infektious Krankheiten a n d
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M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2. P 1 2 5 .
-
3 0. R o e d i g e r, H. "T h e T e c h n i q u e s o f S e w a g e S l u d g e Pasteuriza-
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-
t o D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
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3 2. W a r d , R.L. a n d J . R. B r a n d o n. " E f f e c t o n H e a t o n P a t h o g e n i c
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.
communication f r o m J.R N i c h o l s o n. J u l y 1 9 7 9.
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1 9 6 3.
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7 -4 7
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3 8. .
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Works . .
V o l 1 2 4, p 7 6. .
1977 .
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" P a t h o g e n I n a c t i v a t i o n D u r i n g S l u d g e C o m p o s t i n g ."
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0 2 1 3 9. P e r s o n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m D.N. S h a h. M a y 1 9 7 9.
4 3. S i e m e n s Medical L a b o r a t o r y I n c. W a l n u t C r e e k , California
9 4 5 9 6. P e r s o n a l communicaiton f r o m W e r n e r H a a s. January
1 9 7 9.
4 4. F a r r e l l, J . B . "H i g h E n e r g y Radiation in S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t --
S t a t u s a n d P r o s p e c t s." Proceedings of the National
C o n f e r e n c e on M u n i c i p a l S l u d ge M a n a g e m e n t and Disposal,
Anaheim , A u g u s t 1 8- 2 0 , 1 9 7 5. Information T r a n s f e r I n c • t
Rockville, M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2.
4 5. W i z i g m a n n, I. a n d F. W u e r s c h i n g . " E x p e r i e n c e W i t h a P i l o t
P l a n t f o r t h e I r r a d i a t i o n o f S e w a g e S l u d g e: B a c t e r i o l o g i c a l
a n d P a r a s i t o l o g i c a l S t u d i e s A f t e r I r r a d i a t i o n." Radiation
f o r a C l e a n E n v i r o n m e n t , S y m p o s i u m P r o c e e d i n g s. I n t e r-
national Atomic E n e r g y A g e n c y . Vienna. 1 9 7 5.
4 6. .
A h l s t r o m , S.B. a n d H E. M c G u i r e. A n E c o n o m i c C o m p a r i s o n o f
Sludge Irradiation and Alternative Methods of Municipal
Sludge Treatment . Battelle Northwest Laboratories .
Richland , W a s h i n g t o n 9 9 3 5 2. P N L- 2 4 3 2/U C- 2 3 .
November 1977 .
7- 4 8
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
Chapter 8 . Conditioning
September 1979
CHAPTER 8
CONDITIONING
8.1 Introduction
Conditioning involves t h e biological, chemical, a n d /o r physical
treatment of a sludge stream t o enhance water removal, In
addition , some conditioning p r o c e s s e s a l s o disinfect w a s t e w a t e r
s o l i d s, a f f e c t w a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s o d o r s, a l t e r t h e w a s t e w a t e r
solids p h y s i c a l l y , p r o v i d e limited solids destruction o r
addition , a n d improve solids recovery.
W a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s a r e c o m p o s e d o f s c r e e n i n g s , g r i t, s c u m a n d
w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s. Wastewater sludges consist of primary ,
s e c o n d a r y , a n d /o r c h e m i c a l s o l i d s w i t h v a r i o u s o r g a n i c a n d
inorganic particles of mixed s i z e s ; t h e s l u d g e s each h a v e various
i n t e r n a l w a t e r c o n t e n t s, d e g r e e s o f h y d r a t i o n, a n d s u r f a c e
chemistry. Sludge characteristics that affect thickening or
dewatering a n d f o r which conditioning is employed are particle
size and distribution, surface c h a r g e and d e g r e e of hydration,
a n d particle interaction .
8 -1
GASEOUS EFFLUENT
FLOW RATI
AMMONIA
VOLATILE ORGANIC SUBSTANCES
FILTRATE OR
SOLIDS FEED CONCENTRATE STREAM
THICKENING
FLOW RATE CONDITIONING
SUSPENDED SOLIDS OR FLOW RATE
# DEWATERING
B0D&, -
P04 P
PROCESS PROCESS t
SUSPENDED SOLIDS
t
REFRACTORY ORGANICS
THICKENED OR DEWATERED
50L1DS
FLOW RATE
SOLIDS OONTiNT
FIGURE 8“1
TABLE 8- 1
Polyelectrolyte
conditioning Thermal conditioning
^-
solids capture BODj., COD and NH N. Improve
susnended solids capture
Effects on underflow May increase Will significantly increase
concentration
Effects on manpower Little to none Requires higher skilled operators
and strong preventive maintenance
program
8- 2
8 . 3 .1 . 1 Particle Size and Distribution
10 i i
ANGSTROM
I 1I o5 I 8s
I
UNITS
I l< I;
i if I i
I 3
FINE COARSE
CLAY SILT SAND SAND GRAVEL
FIGURE 8- 2
-
8 3
8 . 3 .1 . 2 Surface Charge and Degree of Hydration
F o r t h e m o s t p a r t , s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s r e p e l, r a t h e r t h a n a t t r a c t
o n e a n o t h e r. T h i s r e p u l s i o n, o r s t a b i l i t y , m a y b e d u e t o
h y d r a t i o n o r e l e c t r i c a l e f f e c t s. W i t h h y d r a t i o n , a l a y e r o r
l a y e r s o f w a t e r bind t o t h e p a r t i c l e s u r f a c e, p r o v i d i n g a b u f f e r ,
w h i c h p r e v e n t s c l o s e p a r t i c l e a p p r o a c h . I n a d d i t i o n, s e w a g e
solids are negatively charged and thus tend to be mutually
r e p u l s i v e. Conditioning is used to overcome the effects of
h y d r a t i o n a n d electrostatic r e p u l s i o n.
C o n d i t i o n i n g is a t w o-s t e p p r o c e s s c o n s i s t i n g o f destabilization
a n d flocculation. I n d e s t a b i l i z a t i o n, t h e s u r f a c e characteris-
tics of the particles are altered so that they will adhere to one
a n o t h e r. T h i s d e s i r a b l e c h a n g e is b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h t h e u s e
o f n a t u r a l p o l y m e r i c material e x c r e t e d by t h e activated s l u d g e
o r g a n i s m , s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c p o l y m e r, o r inorganic m e t a l s a l t s.
F l o c c u l a t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s o f p r o v i d i n g c o n t a c t o p p o r t u n i t i e s,
b y m e a n s o f mild a g i t a t i o n, s o t h e destabilized p a r t i c l e s m a y
c o m e t o g e t h e r.
Destabilization e i t h e r w i t h s y n t h e t i c o r g a n i c p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e o r
w i t h i n o r g a n i c m e t a l s a l t is r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p l a n t
o p e r a t o r , b u t it r e p r e s e n t s a n i n c r e a s e in o p e r a t i n g c o s t.
The degree to which natural flocculation is available is
difficult to predict since it is dependent on the type of
activated s l u d g e o r t h e a t t a c h e d -g r o w t h b i o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s t h a t
h a s b e e n d e s i g n e d i n t o t h e p l a n t.
8 . 3. 2 Physical Factors
T h e a m o u n t o f c o n d i t i o n i n g r e q u i r e d f o r s l u d g e s is d e p e n d e n t o n
t h e p r o c e s s i n g conditions t o w h i c h t h e s l u d g e h a s b e e n s u b j e c t e d
a n d o n t h e mechanics o f t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o c e s s a v a i l a b l e.
8- 4
OVERFLOW INFLOW
A
x
SEDIMENTATION ZONE E | (J3
cn LLI
X
z
<
H
THICKENING ZONE
UNDERFLOW
.
C| INFLOW SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
cb • LOWEST CONCENTRATION! AT WHICH fLOCCULANT SUSPENSION IS IN
THE FORM OF POROUS MEDIUM
Cu - UNDERFLOW CONCENTRATION FROM GRAVITY THICKENER
FIGURE 8- 3
8- 5
In order to minimize floe shearing , mixing should provide just
enough energy to disperse the conditioner throughout the sludge.
In dewatering applications , consideration should be given to
providing individual conditioning for each dewatering unit, since
it is not always economical to provide one common conditioning
unit for several dewatering units , Problems can arise in
balancing the flow rates of the various streams when starting
up or shutting down individual units , The location of the
conditioning unit relative to each dewatering device requires
optimization.
8.4.1 Introduction
Inorganic chemical conditioning is associated principally with
mechanical sludge dewatering , and vacuum filtration is the
most common application. The chemicals normally used in the
conditioning of municipal wastewater sludges are lime and ferric
chloride, although ferrous sulfate has also been used.
Ferric chloride is added first, It hydroylzes in water, forming
positively charged soluble iron complexes which neutralize the
negatively charge sludge solids , thus causing them to aggregate.
Ferric chloride also reacts with the bicarbonate alkalinity in
the sludge to form hydroxides that act as flocculants. The
following equation shows the reaction of ferric chloride with
bicarbonate alkalinity:
-
8 6
from 1 5 0 t o 5 5 0 p o u n d s per t o n ( 7 5 t o 277 k g /t ) o f d r y s l u d g e
solids fed. T a b l e 8- 2 lists typical ferric chloride a n d lime
d o s a g e s f o r various s l u d g e s.
TABLE 8- 2
Recessed plate
Vacuum filter pressure filters
Sludge type FgC
13 CaO FeCl3 CaO
Raw primary 40- 80 160- 200 80- 120 220- 280
Raw waste- activated sludge ( WAS ) - air 120- 200 0- 320 140 - 200 400- 500
Raw ( primary + trickling filter ) 40- 80 180- 240
Raw ( primary + WAS ) 50- 120 180- 320
Raw ( primary + WAS + septic ) 50- 80 240- 300
Raw ( primary + WAS + lime ) 30- 50 none
Elutriated anaerobically digested
primary 50- 80 0- 100
primary + WAS ( air ) 60- 120 0- 150
Thermal conditioned sludges none none none none
Anaerobically digested sludges
primary 60- 100 200- 260
primary + trickling filter 80- 120 250- 350
primary + WAS ( air ) 60- 120 300-420 80- 200 220- 600
aAll values shown are for pounds of either FeCl.. or CaO per ton of dry solids pumped
to the dewatering unit.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
8 . 4.3 Availability
Ferric chloride , t h e m o s t w i d e l y u s e d p o l y v a l e n t m e t a l s a l t
conditioner, is available in d r y o r liquid f o r m, with the liquid
form b e i n g t h e m o s t common. I n the p a s t , m o s t ferric chloride
h a s b e e n m a d e f r o m s c r a p m e t a l a n d chlorine , b u t d u r i n g t h e
p a s t d e c a d e , m u c h l a r g e r q u a n t i t i e s h a v e b e e n m a d e available
t h r o u g h conversion of w a s t e acids from large industrial pigment
p r o d u c e r s. I t is supplied a s either a 3 0 o r 4 0 p e r c e n t by weight
solution.
8-7
Liquid f e r r o u s s u l f a t e , a b y - p r o d u c t o f c e r t a i n industrial
p r o c e s s e s, i s n o t g e n e r a l l y available in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s, If
availability i s n o t a t issue a n d t e s t i n g p r o v e s it c a p a b l e o f
c o n d i t i o n i n g t h e s l u d g e , l i q u i d ferrous s u l f a t e c a n be u s e d l i k e
ferric chloride.
8 . 4.4 S t o r a g e , P r e p a r a t i o n, a n d A p p l i c a t i o n E q u i p m e n t
There have been numerous problems such as lime scaling and FeCl3
c o r r o s i o n with in-p l a n t s t o r a g e, p r e p a r a t i o n, a n d a p p l i c a t i o n o f
b o t h lime and f e r r i c chloride. T w o excellent references d e a l
with lime p r o b l e m s a n d h o w t o s o l v e t h e m ( 1 7 , 1 8 ). Information o n
ferric c h l o r i d e c a n b e f o u n d in U S E P A ' s P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l f o r
S u s p e n d e d S o l i d s R e m o v a l ( 1 5 ).
8 . 4. 5 Design Example
A d e s i g n e r h a s c a l c u l a t e d t h a t t h e r o t a r y d r u m, c l o t h b e l t ,
vacuum f i l t e r t h a t w i l l b e utilized a t t h e p l a n t, m u s t b e c a p a b l e
of dewatering a maximum of 600 pounds ( 272 kg ) per hour of
s l u d g e. T h e s l u d g e will be a mixture of 4 0 p e r c e n t p r i m a r y a n d
6 0 p e r c e n t w a s t e-activated s l u d g e, which will b e a n a e r o b i c a l l y
d i g e s t e d. T h e v a c u u m f i l t e r w i l l o p e r a t e s e v e n h o u r s p e r d a y ,
f i v e d a y s p e r w e e k.
T o d e s i g n f o r a m a r g i n o f s a f e t y i n t h e chemical f e e d e q u i p m e n t,
t h e d e s i g n e r h a s u s e d t h e h i g h e r v a l u e s s h o w n i n T a b l e 8 - 2.
C h e m i c a l f e e d e r s s h o u l d b e c a p a b l e of a d d i n g 1 2 0 p o u n d s p e r t o n
( 6 0 k g /t ) o f F e C l 3 a n d 4 2 0 p o u n d s p e r t o n ( 2 1 0 k g /t ) o f C a O.
Maximum d a i l y a m o u n t o f s l u d g e t o b e d e w a t e r e d is:
Maximum a m o u n t o f F e C l 3 r e q u i r e d p e r d a y i s:
-
8 8
..
“'•“SfsaBi KM
2 5 2 l b F e C l3 „ 1 gallon of product
day 4 . 7 2 l b F e C l3 53.4 gallons of solution per day
( 2 0 2 1/d a y )
M a x i m u m a m o u n t o f C a O r e q u i r e d p e r d a y li s :
4" , 2 0 0 l b s l u d g e 4 2 0 l b CaO
d- a y
i X
2 , 000 l b s l u d g e = 8 8 2 l b C a O p e r d a y ( 4 0 0 k g /d a y )
8 8 2 l b CaO
day
x
_
lb pebble quicklime
0 . 9 l b CaO = 980 l b pebble quicklime per day
( 4 5 k g/d a y )
-
Figure 8 4 shows the relationship between construction costs
of ferric chloride storage and feed f a c i l i t i e s and installed
capacity . For example, if a designer needed t o feed 100 pounds
( 45.4 kg ) per hour of f e r r i c chloride the estimated cost would be
$ 330 , 000 . Since cost are given in June 1975 dollars , the cost
must be adjusted to the proper time period , Costs for Figure 8 4 -
are estimated on the basis of l i q u i d ferric chloride use .
Chemical feed e q u i p m e n t was sized f o r a p e ak feed rate of twice
the average, At l e a s t 15 days of storage was provided a t the
average feed rate, Piping and buildings provided to house the
feeding e q u i p m e n t a r e included .
8-9
1,000,000
g
8
7
in 6
o> 5
0)
4
c
3
C/i
CD 2
o
T)
CO
100,000
co 9
O 8
o 7
Z 6
o 5
a 4
D
QC 3
h-
CO
Z 2
O
CJ
10,000 1 I ! I I l M l I i l l I IJJ
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10, 000
FIGURE 8- 4
CAPITAL COST OF FERRIC CHLORIDE STORAGE AND
FEEDING FACILITIES ( 22 )
8-1 0
1 ,000,000
9
8
7
LO 6
r^.
05 5
0) 4
c
3 3
in
CTJ 2
O
~D
tt>
H 100,000
co 9
O 8
o 7
2 6
O 5
f-
CJ 4
D
cr 3
h-
co
2 2
O
CJ
10,000
10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 789 10,000
4
3
2
06
2
O
cr
O
LL
1,000
(/)
DO
9 i
8 '
ZD 7 -
O 6
I
Z 5
< 4
3
<
3
Z 2
Z
<
100 I
10 2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910,000
FIGURE 8- 6
FERRIC CHLORIDE STORAGE AND FEEDING OPERATING
AND MAINTENANCE WORK- HOUR REQUIREMENTS (22 )
8 -11
as man- hours per pound of chemicals fed to the process. Metering
pump operations and maintenance is estimated at five minutes per
pump per shift.
2 *—
100,000
e
a
> 7
-C
i
6
6
4
a 3
UJ
CC
D 2
o
UJ
CC
>
(J 10,000
QC B
UJ
z 7
UJ 6
-J 6
< 4
U
Q:
h- 3
CJ
UJ
J
UJ 7 i-
.
1,000 I I I N I 1 1 1
_ _
I
FIGURE 8- 7
ZE 2
00
o
QC 10,000
o
LL
C/5 /
QC 6
=>
O
5
I 4
Z
< 3
2
2
<
=Z>
Z
< 1,000
100 2 3 4 5 67 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89100,000
FIGURE 8- 8
8 -12
Figure 8 -7 indicates annual electric power requirements for a
ferric chloride chemical feed system.
Annual maintenance material costs are typically 3 to 5 percent of
the total chemical feed system equipment cost.
Figure 8-8 indicates man- hours for operation and maintenance as a
function of pounds of lime fed per hour. The curve consists of
lime unloading requirements and labor related to operation and
maintenance of the slaking and feeding equipment. These require-
ments are summarized as follows: slaker — one hour per eight- hour
shift per slaker in use ; feeder — ten minutes per hour per feeder ;
slurry pot- feed line ( for slaked lime )--four hours per week.
7
6
5
4 i PUMPED FEED OF
SLAKED LIME
3
PUMPED FEED OF GRAVITY FEED OF
2 QUICKLIME QUICKLIME
x 100,000
5 8
9 7 GRAVITY FEED
7
Z 6 OF SLAKED LIME
o 5 /
h- 4
CL
2
D 3 /
CO
z 2
O
o X
cc
LU
5 io,ooo
o
CL
9
8 X /
-<J5 7
6
=
Z 5
Z 4
<
3
1,000
100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,0 0 0 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 100,000
FIGURE 8- 9
8-13
Figure 8-9 shows annual electric power requirements for
a lime feed system, The major components and the values
u s e d in t h e c u r v e s , a l l e x p r e s s e d kilowatts p e r h o u r p e r
1,000 p o u n d s ( 454 k g ) o f lime f e d a r e: slakers--1.6 t o 0.8 ; bin
a c t i v a t o r s -- 2 . 7 t o 0 . 3 6 ; g r i t c o n v e y o r s-- 0 . 4 5 t o 0 . 0 6 ; d u s t
collection f a n s — 0 . 0 4 t o 0 . 0 2 ; slurry mixers--0.027 t o 0 . 0 2 0 ;
slurry feed p u m p s--2 . 2 t o 1.4.
8.5.1 Introduction
During t h e p a s t decade, important advances have been made in t h e
m a n u f a c t u r e o f p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s f o r u s e in w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e
t r e a t m e n t. P o l y e 1 e c t r o l y t e s a r e n o w w i d e l y u s e d in s l u d g e
conditioning and a s indicated in T a b l e 8 -3, a l a r g e variety are
available. I t is important t o understand t h a t these materials
differ g r e a t l y in chemical composition, functional effectiveness,
and c o s t- effectiveness.
TABLE 8- 3
SUPPLIERS OF POLYELECTROLYTES
Number Number
of grades of grades
Company and tynes Company and types
8.5.2 B a c k g r o u n d o n Polyelectrolytes
P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s are l o n g c h a i n , w a t e r s o l u b l e , s p e c i a l t y
c h e m i c a l s. They can be either completely synthesized from
individual m o nomers, or they can be made by the chemical
8 -1 4
"•xmsiiZc
' *
I
CH 2 - CH • CH 2 - CH CH 2 - CH
I I
I C = 0 C = 0 C = 0
/ / /
NH 2 NH 2 NH 2
FIGURE 8- 10
8-1 5
Cationic polyelectrolytes are available as dry powders o r
1 i q u i d s. T h e l i q u i d s c o m e a s w a t e r s o l u t i o n s o r e m u l s i o n s , T h e
s h e l f l i f e o f t h e d r y p o w d e r s is u s u a l l y s e v e r a l y e a r s , w h e r e a s
most of the liquids have shelf lives of two to six months and
m u s t b e p r o t e c t e d f r o m wide ambient t e m p e r a t u r e variations i n
s t o r a g e. Representative dry cationic polyelectrolytes are
described i n T a b l e 8 -4. T h i s t a b l e d o e s n o t l i s t t h e m y r i a d o f
available types but does show some of the differences in the
m a t e r i a l s. T h e o r i g i n a l d r y materials introduced i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s
were of relatively low cationic functionality or positive
c h a r g e a n d h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t, They were produced for the
c o n d i t i o n i n g o f p r i m a r y s l u d g e s o r e a s y - t o- c o n d i t i o n m i x e d
s l u d g e s. T h e incentive t o p r o d u c e p o l y m e r s o f h i g h e r p o s i t i v e
c h a r g e r e s u l t e d l a r g e l y f r o m e f f o r t s t o c o p e w i t h mixed s l u d g e s
c o n t a i n i n g l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f biomass.
TABLE 8- 4
Polyacrylamide copolymer
Polyacrylamide copolymer
Low
Medium
Very high
High
0.5
2
-- 101 0
Polyacrylamide copolymer
Polyamine homopolymer
High
Complete
Medium high
High
2
2
-- 11 00
R e l a t i v e l y l o w m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t l i q u i d cationics w i t h a 3 0 t o
5 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s c o n t e n t w e r e a l s o a v a i l a b l e i n t h e 1 9 6 0 s.
T h e y w e r e, h o w e v e r , l a r g e l y d i s p l a c e d b y t h e h i g h e r c a t i o n i c
f u n c t i o n a l i t y , h i g h m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t a n d n e w e r, l e s s c o s t l y
l i q u i d c a t i o n i c s. The various liquid cationics, in either
dissolved or emulsion form, are described in representative
f a s h i o n o n l y , i n T a b l e 8-5. T h e s e l i q u i d cationics e l i m i n a t e t h e
dustiness i n h e r e n t in s o m e d r y p o w d e r s b u t a l s o r e q u i r e m u c h m o r e
s t o r a g e s p a c e. T h e selection of a d r y , l i q u i d , o r emulsion f o r m
material u s u a l l y d e p e n d s o n a c o m p a r i s o n o f c o s t- effectiveness,
e a s e o f h a n d l i n g , a n d s t o r a g e r e q u i r e m e n t s.
TABLE 8- 5
8 -1 6
8.5.2 . 2 Structure in Solution
O r g a n i c polyelectrolytes dissolve in w a t e r t o f o r m solutions o f
v a r y i n g viscosity . T h e r e s u l t i n g v i s c o s i t y d e p e n d s o n t h e i r
m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t and d e g r e e o f ionic c h a r g e , At infinite
d i l u t i o n, t h e m o l e c u l e a s s u m e s t h e f o r m o f a n e x t e n d e d r o d
because of the r e p u l s i v e effect of t h e adjacent - charged sites
a l o n g t h e length o f t h e p o l y m e r chain , A t normal concentrations
t h e long thread - like c h a r g e d cationic polyelectrolyte a s s u m e s the
s h a p e o f a random coil, a s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 8 -1 1. This simplified
d r a w i n g , h o w e v e r , neither s h o w s t h e t r e m e n d o u s l e n g t h o f t h e
polymeric molecular chain n o r does it illustrate t h e very l a r g e
n u m b e r of active p o l y m e r chains t h a t a r e available in a p o l y m e r
solution. I t h a s been estimated t h a t a d o s a g e of 0 . 2 m g/1 o f
p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e h a v i n g a m o l e c u l a r w e i g h t o f 1 0 0, 0 0 0 w o u l d
provide 1 2 0 trillion active chains p e r liter of w a t e r t r e a t e d.
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FIGURE 8- 11
8 . 5.2.3 H o w P o l y e l e c t r o l y t e Conditioning W o r k s
• Desorption of b o u n d surface w a t e r.
8-1 7
• Charge neutralization.
8 18-
REACTION 1
INITIAL ADSORPTION AT THE OPTIMUM POLYMER DOSAGE
REACTION 2
FLOC FORMATION
FLOCCULATION
(PERIKINETIC OR
DESTABILIZED PARTICLES ORTHOKINETIC ) FLOC PARTICLE
REACTION 3
SECONDARY ADSORPTION OF POLYMER
REACTION 4
INITIAL ADSORPTION EXCESS
POLYMER DOSAGE
V
7 \ STABLE PARTICLE
EXCESS POLYMERS PARTICLE ( NO VACANT SITES)
REACTION 5
RUPTURE OF FLOC
INTENSE OR
PROLONGED FLOC
FLOC PARTICLE AGITATION FRAGMENTS
REACTION 6
SECONDARY ADSORPTION OF POLYMER
FIGURE 8- 12
8 -19
8 . 5.3 . 3 C e n t r i f u g a l Thickening
C e n t r i f u g a l t h i c k e n i n g i n c l u d e s t h i c k e n i n g b y d i s c n o z z 1 e,
i m p e r f o r a t e b a s k e t , a n d s o l i d b o w l d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e s.
The disc nozzle unit does not utilize polyelectrolyte sludge
conditioning , as it depends solely on centrifugal force
(G 3 , 0 0 0 t o 5 ,0 0 0 ) t o a c h i e v e solids- 1 i q u i d s e p a r a t i o n, The
imperforate basket centrifuge may or may not use polyelectrolyte
a d d i t i o n. I f p o l y m e r i s a d d e d , it i s in t h e r a n g e o f o n e t o
three pounds of dry polymer per ton of feed solids ( 0.5 to
1.5 k g /t ). T h i s addition a l l o w s higher h y d r a u l i c f e e d r a t e s and
sometimes g i v e s b e t t e r solids r e c o v e r y , I t d o e s n o t c h a n g e t h e
thickened solids concentration.
Solid bowl decanter centrifuges normally require as much as
2 0 p o u n d s o f d r y p o l y m e r p e r t o n o f f e e d s o l i d s ( 1 0 k g /t ) f o r
thickening o f a s l u d g e, e s p e c i a l l y a w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e, A
new solid bowl unit has been developed for both thickening
w a s t e- activated s l u d g e a n d o b t a i n i n g a n 8 5 t o 9 5 p e r c e n t s o l i d s
c a p t u r e with o n l y 0 t o 6 p o u n d s o f d r y p o l y m e r p e r t o n o f f e e d
solids ( 0 t o 3 k g /t ).
When po lyelectrolyte conditioning is used with centrifugal
t h i c k e n i n g o f s l u d g e, s e v e r a l p o i n t s o f a d d i t i o n s h o u l d b e
p r o v i d e d. The optimum point of addition is influenced by
d i f f e r e n c e s i n p o l y m e r c h a r g e d e n s i t i e s, r e q u i r e d p o l y m e r
s l u d g e reaction t i m e s , a n d s l u d g e characteristics. Recommended
p o i n t s o f a d d i t i o n a r e:
• D i r e c t l y b e f o r e t h e inlet s i d e o f t h e s l u d g e f e e d p u m p.
• Immediately d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e s l u d g e feed p u m p.
• T o t h e c e n t r i f u g e s s l u d g e f e e d l i n e a n d j u s t b e f o r e its
connection t o t h e c e n t r i f u g e.
-
8 20
If dewatered sludge is to be used as a fuel for
incineration , p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s d o n o t l o w e r t h e f u e l
value.
T h e y reduce o p e r a t i o n a n d maintenance p r o b l e m s.
TABLE 8- 6
Raw primary
Waste-activated
0.5
8
-- 1.0
15
Anaerobically digested primary 1.5 - 4
Primary plus trickling filter 2.5 - 5
-
Primary plus air waste activated 4 - 10
Primary plus oxygen waste-activated
Anaerobically digested ( primary plus air
4 - 8
-
waste activated ) 5 - 12
-
"The handling of polymer conditioned sludge prior to pressing
has been identified as important , Complete initial mixing of
the sludge and polymer is crucial and subsequent handling should
involve a minimum of shear , It has been proposed that mixing
be accomplished by injecting the polymer into the suction side
of a positive displacement pump or the discharge side of a
centrifugal pump. Mills have indicated the existence of an
optimum flocculation time between conditioning and pressing , One
mill reports that at the discharge of the press feed pump , the
floe is sufficiently sheared to render it very difficult to
dewater but that in the remaining 30 feet of pipe to the press,
virtually complete reflocculation occurs, At the other extreme,
several instances of intermittent sludge septicity demonstrated
-
8 22
that extended s l u d g e s t o r a g e can be detrimental." Caution should
b e e x e r c i s e d in e x t r a p o l a t i n g p a p e r mill d a t a t o m u n i c i p a l
s l u d g e.
O p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e i n d i c a t e s t h a t a l l belt p r e s s e s r e q u i r e
t h e u s e o f p o l y e 1 e c t r o l y t e c o n d i t i o n i n g t o m a k e t h e m w o r k.
C o m p a r e d t o other mechanical dewatering p r o c e s s e s, belt p r e s s e s
s e e m t o have t h e g r e a t e s t need for optimizing t h e p o l y m e r d o s a g e
a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n c o m i n g s l u d g e ' s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( 2 7 ).
Underconditioning results in inadequate dewatering in t h e initial
drainage section( s ), causing either extrusion of inadequately
d r a i n e d s o l i d s f r o m t h e p r e s s s e c t i o n ( s ) , o r in e x t r e m e
instances , a n uncontrolled overflow o f sludge from t h e drainage
section( s ). Underconditioned biological solids c a n a l s o blind o r
c l o g t h e fine mesh filter media. Overconditioning c a n also be a
p r o b l e m. T o o much polyelectrolyte c a n cause cake doctoring o r
removal difficulties and a g g r a v a t e media- blinding p r o b l e m s , T h e
t y p e of polymer a l s o influences t h e t e n d e n c y o f a media t o blind.
I n addition , overflocculated s l u d g e may drain s o rapidly that
t h e solids are not distributed across t h e media.
TABLE 8- 7
Raw primary 4 - 8
Primary plus trickling filter 3 - 10
Primary plus waste-activated (air ) 4 - 10
--
Waste activated (air ) 8
8
-- 12
12
Waste activated (oxygen)
Aerobically digested ( primary plus waste
activated {air})
- 4 - 10
Anaerobically digested primary 2 - 6
Anaerobically digested ( primary plus waste-
activated {air}) 3 - 9
8 -2 3
• = ONE OPERATING FACILITY
O
H
o
-
f
o
Q
o
a
cc
UJ
5
--
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O
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FIGURE 8- 13
.
8.5 4.5 Centrifuges
-
8 24
and solid bowl d e c a n t e r s , A l t h o u g h m a n y i m p e r f o r a t e basket
centrifuges d o not use polyelectrolytes for s l u d g e conditioning
prior t o dewatering , the addition of 1 t o 3 pounds of dry polymer
per ton of dry feed solids ( 0.5 to 1.5 kg /t ) can greatly reduce
overall operating cost , The reason for this reduction is that
basket centrifuges a r e used f o r dilute , difficult - t o- dewater
s l u d g e s such as aerobically d i g e s t e d , e x t e n d e d aeration , a n d
nitrification sludges, Since the cost of polymer is offset by
the reduction in operating time, a decision is normally made in
favor of adding polymer.
TABLE 8- 8
Raw primary 2 - 5
Raw primary plus WAS (air) 4 - 10
Thermal conditioned ( primary plus WAS
(air)) 3 - 5
Thermal conditioned (primary plus
trickling filter) 2 - 4
Anaerobically digested
Primary
Primary plus WAS (air)
6
7
-- 11 00
aData supplied by equipment manufacturers.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
8.5.6 C a s e History
8 - 25
sludge p e r y e a r, C o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e s l u d g e b e f o r e vacuum
filtration was with ferric chloride and lime until J u l y 1976.
T a b l e 8 -9 s u m m a r i z e s t h e s o l i d s h a n d l i n g s y s t e m s p e r f o r m a n c e
from 1 9 7 2-1 9 7 6.
TABLE 8- 9
PERFORMANCE OF SOLIDS HANDLING SYSTEM AT
BISSELL POINT , ST . LOUIS STP 1972- 1976 ( 29 )
Cost ,
Item Usage dollars/dry ton a ,b
Lime dosage , lb/dry ton *
3
352 6 .90
Ferric chloride dosage , lb/dry ton
Auxiliary fuel (natural gas), therms/
^ 64 5.09
dry ton *3 62 12.75
Total annual cost 34.74
Yield (average), lb/sq ft/hr 7.1
Solids content , percent 30
Volatile solids fraction , percent 42
1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 therm = 0.116 GJ ~
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
1 ton 0.907 t
• Lime c o a t i n g of filter c l o t h s a n d g r i d w o r k .
• C o n s t a n t c l e a n u p of lime spills.
G r e a s e Separation , T h e m i x i n g o f p r i m a r y t a n k s k i m m i n g s
w i t h t h e r a w s l u d g e c a u s e d blinding o f t h e f i l t e r c l o t h.
The large volume of skimmings also influenced the solids
c o n c e n t r a t i o n. T h e s k i m m i n g s did n o t u p s e t t h e f e r r i c
8- 2 6
chloride- a n d 1 ime- conditioned s l u d g e filters a s m u c h a s t h e y
did t h e p o l y m e r- c o n d i t i o n e d s l u d g e f i l t e r s , The solution
employed was to separate the skimmings and sludge and treat
e a c h s e p a r a t e l y . S k i m m i n g s w e r e d e w a t e r e d b y a modified g r i t
d e w a t e r i n g screw a n d t h e n f e d d i r e c t l y into t h e incinerator.
C l o t h- W a s h i n g E q u i p m e n t. For po ly e 1 e c t roly te s to be
e f f e c t i v e , it is m a n d a t o r y t h a t t h e f i l t e r c l o t h b e c l e a n e d
c o n t i n u o u s l y. The original filter spray water system
i n c l u d e d o n e s p r a y n o z z l e s t r a i n e r, When this strainer
had t o be cleaned , t h e unit had t o be s t o p p e d , To correct
t h e p r o b l e m , t h e o n e strainer w a s r e p l a c e d with a d u p l e x- t y p e
strainer which allowed switching of the strainers with
n o c h a n g e in t h e filter o p e r a t i o n.
M i s c e l l a n e o u s F i l t e r I m p r o v e m e n t s. S e v e r a l m o d i f i c a t i o n s
w e r e n e c e s s a r y t o i m p r o v e c a k e r e m o v a l f r o m t h e media, T h e
d o c t o r b l a d e s w e r e modified t o f i t t o g e t h e r a n d a g a i n s t t h e
c l o t h media. O p e r a t i n g w i t h p o l y m e r s w a s f o u n d b e s t a t l o w
vat levels. T o avoid loss of vacuum when running at low
l e v e l s, b r i d g e b l o c k s in t h e v a c u u m v a l v e w e r e installed t o
m o d i f y t h e p i c k u p z o n e.
O p e r a t o r Education , I t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o convince t h e p l a n t
o p e r a t o r s t h a t p o l y m e r u s a g e w o u l d b e beneficial t o t h e m.
An extensive educating process was conducted for several
m o n t h s i n f o r m i n g t h e o p e r a t o r s o f t h e benefits t h e y w o u l d
o b t a i n u s i n g p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s.
T h e c o n v e r s i o n w a s c o n s i d e r e d v e r y s u c c e s s f u l. T a b l e 8 -1 0
summarizes performance information for the solids handling
processes after implementation of the polye 1 ectrolytes
c o n d i t i o n i n g p r o c e s s f o r 1 9 7 7 - 1 9 7 8. Comparison of the
p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a in T a b l e s 8-9 a n d 8 -1 0 s h o w s t h a t t h e u s e o f
o r g a n i c p o l y m e r s in p l a c e o f i n o r g a n i c c o n d i t i o n e r s r e d u c e d
a u x i l i a r y f u e l r e q u i r e m e n t s b y 2 6 p e r c e n t a n d conditioner c o s t
b y 5 3 p e r c e n t. Overall annual cost per dry ton of solids was
r e d u c e d b y 5 6 p e r c e n t.
8 . 5.7 Cost
F i g u r e 8 -1 4 g i v e s c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s f o r p o l y m e r s t o r a g e a n d
feed facilities as a function of installed capacity , Cost
e s t i m a t e s w e r e b a s e d o n t h e use o f d r y p o l y m e r , Chemical f e e d
equipment was chosen specifically for a 0.25 percent stock
s o l u t i o n. P i p i n g a n d b u i l d i n g s t o h o u s e t h e f e e d i n g e q u i p m e n t
a n d s t o r e t h e b a g s w e r e included. F o r e x a m p l e, f o r a n installed
c a p a c i t y o f 1 0 p o u n d s ( 4 . 5 k g ) o f d r y p o l y m e r p e r h o u r, t h e
a p p r o x i m a t e J u n e 1 9 7 5 c o s t w a s $ 1 1 0 , 0 0 0. T h e c o s t w o u l d n e e d t o
b e a d j u s t e d t o t h e c u r r e n t d e s i g n p e r i o d.
8 -2 7
TABLE 8- 10
Cost ,
a,
Item Usage do1lars/dry ton b
b
Anionic dosage , lb/dry ton 0 . 34 0.42
Cationic dosage , lb/dry tonu
Auxiliary, fuel ( natural gas), therms/
^ 65 5.25
9
6
7
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£ 1
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-
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ID,«50 Li
2 3 4 S e 7% » 1 2 3 A 5 5 7 0 910 2 3 4 5 * 7B B
INSTALLED CAPACITY, lb Polymer /hr ( 1 lb = 0.454 kg)
FIGURE 8 14 “
-
8 28
8 . 5.7 . 2 Operation a n d Maintenance Cost
F i g u r e 8 -1 5 g i v e s m a n- h o u r s f o r o p e r a t i o n a n d m a i n t e n a n c e o f
a dry p o l y m e r feed s y s t e m as a function of p o u n d s o f chemicals
f e d p e r h o u r. U n l o a d i n g r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e 1 6 minutes f o r 1 0 -
t o 5 0-p o u n d ( 4.5 t o 22.6 kg ) b a g s. Mixing labor w a s estimated a t
t e n m a n- h o u r s p e r 1 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 4 5 3 . 5 k g ) o f p o l y m e r u n d e r a
^
w a s t e w a t e r f l o w o f 1 0 M G D ( 2 6 . 2 m /s ) a n d t h r e e h o u r s p e r
1 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 4 5 3 . 5 k g ) o f p o l y m e r f o r w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s o v e r
1 0 M G D ( 2 6 . 2 m 3 /s ). Operation and maintenance requirements
w e r e t a k e n a s 3 8 5 man- hours p e r y e a r p e r feeder.
3
£
2
<«
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GC
O 1,000
LL 9
a Df Y
C/5
tr 7
6
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x
4
< 3
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100 I I
0 3 4 6 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8910 3 4 5 6 18 fl IOC
F i g u r e 8 -1 6 g i v e s a n n u a l e l e c t r i c a l p o w e r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r
a polymer feed system, The graph was based on the use of
plunger metering p u m p s and 6 . 4 h p hour ( 4.7 k W h r ) f o r mixing o f
1 0 0 p o u n d s ( 45.4 k g ) o f p o l y m e r.
8-2 9
that improve dewatering of sludge include the solubilization of
i t s metallic constituents, i t s sorptive capabilities, and i t s
irregular particle size ( 31) .
The advantages and disadvantages
o f a d d i n g a s h f o r s l u d g e d e w a t e r i n g a r e g i v e n i n T a b l e 8 -1 1 .
Major advantages are lower chemical requirements and improved
cake release .
Major disadvantages are the addition of a sizable
quantity of inerts to the sludge cake and additional material
handling .
For installations where landfilling of sludge follows
mechanical dewatering by vacuum f i l t e r s o r f i l t e r presses, the
use of ash to improve the total solids content of the cake should
be evaluated .
I f incineration i s t o follow the dewatering s t e p,
other additives such as pulverized coal or waste pulp should
receive preferential considerations ( 32 34 ) - .
In the design of
incineration facilities , one of the main objectives i s to reduce
or eliminate auxiliary fuel demand .
This can be done by feeding
t h e d r i e s t s o l i d s c a k e p o s s i b l e t o t h e i n c i n e r a t o r a n d /o r
by enhancing the f u e l value of the sludge solids The addition .
of ash to the sludge assists the dewatering device in producing a
dry cake, but i t does nothing for the fuel value of the cake .
Ash has no heating value and, in fact , requires additional heat
input to raise its temperature .
5
_
£ 4
£ 3
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I3 fS 10,000
9
8
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5 * 4
o
CL 3
<
3 2
Z
<
1 ,000
0 2 3 4 6 6 7391 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 100
FIGURE 8- 16
A p i l o t- s c a l e v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n s t u d y h a s f o u n d p u l v e r i z e d c o a l
to be an excellent sludge conditioner for improved dewatering
(32) . The coal contributed the same benefits as ash and
increased the Btu content of the sludge solids Economic .
8- 3 0
a n a l y s i s s h o w e d i t t o b e c o s t- e f f e c t i v e w h e n c o m p a r e d t o t h e
addition of other supplemental fuels such as natural gas or
# 2 f u e l o i l. A f u l l-s c a l e s o l i d s h a n d l i n g s t u d y a t S t. P a u l,
M i n n e s o t a, d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a n existing s e v e n- h e a r t h w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e c a k e incinerator c o u l d b e f e d c o a l o r w o o d c h i p s with t h e
sludge cake to reduce consumption of natural gas or fuel oil
( 3 5 ). T h e p r o c e s s w a s found t o b e e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i a b l e a n d
practical only when a large quantity of natural gas or fuel oil
i s r e q u i r e d f o r s l u d g e c a k e incineration.
TABLE 8- 11
Advantages Disadvantages
Substantial increase in total cake Ash handling generates considerable dust
solids
Significant improvement in filtrate Ash fines build- up
quality
Excellent cake discharge Possible equipment abrasion problems
Elimination or significant reduction Increase in materials handling problems
in use of other conditioning agents For those installations with incineration ,
the addition of ash lowers the percent
volatile solids in the feed , Fuel usage
can therefore increase.
8 -3 1
Pennsylvania, in 1967 ( 4 0 ) .
Since then, over one hundred thermal
sludge conditioning installations have been built in the United
States .
R AW SLUDGE
REACTOR
GRINDER
*
r
POSITIVE
DISPLACEMENT
PUMP
s -
SLUDGE WATER
SLUDGE HEAT
EXCHANGER .
- STEAM
CONTROL
VALVE
BOILER TREATED
BOILER
OFF GAS WATER
DECANT OFF GAS
LIQUOR
SOLIDS
SEPERATION
*
DEWATERING
LIQUOR
PUMP CAKE
FIGURE 8- 17
8-3 2
RAW SLUDGE
COMPRESSED AIR
GRINDER REACTOR
P
SLUDGE -
POSITIVE SLUDGE HEAT STEAM
DISPLACEMENT EXCHANGER
PUMP
CONTROL
VALVE
1
BOILER TREATED
BOILER
OFF GAS WATER
DECANT
OFF GAS
LIQUOR
SOLIDS
i
SEPERATiON DEWATERING
PUMP CAKE
FIGURE 8- 18
• Except f o r s t r a i g h t w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e , t h e p r o c e s s
will produce a sludge with excellent dewatering
characteristics . Cake solids concentrations of
30 to 50 percent are obtained with mechanical dewatering
equipment .
8 -3 3
Processed sludge does not normally require chemical
conditioning to dewater well on mechanical equipment.
8-34
• Vacuum filter pump exhaust and vacuum filter hood
e x h a u s t.
• Air e x h a u s t e d
from t h e o p e r a t i o n s a n d h o p p e r
of any enclosed mechanical dewatering s y s t e m.
areas
8 . 7.2 . 2 L i q u i d Sidestreams
T h e C O D o f h e a t- t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r w a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the dissolved solids f o r a l l s l u d g e s under a l l p r o c e s s
conditions.
T h e o r g a n i c N c o n t e n t o f h e a t-t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r w a s
proportional to the dissolved solids, there being
o n e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r activated s l u d g e and o t h e r s f o r
trickling filter, primary p l u s activated , a n d digested
'
s l u d g e s.
In g e n e r a l , t h e r e f o r e , t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e l i q u o r is a
function of the t y p e of s l u d g e, feed volatile solids c o n t e n t ,
reaction time , and temperature, Without a pilot scale
investigation of p r o c e s s feasibility , it is difficult t o specify
design d a t a. T a b l e 8-1 2 gives r a n g e s f o r various constituents
that h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d f o r both the p r o c e s s with air addition
and t h e p r o c e s s without air addition t h a t conditioned s l u d g e s
h a v i n g 3 t o 6 p e r c e n t f e e d s o l i d s concentrations ( 4 1- 5 0 ).
T a b l e 8 -1 3 s u m m a r i z e s d a t a f r o m t h e l i t e r a t u r e o n f i l t r a t e
or centrate composition, Except for suspended solids, the
p a r a m e t e r s o f filtrate are similar if n o t e q u a l t o t h e d e c a n t
t a n k s u p e r n a t a n t.
8-3 5
TABLE 8- 12
--
Phosphorus0, mg/1 150 200 -
70 100 .
Total N , mg/1
Organic N , mg/1
650 1,000 -
700 1 , 700
100-1,000
Ammonia N , mg/1 400-1 , 700
_ 5.0-6.5 -
30 700
-e-
DH . . 5.0 6.4
Color 1,000-6,000 units 2 ,000 8 ,000
Metals -d
aMixture of 50 cercent orimary and 50 percent waste-activated at a feed solids
concentration between 3 to 6 percent.
^ Less than 20 percent of the COD is non- biodegradable.
CDepends on P of influent sludge.
.,
8 . 7.3 O p e r a t i o n s and C o s t
8 . 7.3 . 1 G e n e r a l Considerations
T h e r m a l s l u d g e c o n d i t i o n i n g h a s b e e n o p e r a t i n g in t h e United
S t a t e s f o r a b o u t t e n y e a r s. During t h a t time, over a hundred
f a c i l i t i e s h a v e b e e n built a n d m u c h h a s b e e n l e a r n e d f r o m
p a s t m i s t a k e s. F o l l o w i n g a r e c u r r e n t d e s i g n g u i d e l i n e s t h a t
m u s t be considered in t h e cost determinations f o r a basic t h e r m a l
s l u d g e-c o n d i t i o n i n g s y s t e m:
r e a c t o r ).
8-3 6
All potential sources of odor ( decant tank , dewatering
a r e a, v a c u u m f i l t e r e x h a u s t m u s t b e e n c l o s e d. I n
addition , a n air collection and treatment s y s t e m must be
provided.
8-3 7
TABLE 8- 13
raw primary
-
plus waste activated ) plus , media Filtrate SSa , mg/1
a
BOD5 , mg/1 = 10 ,000
= 5,000
C
Raw primary plus waste
activated
- Rotary vacuum filter cloth
media
Feed solids, percent = 6
Filtrate SS , mg/1 1 ,000
10
raw sludge
-
plus waste activated ) plus ceed 6 ,000 mg/1
e
Anaerobically digested primary Recessed diaphragm plate Feed solids, percent 14
-
plus oxygen waste activated and frame pressure filter Filtrate SS , mg/1 1, 400
Raw primary plus trickling Rotary vacuum filter cloth Feed solids3, percent = 18 52
filter sludge media Filtrate SS , mg/1 9 ,000
BOD5, mg/1 6 ,800
Raw primary plus waste
activated
- Centrifuge Feed solids, percent = 6
Filtrate SS = 3 ,000 mg/1
7- f
g
Raw primary plus waste
activated
- Centrifuge Feed solids , percent = 6
-
7-
Filtrate SS = 6 ,000 9 ,000 mg/1
Soluble BOD5, mg/1 = 4 ,200
Raw primary plus waste
activated
- Rotary vacuum filter cloth
media
BOD 5 , mg/1 = 7 ,300- 9,100 h
3
Average values.
8 -3 8
TABLE 8- 14
Period of operation
Less than 1 year 11 1
Between 1 to 2 years 15 6
Between 3 to 5 years 11 9
Over 5 years 20 3
.*-
i
8.8 Elutriation
8-39
F u l l-s c a l e r e s e a r c h ( 6 0-6 2 ) h a s s h o w n t h a t t h e solids p r o b l e m
c a n b e s o l v e d , a n d 9 0 t o 9 2 p e r c e n t c a p t u r e a c h i e v e d , with
t h e u s e o f p o l y m e r s. R e c o m m e n d e d c u r r e n t e l u t r i a t i o n d e s i g n
considerations a r e listed below :
Baffling s h o u l d be used t o p r e v e n t t a n k c u r r e n t s.
8.9 F r e e z e-T h a w
D e s t r o y s t h e sliminess of biological s l u d g e s.
I m p r o v e s d e w a t e r i n g characteristics a s measured by
sandbed a n d vacuum filter dewatering r a t e s.
M u s t occur s l o w l y t o b e effective .
8- 4 0
Although freeze conditioning h a s been s h o w n t o be beneficial , it
is expensive t o implement , This is because the system c a n n o t
utilize the heat generated by t h e fusion of the frozen sludge to
cool t h e refrigerant.
T o o v e r c o m e t h e a b o v e - mentioned p r o b l e m , p i l o t w o r k h a s b e e n
c o n d u c t e d o n d i r e c t f r e e z i n g ( 6 7 ). I n direct f r e e z i n g , t h e
liquefied refrigerant is v a p o r i z e d a n d dispersed t h r o u g h t h e
s l u d g e s l u r r y a t a controlled r a t e. I n T a b l e 8 -1 5 f s l u r r y
freezing ( direct mechanical method ) is c o m p a r e d t o solid freezing
( indirect freezing ) a n d several other treatment processes.
TABLE 8- 15
Supernatant and
Reduction filtrate quality
in sludge Sludge Cost/ton
Process COD percent solubilization pH Quality dry solids
Slurry freezing 35 Low -
7 8 Good -35
6 20
Solid freezing -
50 70 High -
7 7.5 Poor - 20
5
Anaerobic digestion 60- 70 High 6 7- Poor - 30
15
Aerobic digestion -
30 70 Low 4- 7 Good - 25
15
Chemical addition 20- 40 Low -
6 6.5 Moderate -
10
1 ton = 0.907 t
I n t h i s method , t h e f r e e z i n g is d o n e by t h e environment.
At least one facility ( 6 8 ) is operating in Canada, and extensive
f u l l- s c a l e r e s e a r c h is being c o n d u c t e d in f a c i l i t y d e s i g n in
order t o improve this method of conditioning ( 6 9 ).
8 -4 1
8.11 Miscellaneous Processes
8.11.1 Bacteria
Autotrophic sulfur bacteria may provide conditioning if added
~
8.11.2 Electricity
In extensive laboratory and pilot plant work studies, graphite
anodes and iron cathodes have been used to conditon sludge
(71 76 ).
-
These studies indicate that:
-
No full scale facilities h a v e e v e r b e e n tested to
evaluate operating problems.
-
8 42
8 . 1 1.3 Solvent Extraction
I n 1 9 5 7 , r e s e a r c h w a s c o n d u c t e d a t R o c k f o r d , I l l i n o i s, w i t h
carbon tetrachlorethylene as the solvent, with distillation
e n d p r o d u c t s being dried o i l s , f a t s, a n d g r e a s e s ( 7 7 ). It was
n o t considered t o b e v e r y economical a t t h a t time.
8 . 1 1. 4 Ultrasonic
C o n d i t i o n i n g o f s e w a g e s l u d g e s b y u l t r a- o r s u p e r s o n i c vibration
h a s b e e n e x p l o r e d ( 5 4 ). U l t r a s o n i c vibrations degasify s l u d g e,
which is beneficial, but t h e vibrations a l s o tend t o destroy
s l u d g e f l o e s, r e s u l t i n g i n f i n e s o l i d s t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o
d e w a t e r.
8.12 References
1. S c h i l l i n g e r, G . R. "C o n v e r s i o n of S l u d g e C o n d i t i o n i n g
C h e m i c a l s." W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation D e e d s a n d
D a t a. V o l. 1 6. A p r i l 1 9 7 9.
3. C a r r y , C . W. , R .P . M i e l e , a n d J . F . S t a h l . "Sludge
D e w a t e r i n g." Proceedings of the National Conference on
M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r I n c.
Rockville , M D ( 1974 ) ,
4. B a r g m a n , R . D. , W . F . G a r b e r , a n d J . N a g a n o. "Sludge
Filtration and Use of Synthetic Organic Coagulants at
H y p e r i o n." S e w a g e a n d Industrial W a s t e. V o l. 3 0, p. 1 0 7 9
1 9 5 8.
5. C o a c k l e y , P. a n d R . A l i o s , "T h e D r y i n g C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
o f S o m e S e w a g e S l u d g e s." Institute o f S e w a g e Purification
J o u r n a l P r o c e e d i n g s. P t. 6, P 5 5 7. 1 9 6 2.
-
6. L a p p l e , C.E. "P a r t i c l e-S i z e A n a l y s i s a n d A n a l y z e r s ."
C h e m i c a 1 E n g i ne e r i n g. P 149. M a y 2 0, 1 9 6 8.
-
7. K a r r, P.R. a n d T . M . K e i n a t h. "Influence of Particle
S i z e o n S l u d g e D e w a t e r a b i l i t y." P r e s e n t e d a t 4 9t h A n n u a l
C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. M i n n e a p o l i s,
M i n n e s o t a. 1 0/3 -8/7 6.
8-4 3
8. Heukelekian, H . and E . W e i s b e r g . "S e w a g e C o l l o i d s . " W
— ater
and Sewage Works . Vol . 1 0 5 , p. 4 2 8 . O c t o b e r 1 9 5 8 . .
9 . Kos, P .
Continuous Gravity Thickening ofSludges . Dorr
Oliver Technical Reprint 705 1978 . .
10 . Tenney , M W • / W F . . .
Echelberger, J r , J J Coffey , and . . .
. .
T J McAloon .
"Chemical C o n d i t i o n i n g o f B i o l o g i c a l S l u d g e s
f o r Vacuum F i l t r a t i o n " .
Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation .
V o l 4 2 , P R1 1970 . - . .
11 . Hagstrom, L G and N A Mignone . .
"What to Consider . . .
in Basket Centrifuge Design " Water and Waste Engineering . .
-
P 58 .
March 1978 .
12. Zacharias, D R and K A . .
Pietila . .
"Full Scale Study of . -
Sludge Processing and Land Disposal Utilizing Centrifugation
For Dewatering " .
Presented a t the 50th Annual Meeting of
the Central States Water Pollution Control Federation,
Milwaukee, W i s c o n s i n .
M a y 1 8- 2 0 , 1 9 7 7 .
1 3. USEPA .
Evaluation of Dewatering Devices for Producing High
Sludge Solids Cake .
Office of Research and Development .
Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 C o n t r a c t 6 8- 0 3 2 4 5 5 .
1979 - . .
14 . USEPA .
Performance Evaluation and Troubleshooting at
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities Office of Water .
Program Operations
7 8- 0 0 1 .
January 1978
Washington D C 20460 . .
U S E P A 4 3 0 /9 . . . -
15 . USEPA .
Process Design Manual for Suspended Solids Removal .
Technology Transfer , Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 U S E P A 6 2 5 /1- .
-
7 5 0 0 3a .
January 1975 .
16 . USEPA .
Energy C o n s e r v a t i o n i n M u n i c i p a l W a s t e w a t e r
. . .
Treatment
.
20460
O f f i c e of Water Programs
U S E P A 6 8- 0 3 - 2 1 8 6 , M a r c h 1 9 7 7
Washington D C
. .
17. USEPA. Lime Use In Wastewater Treatment: Design and Cost
Data . Office of Research and Development , Cincinnati , Ohio
45268 . EPA 600 / 2 75 038 - -
October 1975 . .
18 . National Lime Association H a n d l i n g Application and
Storage .
Published by the National Lime Association,
Washington D C Second edition . .
May 1971 . .
19 . C u1p / W e s n e r / C u l p .
Cost and Performance Handbook Sludge
Handling Processes .
Prepared for Wastewater Treatment and
Reuse Seminar, South Lake Tahoe 1 0 / 2 6-2 7 / 7 5 . .
20 . Ruehrwein, R A a n d T Ward .. . .
"M e c h a n i s m o f C l a y A g g r e g a t i o n
by Polyelectrolytes "
J a n u a r y-J u n e 1 9 5 2
Soil Science
.
.
Vol 73 P 485 . . . - .
-
8 44
21 . J o r d a n , V .J . a n d C .H . S c h e r e r . "Gravity Thickening
T e c h n i q u e s a t a W a t e r R e c l a m a t i o n P l a n t." Journal Water
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 4 2, p. 1 8 0. 1 9 7 0.
2 2. E t t e l t , G. A. a n d T. K e n n e d y . " R e s e a r c h a n d O p e r a t i o n a l
E x p e r i e n c e in S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g a t C h i c a g o. " J o u r n a l W a t e r
P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. V o l. 3 8, p. 2 4 8. 1 9 6 6.
2 3. B e a r d s l e y , J.A. "S l u d g e Drying B e d s A r e P r a c t i c a l." W a t e r
a n d S e w a g e W o r k s. P a r t 1 , P 8 2. J u l y 1 9 7 6. P a r t 2, p. 4 2
A u g u s t 1 9 7 6. -
2 4. .
J e n n e t t , J . C. a n d I.W S a n t r y . "Characteristics o f S l u d g e
D r y i n g." J o u r n a l o f t h e S a n i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n A S C E .
S A 5 , P 8 4 9. 1 9 6 9.
-
2 5. H a r r i s o n , J . R . " D e v e l o p m e n t s in D e w a t e r i n g W a s t e w a t e r
S l u d g e s." V o l , 1 S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l. U S E P A-E R I C
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r, Cincinnati, O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
2 6. N C A S I. F u l l- S c a l e O p e r a t i o n a l E x p e r i e n c e w i t h F i l t e r
Presses for Sludge Dewatering in the North American Pulp and
P a p e r I n d u s t r y. P r e p a r e d f o r National Council o f t h e P a p e r
I n d u s t r y f o r A i r a n d S t r e a m I m p r o v e m e n t. T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n
2 9 9. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7.
2 7. N C A S I. A Review o f t h e O p e r a t i o n a l E x p e r i e n c e With B e l t
Filter Presses for Sludge Dewatering in the North American
P u l p a n d P a p e r I n d u s t r y, P r e p a r e d f o r N a t i o n a l Council o f
t h e P a p e r I n d u s t r y f o r A i r a n d S t r e a m I m p r o v e m e n t.
T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n 3 1 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
28 . U S E P A. S l u d g e H a n d l i n g a n d C o n d i t i o n i n g. Office of Water
P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n D.C. 20460. U S E P A 4 3 0/9 -
7 8-0 0 2. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
2 9. S c h i l l i n g e r, G . R. "C o n v e r s i o n o f S l u d g e -C o n d i t i o n i n g
C h e m i c a l s. " J o u r n a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n
D e e d s a n d D a t a. V o l. 1 6. A p r i l 1 9 7 9.
3 0. U S E P A. P r e s s u r e Filtration o f W a s t e w a t e r S l u d g e w i t h A s h
F i l t e r Aid . O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , C i n c i n n a t i,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A- R 2- 7 3- 2 3 1. 1 9 7 3.
3 1. S m i t h , J . E ., J r . , S . W. H a t h a w a y , J . B . F a r r e l l , a n d
R . B . D e a n. " S l u d g e C o n d i t i o n i n g w i t h I n c i n e r a t o r A s h. "
P r e s e n t e d 2 7 t h P u r d u e I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e. M a y
1 9 7 2.
8 -4 5
33. Cargen , C. A. and J . F. Malina. " Effect of Waste Paper
Additions on Sludge Filtration Characteristics. " Center
for Water Research # 24. University of Texas , Austin. 1968.
39.
-
Conference. P 40. May 1965.
Sherwood , R and J . Phillips. " Heat Treatment Process
.
Improves Economics of Sludge Handling and Disposal." Water
.
and Wastes Engineering. P 42. November 1970.
41. USEPA.
-
Sewage Works. Vol. 117 , P 32. 1970.
43.
-
P 221 ( 1970 ).
Sommers , L.E. and E.H. Curtin , "Wet Air Oxidation: Effect
on Sludge Composition." Journal Water Pollution Control
44. E v e r e t t , J .G.
-
Federation. Vol. 49 , P 2219 ( 1977 ).
" The E f f e c t o f H e a t T r e a t m e n t o n t h e
Solubilization of Heavy Metals , Metals and Organic Matter
from Digested Sludge." Journal of the Institute of Water
45.
Pollution Control. Vol. 73, P 207 ( 1974).
Brooks , R .B .
-
"Heat Treatment of Sewage S l u d g e." Third
National Chemical Engineering Conference. Mildura Victoria ,
Australia. August 1975.
8 46-
46. Sarfert , F. " Composition of the Filtrate From Thermally
Conditioned Sludges." Water Research. Vol. 6 , P
( 1972 ).
521
-
47. Corrie, K .D. "Use of Activated Carbon in the Treatment of
Heat Treatment Plant Liquor." Journal of the Institute of
Water Pollution Control. Vol. 71 , P 629 ( 1972 ).
-
48. Whitehead , C.R. and E.J. Smith. " Sludge Heat Treatment:
Operation and Management." Journal of the Institute of
Water Pollution Control. Vol. 71, p. 31 ( 1976 ).
49. . . ..
Hirst, G , K .G Mulhall, and M L Hemming. "The Sludge Heat
Treatment and Pressing Plant at Pudsey: Design and Initial
Operating Experiences." Journal of the Institute of Water
.
Pollution Control. Vol 71 , p. 455 ( 1972 ) .
50. Erickson , A .H . and P.V. Knopp. " Biological Treatment
of Thermally- Conditioned Sludge Liquors." Advances in Water
Pollution Research. V o l . I I e d i t e d b y S . M . J e n k i n s .
Published by Pergamon Press, London, 1972.
51. .
Jones, E E. " Finding A Better Way To Dispose of Sludge."
Public Works Magazine. March 1975 .
52. SCS Engineers. Review of Techniques for Treatment and
Disposal of Phosphorus-Laden Chemical Sludges. USEPA - MERL
Contract 68- 03- 2432 to be published in the summer of 1979.
6 0. Dahl , B.W • / J .W. Zelinski , and O.W. Taylor. " Polymer Aids
in Dewatering Elutriation." Journal Water Pollution Control
Federation. Vol. 44, P 201 ( 1972 ).
-
8 - 47
6 1. G o o d m a n, B.L. " Chemical Conditioning o f S l u d g e s: Six C a s e
H i s t o r i e s." Water and Wastes Engineering . V o l. 3 , P
- 62
( 1 9 6 6 ).
6 3. B a b b i t t , H .E. a n d H .E. S c h l e n z. T h e E f f e c t o f F r e e z e D r y i n g
o n S l u d g e s. I l l i n o i s E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n,
B u l l e t i n N o. 1 9 8 , P 4 8, 1 9 2 9.
-
6 4. S e w e r a g e C o m m i s s i o n C i t y o f M i l w a u k e e. Evaluation of
C o n d i t i o n i n g a n d D e w a t e r i n g S e w a g e S l u d g e b y F r e e z i n g.
W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l R e s e a r c h S e r i e s 1 1 0 1 0 E V E 0 1/7 1.
66. C h e n g , C ., D . M . U p d e g r o f f , a n d L. W . R o s s. "S l u d g e
Dewatering by High Rate Freezing at Small Temperature
D i f f e r e n c e s. " E n v i r o n m e n t a l S c i e n c e a n d T e c h n o l o g y.
V o l. 4 , p. 1 1 4 5 ( 1 9 7 0 ).
68 . .
P e n m a n , A . a n d D W . V a n e s. "W i n n i p e g F r e e z e s S l u d g e,
S l a s h e s D i s p o s a l C o s t 1 0 F o l d." C i v i l E n g i n e e r i n g - A S C E.
. .
V o l 4 3, p 6 5 ( 1 9 7 3 ) .
6 9. R u s h, R.J . a n d A.R . S t i c k n e y. N a t u r a l F r e e z e-T h a w S e w a g e
S l u d g e C o n d i t i o n i n g a n d D e w a t e r i n g. Canada Environmental
P r o t e c t i o n S e r v i c e R e p o r t E P S 4 -W P- 7 9-1 , J a n u a r y 1 9 7 9.
7 0. Envirogenics Co . B i o l o g i c a l M e t h o d s of S l u d g e Dewatering.
F W Q A-W - 7 2- 0 5 8 3 8. N T I S P B 2 0 7 -4 8 0. F W Q A- 1 4- 1 2- 4 2 7 , P 1 4 7 ,
A u g u s t 1 9 7 1.
-
7 1. S l a g l e, E A.. .
a n d L M. R o b e r t s. "T r e a t m e n t o f S e w a g e a n d
Sewage Sludge by Electrodialysis " .
S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l.
V o l. 1 4, p. 1 0 2 1 ( 1 9 4 2 ).
7 2. B e a u d o i n, R.E. " R e d u c t i o n of M o i s t u r e in A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e
'
F i l t e r C a k e b y E l e c t r o- O s m o s i s . " S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l .
V o l. 1 5 , p. 1 1 5 3 ( 1 9 4 3 ).
7 3. H i c k s , R. " D i s p o s a l o f S e w a g e S l u d g e. " T h e S u r v e y o r.
p p. 1 0 5 , 3 0 3. A p r i l 1 9 , 1 9 4 6.
8-4 8
7 4. C o o l i n g , L. F. " D e w a t e r i n g o f S e w a g e S l u d g e b y E l e c t r o-
O s m o s i s." W a t e r a n d S a n i t a r y E n g i n e e r i n g. V o l. 3 , p. 2 4 6
( 1 9 5 2 ).
7 6. S p o h r, G . "Electrical S t i m u l a t i o n o f B a c t e r i a. " . .
U S
p a t e n t 3 , 1 6 6 , 5 0 1.
7 7. S t a l l e r y , R.H . a n d E .H . E a u t h. "T r e a t m e n t of S e w a g e
S l u d g e b y t h e M c D o n a l d P r o c e s s." P u b l i c W o r k s. P I l l ,
-
M a r c h 1 9 5 7.
7 8. H a n s o n, C . "S o l v e n t E x t r a c t i o n A n E c o n o m i c a l l y C o m p e t i-
t i v e P r o c e s s." Chemical E n g i n e e r i n g . P 8 3, M a y 1 9 7 9.
-
7 9. O l s o n , R.L. , R.K . A m e s , H .H . P e t e r s , E . A . G u s t a n , a n d
G.W. B a n n o n. " S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g With S o l v e n t Extraction."
Proceedings of the National Conference Management and
Disposal of Residues From the Treatment of Industrial
W a s t e w a t e r s. W a s h i n g t o n, D.C. P 1 7 5 , F e b r u a r y 3 -5 , 1 9 7 5.
-
8 -4 9
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
Chapter 9 . Dewatering
September 1979
CHAPTER 9
DEWATERING
9.1 Introduction
D e w a t e r i n g is t h e r e m o v a l o f w a t e r f r o m w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
plant solids to achieve a volume reduction greater than that
achieved by thickening. Dewatering is d o n e primarily t o d e c r e a s e
t h e capital a n d operating c o s t s of t h e subsequent direct sludge
d i s p o s a l o r conversion and d i s p o s a l p r o c e s s, Dewatering s l u d g e
from a 5 t o a 2 0 p e r c e n t solids concentration r e d u c e s volume by
t h r e e-fourths and results in a non -fluid material. D e w a t e r i n g is
only one c o m p o n e n t o f t h e w a s t e w a t e r solids t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s a n d
m u s t be integrated into t h e o v e r a l l w a s t e w a t e r treatment s y s t e m
so that performance of both the liquid and solids treatment
s c h e m e s is optimized a n d total c o s t s a r e minimized ( 1- 3 ).
S o l i d s concentration a n d volumetric f l o w r a t e o f t h e
feed s t r e a m.
Chemical d e m a n d a n d c o s t.
9 -1
Solids concentration a n d volumetric f l o w r a t e o f t h e
dewatered sludge.
TABLE 9- 1
9- 2
S l u d g e s a r e g e n e r a t e d c o n s t a n t l y , a n d if t h e y a r e a l l o w e d t o
a c c u m u l a t e f o r a l o n g t i m e , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e e n t i r e
w a s t e w a t e r treatment p l a n t will be impaired .
9 . 1 .2 M e t h o d s o f Dewatering
While numerous techniques fulfill the basic functional
definition o f dewatering , t h e y d o s o t o widely varying d e g r e e s .
I t is i m p o r t a n t t o n o t e t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h e n c o m p a r i n g
d i f f e r e n t d e v i c e s. F o r e x a m p l e , d r y i n g b e d s c a n b e u s e d n o t
o n l y t o d e w a t e r a s l u d g e , b u t a l s o t o d r y it t o a s o l i d s
concentration of g r e a t e r t h a n 5 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t . Depending o n t h e
circumstances and p a r t i c u l a r device involved , dewatered sludge
from a mechanical device m a y v a r y from a w e t , a l m o s t flowable
form , t o a h a r d e r a n d m o r e friable form.
9 . 2 .1 Drying B e d s
Drying beds a r e t h e m o s t widely used m e t h o d o f municipal s l u d g e
d e w a t e r i n g i n t h e United S t a t e s ( 1 1 ) . A t t h e p r e s e n t t i m e ,
t w o - t h i r d s o f a l l United S t a t e s w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s
u t i l i z e d r y i n g b e d s a n d o n e - h a l f o f a l l t h e United S t a t e s
municipal s l u d g e is dewatered by this m e t h o d . Although t h e use
o f drying beds m i g h t be e x p e c t e d in s m a l l e r plants a n d in t h e
w a r m e r s u n n y r e g i o n s , t h e y a r e a l s o u s e d in s e v e r a l l a r g e
facilities in n o r t h e r n climates ( 1 2 ). T a b l e 9-2 lists a d v a n t a g e s
and disadvantages o f t h e drying bed m e t h o d .
TABLE 9- 2
Advantages Disadvantages
9 -3
Research into the dewatering of sludge by drying beds has been
conducted since the early 1900s , when i t was noted t h a t digested
sludge dewatered more rapidly than raw sludge (13) .
Design data ,
however , are s t i l l very empirical , and only recently has an
e f f o r t been made t o develop a rational engineering design
a p p r o a c h ( 1 4 -1 6 ). An e x c e l l e n t review of p a s t work , d e t a i l e d
theoretical analysis, and current understanding of the sludge
drying process i s given by Adrian (14 ) . Sludge dewatering on a
d r y i n g b e d i s a m u l t i-p h a s e p r o c e s s a n d i s s h o w n p i c t o r i a l l y o n
F i g u r e 9 -1.
RA1 N IF B E D I S UNCOVERED
I \
EVAPORATION DUE TO RADIATION AND CONVECTION
\ I
1
SLUDGE
1 t
POROUS MEDIUM - SLUDGE SUPPORT STRUCTIOM
I \ J \
DRAINAGE OF WATER THROUGH POROUS MEDIUM
t
FIGURE 9- 1
D r y i n g b e d s g e n e r a l l y c o n s i s t o f a o n e - t o t h r e e - f o o t ( 0 . 3-1 . 0 m )
high retaining wall enclosing a porous drainage media. This
drainage media may be made up of various sandwiched l a y e r s
of sand and gravel , combinations of sand and gravel with cement
strips , slotted metal media , or a permanent porous media .
Appurtenant equipment includes: sludge feed pipelines and flow
meters ; possible chemical application tanks , pipelines , and
metering pumps ; f i l t r a t e drainage and recirculation l i n e s ;
possible mechanical sludge removal equipment ; and a possible
cover or enclosure.
Operational procedures common t o a l l t y p e s of drying beds involve:
• Pump 8 t o 12 inches ( 20 t o 30 cm )
sludge onto the drying bed surface.
of stabilized liquid
9 -4
• Add chemical conditioners continuously , if conditioners
are used , by injection into the sludge as it is pumped
onto the bed .
-
Current United States practice ( 17 19 ) is to make drying beds
rectangular with dimensions of 15 to 60 feet ( 4.5 to 18 m ) wide
by 50 to 150 feet ( 15 to 47 m ) long with vertical side walls.
Usually 4 to 9 inches ( 10 to 23 cm ) of sand is placed over 8 to
-
18 inches ( 20 46 cm ) of graded gravel or stone . The sand is
usually 0.012 to 0.05 inches ( 0.3 to 1.2 mm ) in effective
diameter and has a uniformity coefficient less than 5.0 . Gravel
is normally graded from 1/8 to 1.0 inches ( 0.3 to 2.5 cm ) , in
effective diameter. Underdrain piping has normally been of
vitrified clay , but plastic pipe is also becoming acceptable.
The pipes should be no less than 4 inches ( 10 cm ) , should be
spaced 8 to 20 feet ( 2.4 to 6 m ) apart , and have a minimum slope
of one percent.
-
Figure 9 2 shows a typical sand drying bed construction. Sand
drying beds can be built with or without provision for mechanical
sludge removal , and with or without a roof.
Paved Drying Beds
Paved drying beds have had limited use since 1954 ( 20 ). The beds
are normally rectangular in shape and are 20 to 50 feet ( 6 to
15 m ) wide by 70 to 150 feet ( 21 to 46 m ) long with vertical
side walls , Current practice is to use either a concrete or
-
asphalt lining. Normally , the lining rests on an 8 to 12 inch -
- - -
( 20 to 30 cm ) built up sand or gravel base , The lining should
have a minimum 1.5 percent slope to the drainage area , A minimum
- -
four inch ( 10 cm ) diameter pipe would convey drainage away. An
-
9 5
unpaved area , 2 to 3 feet ( 0 . 6 to 1 m ) wide i s placed along
e i t h e r s i d e o r down the middle f o r drainage Paved drying beds .
can be built with or without a roof .
, 7*
-
\
>
%*
X f GATE
SLUDGE A
7 -* >
• A * T
4
L
- < ’*
* L <
V
i
SIDE WALL
.*
* < * -a
t r A
* M *1
*^^ ^ *
* t >
1
S< - -
C A A
-SPLASH
Lf
- 4
*
**r
V 4
^f: SLAB
* ? r 4
V
* Sf
COLLECTION *i4
* * A
-
.A
SYSTEM * 4 f
* • -
4
4
4
f 4
iT**
SAND 4
& v
» r
¥
4 « *
f vy.v. v: '.v.'!vy"
. ^X
7
toV
• •v
:; :<\G RAVE LV'.V :.
'' '
*
DRAINAGE » 4
»
I
--V-'
i
1
.
&il *
r * *a
FIGURE 9- 2
TYPICAL SAND DRYING BED CONSTRUCTION ( 18 )
For a given amount of sludge, paved drying beds require more area
than sand beds .
T h e i r m a i n a d v a n t a g e s a r e t h a t f r o n t- e n d l o a d e r s
can b e used f o r s ludge removal and reduced bed maintenance ( 2 1) .
F i g u r e 9 -3 s h o w s y p i c a l p a v e d d r y i n g b e d c o n s t r u c t i o n
t .
MINIMUM. 1.5% ASPHALT OR
SLOPE CONCRETE LINING
* S 34
7 4 * A JL i » y
f v * . * + T *^ 4 > r
t r
v <
* < k f ^ ^
i *3
V r>
r 4 ^
4 i 4
4
• SAND;; V
fr
-*- < »
-^ ^ ^ - 41
r
m* <* ** •* rr=rwr *
* ** » » . V
o
- - -
w 4
*
- .. -'.:-
* * * 4 * » »**
* * J
11
;I '"
*
'
f 4
' r** # * »»
-
L i v;1
* 4
*» », ", 4
-
\ \ \ \
\
DRAINAGE
FIGURE 9- 3
9-6
-
Wedge Wire Drying Beds
Wedge- wire drying bed systems have been successfully used in
England for over 20 years to dewater both municipal ( 22 ) and
industrial ( 23 ,24) wastewater sludges. Used in the United States
since the early 1970 s , there are presently 18 wedge wire
installations. Ten of these installations are for municipal
-
wastewater sludge.
-
In a wedge wire drying bed , sludge slurry is introduced onto a
-
horizontal , relatively open drainage media in a way that yields a
clean filtrate and provides a reasonable drainage rate ( 25 ).
-
Table 9 3 lists reported advantages for this type of drying bed .
TABLE 9- 3
-
Figure 9 4 shows a typical cross section of a wedge wire bed .
The bed consists of a shallow rectangular watertight basin fitted
-
with a false floor of wedgewater panels , These panels have
slotted openings of 0.01 inches (0.25 mm ), This false floor is
made watertight with caulking where the panels abut the walls.
An outlet valve to control the rate of drainage is located
underneath the false floor.
VENT
V V T
FIGURE 9- 4
9- 7
T h e p r o c e d u r e used f o r dewatering s l u d g e b e g i n s with t h e
m o v e m e n t of w a t e r or p l a n t effluent into t h e w e d g e w a t e r unit
until a d e p t h of approximately one inch ( 2.5 c m ) o v e r the
w e d g e-wire septum is attained. This w a t e r serves as a cushion
that permits the added sludge t o float without causing u p w a r d
o r d o w n w a r d p r e s s u r e across t h e w e d g e - wire s u r f a c e. The
water further prevents compression or other disturbance of the
colloidal particles. After t h e bed is filled with sludge , the
initially s e p a r a t e w a t e r l a y e r and t h e d r a i n a g e w a t e r a r e
a l l o w e d t o p e r c o l a t e away a t a controlled r a t e , t h r o u g h t h e
outlet valve. After the free w a t e r has been drained , the sludge
further concentrates by drainage and evaporation until there is a
requirement for sludge removal.
Vacuum- Assisted Drying Beds
T h e o n l y operating vacuum -assisted drying beds a t this time
a r e t w o 2 0 f e e t ( 6 m ) by 4 0 f e e t ( 12 m ) units built in 1 9 7 6
a t Sunrise City , Florida. T h e y d e w a t e r a t w o p e r c e n t solids
c o n c e n t r a t i o n , aerobically d i g e s t e d s l u d g e f r o m a c o n t a c t
stabilization wastewater treatment plant ( 27 ).
T h e principal components of the Sunrise facility are :
9 -8
particular sludge of 12 percent solids concentration is capable
of being lifted from the bed by a fork or mechanical equipment.
The sludge will further dewater to about 20 percent solids
concentration in 48 hours.
Sludge type - Anaerobically digested mixture of primary and trickling filter sludge
Bed media - 6 inches of sand
Color - clear , dark amber
COD - 300- 400 mg/1
-- - -
BODj- 6 66 mg/1
BODb20 1 ,900 2 , 360 mg/1 (over 90 percent nitrogenous)
.*
m ; sw
1 inch 2.54 cm
9 -9
TABLE 9- 5 A
Uncovered beds ,
Area , Loading , Covered beds area ,
Initial sludge source sq ft/capita lb solids/sq ft/yr sq ft/capitaa
•
“* 111 X A!%i
—
* ..
Primary
Reference 33 1.0 27.5
Reference 34 1.0 - 1.5 0.75 - 1.0
Reference 36
°
N45 N latitude
Between 40-45 N
1.25 0.93
S40 N latitude
° 1.0
0.75
0.75
° 0.56
Primary plus chemicals
Reference 33 2.0 22
Reference 34 2.0 - 2.25 1.0 - 1.25
Reference 36
°
N45 N latitude 2.5 1.87
-
Between 40 45 N
S40 N latitude
° 2.0
1.5
1. 50
1.12
°
Primary plus low rate
trickling filter
Reference 33 1.6 22
Reference 34 1.25 - 1.75 1.0 - 1.25
Reference 36
°
N45 N latitude 1.87 1.56
S40 N latitude
- °
Between 40 45 N 1.50
1,12
1.25
° 0.93
Primary plus waste-
activated sludge
Reference 33 3.0 15
Reference 34 1.75 - 2.5 1.25 - 1.5
Reference 36
N45 N latitude
° 2.18 1.68
S40 N latitude
- °
Between 40 45 N 1.75
1.31
1.35
° .« » f
.: S' >
1.01
-
9 10
-
waste activated sludge wastewater treatment processes , Many of
the sludges presently generated do not readily fall within these
categories. i
Y
TABLE 9- 5 B
b
EPA Region I II III IV VI VII VIII IX XC
ua Cd u n u c u c u c u c u c u c u c u c
Anaerobically
digested
Primary only 1.5 1.0 1.5 0.75 0.5-1.0 1.0 1.0 1.5 1.0
Primary + low rate
trickling filter 1.75 1.25 1.5 0.75 -
0.75 1.2 -
0.5 1.0 0.25 1.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 -
1.5 2.0 1.0 1.25 -
Prinary + sand
filter 1.0 1.0 0.5
Primary + high rate
trickling filter 1.0 1.0 1.25 1.25 1.0 2.0 1.25
Primary + waste
activated sludge
Primary +
2.5 1.5 2.0 1.0 -
1.5 2.5 1.0-1.5 1.0 1.35 1.35 1.0 -
1.5 2.5 1.0 1.5 -
chemical
Imhoff
2.0 1.0
1.5 0.75
--
1.0 1.33
0.66 1.0
1.0
1.0
1.5 1.3 3.0 2.0
Imhoff + low rate
trickling filter -
1.0 1.2 1.0
aTaken from individual State desiqn criteria that do not use 10 State Standards .
bThe states encompassed in USEPA Regions III and V do not have published requirements at this time .
-
CState of Idaho : Values shown are for rainfall of 30 45 inches ( 76 -114 cm ) ; for rainfall between
10 - 30 inches ( 25 - 76 c m ) , reduce these values by 25 percent ; for r a i n f a l l o f less than 10 inches
( 25 c m ) , reduce these values by 50 percent .
d
U = uncovered sand beds
C = covered sand beds
2
1 scj ft / capita = 0 . 0 9 3 m / capita
-
9 11
TABLE 9- 6
Sludge solids
Feed solids , concentration , Dewatering Solids capture ,
Sludge typea percent percent time percent
9 . 2 .1 . 4 Costs
Capital Costs
C = 9.89 x 104 -
Q1 3 5 ( 9 -1 )
w h e r e:
C = c a p i t a l c o s t o f p r o c e s s in d o l l a r s.
Q = p l a n t d e s i g n f l o w in million g a l l o n s o f w a s t e w a t e r f l o w
p e r d a y.
T a b l e 9 -7 indicates o p e n s a n d bed l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r b o t h
operation and maintenance, T h e l a b o r i n d i c a t e d i n c l u d e s:
removal of dried sludge from the beds, sand maintenance , and
w e e d i n g a s n e c e s s a r y.
9-1 2
TABLE 9- 7
2 i ‘.Si
10,000 *****
iv
--
a Vir
7
6
5
b> 4
m
© 3 t V..
”'
-
O
2
u
-
<
I
D
z 1,000 —,..
z 9
< 8
6
1
3 4 5 6 7 8910,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 100,000 2 3 4
FIGURE 9 - 5
9 -13
-
Figure 9 5 shows a curve developed for estimating open sand
bed maintenance material cost as a function of sand bed surface
area. As an example , for a sand bed surface area of 10 ,000
square feet ( 9 30 ), a designer would estimate a yearly
materials cost of $400. Since this number is based on a June
•
TABLE 9- 8
-
9 14
9.2.2.1 Basic Concept
Sludge drying lagoons consist of retaining walls which are
normally earthen dikes 2 to 4 feet ( 0.7 to. 1.4 m ) high . The
earthen dikes normally enclose a rectangular space with a
permeable surface. Appurtenant equipment includes: sludge feed
lines and metering pumps, supernatant decant lines, and some type
of mechanical sludge removal equipment , The removal equipment
can include a bulldozer , drag line or front - end loader. In areas
where permeable soils are unavailable , underdrains and associated
piping may be required .
Operating procedures common to all types of drying lagoons
involve :
Climate
After dewatering by drainage and supernating , drying in a sludge
lagoon depends primarily on evaporation. Proper size of a
lagoon, therefore , requires climatic information concerning:
9-15
• Evaporation rate ( annual average , range, and seasonal
fluctuations ).
• Temperature extremes.
Subsoil Permeability
The subsoil should have a moderate permeability of 1.6 x 10~ 4 to
5.5 x 10- 4 inches per second ( 4.2 x 10 “
^
to 1.4 x 10“ cm/s ), ^
and the bottom of the lagoon should be a minimum of 18 inches
( 46 cm ) above the maximum groundwater table, unless otherwise
directed by local authorities.
Sludge Characteristics
The actual depth and area requirements for sludge drying lagoons
depend on several factors such as precipitation , evaporation,
type of sludge, volume and solids concentration. Solids loading
criteria have been given as 2.2 to 2.4 pounds of solids per year
per cubic foot ( 36 to 39 kg /m ) of capacity ( 46 ). A minimum
^
of two separate lagoons are provided to ensure availability
of storage space during cleaning , maintenance , or emergency
conditions.
General Guidance
Lagoons may be of any shape, but a rectangular shape facilitates
rapid sludge removal, Lagoon dikes should have a slope of 1 : 3,
vertical to horizontal , and should be of a shape and size to
facilitate maintenance, mowing , passage of maintenance vehicles
atop the dike , and access for the entry of trucks and front -end
loaders into the lagoon .
Surrounding areas should be graded to
prevent surface water from entering the lagoon , Return must
exist for removing the surface liquid and piping to the treatment
plant . Provisions must also be made for limiting public access
to the sludge lagoons , Chapter 15 provides a description of a
successful sludge drying lagoon operation for the Metropolitan
Sanitary District of Greater Chicago.
9.2.2.3 Costs
9 -16
drying lagoons, T h e requirements include: application of sludge
to the lagoon; periodic removal of supernatant; periodic removal
o f s o l i d s ; a n d m i n o r m a i n t e n a n c e r e q u i r e m e n t s, s u c h a s d i k e
repair and weed control, N o information c o u l d b e f o u n d o n
maintenance material costs.
TABLE 9- 9
1 ton 0.9 t
9.3 C e n t r i f u g a l Dewatering S y s t e m s
9.3.1 Introduction
C e n t r i f u g e s w e r e f i r s t e m p l o y e d in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s f o r
dewatering m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s l u d g e s d u r i n g
t h e y e a r 1 9 2 0 , in M i l w a u k e e , W i s c o n s i n , and d u r i n g 1 9 2 1 in
Baltimore , Maryland ( 4 2 ). E a r l y centrifuges w e r e n o t designed t o
p r o c e s s extremely variable slurries such as those of municipal
w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s, I n a d d i t i o n, m o s t w a s t e w a t e r
t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s p r o v i d e d l i t t l e , if a n y , p r e v e n t i v e
maintenance. C o n s e q u e n t l y , e a r l y installations d e v e l o p e d numerous
o p e r a t i o n a l and m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m s , and this led t o a n
anti-centrifuge reaction among environmental engineers.
T w o c a t e g o r i e s of c e n t r i f u g e s a r e used f o r municipal w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e d e w a t e r i n g: imperforate basket a n d scroll-t y p e decanter.
A detailed discussion o f e a c h f o l l o w s , T h e basic t h e o r y of
thickening and p r o c e s s c o s t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r 5.
9 -1 7
9.3.2 Imperforate Basket
Basket centrifuges for dewatering municipal wastewater treatment
plant sludges were first used in the United States in 1920 ( 42).
Since the mid 1960s approximately 300 machines were installed in
100 municipal treatment plant applications ( 43). About one half
of the installed machines are used for dewatering ; the other half
-
and used for thickening. The largest centrifuge facility in
the world is located at the County Sanitation Districts of
Los Angeles County Carson Plant in California , and uses 48 basket
-
centrifuges ( 44 ). Table 9 10 lists the advantages and disadvant -
ages of a basket centrifuge compared with other dewatering
systems.
TABLE 9- 10
Advantages Disadvantages
Same machine can be used for both dewatering Requires special structural support
and thickening
Except for vacuum filter , consumes more
It may not require chemical conditioning direct horsepower per unit of product
Centrifuges have clean appearance, little- processed
-
and shut-down capabilities
-
to no odor problems , and fast start up Skimming stream could produce significant
recycle load
Basket centrifuge is very flexible in Limited size capacity
meeting process requirements
For easily dewatered sludges , has the
It is not affected by grit highest capital cost versus capacity
ratio
It is an excellent dewatering machine for
hard -to-handle sludge For most sludges , gives the lowest cake
It has low total operation and maintenance solids concentration
costs.
Does not require continuous operator
attention
After the centrifuge bowl is filled with solids , the unit starts
to decelerate. In the thickening mode, deceleration was to a
speed of 70 rpm or lower before commencement of plowing , In the
dewatering mode , another step called " skimming " takes place
before the initiation of plowing , Skimming is the removal of
soft sludge from the inner wall of sludge within the basket
centrifuge. The skimmer moves from its position in the center of
the basket towards the bowl wall , The amount of horizontal
travel is set at the time of installation , and start up depends -
-
9 18
on sludge type and downstream processing requirements, The
skimming volume is normally 5 to 15 percent of the bowl volume
per cycle. After the skimmer retracts, the centrifuge further
decelerates to the 70 rpm level for plowing . Skimming streams are
typically 6 to 18 gallons ( 22 to 66 1 ) per cycle with a solids
content of almost zero to eight percent. Treatment of this stream
is typically by returning it either to the primary or secondary
wastewater treatment system , or to some other pre-sludge handling
step such as a thickener.
9.3.2.2 Application
A basket centrifuge is well suited for small plants that do not
provide either primary clarification or grit removal ( for
example, wastewater plants that use extended aeration , aerated
lagoons, and contact stabilization ). These small plants require
a piece of equipment that can, at different times, dewater or
thicken conventional as well as biological sludges with a long
sludge age. Also low overall operation and maintenance, and
low operating costs , are associated with basket centrifuges.
9.3.2.3 Performance
9-19
TABLE 9- 11
Polymer
Average required , Recovery
Feed solids cake solids pounds dry based on
concentration , concentration , per ton dry centrate ,
Sludge type percent solids percent solids feed solids percent
Raw primary
Raw trickling filter
-
4 5
-
2 3
--
25 30
9 10
-0
2 3 95
90
-95
97
-97
(rock or plastic media)
0.5- 1.5
-
10 12 1.5- 3.0 95 -90
Raw waste activated -
3 10 0 85 -95
2- 3
12-14 1.0- 3.0 90 -97
Raw primary plus rock -
9 11 0 95 -97
trickling filter (70 30) - -
7 9 -
1.5 3.0 94 -95
Raw primary plus waste
activated ( 50 50)- -
2 3 12-14 -
1 3 93 -
Raw primary plus rotating -
2 3 20 24 - 0 85-90
biological contactor (60 40) - 1- 2
17-20 4 6- 98+
Anaerobically digested 12-14 0 75 80 -
primary plus waste 10 12 - -
1.5 3.0 85 90 -
activated (50- 50)
Aerobically digested 1- 3
8 10
8-11
- 4 6
0
- 93 95
80-95
-
Combined sewer overflow
12 14
Extremely variable
- 1- 3 90 95
see study by EPA (45)
-
treatment sludge
Centrate from decanter
dewatering lime sludge
-
1 2 -
10 13 0 95-98
TABLE 9- 12
-
9 20
filter . The recessed plate pressure f i l t e r option was ruled out
as too expensive for Burlington 's small plant, The horizontal
belt f i l t e r press produced a low cake solids concentration and
required high levels of polymer addition a t a cost of $40 per ton
( $44.4 4/t ) . The vacuum f i l t e r was not selected because of high
capital cost, The imperforate basket was selected as the most
c o s t -e f f e c t i v e u n i t .
Figure 9 6 shows a flow scheme of the -
Burlington wastewater treatment plant as i t was operating in
1977 .
The original design , as a result of the engineering evaluation,
called for one basket centrifuge t o operate 40 hours per week .
This centrifuge was to dewater 96 , 000 gallons ( 370 m ) per week
of sludge at a 1.8 percent solids concentration to a nine to ten
^
percent solids concentration without the use of polymers, This
was a l l based on several days of pilot plant work conducted
several months before equipment selection was made , At the
-
time of centrifuge s t a r t up, the actual sludge volume t o be
dewatered was 150 , 000 gallons ( 568 m ) per week a t 1 . 4 percent
solids concentration . ^
T h e c o l u m n l a b e l e d "W i t h o u t P o l y m e r " i n
-
Table 9 13 shows performance results under this condition .
Because of the 50 percent greater sludge volume and poorer
operating results than had been indicated by pilot testing , the
basket centrifuge had t o operate 24 hours per day , seven days per
week . This type of operation was prohibitive for a plant the
size o f the Burlington facility .
CHLQRINi
EFFLUENT
CONTACT
SrtiMMihtfJS HAULED
AS LIQUID TO LAND
APPLICATION
j L
H SEDIMENTATION
BASIN
HOLOINS
TANK
5KIMMING5
-
Vi
COMNUNUTOa
^'
r
CAK £ HAULED
TO CHOPLAH0
INFLUENT CONI ACT ClNf ftlPLiSE
ROB&C
£TA£ILI2AliON
, . TANKS
DicEsrnoN
00 “
CEHTHATE
'!
* CENTRAL TO HIAP QF PLANT
FIGURE 9- 6
9 21-
TABLE 9- 13
Without With
polymer polymer
Gal/week of sludge to
dewater 150 ,000 150 ,000
Lb/week of sludge to
dewater 17 , 500 17 ,500
Instantaneous feed rate ,
gpm 23 88
Feed solids concentration ,
mg/1 14 ,000 14 , 000
Hr/week operation required 168 44
Labor and trucking cost
(dollars)/week at 45
percent of the time 378 99
Electricity utilized/week ,
kWhr 4,888 1, 584
Electricity cost at
$0.03/kWhr 146.63 47.52
Chemical cost , dollars/ton 0 30
a b
Cake solids, percent -
6 8 -
13 15
Skimming volume of basket ,
percent of total 50 14
Cost/ton , dollars 59.96 46.74
-
9 22
in the column labeled " With Polymer" in Table 9 -1 3 . The results
s h o w t h a t operating c o s t s were $ 13.22 per ton ( $ 14.69/t ) cheaper
w i t h p o l y m e r addition t h a n without . T h e s a v i n g s o c c u r r e d in
reduced labor and power requirements.
TABLE 9- 14
Advantages Disadvantages
Centrifuges have clean appearance, little- Scroll wear potentially a high maintenance
-
to-no odor problems , and fast start up
and shut-down capabilities
- item
Requires grit removal or possibly a grinder
It is easy to install in the feed stream
Provides high throughput in a small surface Requires skilled maintenance personnel
area
Gives for many sludges a cake as dry as any
other mechanical dewatering process
except for pressure filtration systems
Has one of the lowest total capital cost
versus capacity ratios
Does not require continuous operator
attention
9 . 3.3.1 Application
Early applications o f solid bowl centrifuges were for dewatering
coarse easily dewaterable municipal wastewater treatment plant
s l u d g e s. T h e s e included raw primary , anaerobically d i g e s t e d
primary , a n d lime s l u d g e s , t o name a few . T h e application
of c e n t r i f u g e s t o d e w a t e r i n g mixtures o f s l u d g e s c o n t a i n i n g
g r e a t e r than 50 percent by weight of waste- activated sludges was
limited because of very poor centrate quality . Advancements in
design , especially in the e n t r a n c e configuration , had reduced
f l o e s h e a r . T h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f new p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e s h a s a l s o
contributed t o g r e a t l y i m p r o v i n g c e n t r a t e q u a l i t y. These
d e v e l o p m e n t s h a v e m a d e t h e solid bowl d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e
a p p l i c a b l e t o a m u c h wider r a n g e o f s l u d g e t y p e s. Further
available c a p a c i t i e s r a n g e from 6 g a l l o n s per minute ( 2 2 t o
3 8 1/ min ) t o over 4 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 1 , 5 1 4 1 / min ) . T h e
decanter c a n successfully o p e r a t e with a highly variable feed.
9 -2 3
9.3.3.2 Performance
T a b l e 9 - 1 5 l i s t s o p e r a t i n g r e s u l t s t h a t c a n be e x p e c t e d w h e n
dewatering the s l u d g e s indicated with a solid bowl decanter , T h e
d a t a in this t a b l e c a n be u s e d f o r c o n d u c t i n g e n g i n e e r i n g
evaluations when actual test r e s u l t s a r e not available.
TABLE 9- 15
Polymer
Average required , Recovery
Feed solids cake solids pounds dry based on
concentration , concentration , per ton dry centrate ,
Sludge type percent solids percent solids feed solids percent
Raw primary -
5 8 -
25 36
28- 36
-0
1 5 90-95
70-90
Anaerobically digested 2-5 28- 35 6-10 98 +
primary 9-12 --
30 35
25 30 -
0
1 3 --
65 80
82 92
Anaerobically diaested
primary irradiated at
400 kilorads 2-5 28- 35 -
6 10 95+
Waste-activated
Aerobically digested
0.5-3 8-12 10- 15 -
85 90
waste-activated
Thermally conditioned
-
1 3 -
8 10 -
3 6 90-95
-
primary + waste activated 9-14 35-40 0 75-85
9 . 3.3.3 O t h e r Considerations
Solid b o w l d e c a n t e r c e n t r i f u g e s a r e a v a i l a b l e in e i t h e r
c o u n t e r c u r r e n t or c o n c u r r e n t f l o w design a n d either " high s p e e d "
o r " l o w s p e e d " d e s i g n. In t h e c o u n t e r c u r r e n t design , t h e s l u d g e
feed enters through the small diameter end of the bowl, and
solids a r e c o n v e y e d towards t h e same end . I n t h e c o n c u r r e n t f l o w
design , the s l u d g e feed enters t h r o u g h the large diameter e n d of
t h e b o w l a n d s o l i d s a r e c o n v e y e d t o w a r d s t h e o p p o s i t e e n d.
C o n c u r r e n t flow units have o n l y been in u s e f o r about t e n y e a r s.
T h e r e a s o n s f o r conveying s o l i d s away f r o m t h e s l u d g e inlet a r e
t o r e d u c e inlet t u r b u l e n c e conditions a n d therefore reduce f l o e
s h e a r a n d t o p r o v i d e a l o n g e r r e s i d e n c e time f o r t h e s o l i d s.
T h o u g h there are r e p o r t s from E u r o p e ( 47 ) indicating a d v a n t a g e s
o f c o n c u r r e n t d e s i g n s over c o u n t e r c u r r e n t d e s i g n s, United S t a t e s
e x p e r i e n c e is limited . O n e e x t e n s i v e c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d y ( 4 8 )
9- 24
showed the countercurrent design to perforin best on aerobically
digested waste -activated sludge and the concurrent one to perform
best on raw waste-activated sludge.
There is considerable controversy over the benefits associated
with " high speed " or " low speed " solid bowl decanter centrifuges.
One aspect of this controversy is the definition of " high speed "
and " low speed . " In a publication by one of the major suppliers
of " low speed " machines ( 49 ), " low speed " was generally defined
as a bowl speed of 1 ,400 rpm or less .
Manufacturers indicate that " low speed " decanter centrifuges
consume less energy ; require less polymer addition to the sludge ;
have a lower noise level ; and require less maintenance than a
comparable " high speed " machine to satisfy the same requirements.
This combination should therefore give " low speed " machines a
significant economical advantage on a total cost per unit weight
of solids dewatered. European work seems to substantiate this
( 29 ) , but this has not been the case in the United States. In
very extensive side- -
by side studies conducted at the Dallas-Fort
Worth , Texas ( 50 ), Chicago-Calumet , Illinois , ( 9 ), Chicago-West -
Southwest , Illinois ( 50 ) , Milwaukee , Wisconsin ( 48 ), and
Columbus , Ohio-Southerly wastewater treatment plants ( 50 ), " low
speed " machines were not overall clearly advantageous compared to
the high speed ones. In fact , in most cases , they were more
expensive on a total cost basis than the " high speed " machines .
Additional information on solid bowl decanter centrifuges can be
found in Chapter 5.
9.4.1Introduction
Filtration can be defined as the removal of solids from a liquid
stream by passing the stream through a porous medium which
retains the solids , Figure 9 - 7 shows a flow diagram of a
filtration system.
SUSPENSION
REMOVED SOLIDS i
POROUS
mm Jm
DRIVING FORCE
(PRESSURE DROP A P)
MEDIA
FILRATION
HARDWARE
FILTRATE
FIGURE 9- 7
9 -25
A s indicated o n F i g u r e 9-7, a p r e s s u r e d r o p is r e q u i r e d in o r d e r
f o r l i q u i d t o f l o w t h r o u g h t h e p o r o u s m e d i u m, T h i s p r e s s u r e d r o p
c a n b e achieved in f o u r w a y s: by creating a vacuum on one side
o f t h e p o r o u s medium, b y r a i s i n g t h e p r e s s u r e a b o v e a t m o s h p e r i c
p r e s s u r e o n o n e side o f t h e medium, b y c r e a t i n g a c e n t r i f u g a l
force o n a n a r e a o f t h e p o r o u s medium, a n d b y d e s i g n i n g t o m a k e
u s e o f g r a v i t a t i o n a l f o r c e o n t h e medium.
S l u d g e filtration-d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s e s u s e o n e o r m o r e o f t h e s e
d r i v i n g f o r c e s a n d f a l l u n d e r t h e g e n e r a l filtration c a t e g o r y o f
s u r f a c e f i l t e r s, "S u r f a c e f i l t e r s a r e t h e g e n e r a l t y p e o f
filtration in which solids a r e d e p o s i t e d in t h e f o r m o f a c a k e o n
t h e u p s t r e a m side o f a r e l a t i v e l y thin f i l t e r medium " ( 5 4 ).
Q =
KAAp ( 9 -2 )
ML
w h e r e K i s a c o n s t a n t r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e p e r m e a b i l i t y o f t h e b e d.
M a n y t i m e s, E q u a t i o n 9- 2 is written :
Q = AMRA p
w h e r e R i s c a l l e d t h e m e d i u m r e s i s t a n c e a n d is e q u a l t o L/K , t h e
medium thickness d i v i d e d by t h e b e d permeability.
E x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n , a n d c o n t i n u e s t o be , c o n d u c t e d
in d e f i n i n g t h e f a c t o r s i n v o l v e d a n d l e v e l o f i n f l u e n c e i n
dewatering both compressible or incompressible sludges, A
comprehensive discussion on filtration has recently been
p u b l i s h e d ( 5 1 ). T h i s d i s c u s s i o n, t h r o u g h e x a m p l e s, s h o w s
t h e e f f e c t s o f c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e f i l t r a t i o n; c o n s t a n t r a t e
f i l t r a t i o n ; c o n s t a n t r a t e- c o n s t a n t p r e s s u r e f i l t r a t i o n ;
and variable pressure and variable rate filtration on both
c o m p r e s s i b l e a n d n o n-c o m p r e s s i b l e s l u d g e s.
9-2 6
liquid /solids separation, and t h e e q u i p m e n t functions as a filter
holder. In o r d e r t o p e r f o r m its function satisfactorily , the
filter aid 's particles should be inert , insoluble , incompress-
ible , a n d irregularly s h a p e d , p o r o u s, a n d small ( 5 3 ).
Filter aids normally assist in dewatering difficult-t o-handle
i n d u s t r i a l s l u d g e s b y either v a c u u m filtration o r p r e s s u r e
f i l t r a t i o n ( 5 4 ). I n t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s, r e s e a r c h h a s b e e n
p e r f o r m e d o n the use o f filter aids for improved dewatering o f
m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t sludges ( 5 5 ). T a b l e 9-1 6
lists results obtained from s e v e r a l t e s t studies in which either
a r o t a r y d r u m vacuum filter or a r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e filter
were u s e d.
TABLE 9- 16
Diatomite
Feed solids Particle Specific Solids Cake used , Solids
7
10 , lb/ton
concentration , size , resistance x loading , solids, capture ,
Case percent micron
^
sec /gm lb/sq ft/hr percent dry solids percent
-
2.2
11.4 e
10 3.2 2.20
0.30
25
40
- 30
- 45
160 99.9 +
98.5
--
3. WAS -
RVPF 1.0 - 2.0 40 - 790 0.55 2.09 26 - 33 140 99.9 +
conditioned WAS FP - 1.0 - 2.0 2 - 317 0.23 1.44 26 - 40 200 98.0
4. WAS -
RVPF 1.5 53 0.88 29 280 99.9 +
conditioned WAS RVPF- 1.5 16.8 2.51 25 120 99.9 +
5.
6.
Alum RVPF
Alum RVPF
0.4 -
8.0
0.8
15 118
0.3
1.37
25 -25 30 800
120
99.9+
99.9 +
aDiatomite.
-
Waste activated sludge.
CRotary vacuum precoat filter.
Filter press.
eFly ash conditioning and precoat.
2
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
1 ton 0.907 t
1 lb = 0.454 g
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
9.4.4 V a c u u m Filters
I n v a c u u m filtration , a t m o s p h e r i c p r e s s u r e , d u e t o a v a c u u m
a p p l i e d d o w n s t r e a m o f t h e m e d i a , is t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e o n t h e
liquid p h a s e t h a t m o v e s it t h r o u g h t h e p o r o u s media.
9- 2 7
s c r a p e r-t y p e rotary vacuum filter was p r e d o m i n a n t. Since then ,
t h e belt -t y p e filter with n a t u r a l o r s y n t h e t i c fiber c l o t h, woven
stainless s t e e l m e s h , o r coil springs media h a s become dominant.
R e c e n t l y , dewatering o f municipal s l u d g e s by a t o p feed vacuum
filter h a s been studied on a pilot scale ( 57 ). Results indicated
t h a t y i e l d s c o u l d be i m p r o v e d by 1 5 t o 2 0 p e r c e n t . T h e f u l l
s c a l e o p e r a t i o n is e x p e c t e d t o b e g i n in t h e s u m m e r o f 1 9 7 9 .
Table 9- 17 lists the advantages and disadvantages of vacuum
filtration w h e n it is c o m p a r e d t o o t h e r dewatering processes.
TABLE 9- 17
Advantages Disadvantages
Does not require skilled personnel Consumes the largest amount of energy per
Has low maintenance requirements for unit of sludge dewatered in most
applications
continuous operating equipment
Requires continuous operator attention
Provides a filtrate with a low suspended
solids concentration Auxiliary equipment (vacuum pumps) are very
loud
9 . 4.4.1 Principles o f O p e r a t i o n
F i g u r e 9 - 8 s h o w s t h e c u t a w a y view o f a d r u m o r s c r a p e r - t y p e ,
r o t a r y v a c u u m filter. T h e unit consists mainly o f a horizontal
cylindrical drum t h a t rotates , partially s u b m e r g e d , in a vat of
conditioned s l u d g e. T h e d r u m s u r f a c e is divided into sections
a r o u n d its circumference. E a c h s e c t i o n is s e a l e d f r o m its
adjacent section and the ends o f t h e d r u m. A s e p a r a t e drain line
c o n n e c t s each section t o a r o t a r y valve a t t h e axis of t h e drum.
T h e valve has " blocks " t h a t divide it into zones corresponding t o
t h e p a r t s o f t h e f i l t e r i n g c y c l e. T h e s e z o n e s a r e f o r c a k e
forming , c a k e drying , and c a k e discharging. A vacuum is applied
t o certain zones o f t h e valve and s u b s e q u e n t l y t o each o f t h e
d r u m sections through the drainlines a s they p a s s t h r o u g h the
different zones in t h e valve .
Figure 9-9 illustrates the various operating zones encountered
during a c o m p l e t e revolution o f t h e drum.
About 1 0 t o 4 0 p e r c e n t of the d r u m s u r f a c e is s u b m e r g e d in a v a t
containing the sludge slurry , T h i s p o r t i o n of t h e d r u m is
r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e c a k e f o r m i n g z o n e. Vacuum applied to a
s u b m e r g e d drum section causes filtrate t o p a s s t h r o u g h the media
and cake t o be f o r m e d o n t h e media. A s t h e drum r o t a t e s, each
section is successively carried through t h e c a k e forming z o n e t o
t h e c a k e d r y i n g o r d e w a t e r i n g z o n e , T h i s z o n e is a l s o u n d e r
vacuum a n d begins w h e r e and w h e n a d r u m section carries formed
9 -2 8
CLOTH CAULKING
STRIPS
DRUM
AUTOMATIC VALVE
i *\
\
v\ f
i f iA
FILTRATE PIPING
//
n CAKE SCRAPER
o
3
V
f r< A
Pi
V ’
AIR AND
FILTRATE
LINE
SLURRY AGITATOR
VAT
FIGURE 9 8 -
CAKE DRYING
ZONE
DISCHARGE
ZONE
PICK- UP OR FORM
ZONE
FIGURE 9- 9
9-29
c a k e o u t of t h e s l u d g e v a t . T h e c a k e drying zone r e p r e s e n t s
f r o m 4 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e d r u m surface and terminates a t the
point w h e r e vacuum is shut off t o each successive section. At
this p o i n t , t h e s l u d g e c a k e a n d drum section e n t e r t h e c a k e
discharge zone. I n this final zone , cake is removed from the
media . Belt- type rotary vacuum filters differ from the drum or
s c r a p e r - t y p e units , because t h e d r u m c o v e r i n g o r media- belt
leaves t h e d r u m . T h e r e are basically t w o coverings used with
belt- type units: coil springs or fiber cloth .
INTERNAL
WASH WATER PIPING
SPRAY PIPING
COIL SPRING
FILTER MEDIA VACUUM
GAUGES
DRUM
VACUUM AND
f VALVE BODY FILTRATE
OUTLETS
SLUDGE
LEVEL
*3)
CAKE
DISCHARGE
Vv
\ \
\ \
-
r*'
/ /
/ /
AGITATOR
v ss / / DRIVE
VAT / y
//
VAT DRAIN
AGITATOR
^3 "
-
5*
FICURE 9- 10
9-3 0
The coil filter has been and is widely used for all types of
s l u d g e. However , sludges with particles that are both extremely
f i n e a n d resistant t o flocculation d e w a t e r p o o r l y o n coil
f i l t e r s. Figure 9 -1 1 shows a typical installation .
FIGURE 9- 11
F i g u r e 9 -1 2 s h o w s a s c h e m a t i c c r o s s s e c t i o n of a f i b e r
cloth- belt , r o t a r y vacuum filter. Media o n this type unit leaves
the drum surface a t the end of the drying zone and passes over a
s m a l l - diameter d i s c h a r g e r o l l t o facilitate c a k e d i s c h a r g e .
Washing of the media occurs after discharge and before it returns
t o the drum f o r another cycle. This t y p e o f filter normally has
a s m a l l - diameter c u r v e d b a r b e t w e e n the p o i n t w h e r e t h e b e l t
l e a v e s t h e d r u m a n d t h e d i s c h a r g e r o l l. This bar aids in
m a i n t a i n i n g belt d i m e n s i o n a l s t a b i l i t y . In p r a c t i c e , it is
f r e q u e n t l y u s e d t o e n s u r e a d e q u a t e c a k e d i s c h a r g e. Remedial
m e a s u r e s, s u c h a s a d d i t i o n o f s c r a p e r b l a d e s, u s e o f e x c e s s
c h e m i c a l conditioner, o r addition o f f l y a s h , a r e sometimes
required t o obtain c a k e release from t h e cloth media. This is
particularly t r u e at wastewater t r e a t m e n t plants which p r o d u c e
s l u d g e s t h a t are greasy , sticky , and /o r contain a large quantity
o f activated sludge. Figure 9 -1 3 shows a typical installation.
9 -3 1
CAKE
DRYING
I
B
I
CAKE
FORMING
FIGURE 9- 12
9 -3 2
FIGURE 9-13
TYPICAL FIBER CLOTH - BELT TYPE -
9.4.4.3 Performance
As with all types of mechanical dewatering equipment, optimum
performance is dependent upon the type of sludge and its solids
concentration , type and quality of conditioning , and how the
filter is operated , Selection of vacuum level , degree of drum
submergence , type of media , and cycle time are all critical to
- -
optimum performance , Tables 9 18 and 9 19 contain expected
performance data for cloth and coil media rotary vacuum filters
for the sludge types indicated , - -
Tables 9 20 and 9 21 contain
specific operating data for several wastewater treatment plants
using cloth media and coil media.
-
9 33
complete rotary vacuum filter process. Usually , one vacuum pump
is provided for each vacuum filter, although some larger plants
use less than one pump per filter and the pumps connect to a
common header. Until the 1960 s , reciprocating type dry vacuum
pumps were generally specified , but since the early 1970s wet
type vacuum pumps are universally used , The wet type pumps are
more easily maintained and provide sufficient vacuum , Wet type
pumps utilize seal water, and it is essential that a satisfactory
water be used . If the water is hard and unstable , it may be
necessary to prevent carbonate buildup on the seals through the
use of a sequestering agent. The vacuum pump requirements are
normally 1.5 to 2.0 adiabatic cubic feet per minute of air per
square foot of drum surface area at 20 inches of mercury vacuum
( 1.5 m /min/m 2 at 69 kN/m 2 ). This is true unless the expected
^
yield is greater than 40 to 50 pounds per square foot per hour
( 20 to 25 kg /m 2/ hr ) and extensive sludge cake cracking is
expected . In the latter case , an air flow 2.5 times higher
should be used.
TABLE 9- 18
a
Chemical dosage ,
Feed solids lb/ton dry solids Yield , Cake ,
concentration , lb dry solids/ percent
Type of sludge percent FeC13 CaO sq ft/hr solids
aAll values shown are for pure FeCl 3 and CaO. They must be adjusted for anything
else.
^Filter yields depend to some extent on feed solids concentrations , Increasing
the concentration normally gives a higher yield.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t ?
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
9-34
TABLE 9- 19
P plus FT 5 - 86 50-80 -
240 320 4 - 6 27- 33
P plus WAS 4 - 50-80 -
200 300 3.5 - 4.5 20 25-
Elutriated anaerobically
digested primary 8 - 10 20-50 30-120 4 - 8 28 - 32
:JJW'* r IMVMWA&UMWAOtwtr...
•
aAll values shown are for pure FeClg and CaO. This must be
adjusted for anything else.
^ Filter yields depend to some extent on feed solids concentration.
Increasing the solids concentration normally gives a higher yield.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t „
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m / hr
TABLE 9- 20
Willoughby Eastlake , OH
-
.* •awa’ — '
yv
— -—
n *
3.7
Lime -
FeCl -
16
15 3.2
Frankenmuth, MI WAS 3 8
Lime - 14
Oconomowoc , WI Anaerobically digested 2.3 FeCl 3~ 6 18 2.
'5 - 3.0 SS 500 - 1,100
(P plus WAS) Lime - 20 BOD 5 10
Genessee City , MI P plus WAS 8 FeCl 3 27 5.6
Lime - 16
a
WAS
P
=
=
-
waste activated sludge
primary sludge
^ Numbers shown are based on pure FeCl 3 and pure CaO.
2
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /br
9 35-
TABLE 9- 21
Cake , Yield ,
Conditioner used percent lb dry solids/
Location Sludge typea percent by weight^ ^ solids sq ft/hr
Blytheville , AR Tp FeCl 3
CaO
- 94
36 33.1 10.4
Arlington , . TX TF FeCl 3
CaO
- 64
174
25.2 8.8
aWAS -
= waste activated sludge ; P = primary sludge , No data available for feed solids and filtrate
concentrations.
Numbers shown are based on pure FeCl 3 and pure CaO.
FERRIC CHLORIDE
MFTFRING MIXING TANK
w*
I Kd>
— METERING PUMP
F*LTRAIL
i
AIR ra
m '~~TJ ATMOSPHERE
FILTRATE
UMF / TANK
CLOTH SILENCER
RLTKATI
Mt RETURN
TO PRIMARY
* 5
rSLUDGE rt'ATf R TO
CAKE ' PRIMARY
AGITATOR
SLUDGE PUMP
v OQMVEYOR
/Si
m m
WATER
~~ CONDITIONING rtAiSHING5 RETURN
rz y TAIYK fO PRIMARY
FILTRATE
i .
PLIMP VACUUM
PUMP
51 IICGE AfiiTMOR VAT
SIUOGF INLET PIT
FIGURE 9- 14
-
9 36
E a c h v a c u u m filter m u s t be s u p p l i e d w i t h a vacuum r e c e i v e r
l o c a t e d b e t w e e n t h e f i l t e r v a l v e a n d t h e v a c u u m p u m p. The
principal p u r p o s e o f t h e receiver is t o s e p a r a t e t h e air from the
liquid. Each receiver can be equipped with a vacuum-limiting
device t o admit air f l o w if t h e d e s i g n vacuum is e x c e e d e d ( a
condition that could cause the vacuum pump t o overload ), The
receiver a l s o f u n c t i o n s a s a reservoir f o r t h e filtrate p u m p
suction. T h e filtrate p u m p m u s t be sized t o carry away t h e w a t e r
s e p a r a t e d in the vacuum receiver, and it is normally sized t o
provide a capacity t w o t o four times the design s l u d g e feed r a t e
t o the filter.
T h e filtrate p u m p s h o u l d b e a b l e t o p u m p a g a i n s t a minimum
t o t a l d y n a m i c h e a d o f b e t w e e n 4 0 a n d 5 0 f e e t ( 1 2 t o 1 5 m ),
w h i c h i n c l u d e s a minimum s u c t i o n h e a d o f 2 5- f e e t ( 7.5 m ).
Centrifugal-t y p e p u m p s a r e commonly used but c a n become air bound
unless they have a balance o r equalizing line connecting the high
p o i n t o f t h e receiver t o t h e p u m p , Typically, nonclogging
centrifugal s t y l e p u m p s are u s e d with coil filters because they
p e r m i t a s o m e w h a t h i g h e r solids concentration in t h e f i l t r a t e.
Self -priming centrifugal pumps a r e used most frequently , since
they are relatively maintenance free, Check valves on the
d i s c h a r g e side of the p u m p s a r e usually provided t o minimize air
l e a k a g e t h r o u g h t h e f i l t r a t e p u m p a n d receiver t o t h e v a c u u m
p u m p.
S l u d g e conditioning t a n k s a r e discussed in C h a p t e r 8.
Filter Media
A major process variable is the filter media. T h e ideal media
p e r f o r m s t h e desired liquid /solid separation and gives a filtrate
o f a c c e p t a b l e clarity ( 58 ). F u r t h e r , the filter cake discharges
readily from it , and it is mechanically s t r o n g e n o u g h t o give
a l o n g l i f e. T h e media m u s t be c h e m i c a l l y r e s i s t a n t t o t h e
materials b e i n g h a n d l e d and p r o v i d e m i n i m a l r e s i s t a n c e t o
filtrate flow. A f u r t h e r characteristic t o be minimized is
" b l i n d i n g " o r clogging . A l l t h e characteristics mentioned
above need t o be evaluated during the selection p r o c e d u r e , O n e
m u s t , t h e r e f o r e , t h r o u g h e x p e r i e n c e , o r b e n c h o r p i l o t -s c a l e
r o t a r y vacuum filter testing , select t h e best media in t e r m s of
porosity , t y p e of weave , material of construction , e t c. f o r a
p a r t i c u l a r s l u d g e. This selection is n o r m a l l y m a d e a t t h e time
of equipment start - u p by t h e equipment supplier ( 1 5 , 5 9 ). The
trend o v e r t h e p a s t few y e a r s is t o select a monofilament fabric ,
a s they seem t h e m o s t resistant t o blinding.
Solids Feed Content
T h e h i g h e r the feed s u s p e n d e d solids concentration of t h e s l u d g e ,
t h e g r e a t e r will be t h e p r o d u c t i o n r a t e o f t h e r o t a r y v a c u u m
filter ( Figure 9 -1 5 ) a n d t h e c a k e s u s p e n d e d solids concentration
( Figure 9-16 ). G e n e r a l l y , m u n i c i p a l wastewater treatment plant
9- 3 7
sludges are not concentrated beyond about 10 percent solids ,
since above this concentration, the sludge becomes difficult t o
pump, mix with chemicals , and t o d i s t r i b u t e a f t e r conditioning t o
the filter .
In addition, t o increased production r a t e s , higher
sludge feed concentrations result in lower chemical dosage rates
and lower cake moistures .
Both of these consequences affect the
cost of sludge dewatering and ultimate disposal .
12
11
D
10
9 v
yu
cr
m 7
-
C
ja 6 c
Cl
b
UJ
> 4
Q
A
3 o c DIGESTED
7 A o • PRIMARY
o BLENDED
cA A ACTIVATED
A
1
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
F E E D S O L I D S {% )
FIGURE 9- 15
30
DIGESTED
25 G
in
Q 20
BLENDED
D o 0
tn
LU 15 Q
PRIMARY
< o
o
ACTIVATED
TO A
5
11 gm/ L CaO, 3.7 gm/ L FeCl 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FEED SOLIDS { % )
FIGURE 9- 16
This study i s s u m m a r i z e d f r o m a U S E P A- s p o n s o r e d i n v e s t i g a t i o n
.
. -
( 61) F i g u r e 9 -1 7 s h o w s t h e 1 9 7 7 f l o w d i a g r a m f o r t h e 1 3 M G D
( 34 ^
m /s e c ) Lakewood , Ohio , wastewater treatment p l a n t
sludge being handled at this plant has changed several times
The
9- 3 9
limited capacity of the flash dryer Each f i l t e r has an .
effective area of 376 square feet ( 35 m2 ) and operates best
a t a drum speed of one revolution per eight minutes and a drum
submergence between 30 t o 36 inches ( 0.76 t o 0.91 m ) A filter .
i s o p e r a t e d f i v e d a y s p e r w e e k i n e i t h e r o n e o r t w o 6 . 5-h o u r
shifts per day .
Conditioning chemical dosages are approximately
275 pounds of dry lime (pebble lime 72 percent CaO ) p e r ton of
dry feed s o l i d s ( 137 kg/t ) and 30 pounds of FeCl3 ( liquid a t
4 0 p e r c e n t F e C l g ) p e r t o n o f d r y f e e d s o l i d s ( 1 5 k g/t ) .
COMMON I TORS
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FIGURE 9 17 -
LAKEWOOD , OHIO WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT FLOW DIAGRAM
1 ton = 0.907 t
9 . 4.4 . 6 Costs
F i g u r e 9 -1 8 g i v e s t h e 1 9 7 5 c a p i t a l c o s t a s a function o f filter
a r e a f o r r o t a r y v a c u u m f i l t e r s. A s a n e x a m p l e, a 4 0 0 -s q u a r e-f o o t
( 3 7 . 2 m 2 ) a r e a f i l t e r w o u l d c o s t 4 0 0 ,0 0 0 d o l l a r s , Since this
n u m b e r is b a s e d o n a J u n e 1 9 7 5 c o s t , it m u s t be a d j u s t e d t o t h e
c u r r e n t d e s i g n p e r i o d. C o s t s include t h o s e f o r filter, a u x i l i a r y
e q u i p m e n t , p i p i n g , a n d b u i l d i n g.
T h e l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s indicated in F i g u r e 9-1 9 a r e g i v e n as a
f u n c t i o n o f a v e r a g e a r e a in u s e a n d i n c l u d e: s t a r t - u p time a n d
c l e a n-u p a f t e r t h e - filter r u n , o p e r a t i o n o f filter , a n d o p e r a t i o n
o f s l u d g e p u m p i n g a n d c o n d i t i o n i n g f a c i l i t i e s p r i o r t o t r e a t m e n t.
A s a n e x a m p l e , a v a c u u m filter having 4 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t ( 37.2 m 2 )
o f f i l t e r a r e a w o u l d r e q u i r e 5 5 0 m a n- h o u r s o f o p e r a t i o n a n d
maintenance p e r y e a r a n d w o u l d b e included i n t h e c o s t a n a l y s i s.
Figure 9-20 gives power consumption as a function of filter
a r e a. A s a n e x a m p l e , a v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n a r e a o f 4 0 0 s q u a r e
feet ( 37.2 m 2 ) would require 330 ,000 kilowatt -hours per
y e a r ( 1 , 2 0 0 G J / y r ) o f e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y. I f p o w e r c o s t s a r e
0 . 0 5 d o l l a r s p e r k i l o w a t t -h o u r ( 0.014 d o l l a r s/M J ), t h e c o s t w o u l d
b e 3 3 ,0 0 0 dollars a n n u a l l y. O p e r a t i n g p a r a m e t e r s u s e d w e r e b a s e d
o n t w o a d i a b a t i c cubic f e e t o f air p e r minute p e r s q u a r e f o o t
( 1 0 1/s/m 2 ), 2 0 inches o f v a c u u m ( 6 8 K N /m 2 ), a n d a t o t a l d y n a m i c
head of 50 ft ( 15 m ) for the filtrate pump, Power required
i n c l u d e s t h a t f o r d r u m drive , d i s c h a r g e r o l l e r, a n d v a t a g i t a t o r,
b u t d o e s n o t include o t h e r a c c e s s o r y items, s u c h a s s l u d g e f e e d
p u m p o r c h e m i c a l f e e d s y s t e m.
F i g u r e 9 -2 1 s h o w s a c u r v e d e v e l o p e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g r o t a r y d r u m
v a c u u m f i l t e r maintenance material c o s t as a f u n c t i o n o f f i l t e r
a r e a. A s a n e x a m p l e , f o r a filtration a r e a of 4 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t
9- 4 1
9
8 Wisg
c/> 7
X 6
< 5
4
2
z 3
p
v> 2
s
100,000 1
2 3 4 5 6 719100 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 1rD00 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 9- 18
9
8
7
6
5
2 4
O 3
a:
O
a. 2
in
or
D
o
x 10,000
9
on 8
O 7
5 6
5
< 4
=ZD
z 3
<
2
1,000 '
<
2 3 4 5 6789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 9- 19
9 -4 2
( 37.2 m 2 ), a designer would estimate a yearly materials cost of
4 ,000 dollars, Since this number is based on a June 1975 cost ,
it must be adjusted to the current design period.
10 r 000 000
r
9 : nmv«v
8
7
6
5
4
3
<D
m 2
E
«
i
1,000,000
9
> 8
7
-c
E ©
3 5
a 4
CE 3
D
O
m 2
nr
>
o
nr
UJ
Z 100,000
yu 9
8
< 7
o 6
<E 5
U 4
UJ
yj 3
10,000
10 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9100 2 3 ,
4 5 6 7 891 000 2 3 4 6 6 7 89 10,000
FIGURE 9- 20
The early belt presses used in the United States were those
developed by Klein and by Smith and Loveless in the 1960s
( 62 ,63 ). Belt filter presses are currently very popular not only
-
9 43
in the United States ( 64 ) but in other parts of the world as well
(65) . At l e a s t 20 equipment suppliers can furnish some type of
belt press . This popularity has led t o many units being sold ,
with very l i t t l e operational experience to support the claimed
advantages . One detailed report that evaluated belt press
operating experience found t h a t there were many operational and
maintenance problems that s t i l l needed t o be solved ( 66 ) As .
was pointed out by Austin ( 65 ) , significant developmental work
is s t i l l being conducted , Table 9-23 l i s t s advantages and
disadvantages of belt f i l t e r presses .
9
7
6
5
4
10,000
9
8
sns 7
© 6
5
4
O 3
o
< 2
3
Z
<
I 000
9
IK
— ..
wl .
t' f ' a W 'X .vwa MU .
i . tti« r
- .
*"***
wawiw*
e
7
6
5
4
3
2 3 4 6 6 789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 9- 21
9-4 4
TABLE 9- 23
Advantages Disadvantages
A n y b e l t filtration p r o c e s s includes t h r e e b a s i c o p e r a t i o n a l
s t a g e s: c h e m i c a l c o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e feed s l u r r y , g r a v i t y
drainage to a nonfluid consistency , and compaction of the
p r e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e ( 6 ).
9 -4 5
CHEMICAL
CONDITIONAL
STAGE
GRAVITY
DRAINAGE
STAGE
- «
— -
COMPRESSION
DEWATERING
STAGE
POLYELECTRQUTE
SOLUTION .j
SLUDGE ** MIXER
/ lV
CONDITIONED
SLUOGE
t
»
'! ;i ! O Wiv u
Q
'i !' O
n
ii'i H
1 1 "M l
i ;' . , t r
(°J f
{ o; SLUDGE
Jp WASR SPRAY OAK E
\
WASH WATER*
FIGURE 9 - 22
*
Qlo I
4
*)
QLQJS *
o; o ; o; o ;o ; o ;o| oyofSTo
t tM M
1'
+ +
. Wl
i
* *
I i
U
Y
T t t t
1 I
t t
VACUUM ASSISTED
*pT=n LJ
!
T
T
t t
*
V ^jr
/
i
FIGURE 9- 23
-
9 47
B
\ i
I
;
FIGURE 9- 24
TABLE 9- 24
Polymer ,
Feed Cake , pounds dry
solids, percent per ton
Type of sludge percent solids dry solids
P + WAS 1- 3 12-18 4 -8
6-8 20- 30 2- 5
Thermal conditioned
P + WAS 4-8 38- 50 0
-
9 48
drain well in the gravity drainage section , and the result
is either extrusion of inadequately drained solids from the
compression section , or uncontrolled overflow of sludge from the
drainage section .
Both underconditioned and overconditioned
sludges can blind the f i l t e r media .
In addition , overconditioned
sludge drains so rapidly that solids cannot distribute across the
media .
Inclusion of a sludge blending tank step before the belt
press reduces this problem .
See Chapter 15 for a discussion of
blending tanks .
The combined f i l t r a t e and belt washwater flow i s normally about
o n e a n d o n e- h a l f t i m e s t h e i n c o m i n g f l o w .
Some b e l t presses
recirculate washwater from the f i l t r a t e collection system, but
normally , secondary effluent or potable water i s used This .
t o t a l f l o w c o n t a i n s b e t w e e n 1 0 0 a n d 1 , 0 0 0 m g /1 o f s u s p e n d e d
solids and i s typically returned either to the primary or
secondary treatment system .
Belt presses have numerous moving parts, and spare parts
should be kept a v a i l a b l e t o prevent prolonged u n i t down time - .
Belts , bearings , and rollers deteriorate quickly , especially
in municipal wastewater treatment plants where preventive
maintenance i s not normally practiced .
9.4.5.5 Design Example
-
9 49
On the basis of pilot plant data , the engineer decided that one
1-meter -wide belt filter press could dewater the 5 , 000 pounds
( 2 , 268 kg ) of sludge in 7.6 hours. Since it was important that
the wastewater treatment plant always be able to dewater sludge ,
two 1- meter-wide belt filter presses would be purchased .
The current cost of dry polymer in 50 pound ( 22.7 kg ) bags was
$ 1.85 per pound ( $ 0.84/kg ) ; for liquid polymer in 55 gallon ,
650 pound ( 208 1- 295 kg ) drums , the cost was $ 0.13 per pound .
Daily cost for dry polymer at 8 pounds per ton ( 4 kg /t ) would be:
9-50
T h e s u s p e n d e d solids a n d flow b a l a n c e s a r e s o l v e d simultaneously.
T h e f l o w o f f i l t r a t e ( Q ) is 6 7 . 2 g a l l o n s p e r minute ( 2 5 4 1/m ).
Solids capture
900
47 ( 8.34 x 1.02) ( 0.028 ) 67.2 (8.34 x 1.01 )
106
47 ( 8.34 x 1.02) ( 0.028 ) x 100
95 percent
A l l filtrate is r e t u r n e d t o t h e s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s.
9 . 4 .5 . 6 Costs
Current published information on capital cost of belt filter
p r e s s e s is a l m o s t nonexistent , S o m e information is available
f r o m a r e c e n t U S E P A p u b l i c a t i o n ( 6 8 ). According to this
publication , construction costs for a belt filter press,
s l u d g e f e e d p u m p , p o l y m e r p u m p, a n d c o n t r o l p a n e l t o d e w a t e r
1 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s ( 4 5 4 k g ) o f s l u d g e p e r h o u r w a s $ 9 7 , 0 0 0. T o d e w a t e r
2 , 5 0 0 p o u n d s ( 1 ,1 3 4 k g ) p e r h o u r , t h e c o s t w o u l d be $ 1 2 0 , 0 0 0.
Table 9-2 5 l i s t s l a b o r r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r t h e o p e r a t i o n a n d
maintenance o f belt filter p r e s s e s. T h e l a b o r indicated includes
p e r i o d i c o p e r a t i o n a l a d j u s t m e n t s a n d m i n o r routine maintenance.
N o information is available o n maintenance material c o s t.
TABLE 9- 25
9-5 1
9 . 4.6 R e c e s s e d P l a t e P r e s s u r e Filters
TABLE 9- 26
Advantages Disadvantages
Highest cake solids concentration Batch operation
High labor cost
High capital cost
Special support structure requirements
Large area requirement
9 . 4.6 . 1 P r i n c i p l e s of O p e r a t i o n
F i x e d- v o l u m e, r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e f i l t e r s, i l l u s t r a t e d
o n F i g u r e 9- 25, a r e c o n s t r u c t e d f r o m a s e r i e s o f r e c e s s s e d
p l a t e s. A s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 9 - 2 6 , v o l u m e is p r o v i d e d b y t h e
d e p r e s s i o n s o n t h e s i d e s o f t h e p l a t e s.
T h e s u r f a c e s o f b o t h s i d e s o f t h e filter p l a t e a r e designed s o
that the filtrate drains from the filter cloth and from each
p l a t e.
A f i l t e r c l o t h is m o u n t e d o v e r t h e t w o s u r f a c e s o f e a c h f i l t e r
p l a t e. Conditioned s l u d g e is p u m p e d into t h e p r e s s u r e filter a n d
passes through feed holes in the filter plates along the length
o f t h e filter and into t h e r e c e s s e d c h a m b e r s. As t h e s l u d g e c a k e
f o r m s a n d b u i l d s u p i n t h e c h a m b e r, t h e p r e s s u r e g r a d u a l l y
increases to a point at which further sludge injection would
9-5 2
FIXED OR _ MOVEABLE
FEED HEAD r — PLATES r ~ HEAD
/ CLOSING
i r
t
HEAD HYDRAULIC
J i
/ CLOSURE
rU-: nnDTidobooiiQ
S
* l
<
FIGURE 9- 25
CLOTH
CAKE
SLURRY
INLET
liLliJilJil
mw.rg:
m
NV
,
'S
II
iI 1i
I
$
: :v:
-
: m !
i m
m el j |f ta-;g;
i
v
I I
FILTRATE OUTLETS
FIGURE 9- 26
9-5 3
-
be counter productive. Pressure filters operate at a pressure of
100 pounds per square inch (690 kN/m 2) or 225 to 250 pounds per
square inch ( 1 ,550 to 1 ,730 kN/m 2 ).
- -
-
the press to the position shown on Figure 9 25. Sludge is fed
for a 20 to 30 minute period until the press is effectively full
of cake. The pressure at this point is generally the designed
- -
maximum and is maintained for a one to four hour period , during
which more filtrate is removed and the desired cake solids
content is achieved . The filter is then mechanically opened , and
the dewatered cake dropped from the chambers onto a conveyor belt
for removal. Cake breakers are usually required to break up the
rigid cake into conveyable form ,
pressure filter installation.
-
Figure 9 27 shows a typical
FIGURE 9- 27
-
Construction of a variable volume recessed plate pressure filter
is similar to the fixed- volume filters, except that a diaphragm
is placed behind the media as shown on Figure 9- 28. A dewatering
cycle begins as conditioned sludge is fed into each chamber from
a slurry inlet pipe located in the top or bottom of each plate.
Generally , about 10 to 20 minutes are required to fill the press
-
9 54
and reach an end point determined by either instantaneous feed
rate, filtrate rate, or time .
When t h e end p o i n t i s reached ,
t h e sludge feed pump i s automatically turned o f f Water or a i r, .
under high pressure , i s then pumped i n t o the space between the
diaphragm and plate body squeezing the already formed and
partially dewatered cake .
Typically , 15 to 30 minutes of
constant pressure are required to dewater the cake to the desired
solids content .
At the end of the cycle , the water i s returned
to a reservoir, plates are automatically opened , and sludge cake
is discharged .
SLURRY
INLET
( TOP OR
CAKE UNDER
BOTTOM ) CLOTH COMPRESSION
I
K l
r
i i
!
HIGH PRESSURE
5 WATER i
1
i i
FILTRATE FILTRATE I
OUTLET 7 ZZ Z i
(TOP OR
BOTTOM )
FIGURE 9- 28
9 . 4.6 . 2 Application
9 -5 5
higher than 3 0 p e r c e n t , I f s l u d g e characteristics are e x p e c t e d
t o c h a n g e drastically o v e r a n o r m a l operating period , o r if less
chemical conditioning is desired , the variable- volume units would
p r o b a b l y be selected r a t h e r t h a n t h e fixed - volume units.
TABLE 9- 27
aAll vaiaes shewn are for pure FeCl and CaO. Must be adjusted for anything else.
1 lb/ton = 0.5 kg/t
^
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/nr/hr
9.4.6 . 3 Performance
A s of 1 9 7 9 , v e r y f e w fixed - v o l u m e r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e
f i l t e r s a r e o p e r a t i n g in t h e United S t a t e s , a n d t h e r e a r e n o
variable- volume installations operating , T a b l e 9- 27 contains
e x p e c t e d p e r f o r m a n c e d a t a f o r typical fixed - volume units, and
T a b l e 9 - 2 8 l i s t s a c t u a l d a t a f r o m o p e r a t i n g i n s t a l l a t i o n s.
T a b l e 9 - 29 lists a p e r f o r m a n c e f r o m a l a r g e variable- volume p i l o t
unit ( 6 2 . 4 s q u a r e feet [ 5.8 m ] o f filtering area ).
^
9 . 4.6 . 4 O t h e r Considerations
9 -5 6
TABLE 9- 28
Percent solids
Year and
Feed Conditioner , . Cake with Cake without total cost,
solids, lb/ton dry conditioning conditioning dollars/ton
Location Sludge typea percent solids 3 *
material material dry solids Reference
Kenosha , WI Anaerobically di
gested mixture
- 3.5 - 5 FeCl 3
Lime
-340
-
54 41.5 35 1975 - 61 70
( P plus WAS)
Wausau , WI Water plant plus
thermal conditioned
2 8 - 0 34 - 45 35 - 45 Not given 71
mixture of anaer
obically digested
-
(P plus WAS)
Fly ash at
Cedar Rapids, IA Anaerobically di
gested mixture
-
3.5 7 - about
60 27 1972 - 30 72
(P plus TF) 2,500
Brookfield , WI Aerobically digested 4 FeCl3 -, 200
143 43 25 Not given 61
WAS plus raw P Ash - 1346
Lime -
aP = primary sludge ; WAS = -
waste activated sludge; TF = trickling filter sludge.
^anything
All values shown for FeCl
else.
3 and CaO are for pure chemicals , Must be adjusted for
TABLE 9- 29
Chemical
dosage ,a
Ib/ton dry Percent solids
Feed solids
solids , Yield , Cake with Cake without
Site Type of sludge percent FeCl3 CaO lb/sq ft/hr chemicals chemicals
b
Anaerobically digested
1 60 P: 40 WAS 3.8 120 320 1.0 37 30
2 60 P: 40 WAS 3.2 180 580 0.7 36 25
3 40 P: 60 WAS 3.8 120 340 0.6 40 32
4 40 P: 60 WAS 2.5 180 500 0.6 42 30
5 50 P: 50 WAS 6.4 80 220 2.0 45 39
6 60 P: 40 WAS 3.6 160 320 0.8 50 40
7 Raw WAS 4.3 180 460 0.6 34 25
8 Raw (60 plus 40 WAS) 4.0 100 300 0.9 40 33
9 Thermal conditioned
50 P: 50 WAS 14.0 0 0 2.5 60 60
aAll values shown are for pure FeCl 3 and CaO. Must be adjusted for
anything else.
bp = primary sludge; WAS = -
waste activated sludge.
9-57
that the prolonged agitation and tank storage time associated
with batch conditioning can result in a feed of varying and
deteriorating dewaterability For this reason, conditioning .
processes a r e now f r e q u e n t l y designed t o provide " i n l i n e " -
conditioning . This can be accomplished by either the continuous
pumping of sludge into a small tank and addition of chemicals ,
or directly injecting conditioning chemicals into the sludge on
i t s way i n t o the f i l t e r , In line conditioning diminishes -
the deleterious effects of storage and prolonged agitation .
-
F i g u r e 9 2 9 s h o w s a s c h e m a t i c f o r i n- l i n e c o n d i t i o n i n g .
ALUMINUM
CHLtJHQ HYDRATE
POLYELECT ROUTE SILO LEVEL SWITCHES CONTROLING SLUDGE FEED
MIXING TANK AND DILUTE CHEMICAL FEED PUMPS
t
!
!
!
} f DILUTE CHEMICAL
STOCK TANK
/
/
/ I PRESSURE
*I
i
/ VESSEL
[ **» -rtfc -lifci •
mKf v flhr 1
l / \
f I
V I
l I
l
* FILTER PRESS
l
l FILTRATE TO
I HEAD OF
COMMINUT0 R i CONDITIONING PRESS WORKS
TANK
ixj FEED
PUMP
PUMP
c D
SLUDGE HOLDING FILTER CAKE
TANK
FIGURE 9- 29
Dewatered C a k e B r e a k e r s
D e s i g n o f s u i t a b l e b r e a k e r s is a f u n c t i o n o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l
p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e d e w a t e r e d c a k e. Pressure filter cake is
usually friable enough that use of breaker wires, bars, or
c a b l e s b e n e a t h t h e f i l t e r w i l l be s u f f i c i e n t. I f , h o w e v e r ,
p o l y e l e c t r o l y t e c o n d i t i o n i n g is c o n t e m p l a t e d , c o n s i d e r a t i o n
should b e given t o t h e resulting c h a n g e s in cake s t r u c t u r e.
Performance
T h e p r e s s u r e filter is g e n e r a l l y o p e r a t e d f o u r d a y s p e r week ,
16 h o u r s p e r d a y , 4 5 w e e k s p e r y e a r. T h e o t h e r 7 w e e k s p e r y e a r ,
the s l u d g e is a p p l i e d t o land. Figure 9 - 3 1 summarizes operating
p e r f o r m a n c e before ( l e t t e r B ) a n d a f t e r ( letter A ) the addition
o f f e r r o u s s u l f a t e. Figure 9-31 also presents a mass flow
diagram of an operating recessed p l a t e pressure filter.
9-59
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUDGE
PLANT LIFT
PRIMARY
1
CONTACT
\ CHLORINE
STATION STABILIZATION . FINAL
INFLUENT* *
AND CLARIFIERS ACTIVATED ^ CLARIFIER CONTACT
COMMINUTOR SLUDGE MM * * IMIM
TANK
i , iI
SECONDARY
( WASTE ACTIVATED!
SLUDGE
PRIMARY SLUDGE
> 1
SCRUBBER DIGESTER SUPERNATANT AEROBIC
WATER DIGESTER
DIGESTED
SLUDGE
FILTRATE
* SLUDGE
ALTERNATE
HOLDING DISPOSAL OF
TANK
LIQUID SLUDGE
MULTIPLE SLUDGE SLUDGE BY TANK TRUCK
PRESSURE
HEARTH
INCINERATOR CAKE FILTER -
# CONDITIONING
TANK
ASH
ASH
* STORAGE
TANK
LANDFILL
FIGURE 9- 30
The 1976 operating and maintenance costs for the pressure filter
are combined with the incinerator operational cost in Table 9 -30.
With the initiation of chemical addition for phosphorus removal,
the cost of treating and disposing of a ton of dry solids
decreased by approximately $ 1.33 , as shown in Table 9-30. This
reduction was due to decreases in the amounts of chemical condi-
tioners and electricity required by the plate pressure filter.
These decreases were , however , partially offset by an increase in
the amount of auxiliary fuel used by the incinerator, This was
the result of decreased incinerator volatile solids feed rates.
9.4.6.6 Cost
Figure 9-32 gives f ixed - volume , recessed plate pressure filter
capital cost as a function of press volume , Costs include
those for filter auxiliary equipment , p i p i n g , and building ,
As an example , a pressure filter having 100 cubic feet ( 2.8 nw )
capacity would cost about $ 700 , 000. Since this number is based
on June 1975 cost , it must be adjusted to the current design
year.
9-60
FILTER CAKE
WET CAKEA = 506,000 Ib/mo
SLUDGE TO TSA = 219,000 Ib/mo
PRESSURE FILTER VSA = 71 ,000 ( 32.6% OF lb TS )
FSA = 148,000
QA = 328,000 gal /mo %TSA = 43.4
TSA = 131,000 Ib/mo % VSA = 14.1
A = 4.77
%TSA %FSA
A = 91%
SLUDGE PLUS
ASH FECL3 LIME ADMIX TO FILTER
1,810 9al /mo 32,400 gal /mo PRESSURE
79,000 Ib/mo QA - 362 ,000 gal /mo FILTER
0.60 lb ASH / 8,840 Ib /mo 22,600 Ib/mo TSA = 240,000 Ib/mo
lb DRY SOLIDS 135 lb FECL3 / 346 lb LIME / %TSA = 7.95 AFTER
98,000 Ib /mo 1,770 gal /mo 28,800 gal/mo Qg = 426,000 gal /mo BEFORE
0.85 lb ASH / 8,280 Ib /mo 20, 100 Ib/mo TSg = 243,000 Ib /mo 79 runs/mo
lb DRY SOLIDS 152 lb FECL 3 / 345 lb LIME / %TSQ
B
= 6.85
2.83 hrs/run
TON DRY SOLIDS TON DRY SOLIDS 232 hrs /mo
Q = FLOW FILTRATE
TS = TOTAL SOLIDS
VS = VOLATILE SOLIDS
QA * 328 ,000 gal /mo
FS = FIXED ( NONVOLATILE ) SOLIDS
TSA = 21 ,000 Ib/mo
%TS = PERCENT DRY TS BY WEIGHT
% VS = PERCENT DRY VS BY WEIGHT Qg = 397,000 gal /mo
% FS = PERCENT DRY FS BY WEIGHT TSg =62,000 Ib/ mo
1 lb = 0.454 kg
1 gallon = 3.78 I
FIGURE 9 - 31
TABLE 9- 30
9 -61
10,000,000
9
7
6
i
5
4
E 3
m
5 2
w
40
8
1,000,000
—-
O
I
a
D
cc
h
to
9
7
6
5
.-
4 i >
o
(J
3
I
2 3 4 & 6 7 8 9100 2 3 4 5 6 7 891,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 89
FIGURE 9- 32
Figure -
9 3 3 i n d i c a t e s f i x e d-v o l u m e , r e c e s s e d p l a t e p r e s s u r e
filter labor requirements , Labor requirements are based on
- - -
continuous, seven day per week operation with two hour cycles and -
include operation and maintenance for both press and related
auxiliaries ( chemical feed system and pumps ) As an example, .
a pressure f i l t e r having 100 cubic feet ( 2.8 m ) of capacity
-
would require 8 , 000 man hours of operation and maintenance per
^
year and would be included in the cost analysis .
F i g u r e 9- 3 4 g i v e s p o w e r c o n s u m p t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f f e e d s o l i d s
concentration and operating volume .
The graph i s based on a
f i l t e r t h a t operates continuously , seven days per week , and
h a s a 2 -h o u r c y c l e t i m e , Power c o n s u m p t i o n i n c l u d e s t h a t f o r
t h e feed pump , open and c l o s e mechanisms , and moveable head
mechanism .
F i g u r e 9- 3 5 p r e s e n t s a g r a p h d e v e l o p e d f o r e s t i m a t i n g a n n u a l
material and maintenance costs for a fixed volume , recessed plate -
-
9 62
pressure filter .
The graph i s based on unit operation of seven
days per week with a two hour cycle time * -
1GOr 0OO
9
7
6
5
4
5
cS3 3
O
cr 2
O
LL
CO
cr
D
O 10,000 *« 8 *ru
..«
X 9
B
cr 6 IK«
O
S 5
4
<
3 3
2
<
2
I I [ I M I I
2 3 4 56789100 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 9 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 9- 33
.
9.4 7.1 Screw Press
-
9 63
1 ,000,000
9
2 8
7
ID
6
ii 5 8%
4 INFLUENT SOLIDS * 4% B%
3
3
JZ 2
-*
i£
°t
£
100,000
9
8
3 7
to
Z 6
5
8 4
CE
111
3
< 2
3
Z
<
2 3 4 5 6 7 88 100 2 3 4 6 6 7 B 91,000 2 3 4 i6730
FIGURE 9- 34
100,000
9
40
7
3*
6
5
K 4
in
8 3
«
*1
<
3 2
z
I
Li
4 5 6 7 89100 6 8 7 89 1 ,000 4 E 6 7 89
'
2 3 2 3 4 2 3
FIGURE 9- 35
9-6 4
WASH WATER
SLUDGE FEED
3
^
( OPTIONAL !
.
.V i.
'
-V
'
’
• TANK 5 •V/ •«
V.V:
;4~ T
*
;«.» >
-r. VK';
""
-- ::
*
••• '
t *.
- : -
v'ii POLYMER
REACTOR : :
II
'
v
»,
-
? V "‘ :
:
Xf; VESSEL
SLUDGE
nr RECIEVING
TANK
:
11 GRINDER
•*> r
!
CAKE
SCREW
- - -=
I:.vV.:-
.J
-
:v .* v
i
r ir FILTRATE
i i
t i
POLYMER
PUMP
SLUDGE
11 a PUMP
CONTROL
PANEL
FIGURE 9 36
TABLE 9- 31
-
9 65
.
9.4 7.2 -
Twin Roll Press
F i g u r e 9 - 3 7 s h o w s a c r o s s s e c t i o n o f a t w i n- r o l l , v a r i n i p p r e s s
-
D e v e l o p e d i n 1 9 7 0 b y m o d i f y i n g a f i x e d n i p t w i n- r o l l p r e s s , t h e
.
-
vari nip press was installed in 17 plants by 1976 . One of these
plants i s municipal ( 76 ) .
SHREDDER
HOOD CONVEYOR
ROLL CLEANING
SHOWERS
CAKE DOCTOR
AND SEAL
PRESS
- ROLLS
MOVEABLE
I NIP
ROLL "
PRESSATE
«f - FIXED
ROLL
CHANNELS
t
VAT AGITATOR
VAT
SLUDGE FEED
PI CURE 9- 37
CROSS SECTION VIEW OF A TWIN- ROLL VARI- NIP PRESS
9 66-
of 35 percent was obtainable after sludge conditioning with
approximately seven pounds of dry polymer per ton ( 3 . 5 kg/t ) of
dry feed solids .
When b i o l o g i c a l sludge was added , performance
decreased and polymer requirements increased , At a mixture
of 50:50 , cake solids dropped to 28 percent , while polymer
requirements increased to 17 pounds of dry polymer per ton
( 8.5 kg/t ) of dry feed solids .
The conclusion was that this was
an excellent dewatering unit for primary sludge.
9 . 4 .8 D u a l C e l l G r a v i t y ( DCG ) F i l t e r
DEWATERING
CELL
- SLUDGE
INLET
CAKE FORMING
CELL
-—
FILTRATE
PAN
CONVEYOR -i FILTRATE
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 9- 38
CROSS SECTION VIEW OF A DUAL CELL GRAVITY FILTER
TABLE 9- 32
-
‘jj pcfr =*# '
9 . 4 .9 T u b e Filters
Tube filters can be either of the pressure type or of the
gravity type .
9 . 4 .9 . 1 Pressure Type
C o m m o n l y known as tube filter presses, p r e s s u r e t y p e t u b e filters
h a v e b e e n used in industry ( 77 ). H o w e v e r, t h e r e a r e n o municipal
installations. Typically , t h i s t y p e of device consists o f a n
o u t e r c y l i n d e r, a n i n t e r n a l r u b b e r b l a d d e r , a n d a n i n t e r n a l
p e r f o r a t e d cylinder which is c o v e r e d with a filter media. T h e
whole a s s e m b l y is mounted v e r t i c a l l y .
Slurry is pumped into the annular space between the bladder
a n d media- c o v e r e d w a l l , W h e n this a r e a i s f u l l , t h e b l a d d e r
is f i l l e d w i t h l i q u i d , a n d t h e s l u r r y is c o m p r e s s e d a g a i n s t
the filter media , Filtrate flows through the media and is
discharged. W h e n t h e desired c a k e solids concentration h a s b e e n
obtained , liquid p r e s s u r e is released a n d t h e c a k e is d i s c h a r g e d
with a blast of air.
9 -6 8
Following is a description of the 0.5 -MGD ( 21.9 1/s ) dewatering
facility at Half Moon Bay , California.
This facility consists of four bags , each 3 feet ( 0.9 m ) in
diameter and 9 feet ( 2.7 m ) long with a ring at the top to
support the polyester media bag and a ring at the bottom , which
is engaged circumferentially by a motor-driven chain. The chain
twists the ring about 360 degrees, thereby closing off the bottom
so that the bag can be filled . Suspended down the center of the
bag is a polyester tube about 6 inches ( 15 cm ) in diameter with
the end extending about 12 inches ( 0.3 m ) beyond the bottom of
the closed ends. All four bags are mounted outdoors on a steel
framework over a concrete pad containing the drainline and
chemical conditioning system. The sludge fills the annular core ,
and the filtrate seeps through the outer polyester media surface
and the inner core tube.
9.5.1 Cyclones
9 -69
is u s u a l l y r e c y c l e d t o the g r i t chamber, Some designers h a v e
found it necessary t o screen this overflow t o k e e p debris from
overwhelming t h e s y s t e m. T h e drainage from t h e dewatering device
is c o l l e c t e d a n d typically r e t u r n e d t o the head of t h e treatment
plant.
9 . 5. 2 Screens
" S c r e e n i n g is t h e p r o c e s s o f s e p a r a t i n g g r a i n s , f r a g m e n t s o r
l u m p s o f a variety of sizes into groups, e a c h of which contains
only p a r t i c l e s in the size r a n g e between definite maximum and
minimum s i z e limits " ( 7 9 ). I n a d d i t i o n t o b e i n g u s e d in
d e w a t e r i n g ( 2 6 ), s c r e e n s h a v e a l s o b e e n u s e d f o r p r i m a r y
t r e a t m e n t ( 8 0 ), t h i c k e n i n g ( 8 1 , 8 2 ), a n d c o n d i t i o n i n g ( s e e
C h a p t e r 8 ).
T h e p r i m a r y u s e o f s c r e e n s in d e w a t e r i n g w o u l d b e with b a r
screenings o r t h e underflow f r o m grit cyclones. I n o n e extensive
study ( 8 3 ), t h e following results were found:
U n d e r f l o w f r o m a g r i t c y c l o n e c o u l d be dewatered t o
2 5 p e r c e n t solids with either t h e static o r revolving
screen.
T h e p o p u l a r i t y o f screens is s l o w l y i n c r e a s i n g in t h e United
States because in certain a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e y offer a d v a n t a g e s in
both c a p i t a l c o s t and o p e r a t i n g cost.
9 . 5.3 E l e c t r o-Osmosis
9.6 References
p. 1 1 0 1. 1 9 7 8.
9 -7 0
2. D i c k , R .I . a n d D.L . S i m m o n s . "Optimal Integration of
P r o c e s s f o r S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t ." P r o c e e d i n g s 3 r d National
C o n f e r e n c e o n S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t D i s p o s a l a n d Utilization ,
Miami B e a c h , F L , 1 2/ 1 4 - 1 6/ 7 6 , s p o n s o r e d b y E R D A , U S E P A ,
N S F a n d I T I , P. 2 0 , Information T r a n s f e r I n c., Rockville,
M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2.
4. Carry , C . W . , R .P . M i e l e , a n d J . F . S t a h l . "Sludge
D e w a t e r i n g ." P r o c e e d i n g s o f t h e N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n
M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t. P i t t s b u r g h, P A 6/ 1 1- 1 3/7 4.
T r a n s f e r I n c • R o c k v i l l e , M a r y l a n d 2 0 8 5 2.
/
^
S p o n s o r e d b y A l l e g h e n y C o u n t y , P A , P • 6 7, I n f o r m a t i o n
5. O h a r a , G . T . , S .K . R a k s i t , a n d D . R . O l s o n . "Sludge
D e w a t e r i n g S t u d i e s a t H y p e r i o n T r e a t m e n t P l a n t ." Journal
W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation. V o l. 5 0 , p . 9 1 2 ( 1 9 7 8 ).
6. U S E P A. Pilot I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f S e c o n d a r y S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g
A l t e r n a t i v e s. I n d u s t r i a l E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h L a b ,
Cincinnati , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. N T I S P B - 2 8 0- 9 8 2 , F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
9. Z e n z , D . R. , B . S a w y e r , R . W a t k i n s , C . L u e - H i n g , a n d
G. Richardson. " E v a l u a t i o n o f Unit P r o c e s s e s f o r D e w a t e r i n g
o f A n a e r o b i c a l l y D i g e s t e d S l u d g e a t M e t r o C h i c a g o' s C a l u m e t
S e w a g e T r e a t m e n t P l a n t ." Presented at the 49 th Annual
C o n f e r e n c e W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. M i n n e a p o l i s,
M i n n e s o t a . O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6.
10 . U S E P A. _
O p e r a t i o n s C h e c k L i s t s. Office o f W a t e r P r o g r a m
O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n, D C 2 0 4 6 0 . M C D 4 8 B . F e b r u a r y 1 0 ,
1 9 7 7.
9-7 1
12 . USEPA .
Sludge Handling and Disposal Practices a t Selected
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants Office of Water .
Program Operations
1977 .
.
W a s h i n g t o n , DC 2 0 4 6 0 MCD 3 6 April . .
13 . Sp illner , F .
"T h e D r y i n g of Sludge ." Sewage Sludge .
London, England , 1912 .
14 . USEPA .
Sludge Dewatering and Drying on Sand Beds Office .
of Research and Development , Cincinnati, Ohio 45268 EPA .
- -
6 0 0/ 2 7 8 1 4 1, A u g u s t 1 9 7 8 .
15 . Eckenfelder, W W . .
and D L Ford . .
Water Pollution Control . .
P e m b e r t o n P r e s s , A u s t i n , TX a n d New York , NY 1 9 7 0 .
16 . Walski , T M . . "Mathematical Model Simplifies Design of
Sludge Drying
April 1976 .
Beds. " Water and Sewage Works . P 64 . .
17 . Water Pollution Control Federation MOP 8 W a s t e w a t e r .
Treatment Plant Design Water Pollution Control Federation . .
1977 .
18 . USEPA .
Performance Evaluation and Troubleshooting a t
Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities Office of Water .
Program Operations .
W a s h i n g t o n , DC 2 0 4 6 0 EPA 430 / .
- -
9 78 002 .
February 1978 .
19 . USEPA .
Sludge Handling and Conditioning . Office of Water
P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s , W a s h i n g t o n , DC 20460 . E P A 4 3 0/ 9-7 8 -
112 . February 1978 .
20. South , W T . . "A s p h a l t P a v e d S l u d g e B e d s . " Water and Sewage
Works Vol . . 106, P - R396 . 1959.
2 7. U S E P A. " D e v e l o p m e n t s in D e w a t e r i n g W a s t e w a t e r S l u d g e s."
Technology Transfer Seminar on Sludge Treatment and
D i s p o s a l. V o 1 . 1 . T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r . Cincinnati,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8 .
28 . B e a r d s l e y , J.A .
"S l u d g e Drying B e d s A r e Practical " W a t e r .
and Sewage Works .
Part 1, P 8 2 , J u l y ; P a r t 2 , p. 4 2.
-
A u g u s t ( 1 9 7 6 ).
3 0. K e r s h a w , M. A. " D e v e l o p m e n t in S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l
a t t h e M a p l e L o d g e W o r k s , E n g l a n d ." J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution
.
C o n t r o l Federation. V o l 3 7, P 6 7 4. 1 9 6 5.
-
3 1. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n. MOP 2 0 Sludge
D e w a t e r i n g . W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n . 1 9 6 9.
3 4. W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l Federation. M O P 8 S e w a g e T r e a t m e n t
P l a n t D e s i g n. W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation. 1 9 5 9.
3 6. R e c o m m e n d e d S t a n d a r d s f o r S e w a g e W o r k s. G r e a t L a k e s/U p p e r
M i s s i s s i p p i River B o a r d o f State Sanitary E n g i n e e r s , 1 9 7 1.
9 -7 3
4 0. J e f f r e y , E. A. "L a b o r a t o r y S t u d y of D e w a t e r i n g R a t e s
f o r Digested S l u d g e in L a g o o n s." P r o c e e d i n g s o f 1 4 t h P u r d u e
I n d u s t r i a l W a s t e C o n f e r e n c e. P u r d u e University , L a f a y e t t e ,
I n d i a n a 4 7 9 0 7. 1 9 5 9.
4 1. J e f f r e y , E . A. " D e w a t e r i n g R a t e s f o r D i g e s t e d S l u d g e i n
L a g o o n s. " Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
V o l. 3 2, P 1 1 5 3. 1 9 6 0
- .
4 2. K e e f e r, C E .. and H .
K r o t z. " E x p e r i m e n t s o n D e w a t e r i n g
S e w a g e S l u d g e W i t h a C e n t r i f u g e. " Sewage Works Journal,
V o l. 1 , P 1 2 0. 1 9 2 9.
-
4 3. T a k e n f r o m e q u i p m e n t m a n u f a c t u r e r s installation lists.
4 6. Z a c h a r i a s , D. R. a n d K . A. P i e t i l a. " F u l l-S c a l e S t u d y o f
Sludge P r o c e s s i n g a n d Land D i s p o s a l U t i lizing Centrifugation
For D e w a t e r i n g ." P r e s e n t e d a t t h e 5 0 t h A n n u a l M e e t i n g o f
the Central States Water Pollution Control Federation,
Milwaukee, W i n c o n s i n. M a y 1 8- 2 0, 1 9 7 7.
4 7. A l b e r t s o n , O . E . a n d E . E. G u i d i , J r . " C e n t r i f u g a t i o n o f
W a s t e S l u d g e s." J o u r n a l W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation.
V o l. 4 1 , P 6 0 7. 1 9 6 9.
-
4 8. C a m p, D r e s s e r & M c K e e, I n c. C e n t r i f u g a l D e w a t e r i n g o f W a s t e
Activated S l u d g e . R e p o r t o n testing a n d e q u i p m e n t p r o p o s a l s
f o r J o n e s I s l a n d W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t P l a n t, M i l w a u k e e ,
W i n c o n s i n . O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7.
9-7 4
5 2. D a r c y , H .P .G. " L e s F o n t a i n e s P u b l i q u e s d e l a V i l l e d e D i j o n
( T h e P u b l i c W e l l s o f t h e C i t y o f D i j o n )." V. D a l m o n t Paris ,
1 8 5 6. E n g l i s h translation b y J .J . Fried. W a t e r R e s o u r c e s
Bulletin American W a t e r R e s o u r c e s Association/ V o l 1 , p.4. .
1 9 6 5.
5 3. M a s t e r s , A . L. " F i l t e r A i d s . " S o l i d - L i q u i d S e p a r a t i o n ,
B u t t e r w o r t h s , I n c. L a d i s l a v S v a r o v s k y , e d i t o r , 1 9 7 7.
5 4. " G e t t i n g t h e M o s t O u t o f F i l t e r A i d s. "
B a s s o, A .J .
Chemical Engineering. P 1 8 5. S e p t e m b e r 1 2, 1 9 7 7.
-
5 5. N C A S I. A Pilot Plant Study of Mechanical Dewatering
D e v i c e s O p e r a t e d o n W a s t e Activated S l u d g e . Prepared for
N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l o f t h e P a p e r I n d u s t r y f o r Air a n d S t r e a m
I m p r o v e m e n t. T e c h n i c a l Bulletin 2 8 8 , N o v e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
5 6. F l y n n, E.O. "T h e Mechanical D e w a t e r i n g o f S e w a g e S l u d g e o n
V a c u u m F i l t e r s . " S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l . V o l. 5 , P 9 5 7
1 9 3 3.
-
5 7. L e a r y , R .D., L.A. E r n e s t , G.R. D o u g l a s , A. G e i n o p o l o s a n d
D.G . M a s o n. " T o p- f e e d V a c u u m F i l t r a t i o n o f A c t i v a t e d
S l u d g e." J o u r n a l W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l F e d e r a t i o n.
V o l. 4 6. P 1 7 6 1. 1 9 7 4.
-
5 8. P u r c h a s , D.B . " F i l t r a t i o n in t h e C h e m i c a l a n d P r o c e s s
1 , " Filtration. P 2 5 6. 1 9 6 4.
I n d u stries
-
5 9. V e s i l i n d , P. A. Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater
S l u d g e s. A n n A r b o r S c i e n c e. A n n A r b o r, M i c h i g a n 4 8 1 0 6 .
1 9 7 4.
6 0. B e n n e t t , E . R ., D. A . R e i n , a n d K .D. L i n s t e d t . " E c o n o m i c
A s p e c t s o f S l u d g e D e w a t e r i n g and D i s p o s a l." J o u r n a l o f t h e
Environmental E n g i n e e r i n g Division A S C E . V o l. 9 9 , P 5 5.
-
1 9 7 3.
6 1. U S E P A. Review o f T e c h n i q u e s f o r T r e a t m e n t a n d D i s p o s a l o f
P h o s p h o r u s- L a d e n Chemical S l u d g e s. Office o f R e s e a r c h a n d
D e v e l o p m e n t. Cincinnati, Ohio 4 5 2 6 8. E P A 6 0 0/ 2- 7 9- 0 8 3.
F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 9.
9-7 5
6 5. A u s t i n , . E .P . " T h e F i l t e r B e l t P r e s s Application and
D e s i g n." Filtration a n d S e p a r a t i o n. P. 3 2 0. J u l y/A u g u s t
1 9 7 8.
66 . NCASI. A Review of t h e O p e r a t i o n a l E x p e r i e n c e with Belt
F i l t e r P r e s s e s f o r S l u d g e Dewatering in t h e N o r t h American
P u l p a n d P a p e r I n d u s t r y. P r e p a r e d f o r N a t i o n a l C o u n c i l
o f t h e P a p e r I n d u s t r y f o r A i r a n d S t r e a m I m p r o v e m e n t.
T e c h n i c a l B u l l e t i n 3 1 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
6 7. E i c h m a n , B .W . " D e w a t e r i n g M a c h i n e S o l v e s S l u d g e D r y i n g
P r o b l e m s." W a t e r a n d S e w a g e W o r k s. P 9 9 ( O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7 ).
-
6 8. U S E P A. Innovative a n d Alternative T e c h n o l o g y Assessment
M a n u a l - D r a f t. Office o f W a t e r P r o g r a m s. W a s h i n g t o n , D C
2 0 4 6 0. M C D 5 3. 1 9 7 9.
6 9. W a k e m a n , R .J . " P r e s s u r e F i l t r a t i o n. " S o l i d - L i q u i d
S e p a r a t i o n. B u t t e r w o r t h s, I n c., Ladislav S v a r o v s k y , editor ,
1 9 7 7.
7 0. N e l s o n , O.F. "O p e r a t i o n a l E x p e r i e n c e with Filter P r e s s i n g . "
W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation D e e d s and D a t a. March
1 9 7 8.
7 1. B i z j a k , G .J . a n d A.E. B e c k e r , J r. "W a u s a u S o l v e s D u a l
P r o b l e m b y U s i n g F i l t e r Press. " Water and Wastes
E n g i n e e r i n g. P 2 8. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8.
-
7 2. U S E P A. P r e s s u r e Filtration o f W a s t e w a t e r S l u d g e With A s h
F i l t e r Aid . O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , Cincinnati ,
O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. E P A- R 2- 7 3- 2 3 1. 1 9 7 3.
9-7 6
7 9. O s b o r n e , D.G. "S c r e e n i n g ." S o l i d -L i q u i d S e p a r a t i o n ,
B u t t e r w o r t h s, I n c. L a d i s l a v S v a r o v s k y , e d i t o r. 1 9 7 7.
8 1. F e r n b a c h , E . a n d G. T c h o b a n o g l o u s. " C e n t r i f u g a l S c r e e n
C o n c e n t r a t i o n f o r A c t i v a t e d S l u d g e P r o c e s s." W a t e r a n d
S e w a g e W o r k s. P a r t I. J a n u a r y ; P a r t I I. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 5.
9 -7 7
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
Chapter 10 . Heat-Drying
September 1979
CHAPTER 1 0
H E A T- D R Y I N G
10.1 Introduction
In t h e United S t a t e s , d r y w a s t e- activated s l u d g e s and t h o s e from
Imhoff t a n k s h a v e b e e n heat dried t o p r o d u c e a soil conditioner
and nutrient source since t h e e a r l y 1 9 2 0 s . Historically , t h e u s e
o f heat - drying h a s b e e n justified based o n t h e e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t
s a l e s o f the dried material would substantially o f f s e t p r o c e s s
c o s t s. H o w e v e r , d e m a n d for t h e product h a s generally b e e n l o w in
t h e fertilizer m a r k e t. Milwaukee, Wisconsin ; H o u s t o n, T e x a s;
Chicago, Illinois ; and L a r g o, Florida, a r e notable exceptions
where marketing h a s been successful. Because revenues have
g e n e r a l l y b e e n l o w a n d b e c a u s e h e a t- d r y i n g i s e x p e n s i v e, n e t
c o s t s h a v e o f t e n been high , and t h e p r o c e s s h a s n o t found wide
a p p l i c a t i o n. T h e u s e o f h e a t - d r y i n g m u s t b e e v a l u a t e d in
t h e c o n t e x t o f o v e r a l l sludge m a n a g e m e n t a t a g i v e n facility.
10-1
t h e interior o f t h e solid a s f a s t a s it i s e v a p o r a t e d .
Drying proceeds as if the water were evaporated from a
p o o l o f liquid . T h e solid itself d o e s n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y
i n f l u e n c e t h e drying r a t e , For this drying period, the
t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e s l u d g e/ g a s interface is ordinarily
k e p t a t t h e w e t- b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e g a s. A s l o n g a s
unbound surface moisture is present , the solid is
h e a t e d o n l y t o t h e w e t- b u l b t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e g a s ;
solids may therefore be dried with fairly hot gases
a n d n o t t h e m s e l v e s attain e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s , For
e x a m p l e , t h e w e t- bulb t e m p e r a t u r e is 1 3 3 ° F ( 5 6°C ) f o r a
gas stream that has an absolute humidity of 0.01 pounds
water per pound dry a i r and a temperature of 6 00° F
( 3 1 6° C ).
Sludge m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t i s n o r m a l l y e x p r e s s e d in p e r c e n t
moisture , p e r c e n t solids , o r p o u n d s w a t e r p e r p o u n d d r y s l u d g e.
T h e minimum s l u d g e m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t p r a c t i c a l l y attainable with
h e a t d r y i n g d e p e n d s u p o n t h e d e s i g n a n d o p e r a t i o n o f t h e d r y e r,
moisture content of the sludge feed, and the chemical composition
o f t h e s l u d g e. F o r o r d i n a r y d o m e s t i c w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s, s l u d g e
m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t s a s l o w a s f i v e p e r c e n t m a y b e a c h i e v e d.
C h e m i c a l b o n d i n g o f w a t e r w i t h i n t h e s l u d g e, w h i c h c a n o c c u r
t h r o u g h chemical a d d i t i o n f o r s l u d g e c o n d i t i o n i n g , o r chemicals
p r e s e n t in industrial s l u d g e s c a n i n c r e a s e t h e a m o u n t o f w a t e r
r e t a i n e d i n t h e d r i e d p r o d u c t s b e y o n d t h e f i v e p e r c e n t moisture
l e v e l.
H u m i d i t y i s a m e a s u r e o f t h e moisture c o n t e n t o f t h e g a s p h a s e
at a given temperature and is important to consider when
d e t e r m i n i n g drying r a t e s. A b s o l u t e h u m i d i t y i s a m e a s u r e o f t h e
w e i g h t o f w a t e r p e r u n i t w e i g h t o f d r y g a s ( f o r e x a m p l e, p o u n d s
w a t e r p e r p o u n d d r y a i r ).
In h e a t- d r y i n g o f s l u d g e, w a t e r i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e g a s
p h a s e. The driving force for transfer is the difference
b e t w e e n a b s o l u t e h u m i d i t y a t t h e w e t t e d s o l i d /g a s i n t e r f a c e
10-2
and the absolute humidity in the gas phase .
The transfer
rate -- that is, the drying rate — can be described by the following
equation:
where:
where :
10-3
A = area of wetted surface exposed to gas, square feet
( m2 );
where:
-
elements , by gas heated incandescent refractories that also
provide the advantage of convective heating , or by infrared
lamps. The Shirco Company furnace and multiple hearth furnaces -
are e x a m p l e s o f d r y i n g e q u i p m e n t t h a t u s e r a d i a n t h e a t.
Radiation heat transfer is described by Equation 10 4. -
ad es A CT ( t4r - t4 s ) -
( 10 4 )
where:
10 4 -
A = sludge surface area exposed to radiant source ,
square feet ( m 2 ) ;
10- 5
T h e a b o v e-m e n t i o n e d h e a t m u s t b e s u p p l i e d b y t h e h e a t i n g medium,
f o r e x a m p l e, h o t a i r o r s t e a m .
80
c ASSUMPTIONS;
o
- 10 PERCENT MOISTURE IN DRIED SLUDGE
Z3
1
- 2000 Btu ARE REQUIRED TO EVAPORATE
m
co
o _
c
60
ONE POUND OF WATER
LLJ — 5
CL
*CM
a £
LU , T
CL
_ 40
II
<—
I
§
yj -*- 1
X
LU
h
<
_ -
3
+J
do
2
~
20
x
o
cc
CL
GL
<
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
FIGURE 10- 1
1 0- 6
its entering the dryer, Figure 10 2 i s a schematic diagram for -
this required air flow ( G ) , the required air
example , The
inlet temperature to the dryer ( t2 ) , and the dryer evaporative
efficiency must be calculated.
IA
n
/ ET ci i i n r
- - - —
.c
n i f L "w fc r w i
=
LOADING 10.000 Ib /hr
SOU D$ CONTENT 20% =
TEMP = 60 F °
EXHAUST GAS
© ^ Y = MOISTURE CONTENT
QJ 2 lb waiter /
lt> dry air
INLET AsR
VOLUME * ( COMPUTE )
TEMP = °
240 F
Y = MOISTURE CONTENT
= 0, 008' lb 'wtmrf
lb dry air DRYER INLET AIR
TEMP - 70°F
(0
AIR
REHEATER
-
TEMP t 2 ( COMPUTEI-
SLUDGE
DRYER
RADIATION LOSS
NEAT SUPPLIED TO PROCESS (?) Mp; - lx tO® Slu / hf
HA « (COMPUTE)
t
DRIED SLUDGE
-
t IhyTif = 0,454 kgt ' hr
SOLIDS CONTENT
-
- 91 %
1 Btu/hr = 1.054 kJ /hr TfcMP ’ 140 P °
FIGURE 10- 2
Heat Capacity ,
Substance B t u / l b/ ° F
i
Dry a i r 0.24
Water 1.0
Water vapor 0.45
2. Moisture out :
a . Moisture in sludge
^
= 10,000 lb sludge
hr
per hour ( 91 kg /hr )
0.2
lb dry solids
lb sludge
. X 9 lb water
91 lb dry solids
200 lb
10,000
lb sludge 0 . 2 0 lb solids
hr sludge lb )( 0.25
Btu
lb/ °F
60-32 ° F
10,000 lb
sludge
hr
0.80
lb water
lb sludge )( 1.0
Btu
lb°/F
69 , 600 hr
lb
0.24 lb F
/°
Btu
-
t 2 32 ° F
) ( I40-32°F )
lb sludge lb solids
=
10,000
hr
.
0.25
W ^ F
( 10.3 TJ / hr ) .
(3) Summing ,
t2 = 8 2 6 ° F ( 4 4 1° C ) .
Step 3 -
Determine the evaporative e f f i c i e n c y I n t h i s example , .
evaporative efficiency is defined as the heat supplied to
evaporate one pound of w a t e r , i n comparison t o the t h e o r e t i c a l
heat of v a p o r i z a t i o n:
1 . Determine heat supplied to the process ( H ) By an
^
.
overall heat balance around the process ( including
the air preheater ) , H = H 3 + H 5 + H R - H 4- H ] _.
^
1 0-1 0
a . From previous calculations, H 3 + H 5 + HR = " heat out "
= 75,400 + 13, 224 , 000 + 1,000,000 14, 299,000 Btu
per hour ( 15.0 TJ/ hr ) .
b. From previous calculations, H 4 = 238 , 000 Btu per
hour ( 251 GJ /hr ) .
c. Determine H], the heat content of the inlet air
^
Btu
608,401 Btu per hour
1065 + 0.45
lb/°F 70- °F
+ 50
(641 GJ/hr ).
(3 ) Summing ,
d. HA 14, 290 , 000- 238,000 1,243, 000 12, 809 , 000 Btu
10-11
nma&stzsmtxmtr®
-
Figure 10 1 , the energy required to flash-dry a well dewatered
sewage sludge ( 40 percent solids concentration) is approximately
-
^
5.6 x 106 Btu per ton (7.3 x 10 kJ/t) of dry solids. Assuming
that the solids are four percent nitrogen by weight and that half
of the nitrogen is in plant-available form , the energy required
to produce 1.0 ton , ( 0.9 t ) of plant available nitrogen is
5.5 x 106 Btu 100 ton . dry solids x 2 ton N
-
x 280 x 106 Btu
ton dry solids 4A ton N ton available N
(295 x 106 kj).
-
Heat drying of sludge produces a material that usually contains
10 percent or less moisture , a moist gas stream that is ejected
to the atmosphere, and in some cases, a liquid sidestream , The
impacts of all of these products must be considered in the
-
design of the heat drying facilities , Some data on pathogenic
-
organism survival through heat drying processes are presented in
Chapter 7. -
Heat dried sludge should not be allowed to become
rewetted , since moisture creates an environment favorable for
regrowth of organisms. Once sludge is rewetted , anaerobic
decomposition can begin with the concomitant generation of
noxious odors. This is particularly a problem for sludges that
have not been previously stabilized.
Potential users of dried sludge prefer a granular or pelletized
product. A product which is dusty , odorous , or contaminated
with materials such as plastics , strings , Or cigarette butts is
difficult to sell or give away.
10-12
abrasion and dusting occurs , The most effective control measure
for these problems is afterburning , However , afterburning
requires supplementary fuel and may be prohibitively expensive
for many installations, Cyclones, wet scrubbers, electrostatic
precipitators, and baghouses have been used with varying degrees
of success.
10.4.2 Safety
Drying systems are exposed to heavy dusting and have had problems
with fires , The combination of combustible particles , warm
temperatures, sufficient oxygen, and high-gas velocities make
these systems susceptible to fires.
The number and size of the dryers depend on the type of drying
operation contemplated. If the dryers are operated continuously ,
extra dryer capacity is needed so that all sludge produced can be
dried while maintenance and repairs are being performed . In
cases where non-continuous operation ( for example , 40 hours per
week ) is envisioned or where only one dryer is installed , the
dryer( s ) must have sufficient evaporative capacity to handle all
the sludge , including that generated when the dryers are not
on line. In the latter case, wet sludge storage requirements may
be significant.
10-13
10.5.2 Storage Requirements
The large amounts of energy required for heat- drying dictate that
close attention be given to the source used to heat the drying
medium. Natural gas and fuel oil are most frequently used but
are becoming more expensive, and shortages have occurred in the
past few years. Energy recovery within the heat-drying system
itself provides one way of reducing energy usage ; for example,
heat exchangers can be used to recover heat from the exhaust
gases . Recovery of heat from a power source within the plant is
another method ; for example, Milwaukee recovers waste heat from
gas turbine exhausts. The dried sludge itself has a fuel value
and may be used as a heat source for the drying medium.
10-14
1 0 . 5.5 Equipment Maintenance
A m a j o r m a i n t e n a n c e p r o b l e m i n s o m e d r y e r s is e r o s i o n o f
c o n v e y i n g e q u i p m e n t a n d d r y i n g s h e l l s by t h e a b r a s i v e dried
s l u d g e. This is particularly a p r o b l e m f o r d r y e r s processing W A S
from activated s l u d g e p l a n t s which h a v e only coarse screening f o r
grit removal. T h e use o f ferric chloride as a dewatering aid
m a y a l s o c r e a t e corrosive conditions t h a t e x a c e r b a t e t h e p r o b l e m.
W o r n conveying equipment c a n lead t o dusting problems , Abrasive
s l u d g e m a y r e s u l t in r e p l a c e m e n t o f r o t a r y d r y e r d r u m s h e l l s
every few years.
1 0 . 5.6 S p e c i a l Considerations
I n t h e United S t a t e s , t h e O r g a n i f o r m p r o c e s s , d e v e l o p e d b y
Orgonics , Inc., h a s been used t o increase t h e nitrogen content of
the dried sludge , T h i s p r o c e s s, b a s e d o n u r e a- f o r m a l d e h y d e
t e c h n o l o g y , w a s u s e d in a n e x i s t i n g h e a t - d r y i n g o p e r a t i o n a t
W i n s t o n- S a l e m , N o r t h C a r o l i n a, f r o m 1 9 7 3 t o 1 9 7 5 , a n d t h e
p r o t o t y p e system is still used a t a l e a t h e r tanning facility in
Slatersville , R h o d e Island ( 8 ) . T h e h e a t- drying operation a t
Winston-Salem w a s abandoned , however, because railroad siding
and terminal facilities for bulk s t o r a g e and shipment could n o t
,
be funded. T h e B a s e l C o u n t y T h e r m a l S l u d g e D r y i n g P l a n t in
Switzerland h a s p r o v i s i o n s f o r adding n i t r o g e n, p h o s p h o r u s , a n d
potassium t o t h e dried sludge f o r improvement o f its f e r t i l i z i n g
properties .
10.6 Conventional H e a t D r y e r s
Conventional h e a t- d r y i n g i s u s u a l l y p r e c e d e d by m e c h a n i c a l
dewatering and m a y b e followed by air pollution control devices
and s y s t e m s which a l t e r the form o f the dried material.
Mechanical dewatering is discussed in detail in C h a p t e r 9 . I t is
a n important p r e t r e a t m e n t s t e p since it r e d u c e s the volume o f
w a t e r t h a t m u s t be removed in the d r y e r , I n the d r y e r, w a t e r
that h a s n o t b e e n mechanically separated is e v a p o r a t e d without
decomposing t h e organic m a t t e r in t h e s l u d g e solids , This m e a n s
t h a t t h e solids t e m p e r a t u r e must be k e p t between 1 4 0 a n d 2 0 0° F
( 6 0 ° a n d 9 3 ° C ). A l a r g e portion o f t h e dried s l u d g e is o f t e n
blended with the sludge feed to the dryer, making the drying
o p e r a t i o n m o r e efficient by reducing agglomeration ( l a r g e balls
o f s l u d g e ), t h u s exposing a g r e a t e r solids s u r f a c e a r e a t o t h e
drying medium. Dried s l u d g e and e x h a u s t g a s e s a r e s e p a r a t e d in
the d r y e r itself and /o r in a c y c l o n e. T h e g a s s t r e a m can g o t o a
1 0-1 5
£*8aC8SHg&W
T h e third c o m p o n e n t is t h e e f f l u e n t g a s t r e a t m e n t facility
o r induced d r a f t f a c i l i t y . T h i s c o n s i s t s o f t h e d e o d o r i z i n g
preheater, the combustion air heater, t h e induced draft fan, and
a gas scrubber. Odors are destroyed when the t e m p e r a t u r e of the
g a s from t h e cyclone is elevated in the deodorizing p r e h e a t e r.
P a r t of t h e h e a t a b s o r b e d is recovered in t h e c o m b u s t i o n air
p r e h e a t e r. T h e g a s t h e n p a s s e s t h r o u g h a d u s t collector
( generally a scrubber ) and is discharged t o the atmosphere.
10- 16
*I
EXHAUST
GAS
RELIEF
VENT
CYCLONE
AUTOMATIC
DAMPERS
VAPOR FAN
INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
EXPANSION SCRUBBER
JOINT
EXPANSION
DOUBLE EXPANSION JOINT
JOINT REMOTE
MANUAL FLAF VALVE MANUAL
DRY DAMPERS
DIVIDER
COMBUSTION
AIR PREHEATER
INLET
DRY PRODUCT AIR
CONVEYOR
BURNERS FURNACE
AUTOMATIC
DAMPERS —i
FIGURE 10- 3
10 -17
10.6.1 . 2 C a s e S t u d y: H o u s t o n, T e x a s
D e w a t e r e d s l u d g e is t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e d r y e r s b y belt conveyors.
Each flash d r y e r, with c a g e mill and 1 4-foot ( 4 . 3 m ) diameter
c y c l o n e, is rated a t 1 2 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s o f w a t e r p e r h o u r ( 5 , 448 kg /
h r ) but is o p e r a t e d a t 9 , 0 0 0 t o 1 0 ,0 0 0 p o u n d s o f w a t e r p e r h o u r
( 4 , 0 8 6 t o 4 , 5 4 0 k g /h r ) , Heat exchangers are provided for
high t e m p e r a t u r e deodorization and f o r preheating t h e c o m b u s t i o n
a i r. T h e c a g e m i l l i n l e t t e m p e r a t u r e is 9 0 0 ° F t o 1 , 1 5 0 ° F
( 4 8 2° C t o 6 2 1 ° C ) , a n d t h e t e m p e r a t u r e a t t h e c y c l o n e is a b o u t
2 2 0 0 F ( 1 0 4 0 C ). T h e d e o d o r i z a t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e is c o n t r o l l e d
around 1, 2 0 0° F ( 6 4 9° C ), and t h e s t a c k g a s t e m p e r a t u r e is 5 0 0 ° F t o
6 0 0°F ( 260 ° C t o 3 1 6 ° C ) a f t e r h e a t recovery , T h e f u e l used is
n a t u r a l g a s, and t h e h e a t input is about 2 2 million B t u p e r h o u r
( 23.2 million k j/ h r ) o r 2 , 200 t o 2,4 0 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 5 ,1 0 0 k j/k g
t o 5 ,6 0 0 k j/kg ) w a t e r e v a p o r a t e d.
M o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e d r i e d p r o d u c t is a b o u t 5 . 5 p e r c e n t .
A b o u t n i n e t i m e s a s m u c h s o l i d s o n a d r y w e i g h t basis a r e
r e c y c l e d t o t h e p r e d r y e r d o u b l e p a d d l e mixer a s a r e r e m o v e d a s
p r o d u c t. T h e p r o d u c t is c o n v e y e d t o a s t o r a g e area or directly
t o railroad cars for shipment.
T h e p r o c e s s is a u t o m a t e d a n d p a n e l b o a r d s a r e p r o v i d e d t h a t
indicate and record variables s u c h a s air flow , t e m p e r a t u r e s a t
critical points , and a m p e r a g e o n f a n m o t o r s , T h e controls a r e
e n c l o s e d i n a i r- c o n d i t i o n e d c u b i c l e s , Horn alarms indicate
unsuitable t e m p e r a t u r e conditions .
T h e c o n t r o l s f o r the ferric chloride feeding h a v e p r o v e n t o b e
inadequate and h a v e led t o o p e r a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s.
1 0- 1 8
No specific cost data are available for the Houston facilities.
The dried product , Hou- actinite , is sold through a broker by
yearly contract.
10-19
DIRECT DISCHARGE
ID ATMOSPHERE
CHEMICAL
SCHUBBfcR ATMOSPHERE
HOT EXHAUST
f
GAS S ROTARY L GASES
HEAT BURNER
AIR FURNACE f CYCLONE #
^jEXCHANGCft ^
f
FUEL
i see* TO
MIXY f
.
DRYER
\
\
3O0P F
'
^^ 1500°F
FUEL
BLENDED DRIED
SLUDGE SLUDGE SCHUD 6 ER ATMOSPHERE
133 F TO 2OCP r
°
*
BLENDER *
‘
BURNER
1500 F°
#* SCRUBBER - ATMOSPHERE
f
FEED SLUDGE
DISPOSAL
FUEL
\ /
V
ALTERNATIVES AVAILABLE FOR EXHAUST GAS DEODO RIZAT I ON
AND PARTICULATE REMOVAL
FIGURE 10- 4
10 20-
T h e r o t a r y d r y e r , manufactured by t h e Heil C o m p a n y , h a s an
evaporative capacity of approximately 5 , 4 0 0 p o u n d s water per hour
( 2 , 4 5 0 k g / h r ) . T h e Heil d r y e r e m p l o y s a 3 - in- l d r u m design .
S l u d g e moves forward t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r cylinder , t h e n back ,
10- 21
TABLE 10- 1
Polymer 13 ,000 23
Gas 26 ,000 45
Labor 21 , 000 36
Power 11 ,000 20
10- 22
A n o t h e r t y p e o f i n d i r e c t s l u d g e d r y e r is t h e j a c k e t e d a n d / o r
h o l l o w-f l i g h t d r y e r a n d c o n v e y o r , A s c h e m a t i c o f a j a c k e t e d
hollow-flight d r y e r is presented o n F i g u r e 1 0- 5. T h e s e units c a n
p e r f o r m t h e d u a l function o f h e a t t r a n s f e r a n d solids conveying
in o n e piece of equipment--generally a horizontal , semi-circular
trough with a jacket or coil to provide heat ( 10). This
equipment h a s o n e o r more agitation devices ( f o r e x a m p l e , s c r e w ,
flight, disc , p a d d l e ) rotating o n t h e a x i s t h r o u g h t h e c e n t e r of
t h e t r o u g h. A significant d e g r e e o f agitation is necessary t o
maintain reasonable heat transfer, Simple screw conveyors
a r e notably poor in this r e g a r d , b e c a u s e increasing the s p e e d
r e d u c e s t h e r e s i d e n c e t i m e in t h e d r y e r by m o v i n g t h e s l u d g e
rapidly t h r o u g h t h e s y s t e m , H e a t t r a n s f e r coefficients for this
t y p e o f equipment r a n g e from 1 5 t o 7 5 B t u p e r h o u r p e r s q u a r e
f o o t p e r ° F ( 1 8 . 6 t o 9 3 c a l / s q c m /° C ) , d e p e n d i n g o n m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t and d e g r e e o f a g i t a t i o n.
/
BREAKER
te BARS
VJV j IL
JACKETED
VESSEL
JOINT
AGITATOR -
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 10- 5
1 0- 2 3
the flights to improve mixing and to break up any lumps that
f o r m. The rotating flights are often fitted with small paddles
or similar projections to improve agitation and reduce fouling of
the shell surface.
T h e d r y e r a i r inlet t e m p e r a t u r e i s c o n t r o l l e d a t 1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C ).
T h e e x h a u s t e d g a s l e a v e s t h e d r y e r a t 2 5 0° F ( 1 2 1 ° C ) a n d i s p a s s e d
t h r o u g h c y c l o n e s e p a r a t o r s t o r e m o v e f i n e p a r t i c l e s, Each dryer
h a s i t s o w n f u r n a c e. Originally , coal was used as a fuel, then
coke oven gas ( after furance modification ) , and then natural gas
w i t h s t a n d b y f u e l o i l . I n t h e m i d -1 9 7 0 s , g a s t u r b i n e s w e r e
installed , a n d t h e g a s f r o m t h e s e turbines , a t a t e m p e r a t u r e o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 9 0 0 ° F ( 4 8 2°C ), is now fed to the modified furnaces
a n d t w o w a s t e h e a t r e c o v e r y b o i l e r s. The gas burners are used to
1 0-2 4
provide t h e additional h e a t n e c e s s a r y t o m a i n t a i n t h e d r y e r i n l e t
t e m p e r a t u r e a t 1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C ). T h e r e c o v e r e d turbine e x h a u s t
heat s u p p l i e s 7 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e h eat required for the sludge
drying o p e r a t i o n.
The dried sludge product is abrasive , and the wet sludge is
corrosive b e c a u s e o f t h e f e r r i c chloride u s e d , I n t e r n a l s o f t h e
drum must be replaced about every three years, The present
dryers are over 20 years old , and plans are being made to add
t h r e e d i r e c t , c o c u r r e n t r o t a r y d r y e r s a n d t o rehabilitate t h e
e x i s t i n g d r y e r s.
1 0 . 6.3 Incinerators
I n s l u d g e i n c i n e r a t i o n , t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e s l u d g e is raised
t o 2 1 2°F ( 1 0 0 °C ) , a n d t h e w a t e r is e v a p o r a t e d f r o m t h e s l u d g e
before it is ignited ; that is, the sludge is dried prior to
ignition. S e v e r a l o p t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e with incinerators. If
h e a t i n p u t s a r e r e d u c e d , t h e incinerator c a n b e u s e d a s a d r y e r
a l o n e. Alternatively , a portion of the dried sludge can be
r e m o v e d a t a n intermediate p o i n t in t h e incinerator , with t h e
remainder proceeding o n w a r d t o b e b u r n e d , Finally , a l l s l u d g e
m a y b e i n c i n e r a t e d.
Modifications m a y b e r e q u i r e d if t h e s e u n i t s a r e t o b e u s e d f o r
d r y i n g a l o n e ; f o r e x a m p l e , modifications t o a m u l t i p l e- h e a r t h
f u r n a c e w o u l d include f u e l b u r n e r s a t t h e t o p a n d b o t t o m h e a r t h s
p l u s d o w n-d r a f t o f t h e g a s e s, If t h e s l u d g e is t o b e d i s p o s e d
o f , i n c i n e r a t i o n p r o v i d e s g r e a t e r v o l u m e reduction t h a n drying
a l o n e.
I n c i n e r a t i o n i s d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1 1. P r o c e s s e s i n c l u d e
m u l t i p l e- h e a r t h , fluid - bed , a n d electric f u r n a c e s.
1 0 . 6 .4 Toroidal D r y e r
T h e T o r o i d a l ( d o u g h n u t-s h a p e d ) d r y e r i s a r e l a t i v e l y n e w d r y e r
t h a t i s e m p l o y e d i n t h e U O P , I n c. O R G A N O- SYSTEMR f o r s l u d g e
p r o c e s s i n g . T h e d r y e r w o r k s o n a j e t m i l l p r i n c i p l e a n d contains
n o m o v i n g p a r t s. T r a n s p o r t o f solid material within t h e d r y i n g
z o n e i s accomplished e n t i r e l y b y h i g h- v e l o c i t y a i r m o v e m e n t .
1 0 . 6 .4 . 1 Process Description
A s i m p l i f i e d p r o c e s s flow d i a g r a m o f t h e U O P O R G A N O- SYSTEMR i s
s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 0 -6 . The system is composed of wet sludge
s t o r a g e, m e c h a n i c a l d e w a t e r i n g , s l u d g e d r y i n g , a i r p o l l u t i o n
c o n t r o l , f i n a l p r o d u c t f i n i s h i n g , a n d s t o r a g e.
The mechanical dewatering step is designed to deliver the
dewatered sludge to the dryer at about 35 percent to 40 percent
s o l i d s. T h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e i s m i x e d w i t h p r e v i o u s l y d r i e d
s l u d g e t o r e d u c e t h e moisture concentration o f t h e d r y e r feed .
1 0- 2 5
INCOMING
-
> A < r;T
HVL. i
f> i i IP>
^(;
•
WET
SLUDGE
STORAGE
MECHANICAL SECONDARY
DEWATERING STORAGE AtR
¥
h AIR EMISSIONS
CONTROL
PRODUCT
COLLECTOR
BLOWER
o
AIR HEATER
TOROIDAL DRYER
L
PRODUCT FINISHING
PRODUCT TO
CUSTOMER
FIGURE 10- 6
-
10 26
T h e dried s l u d g e p a r t i c l e s e x i t i n g t h e toroid a r e s e n t t o a
c y c l o n e w h e r e t h e y a r e s e p a r a t e d from t h e g a s s t r e a m . A p o r t i o n
o f t h e dried s l u d g e i s b a c k - mixed w i t h t h e w e t feed , a n d t h e
r e m a i n d e r i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e p r o d u c t f i n i s h i n g s e c t i o n.
T h e r e , t h e dried p r o d u c t m a y be extruded ( a t a t e m p e r a t u r e of
1 4 0 ° F [ 6 0 ° C ] ) , c u t into p e l l e t s, a n d b a g g e d , if desired .
Otherwise, t h e p r o d u c t is r o u t e d t o s u b s e q u e n t s l u d g e p r o c e s s e s
i n c l u d i n g c o d i s p o s a l/e n e r g y recovery o r l a n d application. G a s e s
f r o m t h e c y c l o n e a r e t r e a t e d by p r o c e s s e s t h a t m a y include
w e t s c r u b b e r s , e l e c t r o s t a t i c p r e c i p i t a t o r s , a n d b a g h o u s e s.
Deodorizing chemicals m a y be required .
10.6.5 S p r a y- Drying
1 0 . 6 .5 . 2 Current Status
1 0-2 7
refuse incinerator , Operation of the incinerator has been
limited to about five hours per day because of state air
pollution control requirements ; the drying time was likewise
limited . A burnable, dried product with greater than 90 percent
solids has been produced with this system. The dried sludge has
been given away as a soil conditioner rather than burned in the
refuse incinerator.
10- 28
t
DECANTER
140DF
7
i
SOLVENT A ,
T
STILL
140“ F
MIX
i
20° F OIL
40°F
50 Fj
LIQLMD /50 LID
JUNCTION SEPARATOR
HEAT
HEAT
'X
50°F EXCHANGER 40°F
EXCHANGER
DRYER
FIGURE 10- 7
SCHEMATIC OF B . E . S . T . PROCESS
A f u l l- s c a l e B E S T s y s t e m h a s y e t t o b e o p e r a t e d .
A 1- g a l l o n- p e r -
m i n u t e ( 4 1/ m ) d e m o n s t r a t i o n t e s t u n i t k n o w n a s " m i n i - B E S T "
was evaluated by Metropolitan Engineers i n 1975 as p a r t o f
Municipality of Metropolitan Seattle ' s research program .
C o m b i n a t i o n s o f s e t t l e d p r i m a r y a n d t h i c k e n e d w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d
sludges were treated i n the p i l o t f a c i l i t y .
The study team
c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e BEST p r o c e s s was n o t c o s t- e f f e c t i v e f o r
1 0- 2 9
Seattle Metro ( 12 ). The process was also compared by the LA/OMA
project with several other candidate sludge disposal systems and
found to be one of the more expensive alternatives for the
Los Angeles area ( 13 ).
10.7.2 -
Multiple Effect Evaporation
Process
— Carver Greenfield
-
Multiple effect evaporation is another technique that can be used
to remove water from sludge. The Carver Greenfield process ,
-
offered jointly by Foster Wheeler Energy Corporation and
-
Dehydro Tech Corporation , uses this technology .
-
The basis of economy for multiple effect evaporation is steam
reuse. Steam generated in the first evaporator ( by evaporation
of water from sludge ) is used as the heating fluid in the second
evaporator. The method is feasible if the second evaporator is
operated at a lower pressure than the first.
-
10 30
1 0 . 7.2 . 1 P r o c e s s Description
According t o t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r , o v e r 6 5 C a r v e r- Greenfield
installations are in o p e r a t i o n worldwide. M a n y o f t h e s e s y s t e m s
h a v e o p e r a t e d a t i n d u s t r i a l f a c i l i t i e s in t h e United S t a t e s ,
i n c l u d i n g a f o u r- e f f e c t s y s t e m a t t h e A d o l p h C o o r s B r e w e r y in
G o l d e n , C o l o r a d o. T h i s s y s t e m' s w a t e r e v a p o r a t i v e c a p a c i t y
i s 6 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r ( 2 7 , 2 4 0 k g / h r ) w h i c h a l l o w s it t o
process approximately 1 8 0 ,000 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 6 8 2 mVday ) f
a 4 p e r c e n t w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e f e e d ( 8 , 1 0 ). T w o s y s t e° ms
1 0- 3 1
are also operating at sewage treatment plants in Japan , The
first , installed at Fukuchiyama, is a three-effect unit which
processes combined primary and secondary sludge at rates up to
43 , 000 gallons per day ( 170 m /d ) of 4.5 percent feed material.
^
The second , installed at Hiroshima , is a four- effect unit ,
^
which can process up to 264, 000 gallons per day ( 998 m /d ) of a
2 percent feed solids. The product at both facilities is used as
boiler fuel.
10.8 References
3. .
Faust, A.S • / Wenzel, L.A • f Clump, C.W• t Maus, L. and L.B
Anderson. Principles of Unit Operations. Corrected Second
Printing. New York. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. July 1962.
4. Treybal, R.E. Mass-Transfer Operations. New York. McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc.. 1955.
5. Rich, L.G. Unit Operations of Sanitary Engineering. Photo-
Offset. Linvil G. Rich. Clemson, South Carolina. 1971.
10-3 2
7. USEPA . Current and Potential Utilization of Nutrients in
Municipal Wastewater and Sludge. First Draft. Office of
Water Program Operations . Washington , D . C . 20460 .
July , 1978.
13. Davis. W. and R .T. Haug. " Los Angeles Faces Several Sludge
Management Problems ." Water and Wastes Engineering. April,
1978.
14. Regional Wastewater Solids Management Program , Los Angeles/
O r a n g e C o u n t y M e t r o i p o 1 i t a n A r e a ( L A/ O M A P r o j e c t ,
Carver-Greenfield Process Evaluation. Whittier, California.
December , 1978.
10- 33
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 11
HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESSES
11.1 Introduction
11-1
Disadvantages of high t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s include ( 1 ):
E n v i r o n m e n t a l i m p a c t s. Discharges to atmosphere
( p a r t i c u l a t e s a n d o t h e r toxic o r n o x i o u s e m i s s i o n s ) ,
s u r f a c e w a t e r s ( s c r u b b i n g w a t e r ), a n d l a n d ( f u r n a c e
residues ) m a y r e q u i r e extensive t r e a t m e n t t o assure
protection o f the environment ( 3 ) .
This chapter describes both proven high t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s
and t h o s e h a v i n g h i g h p r o b a b i l i t y o f s u c c e s s, a s i n d i c a t e d
b y current research , Multiple- hearth and fluid bed furnaces ,
t h e m o s t c o m m o n l y u s e d s l u d g e c o m b u s t i o n e q u i p m e n t in t h e
United S t a t e s, E u r o p e , and G r e a t Britain , a r e discussed , a s
w e l l a s n e w e r f u r n a c e t y p e s s u c h a s t h e electric f u r n a c e ,
t h e s i n g l e h e a r t h c y c l o n i c f u r n a c e, and m o d u l a r c o m b u s t i o n
units. N e w thermal processes f o r wastewater solids reduction
are also described , T h e s e p r o c e s s e s include s t a r v e d - a i r
combustion and c o- combustion o f s l u d g e s and o t h e r r e s i d u e s.
A l s o p r e s e n t e d in t h e c h a p t e r are e x a m p l e s that i l l u s t r a t e
the methodology used in s e l e c t i n g and designing processes and
equipment.
11- 2
EXCESS
AIR AIR SUPPLEMENTAL
( OXYGEN ) ~ FUEL ( IF REQUIRED )
1 F
MOISTURE, EXCESS AIR,
SLUDGE i COMBUSTIBLE PARTICULATES, STACK GASES
.
ELEMENTS, INERTS FURNACE NOx , SOx , HC, C02,
FEED MOISTURE * OTHER PRODUCTS OF ( NOT
COMPLETE COMBUSTION COMBUSTIBLE )
t
ASH ( RELATIVELY INERT )
( A ) INCINERATION ( COMPLETE COMBUSTION )
HEAT
MOISTURE, PARTICULATES,
COMBUSTIBLE
SLUDGE COMBUSTIBLE NOx , SOx , HC, CO, C02, OFF GASES
FEED
ELEMENTS, INERTS,
MOISTURE
FURNACE CONDENSATES ( TAR & OIL )
OTHER HIGHER
. ( UP TO 600
HYDROCARBONS Btu /cf )
t
RESIDUE ( COMBUSTIBLE CHARACTERISTICS)
( B ) PYROLYSIS ( NO OXYGEN )
AIR SUPPLEMENTAL
( OXYGEN ) FUEL ( IF REQUIRED )
I MOISTURE,
PARTICULATES, COMBUSTIBLE
SLUDGE COMBUSTIBLE , CO, OFF - GASES
FURNACE NOx SOx
, 02
, HC, C
t
RESIDUE (CAN BE UP TO 30% COMBUSTIBLE )
( C ) STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION (OXYGEN DEFICIENT )
FIGURE 11- 1
11- 3
the difference in weight loss is the fixed -carbon I n the
volatile solids determination used in sanitary engineering (see
.
Standard Methods , Reference 5 ), sludge is heated in the presence
of air at 1 ,021°F ( 550°C ). This measurement is higher than the
volatile solids measurement for fuels and includes the fixed
carbon. Numerically , it is nearly the same as the combustibles
measurement. In the following , if volatile solids is used in the
sense of the fuels engineer , it will be followed paranthetically
by the designation "fuels usage." If the term " volatile solids "
or " volatiles " is used without designation , it will indicate
sanitary engineering usage and will be used synonymously with
"combustibles. "
TABLE 11- 1
C +
c
o2
+ 1/ 2 02
——
-_ C 2
°
CO
- 14 , 100 Btu/lb of C
- 4 , 000 Btu/lb of C
4
CO + 1/ 2 02 — C 2
° -4 , 400 Btu/ lb of CO 4
2H S
2
C + H
+ 302
20 ( gas ) —
— 2 S02 + 2 H
CO + H 2
20 - 7 , 100 Btu/lb of H 2S
+ 4 , 700 Btu /lb of C
4
Calculated
-
11 4
Solids with a high fraction of combustible material ; f o r e x a m p l e, ~
TABLE 11- 2
w h e r e C , H 2 , 02 , a n d S r e p r e s e n t t h e w e i g h t f r a c t i o n
o f each element determined by ultimate analysis. This
formula does not t a k e into account endothermic chemical
reactions that occur with chemically conditioned or
physical - chemical s l u d g e s.
T h e ultimate analysis is used principally f o r developing
the material balance, from which a heat balance can be
made.
1 1 -5
• Proximate a n a l y s i s — a relatively low - cost analysis in
in which moisture content , volatile combustible matter,
fixed carbon, and ash are determined , The fuel value of
the sludge is calculated as the weighted a v e r a g e o f the
fuel values o f its individual c o m p o n e n t s.
The above tests give approximate fuel values for sludges and
allow the designer t o proceed with calculations which simulate
o p e r a t i o n s o f a n incinerator , If a unigue sludge will be
p r o c e s s e d , or unusual operating conditions will b e used , pilot
t e s t i n g is advised , Many manufacturers have test furnaces
especially suited for pilot t e s t i n g .
11.2.1.2 O x y g e n Requirements for C o m p l e t e Combustion
Air is t h e n o r m a l s o u r c e o f o x y g e n f o r c o m b u s t i o n , a l t h o u g h
pure o x y g e n feed s y s t e m s are sometimes used , Theoretical air
and o x y g e n requirements for t h e combustion reactions are shown
in Table 11-1. F o r rigorous a n a l y s e s, the constants g i v e n in
Table 1 1-3 should b e used , F o r general applications in which
fuel oil, methane, and /o r s l u d g e are used , a rule of thumb is
that it requires 7.5 p o u n d s ( 3 . 4 k g ) o f air t o r e l e a s e 1 0,0 0 0 B t u
( 1 0 . 5 5 MJ ) from s l u d g e o r s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel ( 7 ).
I n p r a c t i c e , incinerator o p e r a t i o n s r e q u i r e a i r in e x c e s s o f
theoretical requirements for complete combustion , Excess a i r
added to the combustion chamber increases the opportunity
f o r c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e f u e l a n d o x y g e n. T o e n s u r e c o m p l e t e
combustion , it is n e c e s s a r y t o maintain 5 0 t o 1 5 0 p e r c e n t excess
air over the stoichiometric amount required in the combustion
zone. When the amount o f excess air is inadequate, o n l y partial
combustion o f c a r b o n o c c u r s, a n d c a r b o n m o n o x i d e , s o o t , a n d
odorous hydrocarbons are produced.
The excess air required f o r c o m p l e t e combustion a d v e r s e l y affects
t h e c o s t o f o p e r a t i o n , b e c a u s e additional h e a t is needed t o
raise t h e excess air t e m p e r a t u r e t o t h a t of t h e exhaust gases.
S u p p l e m e n t a l fuel may be needed t o furnish this additional heat.
Thermal economy therefore demands that excess air be held t o the
minimum value required t o effect c o m p l e t e combustion. T h e amount
11-6
of excess air required varies with the type of incineration
equipment, the nature of the sludges to be incinerated , and the
disposition of the stack gases , j The impact of excess air use on
the cost of fuel in sludge incineration is shown on Figure 11- 2.
TABLE 11- 3
lb/lb of substance
Substance . . -. *
rjr ni nn ii
Air Oxygen
Carbon 11.53 2.66
Carbon monoxide 2.47 0.57
Hydrogen 34.34 7.94
Sulfur 4.29 1.00
Hydrogen sulfide 6.10 1.41
Methane 17.27 3.99
Ethane 16.12 3.73
Ammonia 6.10 1.41
1 lb/lb = 1 kg/kg.
11-7
10 r
ASSUMPTIONS
PEED: 30% SOLIDS
COMBUSTIBLES: 70% OF THE DRY SOLIDS
a COMBUSTIBLE HEAT VALVE :: 10,000 Btu/lb
SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL: NATURAL GAS
Q J l
LU
cc
3
LU 4
oe
uu
D
Uk
!
z
-J
<
f-
c
0
< 2 DUE TO
LU 5 SUPPLEMENTAL
1
LLl EXCESS AIR FOR
-J__
Q
£s
FUEL 110%)
D
4J*5 T5
LU
3-0
>
flQ TJ
< c
C
< 3
> m
H c 2
< o
LU
x e
SLU
U
X 1f
4 VtfSMUIHRi II 11
-.
,
V
I J
LU
0 20 40 60 BO 100 120 140 160
FIGURE 11- 2
Example
A d e s i g n e r uses a p r o x i m a t e a n a l y s i s t o derive t h e f o l l o w i n g
values f o r a g i v e n s l u d g e : volatile solids c o n t e n t ( fueIs
usage--66 percent, fixed carbon content — 11 percent , and inert
content — 23 percent. The sludge is t o be dewatered and burned in
a multiple-hearth incinerator. The solids concentration required
for autogenous combustion in a multiple-hearth incinerator can be
determined .
T h e s l u d g e heating v a l u e c a n be estimated by multiplying
the a p p r o x i m a t e fuel value of s lud g e -- 1 0 , 0 0 0 B t u p e r pound
( 23.2 MJ /kg ) by the combustible fraction in the sludge. In this
11-8
example , the combustible fraction is the sum of the volatile
solids ( fuels usage ) and fixed carbon, or 77 percent , Therefore ,
sludge heating value is:
( P )( Q ) = ( 100 - P )( W )
where :
P = Minimum percent dry solids in sludge required for
autogenous combustion
Q = Fuel value of sludge , Btu per pound of dry solids
W Heat required to evaporate one pound of water in a
multiple-hearth furnace , Btu
P Q T W <1 0 0> -
( 11 2 )
11-9
Figure 11 - 3 shows a family o f curves that c a n be used t o
c a l c u l a t e the minimum p e r c e n t solids r e q u i r e d at various d r y
solids heating v a l u e s. This method o f estimating t a k e s into
account the effect of moisture content , inerts, and combustibles
on the combustion process and can be used for basic sizing prior
to detailed analysis.
For example, in the above analysis, a sludge heating value of
6, 000 Btu per pound of solids ( 13.9 MJ/kg ) was calculated. From
Figure 11-3 , the 6 , 000 Btu per pound ( 13.9 MJ /kg ) curve crosses
the break - even p o i n t a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 36 p e r c e n t dry solids .
T h e importance of dewatering the s l u d g e is illustrated o n
Figure 11- 4. The amount of supplemental fuel required is plotted
as a function of feed moisture content and combustible solids
concentration.
T h e amount of s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l can be reduced if heat can
be recovered from the p r o c e s s exhaust g a s e s and r e u s e d . As
an e x a m p l e , heat m a y be transferred from the furnace f l u e
g a s t o i n c o m i n g combustion air by means of heat e x c h a n g e r s
( r e c u p e r a t o r s ). A l t h o u g h e n e r g y r e c o v e r y can significantly
improve thermal e f f i c i e n c y , heat r e c o v e r y equipment c a n be
expensive and can only be recommended after complete economic
evaluation.
11-10
Btu PER POUND OF WATER, tO3 Btuflb ( 1 x 103 Btu/Jb = 2.32 MJ/kg)
m
n
“Tl
m
o
H
o
Z °D
Tl
5Tl 70-<
>tn
Eo
rr
o
1X
in
TI
O rn o
Tl
7) > -<
M >~ H O cn
-
h» cZ c o
r*
I HO 20 o
-
h» m W
—
l * 2 ><
o z
mr i </>
zC to
c
Om u
C CD
(/ >
) m
oz
OD
2 <2
CD cr
cD
t/i
H
12 m
o °
z2 O
V)
H
C
30
m
SOLIDS CONTENT OF FEED SLUDGE , %
30 29 28 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20 18 18 17
60 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73
SOLIDS CONTENT OF FEED SLUDGE , %
FIGURE 11- 4
11-12
N o. 2 f u e l oil will be used , T w e n t y- five p e r c e n t e x c e s s air will
b e u s e d f o r combustion o f t h e f u e l o i l. T h e a i r t e m p e r a t u r e is
6 0 °F ( 1 6°C ); t h e a b s o l u t e h u m i d i t y o f t h e air i s 0 . 0 1 3 p o u n d s o f
w a t e r p e r p o u n d o f d r y air. H e a t c a p a c i t i e s o f d r y a i r, w a t e r
v a p o r , d r y s l u d g e s o l i d s , a n d w a t e r a r e 0 . 2 5 6 , 0 . 5, 0 . 2 5 a n d
1 . 0 B t u p e r p o u n d p e r °F , r e s p e c t i v e l y, ( 1 . 0 7, 2 . 1, 1 . 0, a n d
4 . 2 k J /k g /°C. T h e l a t e n t heat o f w a t e r is 9 7 0 . 3 B t u p e r p o u n d
( 2 , 2 5 3 k J /k g ).
1 1 . 2.2 . 2 A p p r o x i m a t e Calculation M e t h o d
A s s u m i n g 1 0, 0 0 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 3 . 2 MJ /k g ) o f s l u d g e , t h e h e a t
c o n t e n t o f the s l u d g e is:
Btu x 0 . 7 7 = 7, 7 0 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 1 7 . 9 MJ /k g )
10 , 000
lb
F r o m F i g u r e 1 1 - 3 , a v a l u e o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 2 p e r c e n t s o l i d s in
t h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e i s r e q u i r e d f o r a u t o g e n o u s c o m b u s t i o n.
T h e r e f o r e , s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l i s r e q u i r e d a n d its q u a n t i t y m u s t b e
determined. The demand for supplemental fuel equals the heat
r e q u i r e d m i n u s t h e h e a t v a l u e o f t h e s l u d g e.
T h e h e a t i n g value o f t h e s l u d g e
1 4, 0 0 0 l b s l u d g e 0 . 2 l b solids x 0 . 7 7 l b V S X 1 0 , 0 0 0 B t u
hr lb sludge l b solids lb VS
S t e p 2. Combustion Air R e q u i r e m e n t s
Therefore, combustion air r e q u i r e m e n t s
= 3 2, 3 4 0 p o u n d s d r y air p e r h o u r ( 1 4 . 6 8 t /h r )
T h e basic f o r m u l a f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e h e a t r e q u i r e d is:
1 1 -1 3
5®rE
11-14
Heat required to raise the water temperature from 60°F
( 15.6°C ) to 212°F (100°C )
lb sludge
X
lb-°F x 212°
F - 60°F)
= 1.70 x 106 Btu per hour ( 1.79 GJ/hr )
14,000 lb sludge .
.
X
0.8 lb water x 970.3 Btu
hr i
lb sludge lb
11-15
Heat required for Btu/hr x IQ 6
Sludge (continued )
Free water
Water 1.70
Evaporation 10.87
Water vapor 6.65
Total 31.33 ( 33.05 GJ/hr )
-
11 16
Heat to compensate for radiation losses
13.91 x 106 Btu x 7.5 lb dry air x 1.25 ( excess air factor )
hr 10,000 Btu
11-17
radiation losses ) is 2 0 . 2 4 x 1 C)6 B t u per hour ( 21.35 GJ /hr ).
S i n c e o n l y 1 3 . 9 1 x 106 B t u p e r h o u r ( 1 4 . 6 8 G J /h r ) w a s
r e l e a s e d b y b u r n i n g s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l , t h e r e is a h e a t
deficit o f 20.24 x 1 Q 6 - 13.91 x 106 = 6.33 x 106 B t u p e r
hour ( 6.67 GJ /hr ). T h u s, the effect of adding supplemental
fuel w a s t o r e d u c e but n o t eliminate the initial deficit of
13.91 x 1 0 ® B t u per hour ( 1 4 . 6 8 GJ /hr ).
T o m a k e u p f o r t h i s d e f i c i t, m o r e s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l,
equivalent t o 6.33 x 1 0 B t u p e r hour ( 6.68 GJ /hr ) is added.
^
If 2 5 p e r c e n t excess air is used f o r this fuel, 5,934 pounds
p e r hour ( 2,6 9 4 kg /hr ) o f excess air will be required , T h e
heat released is again insufficient t o raise the air p l u s
w a t e r v a p o r f o r m e d t o 1, 4 0 0 °F ( 7 6 0° C ) a n d t o m a k e u p f o r
additional radiation l o s s e s, T h e deficit for this iteration
is 2.88 x 106 B t u p e r hour ( 3.04 GJ /h r ).
T h e calculation c a n be carried f o r w a r d f o r s e v e r a l m o r e
s t e p s. Table 11- 4 shows that progressively smaller addi -
tions of supplemental fuel and air are required for each
iteration a n d t h a t t h e a m o u n t o f air and f u e l n e e d e d f o r
each iteration is a fixed fraction ( 0.45 ) of the fuel
and air n e e d e d f o r t h e p r e v i o u s i t e r a t i o n , I n g e n e r a l,
if f u e l r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h i t e r a t i o n is r p e r c e n t o f t h a t
required for t h e previous iteration, then total f u e l required
= ( initial d e f i c i t )( l + r + r 2 + r 2 + ... + rn ). The
t e r m in the second bracket is an infinite geometric series
equal to rn. The series converges t o 1-1 r if the absolute
value o f r is less than one ( 1 0 ).
TABLE 11- 4
3
Ratio of supplemental fuel to that in the previous iteration.
^Ratio of air to air in the previous iteration.
CRatio in this case is not applicable since sludge is included (100 percent excess
air vs 25 nercent excess air).
1 1-1 8
«•
(
106 Btu 1
= 13.91 x hr X
1 - 0.45
13,041 lb air 1
x 1 0.45
hr -
56,075 lb/hr hr
0.0749 X
60 min = 12,478 cubic feet per minute (5.9 mVsec)
Assume that No . 2 oil has heating value of 141 ,000 Btu per
gallon
25.32 x ip 6 Btu/hr hr
141 ,000 Btu/gallon x 60 min
11- 20
TABLE 11-5
COMBUSTION CALCULATION - MOLAL BASIS
Table 11
-e CombM*tkxi GalcuMonft-Alot*!fteftlft
CondHJon .-
Aoi <
) r awnd
and Mitcettiraoui*
Futo ItlVAli ILBDC1
<.
L
Ru 0«(F, 3 ) Cemposidon
RM 0», and Air per Unit <ri Fitol *
Moles per Fuel UnH (AF) Sera BIOTOWN UJJL
r1DC lb, y liquid fuels N
*.
Mofces Fud Unit
1100 mans ftsaenus fuels E
i Par Md Fuel
* Males o Oa
I
N
Fu l
Constituent *
Fy
*
Unit, DM*
» MMt C m- Mul
*
sBl- II- TtHto
- COi
0 ,
N HJO CO
Fy i An l, «B R#ad (AF\ % oy W w Yd
* * A
10
H
H0
Ash
* IIH
Ml
16 4 JM &
Q
Density of fuel ® 60 Fi30 ih
- 394*
in lb
cufl
ft
12 Sum Jft0.0 UT Ml
Fud heat value, Bfoi /lb tft
| 1
* M tt L
Combustible In r fu ,. % "C I s
* **
0s and Air, Moles for Total Air Iff %
-
(s ec line d at rigid) - -
% ash «i
-
Carbon un burnod, lfc/100 lb fud
% MC" ;
13 O) ( She*?) rwH « Os, Nna 12 MB
furixiao ;
-
air g
* * f JT
1rX£‘- ! : '>
-
.
A*, press, HsO en air liras (e x q), in. Hg r
-
=
Determination of fUte Gats «mf CombufliM# Lou*s In &tu per Fuel Unit ( AF)
22 Rise gas corestifuants 00 4- 50 0 Nz H?0 00 Total
* * *
23 .
Mcjn fflwn ? j|p fi ( for Tj - tM 14 74 M ri#
24
25
Ih dry fkie gas
In
- metes eACh, line 20 >: JACPX ( #
MiO in> air « Tides H 0, Itel 18 x MppX (f$ fi)
*
—
« TJ) nm
- /;*i
:
111!
a
•14» <
111!
VftJfttT
mt
* *
2&
* m * -
tn tensfieAt, H 0 in fuai riHd« lines ( 5 |- 10) x Afc X ( fa- Tj) P
— .
ll Aftt VM « I
Z7 In fud * rnoisss, tines (5 + ID) x 1040 x IB
*
*
1
- •,
4 11ft
74441
M4n
Copyright 1471 by the Babcock and Wllcwc Cdnpiny, Miner changes Nava ham
. 1 Lb/ cu It
-
to thl tobto to slkra tor of use with Hwsfi sfudgs, TeWefimybe
*
vHthout pwelulno. HMW«T r credit to Babcock and toll
shoukl be ghran .
11-21
Step 7 . ( Lines 22 t h r o u g h 26 ). Determine the sensible heat
content o f t h e g a s. A b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e o f 6 0 °F ( 1 5 ° C ) is
u s e d . T h e v a l u e s f o r m e a n s p e c i f i c h e a t c a n be f o u n d in
Reference 4 .
N o t e:mean m o l a r s p e c i f i c h e a t mean specific heat x
molecular weight.
Step 8 .
( Line 27 ). Determine the l a t e n t h e a t o f w a t e r in
the flue g a s.
Step 9 . ( Line 28 ). S u m all heat in flue g a s.
Step 1 0. ( Lines 2 9 , .
30 , and 3 1 ) Calculate heat losses d u e
t o carbon in refuse ( residue ), unburned C O in the flue g a s,
a n d r a d i a t i o n ( a s s u m e d t o be 5 p e r c e n t ), Sum all heat
losses.
S t e p 11 . .
( Line 3 2 ) Determine heat value of the s l u d g e per
1 0 0 p o u n d s , w e t basis.
lb s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel required
1 0 0 lb of s l u d g e, wet basis
9 1 , 139 B t u/100 l b s l u d g e
1,165, 443 B t u/100 lb fuel
-
11 22
TABLE 11- 6
COMBUSTION CALCULATION - MOLAL BASIS
I b
.ps °* “
l* V .
2 CO ID COa 28 ;5 i a --
S' .'i l . N, 1.1
4 C unburned,
ln k -* I 1Z
w
.
L\ - W
.
.... ..
•
i fMaiffliB 1
^
ps“ -.sz ? AiA I
5 1ZJ 2 Ml S 3L 1#
: A;
^ iOft.O
v3* oo2 Oa 03 Na flt
* M 32 M» 1 MZ BJ2 _ c
I >#
$
1
- V * 5i.. TcrtaS air (TA ) assigned or by DSSAT 1ZI $ d
/ Gi deduct ( ) u 32 IJ1 1.11 *» i.r
•
'
- '
. -
r. L
,
*
V4 Lines ( , g, h Far Gaseojs Fidels
fH
J'
8 1.1 2B D -; •
% - i &. WtT fuel unit » S (moles each x mal. art) lb f
9
10
CD?
Mad
44
IB
( ’V
•
• 0 w>
Mol,
'
at of
'
fuel
- '
line f l100
' ’
** 0en itytfft l
^ «8OF £ 30 in.
^ n
-
11 AMl I .
.s v 5 * *
It
1Z Sum 100.0 13 M i.
Vjfr . ,
Pi .' sTJ" V
. .
* ** ir
;
*y-- -
;>
t
•
CctnfeusbWe In MUM, % JC" I J
Os Air , Matfls far Total Air
(a« line d at right}
«| |f ?* L -.
r
, : Carton unisumed , lb /100 It tual
% >
% asti in fuel x ioo - %‘CI - h
-
»
c'
--
»
1'
13 njqri 03 line 12
l HJI
'
19 Air (w
t) Sit sd -
0—A
stnes 17 -t- 19 S4.1I
A* 'ess . K
^o in Wnes q) <n. HE
fp X
' . r
* ^
2C Flu® gas canstHiwnts
- HraaltolB, tot l
^ J 31 ZJI 41,14 «J4 Tot
Mdes *i Wet Rw $as
i?Ji
Dry Flue Qai
Mil
5
DetofftiNiatkin uf Finn Gas and CvmMU« Loinw in Btu per Fuel Ural (AF)
22 Flue gas constituents COi +SOa >
Lz Nz HjO CO Total
33 mean., is Ip (for r ,~ 11 A -IJ .
?l U L>
24 In dtys due gas - mofes each, Due 20 x Mu?
— fi)
- ^0 1BMI7iT41 UAV 477.7H
21,311
114,111
IT tt .
25 In N?0 in air * moles NjO, tine IB x Mey X (i? .v
^
26 in f«ne rieat. H?0 in furt molftt, tinas (5 + IQ)
-- x AfeP x Ctz - f's)
motes, BFI95 {5 + ID) X ItMO > IS
71,731
111,171
TM3I
11M7
27
28
tn Intent heal, H 0 m fuel
Total In wet flue gas
* BJI^JZI *
29 Cue to carbon in rehise - lint k y 14,100 »
30 C*U to tmburnzcS CO in flue gas
* - moles C to CO x 12 x 9.75-5 I
31 TdA flu®
^ + untamed oorT^JSbfci* lines 2B > 29 f - 304- IWdlfltJcyi ttl Talari V7M47
32 H
^i velu* ol tuei unit . 1Q0 X -
line i tor solid and liquid fuels
394 x line i x IDS, for Ba&eouB iu -s-
^ ,
14444 «
33 Tonal excel
* ?»*t per h*d unli - Una 32 - lira 31 f ,1Mr44I
11-23
Step 15. Calculate the total fuel demand for 14, 000 pounds
per hour of wet sludge ( 6, 356 kg /hr ):
Total fuel
7.82 lb fuel
100 lb sludge x 14 , 000 lb
sludge /hr
/ 61.83
\
moles air
100 lb fuel
1 , 095 lbh
^ )]
Uel 29 lb air
lb mole air
11 - 24
mwarn
TABLE 11- 7
COMPARISON BETWEEN AN APPROXIMATE AND A THEORETICAL
CALCULATION OF FURNACE COMBUSTION
Approximate method (AM) Theoretical method (TM)
Calcula tion Calculation Difference
Value
reference
(AM) Value
reference
(TM)
-
AM TM
TM X 100
Item
a
Sludge heating value 10 ,000 Btu
lb VS
Assumed 1 ,661
lb as fed
Btua
line i
-
Table 11 4 -7.28
Furnace heat deficit 13.91 x 106 Btu Step 8 91 , 139 Btub ’
Table 11 4 - 9.01
hr 100 lb wet sludge line 33
a
10,000 Btu/lb VS at 77 percent VS = 7 ,700 Btu/lb dry solids ,
1,661 Btu/lb as fed v 20 percent solids = 8 ,305 Btu/lb dry solids.
b91, 139 Btu/100 lb wet x 14 ,000 lb wet/hr
= 12.76 x 106 Btu/hr.
c 19 , 583 Btu/lb.
141 ,000 Btu gal i 7.2 lb gal
/ / =
1 Btu/lb = 2 , 324 J/kg
1 Btu/hr = 1,055 J/hr .
1 Btu/gal = 279 kj/m 3
1 lb/hr = 0.45/hr
11- 25
i
tested for both s l u d g e and c o- disposal starved -air combustion.
This work on starved -air combustion by multiple-hearth furnaces
h a s b e e n sufficient t o a l l o w d e v e l o p m e n t o f e m p i r i c a l d e s i g n
criteria ( 17- 2 0 ).
Some engineers and manufacturers use a hearth loading rate
of 10 to 14 total pounds per square foot per hour ( 48.8 to
6 8 . 3 k g / m 2/ hr ) over t h e w h o l e effective hearth area w h i l e
assuming that up t o 1 5 percent of t h e input energy remains in
the ash a s a char. Other engineers and manufacturers use the
following design criteria which assumes a lower hearth loading
rate and an additional hearth area t o gasify the fixed carbon.
This d e s i g n results in a v e r y l o w combustible c o n t e n t in t h e
ash ( 2 0 ) :
Fixed carbon r a t e
1 1- 2 6
lb fixed carbon 1_ d a y
x 0.15
lb combustible solids 24 hr
Hearth area
Heat content
11- 27
Even with the amount of work that has been completed to date ,
however , calculations for starved - air combustion are still
empirical. Because starved -air combustion is extremely complex
and not completely understood , it is desirable to pilot any
starved - air combustion process and , where possible , test at
full -scale. There are several excellent texts and articles on
combustion , but none deal to any great degree with oxygen -
deficient combustion. Starved - air combustion is discussed in a
number of publications ( 17-30 ).
11.2.4 Heat and Material Balances
Analysis of high temperature processes must include heat and
material balances. Once provided , equipment can be sized and
operating costs estimated. Throughout the remainder of this
chapter , heat and material balances are displayed for several
alternative combustion processes , all being fed the same
hypothetical sludge. A flowsheet for a hypothetical wastewater
treatment plant is depicted on Figure 11- 5. Design data for 5 ,
^
15 , and 50 MGD ( 0.22, 0.66 , and 2.19 m /sec ) wastewater treat-
ment plants using this configuration are shown in Table 11-8.
The " A " and " B " alternatives vary only in the percent solids feed
( 20 percent and 40 percent , respectively ) and the addition of
conditioning chemicals to obtain a dewatered cake of 40 percent
solids. Use of conditioning chemicals reduces the percent
combustibles of the " B " alternatives.
In Section 11.3 , detailed heat and material balance tables are
presented for each furnace type , The tables also display the
amount of fuel and power each type of furnace requires , for each
different treatment plant alternative, Balances given are for
yearly average conditions, Operational costs can be estimated
from the requirements for supplemental fuel and connected
horsepower. General sizes and types of support facilities , such
as ash handling equipment , water supply for the air pollution
control equipment , and operating fuel requirements can also be
estimated on the basis of the data shown in the heat and material
balance tables.
In any steady-state balance , all inputs must equal all outputs.
The following is a representative example of a heat and material
balance for the Alternative IA in Section 11.3.1.
11- 28
Outputs 106 B t u /h r
Furnace exhaust 15.96
Ash 0.04
Radiation 0.32
S h a f t c o o l i n g air ( u n r e c o v e r e d
portion ) 0.22
Total 1 6 . 5 4 ( 1 7 . 4 5 G J /h r )
V a l u e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e q u a l ; t h e b a l a n c e c h e c k s. N o t e t h a t
shaft c o o l i n g air is a n internal l o o p i n t h e s y s t e m. Since it is
neither a n input o r o u t p u t , o n l y t h e u n r e c o v e r e d p o r t i o n n e e d b e
considered in t h e heat balance.
Alternative I A — Material B a l a n c e
Inputs 1 b/h r
D r y solids in t h e s l u d g e 1 ,8 0 6
W a t e r in t h e s l u d g e 7, 224
Supplemental fuel 143
Combustion air 2 2,0 6 0
Total 3 1 , 2 3 3 ( 1 4, 1 8 0 k g /h r )
Outputs l b/h r
Ash 415
Furnace exhaust 3 0, 8 1 7
Total 31 , 2 3 2 ( 1 4, 179 k g /h r )
A g a i n , v a l u e s a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e q u a l ; t h e b a l a n c e c h e c k s.
R e f e r e n c e 2 3 c o n t a i n s v a l u a b l e information on h e a t a n d material
b a l a n c e s.
11.3 Incineration
I n c i n e r a t i o n i s a t w o-s t e p o x i d a t i o n p r o c e s s i n v o l v i n g f i r s t
drying and then combustion, Drying and combustion may be
accomplished in separate units or successively in the same
unit, depending upon temperature constraints and control
p a r a m e t e r s. The drying step should not be confused with
preliminary d e w a t e r i n g , which i s u s u a l l y d o n e m e c h a n i c a l l y p r i o r
t o i n c i n e r a t i o n. I n a l l f u r n a c e s , t h e d r y i n g a n d c o m b u s t i o n
p r o c e s s e s follow t h e same p h a s e s: raising the t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e
f e e d s l u d g e t o 2 1 2 ° F ( 1 0 0 °C ), e v a p o r a t i n g w a t e r f r o m t h e s l u d g e,
i n c r e a s i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e w a t e r v a p o r a n d a i r, a n d
1 1- 2 9
increasing the temperature of the dried sludge volatiles to
the ignition point , Although presented in simplified form ,
incineration i s a complex process involving thermal and chemical
reactions which occur at varying times , temperatures , and
locations in the furnace .
AERATION
BAR GRIT PRIMARY (CARBONACEOUS SECONDARY CHLORINE
SCREENS REMOVAL SEGMENTATION OXIDATION } SEDIMENTATION CONTACT
V { T f
SCUM TO LAN D hi L L
CL ?
RAW SEWAGE
l\
\ V>
PRIMARY
EFFLUENT j
-
HP
-
r
MIXED
LIQUOR
L FINAL
EFFLUENT *
'
r i
« i
*
SCREENINGS
TO LANDFIP l
_ 1(
3
a
ZJ
tn
RETURN ACTIVATED SLUGSE { RAS}
GRIT TO >-
LANDFILL E
<
*
s
a:
< a.
s.
THICKENER OVERFLOW
LL *
a.
O
ui THICKS NED WAS WASTE ACTIVATED
H
<
* SLUDGE ( WAS!
I
u
V WAS
i
TMtCKEMMG
1
’Ai,
SLUDGE SCOPE OF
DEWATERING HIGH / CHAPTER
TEMPERATURE
PROCESS
1
’
ASH TO LANDFILL
FIGURE 11- 5
11- 30
o f 1 9 7 9 , is p l a n n e d for u s e in s e v e r a l w a s t e w a t e r treatment
p l a n t s. A f o u r t h t y p e is the single hearth c y c l o n i c furnace.
T h i s f u r n a c e has b e e n used in G r e a t Britain , b u t its o n l y
application in the United States has been in industrial s e r v i c e.
These four s y s t e m s are described in detail in this section, Heat
and material balances are included for each t y p e , assuming each
is used in the hypothetical wastewater treatment plants described
in F i g u r e 1 1- 5 and Table 1 1 - 8 .
TABLE 11- 8
HYPOTHETICAL WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN DATA
-
I ( 5 MGD flow) -
II ( 15 MGD flow) -
III (50 MGD flow)
3
Alternative A B A B A B
Sewage flow, MGD 5 5 15 15 50 50
Sludge solids ,
lb/day dry basis 10 , 320 10 , 320 31 , 000 31, 000 103 , 000 103 ,000
Volatile solids , percent
of dry solids 77 77 77 77 77 77
Furnace operation , hr/week 40 40 80 80 168 168
Sludge solids to furnace ,
lb/hr , dry basis 1,806 1,806 2 , 713 2,713 4 , 292 4 , 292
Conditioning chemicals ,
lb/hr , dry basis 3 * 0 325 0 488 0 772
Total feed to furnace ,
lb/hr , dry basis 1 ,806 2, 131 2 , 713 3 , 201 4 , 292 5 , 064
Solids content of furnace
feed , percent by weight 20 40 20 40 20 40
Furnace loading rate ,
lb/hr , wet basis 9 ,030 5 , 327 13 ,565 8 ,003 21, 460 12 , 660
Volatile content of fur
nace feed , percent of
-
total solids 77 65 77 65 77 65
*.WMF
*
1 1- 31
MHF is designed for continuous operation. Start up fuel require
- -
ments and the extended time needed to bring the hearths and
internal equipment up to temperature from a completely cold
condition normally preclude intermittent operations. The MHF is
-
a vertically oriented , cylindrically shaped , refractory lined
steel shell containing a series of horizontal refractory hearths,
one above the other. MHFs are available with diameters ranging
-
from 4 feet 6 inches to 29 feet ( 1.4 to 8.8 m ) and can have from
4 to 14 hearths. A cross section of a typical MHF is shown on
Figure 11 - 6. A central shaft extends from the bottom of the
furnace to the top and supports rabble arms above each hearth.
There are either two or four rabble arms per hearth. Each arm
contains several rabble teeth , or plows , which rake the sludge
across the hearth in a spiral pattern. Sludge is fed at the
-
periphery of the top hearth ( see Figure 11 6 ) and is rabbled
toward the center , where it drops to the hearth below. On the
second hearth , the sludge is rabbled outward to holes at the
periphery of the bed. Here the sludge drops to the next hearth.
The alternating drop hole locations on each hearth and the
-
counter current flow of rising exhaust gases and descending
sludge provide contact between the hot combustion gases and the
sludge feed. Good contact ensures complete combustion. The drop
holes on the "out" hearths distribute the sludge evenly around
the periphery of the hearth beneath. The drop holes also
regulate gas velocities.
-
11 32
COOLING AIR v
t
DISCHARGE SLUDGE CAKE,
DAMPER SCREENINGS,
AND GRIT
X - 1
t t
\
EXHAUST
STJ
I
BURNERS
mt SUPPLEMENTAL
FUEL
COMBUSTION AIR
SCUM
I SHAFT COOLING
AIR RETURN
SOLIDS FLOW
/
AUXILIARY
AIR PORTS
RABBLE ARM DROP HOLES
2 OR 4 PER
HEARTH
GAS FLOW
CLINKER /
BREAKER
& RABBLE
ARM
DRIVE
I
ASH
DISCHARGE 3
«»
COOLING A l R T
*> 11
*&£ * *
FIGURE 11- 6
CROSS SECTION OF A MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE
11- 33
M
K •
OUT HEARTH
LUTE CAP
•r.
U.
vl
2
Sii
A STEEL SHELL
IN HEARTH
RABBLE ARM
HOT AIR
COMPARTMENT
COLD AIR ARM HOLDING PIN
TUBE
AIR LANCE 4*
SAND SEAL
I
CENTER SHAFT
GEAR DRIVE
COOLING
AIR
AIR HOUSING
F i AIR FAN
TTT
CORPORATION
COORTfST W DIVISION Of 6NV1RONTECH
FIGURE 11- 7
- HEARTH FURNACE
11- 34
of air cools the arms , The air is conducted through the hot air
compartment , cooling the shaft , The air is either discharged to
the atmosphere via the exhaust gas stack or returned to the
bottom hearth of the furnace as preheated air for combustion.
Cooling air vented to the atmosphere represents a heat loss of
roughly the same magnitude as the radiation loss from the furnace
structure.
The MHF can be divided into four zones , as shown on Figure 11 - 8.
The first zone , which consists of the upper hearths , is the
drying zone. Most of the water is evaporated in the drying zone.
The second zone , generally consisting of the central hearths, is
the combustion zone. In this zone , the majority of combustibles
are burned and temperatures reach 1 , 400 °F to 1 , 700 °F ( 760°C to
927°C ). The third zone is the fixed carbon burning zone, where
the remaining carbon is oxidized to carbon dioxide , The fourth
zone includes the lowest hearths and is the cooling zone. In
this zone, ash is cooled by the incoming combustion air. The
sequence of these zones is always the same , but the number of
hearths in each zone is dependent on the quality of the feed , the
design of the furnace, and the operational conditions.
NORMAL NORMAL
SLUDGE /ASH AIR
TEMPERATURES TEMPERATURES
\\\\\
s °
160 F
s DRYING ZONE °
600 to \
900°F \
x\V\ \\\\
\\\\v
1400° to
COMBUSTION ZONE °
1400 to
1700°F
V °
1700 F
\ \\\\\
1400 to ,
° FIXED CARBON 1400° to \
1800°F „
\\\\
BURNING ZONE
\
°
1800 F
\\\\\
\
\
100 to° ASH COOLING
400°F ZONE
\\\\\
T
SLUDGE AIR
FLOW FLOW
FIGURE 11- 8
11-35
When t h e heating value o f the sludge is insufficient t o sustain
a u t o g e n o u s combustion , the additional heat r e q u i r e d is s u p p l i e d
by adding supplemental fuel t o burners located a t various p o i n t s
in t h e f u r n a c e. B u r n e r s m a y o p e r a t e either c o n t i n u o u s l y o r
intermittently and on all o r selected hearths.
A measure o f t h e quantity o f water e v a p o r a t e d from t h e s l u d g e
during burning is t h e d r o p in t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e hot g a s e s as
t h e y p a s s b e t w e e n t h e c o m b u s t i o n z o n e and t h e g a s o u t l e t.
In a M H F , g a s t e m p e r a t u r e s in t h e c o m b u s t i o n z o n e m a y e x c e e d
1 , 700 ° F ( 927 °C ). These g a s e s sweep over the cold , wet sludge fed
t o the drying zone, giving u p considerable portions o f their heat
in evaporating the water. While t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o f the solids is
o n l y marginally increased in t h e d r y i n g zone , the g a s t e m p e r a t u r e
is drastically reduced , typically t o t h e r a n g e o f 600 t o 9 0 0 °F
( 316 t o 4 8 2 °C ). Exhaust g a s t e m p e r a t u r e s should be maintained a t
l e s s t h a n 9 0 0 ° F ( 4 8 2 ° C ) b y c o n t r o l l i n g air f l o w t o p r e v e n t
distillation of o d o r o u s g r e a s e s and t a r s from the drying solids.
If t e m p e r a t u r e s are s o controlled , it m a y be possible t o o p e r a t e
M H F s w i t h o u t d e v i c e s s u c h as a f t e r b u r n e r s , w h i c h a r e u s e d t o
reduce o d o r s and concentrations o f unburned h y d r o c a r b o n s.
1 1-3 6
outlet , and scrubber exhaust, The temperature can be controlled
o n e a c h h e a r t h t o w i t h i n t 4 0 ° F ( 2 2 °C ) Instrumentation such .
a s C O2 o r O2 m e t e r s c a n b e u s e d t o c o n t r o l t h e f l o w o f e x c e s s
a i r, thereby conserving fuel and reducing the overall operating
cost . M a l f u n c t i o n s s u c h a s b u r n e r s h u t d o w n , f u r n a c e o v e r-
temperature , draft loss, and feed shutdown can be monitored
In the event of power or fuel failure, the furnace should
.
be shut down automatically and the shaft cooling a i r fan
automatically transferred t o a standby power source , This
procedure will provide continued cooling and prevent serious
deformations of the shaft and the rabble arms due to high
temperature .
Further details on instrumentation are provided in
Chapter 17 .
GAS EXHAUST
« .
mmcio
DRAFT FAN
,
FRfeOmEft
AND VEfiTlJRI i
SHAFT COOMNG F U HN ACS HEAT SOILER !
AIR RETURN EXHAUST RECOVERY EXHAUST !
BOILED ,!
sw. - . ri
7
•*<< •
1:
\ WET SCRUBBED
!
SLUDGE RECOVERABLE HEAT
1* l
i
FEED
SCRUBBER
* WATER
MULTIPLE 1
HEARTH
FURNACE
SUPPLEMENTAL DRAIN
^ FUEL
RADIATION
FREDOOLiR AND
VENTURI WATER
C0M 8U&TIQN AIH
bj CONNECTED POWER
1
ASH
SHAFT
*
COOLING AIR
FIGURE 11- 9
11 37 -
Problems encountered with multiple- hearth furnaces have included
( a ) failure o f rabble arms and teeth, ( b ) failure o f hearths, and
( c ) failure of refractories. Improvements in materials used in
constructing the rabble arms and teeth have reduced the first
problem , increasing their ability to withstand high temperatures.
M a n y r e f r a c t o r y p r o b l e m s result because furnaces are n o t
c a r e f u l l y heated and cooled during start - u p and shutdown.
T w e n t y-four hours or more are required t o bring the furnace up t o
t e m p e r a t u r e or to cool it. This is an operational disadvantage
since start -up fuel costs can be significant. However, there are
several installations that d o o p e r a t e intermittently without
significant refractory problems. The normal procedures at these
installations is t o fire s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel t o maintain the
t e m p e r a t u r e o f t h e furnaces during t h e h o u r s when t h e y a r e
not in use, thus reducing long reheat times. This procedure,
known as " hot standby " is not generally economical. MHFs should
not be operated at temperatures above 1 ,800 ° F ( 982°C ) due to the
metals exposed to the temperature. Thus with high energy fuels
( for e x a m p l e , sewage scum ), there m a y be p r o b l e m s with h i g h
t e m p e r a t u r e s in the combustion zones .
Heat and material balances for the hypothetical treatment plant
alternatives listed in Table . 11- 8 are presented in Table 11- 9 and
s h o u l d be used with the flowsheet p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 11 - 9.
Figure 1 1- 9 is the flowsheet f o r a typical multiple - hearth
furnace. Figures 11- 1 0 through 11- 15 are generalized curves f o r
capital and operating and maintenance costs for multiple- hearth
furnaces. Table 1 1-10 gives typical hearth loading rates for
multiple -hearth furnaces .
As expected , there are important differences between Alternatives
" A " ( 20 percent solids feed ) and " B " ( 40 percent solids feed )
in t e r m s o f equipment size , c a p i t a l c o s t s , and operation and
maintenance c o s t s. This illustrates t h e value of preparing
comparative cost tables for all options. Specific discussions
of the MHF can be found in the literature ( 6 , 1 5 , 16 , 31 , and
37- 52 ).
The recycle concept is relatively new in MHF applications ( 53 ).
This c o n c e p t ( 54 ) is a modification of the m u l t i p l e - hearth
designed "....t o control sludge combustion t o burn where it is
designed t o burn, rather than t o let it burn where it wants to
g o " ( 55 ). Recycle includes three control loops: an exit gas
loop, a drying rate control loop, and a furnace combustion loop
( see F i g u r e 1 1 - 1 6 ). T h e exit g a s l o o p allows hot g a s e s t o
be exhausted from either o r both the t o p - drying hearth and
the combustion z o n e. F o r w e t s l u d g e , most or a l l of the air
would be exhausted from the drying hearth , ensuring minimal fuel
consumption ( conventional MHF ). For hot or dry sludges, most of
the air would be drawn from the combustion zone so as to p r e v e n t
uncontrolled burning on the upper hearths .
The drying rate control loop takes the air exhausted from the
drying hearth and h e a t s this air with exhaust g a s e s from the
combustion zone via a n air h e a t e r ( r e c u p e r a t o r ). T h e h e a t e d
11 - 38
exhaust from the drying zone is returned as preheated combustion
air to the furnace. This reduces the overall excess air require -
ments. The gas from the combustion zone exits from the first
recuperator and enters a second , which serves as a preheater for
makeup combustion air. Additional heat can be withdrawn from the
combustion zone gas it passes through a scrubber and is vented by
means of a heat recovery boiler.
TABLE 11- 9
Alternatives
IA IB I IA IIB IIIA 11 IB
'
5 MGD
'
5 MGD 15 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD 50 MGD
20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent
Stream solids solids solids solids solids solids
Furnace design
-
Diameter , ft in.
Number of hearths
-
18 9
7
-6
14 3 -7
22 3 16-9
6
-
22 3
10
-7
18 9
dry solids 77 65 77 65 77 65
c
Supplemental fuel
No. 2 fuel oil, lb/hr 143 0 205 0 312 0
Heat value, 106 Btu/hr 2.64 0 3.79 0 5.77 0
Combustion air
°
Mass at 60 F , lb/hr . . 22 ,060 27,531 32 ,959 41,544 51,945 66,740
Shaft cooling air
Mass, lb/hr 19,273 9,178 24 ,321 13 ,766 34,416 19 ,273
Shaft cooling air return
°
Mass at 325 F , lb/hr 16,560 0 20,880 0 29,520 0
b
Heat value, 10 Btu/hr 1.26 0 1.59 0 2.25 0
Shaft cooling air not
recovered
Heat loss , 106 Btu/hr 0.22 0.71 0.28 1.06 0.40 1.48
Ash
Mass at 500 F , lb/hr 415 740 624 1 , 110 987 1 ,757
Heat value,
°106 Btu/hr 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.10 0.09 0.15
Radiation
Heat loss. 106 Btu/hr 0.32 0.21 0.41 0.26 0.53 0.33
Furnace exhaust
d e d e d e
Mass, lb/hr 30,817 32,123 46,102 48,434 72,735 77,643
Heat value, 106 Btu/hr 15.96 12.94 23.93 19.48 37.81 31.11
Boiler exhaust
Heat value at 500 F >
106 °
Btu/hr 13.26 .4
9.6 19.73 12.28 31.11 19.61
Recoverable heat
70 percent efficiency ,
106 Btu/hr 1.89 2. 31 2.94 5.04 4.69 8.05
Precooler and Venturi water
feed
Flow at 70°F , gpm 90 86 135 130 215 209
11-39
TABLE 11- 9
Alternatives
" WtOTV"" ““***
‘
1
^alternatives
Solids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed ), larger than A
(20 percent solids feed), due to conditioning chemicals.
-
See Table 11 7.
Q
Afterburner not included.
dAt 800 °F.
eAt 1,000 °F.
^Costs as of early 1978.
2
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 ft = 0.31 m
1 in. = 0.02 m
1 MGD = 0.04 m 3/s
11- 40
5.G
_c
5 4.0
lTi
IT
O -
II
_
C
cc
*& 3.0
-C
--
+
cc
c
C ASSUMPTIONS ;
2 ,0
E HEATUP TIME TO
EFFECTIVE HEARTH AREA REACH 1 400* F
c SQ FT
*
HR
LU
CC CESS THAN 400 18
4OM0O 27
o
LL1
BOG- MOG 36
cc: MOO2.O0O 54
GREATER THAN 2,000 108
ULI
1.0
LL. FREQUENCY QF STAflTUF IS A FUNCTION OF INDIVIDUAL UNIT
FUEL IS NATURAL GAS OR FUEL OIL
FICURE 11- 10
10 100
100
7
6
6
4
3
%
§
* 10
9
c
o 8
7
E 6
5
H 4
CO
8 3
O 2
-
t
u
CL
CD 1.0
8
O B
a 7
6
4
3
0,1
100 2 3 4 6 6 789 1,000 2 3 4 5 6 78 910,000 2 3 4 5 6 789100,000
FIGURE 11- 11
11-42
industrial unit with a diameter of 53 feet * ( 16.2 m ). A cross
section of the fluid bed furnace is shown on Figure 11- 1 7. T h e
sand bed is approximately 2.5 feet ( 0.8 m ) thick and sits on a
refractory- lined grid. This grid contains tuyeres through which
air is injected into the furnace at a pressure of 3 to 5 psig
( 21 t o 34 kN/m gage ) to fluidize the bed . The bed expands to
^
approximately 100 percent of its at rest volume. Temperature o f
the bed is c o n t r o l l e d b e t w e e n 1 , 4 0 0 ° F and 1 , 5 0 0 ° F ( 7 6 0 ° C a n d
816 ° C ) by auxiliary burners located either above or below the
sand bed. In some installations , a water spray or heat removal
s y s t e m above the bed c o n t r o l s the furnace t e m p e r a t u r e. In
essence , t h e r e a c t o r is a s i n g l e c h a m b e r unit in which both
drying and combustion occur in either the dense or dilute phases
in the sand bed . All of the combustion g a s e s pass through t h e
combustion zone with residence times o f several s e c o n d s a t
1, 400 ° F to 1, 500 ° F ( 760 ° C to 816° C ). Ash is carried out the t o p
of the furnace and is removed by air pollution control devices,
u s u a l l y venturi scrubbers. Sand carried o u t with t h e ash
must be replaced. Sand losses are approximately 5 percent of the
bed volume for e v e r y 300 hours o f operation. Feed t o the furnace
is introduced either above o r directly into the bed.
1 1- 43
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD ( 1 MGO * a04 m3/*)
1 10 100
100.000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
104300
8
£i*
7
e
E
DC
O 4
m 3
5
2 2
O
1 ,000
9
a
7
6
s
4
3
100
100 2 3 4 6 07 «» 1,000 2 3 4 6 6 789 10,000 2 3 4 6 6 789 100,000
P r e h e a t i n g t h e i n c o m i n g c o m b u s t i o n a i r f r o m 7 0 ° F t o 1, 0 0 0 ° F ( 2 1°C
t o 5 3 8 °C ) c a n y i e l d a r e d u c t i o n i n f u e l c o s t s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
61 percent per unit wet sludge ( 39 ) . Air preheating costs
can represent 15 percent of the f l u i d b e d f u r n a c e c o s t;
therefore, a careful economic analysis i s needed to determine
-
cost effectiveness for a given situation .
11 44-
1 ,000,000 CURVE NO . SLUDGE TYPE
i
8 2
PRIMARY
.
PRIM + FERRIC CHLORIDE {Fe l3 >
.
/ *, e.
2, 8
% 2
X
ii
ASSUMPTIONS
> HEAT VALUE OF VOLATILE SOLIDS 10,000 Biu/lb
3 6 LOADING RATES, lb/«Q Hflir:
S3 4 CURVE NO, RATE
E 3 1,8 14
&
2,4,8,73 6.B
D 3 IS
ui 3
CL 6 M
D L00
a
LU
| SEE TABLE 11*10 FOR FEED SLUDGE DATA
COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE 1,400* F
CL DOWNTIME IS A FUNCTION OF
S INDIVIDUAL SYSTEM
_
—
UJ
3 4 40% EXCESS AIR , NO PREHEATER
U 3 START UP FUEL NOT INCLUDED ; 73,COC Biuftq It
FOR STARTUP
2 FUEL IS NATURAL GAS OR FUEL OIL
D R Y S L U D G E F E E D , I b / h r { 1 l b/ h r - 0.45 k g / hr )
FIGURE 11- 13
7
> 6
5
5
_sd 4
*
3
LU
cc
2
a
in
ft
DC 1 ,000,000
UJ 9
5 8
O 7
CL 6
< 5
U 4
£E
H 3
U
UJ
UJ
2
FIGURE 11- 14
-
11 46
PLANT CAPACITY, MGD ( 1 MOD - 0 04 m3M
,
10 100
1 ,000,000
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
t
JS 100,000
9
o
T3
7
6
< 5
cr 4
UJ
f“
< 3
2
LLf
O 2
<
z
yj
I-
10 #000
9
z
< 7
2 ©
5
4
3
1 ,000
too 2 3 4 6 6 7 6 9 1 ,000 2 3 4 6 6 789104)00 2 3 4 6 8 7 89 004)00
*
WET SLUDGE FEEDf fb/hr ( 1 to/hr - 0* 45 kg/hr )
FIGURE 11- 15
11- 47
i
TABLE 11- 10
Typical wet
Chemical sludge loading
Type of sludge
Percent
solids
Percent
combustibles
concentration ,
mg/1
^ rate ,c
lb/sq ft/hr
Primary 30 60 N/Ad 7.0 - 12.0
Primary plus ferric
chloride (FeCl ) 16 47 20 6.0 - 10.0
Primary plus low lime ^ 35 45 298 8.0 * 12.0
Primary plus waste
activated sludge (WAS)
- 16 69 N/A 6.0- 10.0
Primary plus (WAS plus
FeCl3) 20 54 20 6.5 - 11.0
(Primary plus FeCl )
plus WAS ^ 16 53 20 6.0 - 10.0
WAS 16 80 N/A 6.0 - 10.0
WAS plus FeCl 3 16 50 20 6.0 - 10.0
Anaerobically digested
primary 30 43 N/A 7.0 - 12.0
1 1- 4 8
Stwee FEED GAS EXHAUST
RECYCLE FAN J ,
& 2B% SOL 105 100 HP
m , ooa s u/ ib
*
VOLATILES,
SCT-% ASH ) \
DDMau tlOK
SLUDGE
^
AIR FAN
HP /
INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
HOC HR
DRYING
ZDNE
PECUPEEATOK
EXHAUST
63,736 Elm 11,313 sc hp
S
HP
* *
S Jqff F /
\
0
SLUDGE
SUPPLEMENTAL COMfiuSTH>N
FUEL Z0Ni
n «jooEf\ WET
S£ PrUBBfc R
RtCUPEHATQR
* \
WATER. 1
ASH
COOLING
/
ZONE
23..S69 Elm
I
1
1 Ih/fir - * 237A J/Stg
'
1 Helm “ 47 x Iff
"
rr ^-
's
HFAT
RECOVERY
BOHER
°
350 F
A &H
FIGURE 11- 16
HEAT BALANCE FOR THE RECYCLE CONCEPT IN A
MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE ( 55 )
1 1 . 3.3 Electric Furnace
The first electric furnace was installed in Richardson , T e x a s, in
1975. The electric , o r infrared , furnace ( EF ) is a horizontally
oriented , rectangular , s t e e l shell containing a moving horizontal
woven-wire belt. T h e unit is lined with ceramic-fiber blanket
insulation. Electric furnaces are available in a r a n g e of sizes
f r o m 4 f e e t ( 1.2 m ) wide b y 2 0 f e e t ( 6 . 1 m ) l o n g t o 9 . 5 f e e t
( 2 . 9 m ) wide b y 9 6 feet ( 2 9 . 3 m ) l o n g . Larger sizes are
currently being developed. A typical cross section is shown o n
Figure 11 - 21.
a i r b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e a s h d i s c h a r g e end o f t h e u n i t .
Excess air r a t e s for the E F v a r y from 20 t o 70 p e r c e n t , T h e E F
is d i v i d e d i n t o a f e e d z o n e , a d r y i n g and combustion z o n e ,
and a n ash discharge zone. T h e feed and discharge zones a r e each
8 feet ( 2 . 4 m ) long , T h e l e n g t h of t h e drying and combustion
z o n e varies with t h e design.
1 1- 4 9
EXHAUST AND ASH
il
fl PRESSURE TAP
SIGHT
Y GLASS
It FREEBOARD
i BURNER
SAND
FEED
¥
* h
4
1 «
* ¥ 9 f
- I * 1
i 3 r
4
THERMOCOUPLE -
4
* i
TUYERES
F
I
FLUIDIZED
ft
4
*
4
SAND BED *
FUEL
I -'
i
SLUDGE !*
4
V
f
4
< k
GUN
INLET “ - ¥
4
¥
PRESSURE TAP
REFRACTER
ARCH
>
STARTUP
PREHEAT
FLUIDIZING D BURNER
AIR INLET WINDBOX I FOR HOT
WINDBOX
FIGURE 11- 17
11- 50
TABLE 11- 11
Furnace design
Inside diameter , ft 14 12 18 14 22 18
Loading rate , lb wet
solids/sq ft/hr 56.9 47.0 53.3 47.0 56.5 45.0
Sludge feed b b b
Lb dry solids/hr 1,806 2 , 131 2,713 3.201 4, 293 5,064
Heat value , 10
^
Btu/hr
Volatile solids , percent
13.91 13.91 20.89 20.89 33.06 33.06
dry solids 77 65 77 65 77 65
c
Supplemental fuel
Mass, lb/hr 151 0 224 0 353 0
Heat value, 10 Btu/hr 2.80 0 4.14 0 6.52 0
Combustion air
Mass, lb/hr 19 ,353 16,250 28,976 23,576 45,978 38 ,620
Heat value, 10 ^ Btu/hr 4.4 0 6.7 0 10.6 0
Ash
Mass, lb dry solids/hr 416 746 623 1,117 959 1,772
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 0.12 0.14 0. 18 0.26 0.29 0.42
Water flow , gpm 20 32 30 43 40 70
Radiation
Heat loss, 10 ^ Btu/hr 0.42 0.29 0.63 0.44 1.00 0.71
Recoverable heat
70 percent efficiency ,
d e d G d e
106 Btu/hr 3.5 6.2 5.3 9.4 8.4 12.7
Recuperator Yes No Yes No Yes No
Venturi water
Recycle water , gpm 83 68 124 102 197 161
Makeup water at 70 F , gpm 10 12 15 19 24 30
°
Scrubber water feed
°
Flow at 70 F , gpm 365 345 548 565 868 824
Scrubber drain
Flow at 130 F , gpm 391 359 582 600 924 900
°
Gas exhaust
Volume , cfm 5,042 3,972 7,524 5,949 12,007 9,459
Temperature , F ° 120 120 120 120 120 120
Connected power
Horsepower 218 162 320 234 425 350
Installed cost,
dollars
^ thousand
1,100 1, 000 1,400 1,100 1,600 1,500
a
-
All data provided by Dorr Oliver , Inc.
^alternatives
Solids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed) larger than A
(20 percent solids feed), due to conditioning chemicals.
,
-
See Table 11 7.
c
Afterburner not required.
d o
At 1,400 F.
eAt 1,650°F.
Costs as of early 1978.
1 ft = 0.01 m
2
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr 1 cfm = 4.72 x 10 4 m3/s “
0.04 m Vs
11- 51
FUftNACfe IXHAUST GAS EXHAUST
i i
COMBUSTION AIR
4
, INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
RECUPERATOR
WET SC RUBBER
*
SCRUBBER
4
VENTURI WATiFl
FIGURE 11- 18
been included ,
^
I l l , b a l a n c e s f o r a 1 M G D ( 0 . 0 4 m /s ) t r e a t m e n t p l a n t h a v e
T h e EF is suited t o small w a s t e w a t e r treatment
plants.
1 1- 5 2
a d v a n t a g e o f l o w excess air m a y be r e d u c e d . W h e n a u t o g e n o u s
s l u d g e is available , t h e o n l y difference between the EF and other
p r o c e s s e s with low excess air r a t e s would be the motive p o w e r.
II
—
P"< “
>.
13-* 5
*
CD 4
3
2
X
>
I0fcx » -
9 Mi
3
M 7
CO 6
c 5
o 4 ASSUMPTIONS:
3 LOADING RATES PER TABLE 1*1*10
E
to
Q 2 INCOMING SLUDGE TEMPERATURE !$ 57 * F
i
Ui COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE i 1,400 * F
a: -
DOWNTIME FOR COOL DOWN EQUALS
D
a
Ui
°°8e1
1«
STARTUP TIME
FREQUENCY FOR STARTUP® IS A FUNCTION
£T OF INDIVIDUAL SYSTEMS
_l £ EXCESS- AIR IS 100%
UJ 4 FUEL IS NATURAL GAS OR FUEL OIL
IL 3 NO STARTUP FUEL F $ INCLUDED
( SEE FIGURE 11-101
2
100
J
i 1 I 1
ID 2 3 4 E 789100 2 3 4 5 67991.000 2 3 4 $ 6 78010,000 2 3 4 S 6 71# 100,000
FIGURE 11- 19
1 1- 5 3
s i n c e t h e r e i s no heat sink s i m i l a r t o t h e sandbed i n the FBF
Currently , no EF u n i t s are installed with a capacity of over
.
1, 2 0 0 p o u n d s p e r h o u r .
>
£
<0
f!
100,000,000
r
5
-
X
6
4
> 3
-
5
E
7
o
LU
10.000,000
CL a
7
=
a>
UJ
f l£
6
5
4
3
CC
UJ
2
5
O
Qu
1.000,
<
o
cc
H
o
1 5
4
ASSUMPTIONS:
FULL TIME
Hi OPERATION
3
UJ
2
100,000 i Mill I
10 2 3 4 i §7
*»100 2 5 4 * 6 7*91,000 2 3 4 16 7 6910,000 2 % 4 C $ 7 89100,000
FIGURE 11- 20
1 1- 5 4
a large electric demand charge in some areas. This may be the
case whether the energy is used or not. Also, time - of - day
charges could be significant. One concern is the high voltage ,
240 to 480 V , required for the furnace infrared heaters, This
may create safety problems in small plants, where workers are
unaccustomed to high voltage equipment.
BELT
RADIANT
DRIVE -!
i INFRARED
I ROLLER HEATING r- WOVEN WIRE
! r LEVELER £ LEM ENTS I CONTINUOUS BELT
SLUDGE FEED [
COOLING COOLING
* p RABBLING
AIR AIR l
GAS
n
AIRLOCK-
^ r .
f 1 — ..
I DEVICE
O 0 <J
i-
G
zw
. :
0 D & $ o a o —**C*=*&
r = COMBUSTION
-40L*
EXHAUST O > GO
/ 1
•
~
.—*Z* AIR
a
) g*
o
u o
a
o
a
u o
o
o
o
o °o T)\ .
2
X
*
ZZjp i
T
ASW
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 11-21
11- 55
GAS EXHAUST
i.
CDMlQUSTtON
Alfl INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
RECUPERATOR
’
VENTURI
WATER
•*
! -
m
COMBUSTION CONNECTED POWER
ELECTRIC FURNACE AIR
1
'
RADIATION ASH
FIGURE 11- 22
T h e c y c l o n i c f u r n a c e d e s i g n d i f f e r s f r o m t h e m u l t i p l e-h e a r t h
and fluid bed designs in that i t does not allow the combustion
a i r to pass upward through the feed material Combustion air .
and supplemental fuel, if required , are injected tangentially
into the combustion chamber above the rotating hearth This .
creates a swirling ( cyclonic ) action that mixes the gases and
allows adequate contact between the oxygen and the furnace feed .
The gases from the combustion process spiral upward t o the
outlet . The f u r n a c e e x h a u s t t e m p e r a t u r e i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1, 500 °F
( 816 °C ) . Heat could be recovered from the exhaust with a heat
recovery boiler followed by a recuperator The ash i s moved t o .
the middle of the hearth , where i t drops through to a quench tank
for final disposal .
The rotating hearth i s sealed a t the edges
by a water bath .
11- 56
TABLE 11- 12
Alternatives
IA IB I IA IIB 11 IA 11 IB
5 MGD 5 MGD 15 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD 50 MGD 1 MGD
20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent 40 percent
Stream solids solids solids solids solids solids solids
Furnace design
Number of units 2 1 2 1 3 2 1
Overall width , ft 8.5 8.5 9.5 9.5 9.5 8.5 6
Overall length , ft 72 72 88 88 96 88 32
Belt area/furnace ,
sq ft 382.6 382.6 560.5 560.5 616.8 479.5 94.5
Loading rate, lb wet
Solids/sq ft/ hrb 11.8 13.9 12.1 14.3 11.6 13.2 11.3
Sludge feed
C C C
Lb dry solids/ r 2,131
Heat value, 10 Btu/
hr
Volatile solids,
^ 1,806
13.91 13.91
2,713
20.89
3,2G1
20.89
4,292
33.06
5,064
33.06
427
2.79
percent dry solids 77 65 77 65 77 65 65
Water, lb/hr , 7,224 3 ,200 10,582 4,800 17 ,172 7,596 641
Heat value , 10
Btu/hr 0.28 0.12 0.41 0.18 0.65 0.29 0.02
Supplemental power
d
Electric infrared ,
kW 280.8 0 402.5 0 643.8 0 0
6 e « ®
Heat value, 10 Btu/ 2.98 4.27 6.82
hr 0 0 0 0
Combustion air
Mass at 60 F , lb/hr 17,736 24 ,786 26,676 37 , 184 42,161 4,962
°
Heat value, 106 Btu/
58 ,044
3
A1I data supplied by Shirco , Inc.
b
Useable (effective) area of belt.
CSolids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed), larger than A
alternatives (20 percent solids feed ), due to conditioning chemicals .
d
See Table 11 7.
-
Afterburner not included.
CAutogenous with combustion air preheated to 500
°F. kW =* 10,600
Btu/hr to allow for generation efficiency.
fAt 750 °F.
gAt 1,200 °F.
^3Does not include supplemental power requirements for infrared heaters.
Costs as of early 1978.
1 ft * 0.31 m
1 sq ft = 0.093 m2
2
1 lb/sq ft/hr =
4.9 kg/m /hr
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
1 x IQ6 Btu/hr = 1 / 055 MJ/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 MGD = 0.04 m 3/s
11- 57
EXHAUST
CYCLONIC ACTION
ROTATING HEARTH
FIXED PLOW
COMBUSTION A I R
TANGENTIAL
AIR PORTS —
i SLUDGE
INLET
BURNER |TYP)
ASH DISCHARGE IN
CENTER OF FURNACE
FIGURE 11 -23
CROSS SECTION OF A CYCLONIC FURNACE
11- 58
&A5 EXHAUST
4
FURNACE HJEAT
RECOVERY
EXHAUST * 101 LER INDUCED
DRAFT FAN
1'
'
PRIMARY Aifi
1 ‘ RECUPERATOR
. RECOVERABLE
H EAT m- WET SCRUBBER
SCRUBBER
WATER
>V
DRAIN
SINGLE
SUPPLEM£*nAL HEARTH
ASfi
FUEL CYCLONIC
FURNACE PRECOOLiR WATER
SLUDGEfEED | i
*
*
CONNECTED POWER
*
ASM
FIGURE 11- 24
11-59
TABLE 11- 13
Alternatives
IA
5 MGD
IB
5 MGD
11 A
15 MGD
IIB
15 MGD
-
II LA
50 MGD
IIIB
50 MGD
20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent 20 percent 40 percent
Stream solids solids solids solids solids solids
Furnace design
Diameter , ft 19.50 13.75 24.00 17.00 30.25 21.50
Hearth loading rate , lb
wet solids/sq ft/hr 30.4 30.9 30.1 30.1 29.9 29.7
Sludge feed
b b b
Lb dry solids/hr 1,806 1,806. 2,7
!3 2'712 4, 292b 4, 292
b b b b
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 14.27 14.27 21.43 21.43 33.91 33.91
Volatile solids , percent b b b
dry solids 77 77 77 77 77 77
Q
Supplemental fuel
Mass, lb/hr 132 0 184 0 546 0
^
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 2.48 0 3.46 0 10.28 0
Primary air
Mass, lb/hr Q 19,665 19 ,665 29,519 29,519 46,694 46,694
Temperature , F 1,100 60 1,100 60 1,100 60
Burner air
Ash
Mass at 60
^%
Mass at 260
, lb/hr
* , lb/hr
2 ,280
415
0
415
3,178
624 624
0 9,430
987
0
987
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 0.19 0.19 0.29 0.29 0.46 0.46
Radiation
Heat loss, 10 Btu/hr 0.90 0.60 1.17 0.80 2.00 1.00
Waste heat boiler NO Yes No Yes No Yes
Recuperator Yes No Yes No Yes No
Furnace exhaust
Mass, lb/hr 30 ,692 23 ,765 45 ,817 35 ,675 77, 143 57 ,424
Temperature, 1,420 1,411 1,420 1,421 1 , 420 1 ,420
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 19.90 13.48 29.75 20.34 50.10 32. 38
Boiler/recuperator exhaust
Temperature, F, ° 960 500 960 500
10.32
960
39.45
500
16.51
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 15.66 6.87 23.43
Recoverable heat boiler
70 percent efficiency ,
-
^
10 Btu/hr 0 4.63 0 7.01 0 11.11
Precooler water feed
°
Flow at 60 F , gpm 12 5 19 7 30 15
Scrubber water feed
Flow at 60°F, gpm 292 197 437 296 699 507
Scrubber drain
Flow , gpm 319 207 477 311 763 535
Temperature, F ° 120 110 120 110 120 110
Gas exhaust
Mass, lb/hr 23,468 21,209 34 ,969 31,B3 B 62,225 49,002
Temperature,°F 120 110 120 110 120 110
Heat value , 10 ^ Btu/hr 1.79 1.62 2.67 2.43 4.75 3.74
Connected power
Horsepower 175 125 260 190 460 290
dollars
^
Installed cost , thousand
1, 300 1,000 1,600 1,100 N/A 1 ,500
a
All data provided by AFB Engineers/Contractors sole U.S. distributors of the Lucas Cyclonic Furnace.
b
c
Data used by manufacturer is slightly different from that developed in Table 11 7. -
Afterburners not required ,
d
Not available.
e
Costs as of early 1978.
1 ft = 0.31 m
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1 » 055 MJ/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
1 MGD = 0.04 m 3/s
11- 60
Most o f the industrial wastes discharged t o the plant are removed
in t h e p r i m a r y t a n k s , a n d t h e r e s u l t is a c o m b i n e d s c u m a n d
s l u d g e with an e x t r e m e l y high heating value.
TABLE 11- 14
Parameter Value
1 1 . 3.5.1 Approach
A c o n s u l t a n t w a s hired t o e v a l u a t e s e v e r a l d i s p o s a l m e t h o d s ,
including land disposal, composting , h e a t treatment , combustion ,
and continuation o f landfill disposal. Combustion w a s identified
as t h e m o s t cost - effective solution. T h e high energy c o n t e n t o f
the s l u d g e and the limited available land for s l u d g e disposal
influenced this decision. The digestion s t e p w a s eliminated from
the d e s i g n so that the full heat value of the sludge could be
used in combustion. It was e x p e c t e d that this would obviate the
need f o r a n y supplemental f u e l. T h e existing d i g e s t e r s would b e
converted t o s l u d g e thickening /s t o r a g e units, and the existing
vacuum filters would provide an incinerator feed solids c o n t e n t
of a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2 0 p e r c e n t.
At present, the vacuum filter operates 6 t o 8 hours a day,
5 days per week, Because o f the limited plant area, n o s p a c e
is a v a i l a b l e f o r f i l t e r c a k e h o l d i n g facilities. T h e r e f o r e ,
t h e f u r n a c e will b e d e s i g n e d t o o p e r a t e in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h
t h e v a c u u m f i l t e r s. A r e v i e w o f t h e v a r i o u s f u r n a c e s y s t e m s
indicated that because of the high heating value of the
1 1- 61
s l u d g e, the intermittent operation requirements, and the s p a c e
l i m i t a t i o n s , a f l u i d bed s y s t e m w o u l d b e t h e m o s t c o s t - a n d
e n e r g y- effective solution.
F l u i d b e d f u r n a c e m a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e p r o v i d e d t h e d a t a in
Table 1 1-1 5 for analysis and development of heat and material
balances. T a b l e 11- 1 6 and Figure 11- 25 show all sizing criteria ,
a s well a s the requirements for peripheral equipment , O n the
basis o f this and additional d a t a , a 1 5-foot ( 4.6 m ) diameter
fluid bed furnace w a s specified , A r e c u p e r a t o r t o recover the
h e a t in t h e exhaust g a s and r e t u r n it t o the f u r n a c e ( hot wind
box design ) was included.
TABLE 11- 15
Parameter Value
Sludge feed
Solids c o n t e n t , p e r c e n t b y
weight 20
Volatile solids c o n t e n t ,
p e r c e n t o f d r y solids 77
Heat v a l u e, B t u/l b of d r y
solids 11, 000
F u r n a c e o p e r a t i o n , h r/w e e k 40
A v e r a g e solids loading r a t e ,
lb/hr , d r y basis 1, 8 1 0
1 B t u/l b = 2, 3 2 4 M J/k g
1 l b/hr = 0 . 4 5 k g/h r
-
11 6 2
TABLE 11- 16
Furnace design
Inside diameter , ft 15.0
Loading rate , lb wet solids/
sq ft/hr 51.2
Sludge feed
Lb dry solids/hr 1,810
^
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr
Volatile solids , percent of
19.91
dry solids 77
Supplemental fuel 0
Combustion air
Mass, lb/hr 22 ,950
Heat value , 10 ^ Btu/hr 5.40
Ash
Mass , lb dry solids/hr 416
Heat value , 10 b Btu/hr 0.12
Water flow , gpm 20
Radiation
Heat loss 10 ^ Btu/hr 1.27
Furnace exhaust
Temperature , F 1,400
°
Recoverable heat g
70 percent efficiency , 10
Btu/hr 4.2
Recuperator Yes
Venturi water
Recycle water , gpm 94
5
Makeup water at 70
°F, gpm
Gas exhaust
Volume, cfm at 120 F ° 6 ,162
-
11 63
the aeration tank ( see Chapter 16 ). The temperature of the
sidestream , 130°F ( 54°C ), was not considered to have an adverse
effect on the secondary process.
0
mOMAI
' C CVUAI ICT eico
U i * 4. ** *'
ion c
^ * • ¥* ‘*V
GAS EXHAUST
1400* F
< I
5.4 s ID6 Btu/hr
COMBUSTION AIR
n
i i
—I 22.950 \ Whr
INDUCED DRAFT FAN
.r J
RECUPERATOR
.
WET &C RUIBER
v\
V 397 gpm at 70 F °
V VENTURI &CHUB6 ER WATER
4.2 x 10 s Btu/hr
4 ZD f 41 Q jprn
* 130* F
HEAT RECOVERY H
* DRAIN -
-m
1.27 M 10B © Su/tir FLUID
BED
RAO lAT ION FURNACE
94 gpm
;
0.12 x tO
'* Bajflv
- •
SUPPLEMENTAL FUEL
0 RECYCLE WATER
AS
^
416 Ih dry /hf
5 gpm at 70 F 20 gpm
19.91
* lGE 8iu.%
SLUDGE FEED
<
* MAKEUP WATER
1810 lb CfryThr AIR
m SOUPS
>
I AWWMtt
' '
* 240 hp
CONNECTED POWER
*
t x 10 Bw /ftr = 106b MJtor
1 gpm = 0.06 \h
1 lb/hf = 0.4b kg/hr
1 cfrn 10 4.7 x IcH m /s ^
FIGURE 11- 25
11-64
Other design considerations t o be investigated include but are
not limited t o:
Electrical distribution
Control philosophy
Sophistication of instrumentation and control
S u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l availability and s t o r a g e ( for start -u p
and problem periods )
S p a r e parts
S t a r v e d - air combustion ( S A C ) h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t o be an
effective method for burning sludge in a furnace ( 17-20, 22, 24,
26 , 29, 3 0 ). Strict air quality standards c a n be met with SAC , and
l a r g e a m o u n t s of s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l are n o t required.
1 1- 6 5
The key to SAC is the use of less than theoretical quantities
of air in the furnace -- 30 to 90 percent of stoichiometric
requirements. This makes SAC more fuel- efficient than incinera-
tion in an MHF. This is shown on Figure 11- 26. When a SAC-MHF
is combined with an afterburner , an overall excess air rate of
25 to 50 percent can be maintained , as compared to an excess air
rate of 75 to 200 percent for multiple- hearth incinerator with an
afterburner.
EXHAUST EXHAUST
SUPPLEMENTAL 25 TO 50%
* FUEL EXCESS AIR
10 TO 25% EXCESS
AFTERBURNER AFTERBURNER
11, 300° F > AIR FOR FUEL
°
(1,200 F|
100% THEORETICAL 10 TO J0%
AIR FOR FUEL
*THEORETICAL AIR
1
yj
> £ >
3 i
_
3
V
3
GB
<
>
LLl
m
u
3
_
<
>
MJ
i
D
Q
2 n U.
50 TO 150% 0% EXCESS Am
EXCESS AIR
*
MUT1PLE MULTIPLE
HEARTH HEARTH
FURNACE FURNACE
100% 30 TO 90%
THEORETICAL AIR THEORETICAL AIR
MClNERATfON $TARVED
- —
Alfi COMBUSTION
=
vi
“3 *
FIGURE 11- 26
-
11 66
The low heating value gases may be burned , and the heat generated
can be recovered and used beneficially, Alternatively , the gas
may be cooled and stored for subsequent off-site use .
The most
effective utilization appears to be the burning of the total
gas stream , with subsequent recovery of portions of the heat
generated. Off-site use appears to be impractical because:
11-67
Fluid bed , electric, and cyclonic furnaces could also be operated
in a SAC mode , T o date , none has been o p e r a t e d in this manner
with a sludge feed , Operation in a SAC mode is particularly well
suited t o t h e MHF. T h e r e a p p e a r s t o be little incentive to
operate the FBF in this mode because ( 1 ) excess air rates for SAC
and the FBF are about the same, and ( 2 ) an afterburner would be
required for a converted MHF whereas afterburning is not needed
where the FBF is used in the incineration mode. Several types of
furnaces , including a n FBF ( 21 ) , have b e e n o p e r a t e d in the
starved -air combustion mode on wood wastes to p r o d u c e charcoal.
11-68
GAS EXHAUST
'
SHAFT COOLINO AIR
i
RETURNED TO AFTERBURNER
AFTERBURNER
INDUCED
COMBUSTION * DRAFT FAN
AIR AFTERBURNER
SHAFT COOLI.NO
AIR RETURNED
FURNACE
EXHAUST
FRECOOLER
AND VENTURI
—/ j
/
TO FURNACE
zu\
AFTERBURNER BOILER EXHAUST
EXHAUST
WET SCRUBBER
HEAT
SLUDGE RECOVERY
BOILER I
FEED
SCRUBBER
*
i
RECOVERABLE
WATER
MULTIPLE HiAT
HEARtH
STARVED
AIR REACTOR
4 - SUPPLEMENTAL
FUEL
DRAIN
-
HP
RADIATliQN
PRECOOLEfi AND
COMBUSTION AIR
VENTURE WATER
x
CONNECTED POWER
i i
ASH
9P
SHAFT
Cr * AIR
COOLING
FIGURE 11- 27
A f l o w s h e e t f o r a n MHF o p e r a t e d a s a SAC r e a c t o r i s p r o v i d e d i n
F i g u r e 1 1- 2 7 . C o m p a r i s o n w i t h F i g u r e 1 1- 9 s h o w s t h e d i f f e r e n c e
to be the addition of an afterburner Heat and material .
balances for the hypothetical treatment plant alternatives
( T a b l e 1 1- 8 ) a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 1 1-1 7 T a b l e 11-18 t a k e s .
selected data from the heat and material balances previously
p r e s e n t e d t o p e r m i t d i r e c t comparison o f SAC w i t h i n c i n e r a t i o n
options . Direct comparisons are made for an autogenous sludge ,
and feed rates to a l l systems are identical except for that to
the cyclonic furnace .
SAC a p p e a r s t o h a v e an a d v a n t a g e o v e r a l l
11- 69
TABLE 11- 17
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION
OF SLUDGE IN A MULTIPLE-HEARTH FURNACEa
Furnace design
Diameter , ft in.
Number of hearths
- -
12 9
6
14 -3
7
-8
16 9
Supplemental fuel 0 0 0
Combustion air b b
Mass, lb/hr ob 780 1 , 500
Temperature , ° F 0 60 60
Ash
Mass , lb/hr 787 1,181 1, 869
Temperature , UF 500 500 500
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 0.23 0.34 0.54
Radiation
Heat loss , IQ6 Btu/hr 0.44 0.62 0.94
Furnace exhaust
°
Mass at 800 F , lb/hr 11, 010 16 , 250 25,658
Heat value , 10 ® Btu/hr 6.82 10.16 16.05
- Mass, lb/hr
Temperature, F
°
17 , 368
1,495
26 , 537
1,495
42, 041
1 ,495
^
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr 12.76 19.18 30.04
Boiler exhaust
Heat value at 500 °F, 106 Btu/hr 6.76 9.18 13.04
Recoverable heat
*
'
70 percent efficiency , 10°
Btu/hr 4.2 7.0 11.9
- -
‘" HU dfiWI...” '"
•
-^
1 in. = 0.02 m ? 1 x 10 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
1 lb/sq ft/hr - 4.9 kg/m /hr 1
1
gpm 0.06 1/s
MGD = 0.044 m 3/s
-
11 70
TABLE 11- 17
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE FOR STARVED- AIR COMBUSTION
OF SLUDGE IN A MULTIPLE- HEARTH FURNACE3 (Continued )
IB IIB 11IB
«»» .
« •fell''. **
>
Stream 5 MGD 15 MGD 50 MGD
Gas exhaust
Mass , lb/hr 14 , 280 21,480 34 ,080
Temperature , F 120 120 120
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr
^ 4.62 5.96 7.94
Connected power
Horsepower 78 123 218
0
Installed cost, thousand dollars 1,400 1,600 2 , 300
1 ft
in.
= Q.30 m 1 x 10 Btu/hr
1 gpm = 0.06 1/s
- 1 ,055 MJ/hr
1 = 0.02 m ?
1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr 1 MGD = 0.044 m 3/s
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
11-71
TABLE 11- 18
HEAT AND MATERIAL BALANCE COMPARISON OF STARVED- AIR
COMBUSTION AND INCINERATION
-
Starved air
Item
-
Multiple hearth
incinerator3
Fluid bed
furnaceb
Electric
furnace0
Cyclonic
furnace 0
combustion
multiple hearth6
- g
Alternative IA
’ Sludge feed , lb dry
solids/hr 1 ,806 1,806 1,806 1 , 806
Supplemental fuel,
106 Btu/hr 2.64 2.80 2.98f 2.48
Furnace exhaust
Mass, Ib/hr 30 ,817 19 ,353 26,351 30 ,692
Temperature , F ° 800 1 ,400 750 1 ,420
Recoverable heat
70 percent effi
ciency , 106 Btu/
hr
- 1.89 3.50 1.37 2.97g
Connected power
Horsepower 238 218 22h 175
Alternative IB
Sludge feed , lb dry
solids/hr 2 ,131 2,131 2 ,131 1 ,806 i 2 ,131
Supplemental fuel ,
106 Btu/hr 0 0 0 0 0
Furnace exhaust
Mass, Ib/hr 32,123 16 ,250 29 ,372 23,765 17,638
Temperature , F° 1,000 1,650 1,200 1,411 1 ,495
Recoverable heat
70 percent effi
ciency , 106 Btu/
-
hr 2.31 6.2 3.85 4.63 4.20
Connected power
Horsepower 93 162 25h 125 78
Alternative IIB
Sludge feed, lb dry
solids/hr 3 , 201 3 ,201 3,201 2,712 3 , 201
Supplemental fuel ,
106 Btu/hr 0 0 0 0 0
Furnace exhaust
Mass, Ib/hr 48 ,434 23,576 44 ,064 35 ,675 26 , 537
Temperature , F 1,000 1,650 1,200 1 ,421 1,495
Recoverable heat
^ -
70 percent effi
ciency , 10 Btu/
hr 5.04 9.40 5.81 7.01 7.00
Connected power
Horsepower 178 234 40h 190 123
Alternative IIIB
Sludge feed , lb dry
solids/hr 5 ,064 5,064 5 ,064 4 ,292 5 , 064
Supplemental fuel,
106 Btu/hr 0 0 0 0 0
Furnace exhaust
Mass , Ib/hr 77 ,643 38 ,620 69 ,732 57,424 42,041
Temperature, F ° 1,000 1,650 1 ,200 1, 420 1,495
Recoverable heat
70 percent effi
ciency , I06 Btu/
-
hr 8.05 12.7 9.18 11.11 11.90
Connected power
Horsepower 238 350 60h 290 218
aSee -
Table 11 9.
bSee -
Table 11 11.
CSee
dSee
-
Table 11 12.
eSee
-
Table 11 13.
Table 11 17.
-
fInfrared heaters (kW = 10,600 Btu to allow for generating efficiency).
^bDoes
Recuperator only.
not include power requirements for infrared heaters.
iBased data used by manufacturer is different from that for other furnaces.
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
11-72
The S A C p r o c e s s provides a g r e a t e r solids t h r o u g h p u t because o f
t h e h i g h e r allowable hearth loading r a t e s. ( T h i s assumes that
a p o r t i o n o f t h e c o m b u s t i b l e s r e m a i n in t h e a s h. ) O p e r a t i o n
o f a m u l t i p l e - h e a r t h f u r n a c e with S A C p e r m i t s h e a r t h l o a d i n g
r a t e s 30 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t h i g h e r t h a n an o p t i m u m incineration
m o d e. This can be explained in t e r m s o f heat r e l e a s e and g a s
velocity , although other factors also affect loading r a t e. In
incineration, t h e heat liberated in t h e furnace by combustion o f
t h e f e e d s o l i d s m u s t b e l i m i t e d t o p r e v e n t h igh - t e m p e r a t u r e
d a m a g e t o the furnace refractories. U n d e r SAC , heat liberation
is minimized in t h e f u r n a c e b y air c o n t r o l with combustibles
passing o u t in a g a s form t o a n auxiliary combustion chamber , o r
a f t e r b u r n e r. T h e a f t e r b u r n e r w h i c h h a s n o m o v i n g mechanical
p a r t s , c a n be designed f o r t h e high t e m p e r a t u r e s. Thus , with
the t w o-s t a g e combustion p r o c e s s which occurs under S A C , high
f u r n a c e t e m p e r a t u r e is not a limiting condition. G a s velocity is
another factor which affects hearth loading r a t e. An excessive
g a s velocity entrains l a r g e quantities o f solids particles in
t h e f u r n a c e , l e a d i n g t o g a s c l e a n u p d i f f i c u l t i e s. W i t h S A C ,
considerably l e s s air is used in t h e f u r n a c e than with incinera-
tion, and this can be traded -off against the increased v o l u m e o f
c o m b u s t i b l e g a s e s c r e a t e d b y h i g h e r h e a r t h l o a d i n g r a t e s.
Therefore, for a fixed maximum gas velocity , a g r e a t e r hearth
loading r a t e can be applied with SAC t h a n with incineration.
A s e c o n d a d v a n t a g e o f f e r e d b y S A C is r e d u c e d f u e l u s a g e w h e n
afterburning is required , Even when it is possible t o d e w a t e r
the s l u d g e feed t o a n a u t o g e n o u s state, ( eliminating the n e e d
for s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l t o the furnace ), a considerable q u a n t i t y
o f fossil f u e l is s t i l l r e q u i r e d f o r t h e a f t e r b u r n e r in a n
incineration mode, Essentially no fuel is required for the
a f t e r b u r n e r in an SAC m o d e.
S A C o f f e r s m o r e s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n and e a s e o f c o n t r o l , with
minimal furnace r e s p o n s e t o feed c h a n g e s, With incineration,
increasing o r decreasing the feed rate results in a corresponding
rise o r f a l l in hearth t e m p e r a t u r e since the solids combustion
rate increases or decreases, With SAC, the extent of the
heat -generating combustion reactions a r e limited by t h e available
oxygen s u p p l y. Fluctuations in feed rate will not c h a n g e the
t e m p e r a t u r e l e v e l b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t c h a n g e t h e a m o u n t o f
combustion occurring , provided air r a t e d o e s not c h a n g e.
1 1- 7 3
t o be l o w e r w i t h SAC . I t i s probable t h a t when organic nitrogen
i s oxidized , one of the reaction products i s nitrogen oxides .
T h e r e a c t i o n i s i l l u s t r a t e d f o r N O:
-
O r g a n i c N + O2 NO + H 2 0
CHANGE REASON
1 1- 75
CHANGE REASON
11- 76
Substantial g r o w t h in w a s t e w a t e r f l o w s are a n t i c i p a t e d in t h e
n e x t f o u r y e a r s. P l a n n i n g f o r a n 1 0-M G D ( 0 . 4 4- m 3/s ) e x p a n s i o n
is c u r r e n t l y u n d e r w a y. T h e d e s i g n will h a n d l e projected f l o w s
t h r o u g h 1 9 8 8. I n addition, n e w air emission r e g u l a t i o n s w e r e
r e c e n t l y p r o m u l g a t e d limiting h y d r o c a r b o n, c a r b o n y l , and carbon
monoxide emissions to about half of the current incinerator
e m i s s i o n s. T h e c i t y h a s b e e n g i v e n n o t i c e t o c o r r e c t t h i s
situation o r b e s u b j e c t t o f i n e s levied b y t h e l o c a l a i r q u a l i t y
m a n a g e m e n t d i s t r i c t ( A Q M D ). A t i m e e x t e n s i o n t o r e v i e w a n d
c o r r e c t t h i s p r o b l e m h a s been g r a n t e d t o t h e c i t y. Data for the
e x i s t i n g p l a n t are s h o w n in T a b l e 1 1-1 9
TABLE 11- 19
Parameter Value
3
1 MGD = 0.044 m /s
1 lb/day = 0.45 kg/kg
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
1 1 . 4.4.1 Approach
T h e c i t y r e t a i n e d a c o n s u l t a n t t o p r e p a r e a f a c i l i t i e s p l a n/
p r o j e c t r e p o r t t o o b t a i n Construction G r a n t s f u n d i n g f o r a p l a n t
e x p a n s i o n t o 3 0-M G D ( 1 . 3 2- m 3/s ). B e c a u s e o f t h e u r g e n c y o f t h e
air emissions problem , the city authorized the hiring of air
pollution experts to assist the consultant in developing an
interim p l a n consistent with t h e g o a l s o f t h e expansion.
F o l l o w i n g s e v e r a l d e t a i l e d d e s i g n e s t i m a t e s, a f t e r b u r n i n g a t
1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C ) f o r o n e- h a l f s e c o n d w a s d e t e r m i n e d t o b e t h e
m o s t c o s t - effective solution. This approach was also felt to
g u a r a n t e e a continuous a n d d e p e n d a b l e o p e r a t i o n while s a t i s f y i n g
a l l r e g u l a t i o n s.
1 1- 7 7
Since afterburning was proposed , it w a s also decided t o study
S A C. S A C c o u l d p o s s i b l y i n c r e a s e existing f u r n a c e c a p a c i t y a n d /
o r reduce the equipment t o be added .
Prior t o review o f SAC , it
w a s determined that , in the incineration mode, each furnace would
require an afterburner, and that a new furnace and afterburner
would be required f o r the plant expansion t o 30- M G D ( 1 . 3 2- m /s ). ^
1 1 . 4.4 . 2 Preliminary Design
Two e x p e r i e n c e d m u l t i p l e- h e a r t h f u r n a c e m a n u f a c t u r e r s w e r e
provided the data in Table 11- 19. Detailed heat and material
b a l a n c e s w e r e d e v e l o p e d f o r i n c i n e r a t i o n and s t a r v e d - air
combustion — both followed by external afterburning , T h e schemes
u s e d t h e e x i s t i n g vacuum f i l t e r s t o p r o v i d e a feed cake o f
2 5 p e r c e n t s o l i d s, A l s o, e a c h m a n u f a c t u r e r w a s t o a n a l y z e
t w o additional cases t h a t entailed use of improved dewatering
equipment t o produce a feed cake solids content of 3 5 p e r c e n t.
Both of these cases u s e d SAC , but one had a n external afterburner
and the second used the t o p hearth o f t h e p r e s e n t furnace as the
afterburner. The m a n u f a c t u r e r s were asked t o use the existing
furnace t o determine the capacity of each of t h e four s y s t e m s.
The cases considered w e r e a s follows:
Case I Add a n e x t e r n a l afterburner and heat recovery boiler t o
each furnace. One additional furnace is required t o
s a t i s f y f u t u r e loading .
C a s e II C o n v e r t e x i s t i n g f u r n a c e s t o S A C. A d d a n e x t e r n a l
afterburner and heat recovery boiler t o each furnace.
O n e additional furnace is required t o satisfy future
loading .
Case III C o n v e r t e x i s t i n g f u r n a c e s t o S A C. Add a n e x t e r n a l
afterburner and heat recovery boiler t o each furnace.
S l u d g e feed rate calculated using allowable r a t e s for
S A C with i m p r o v e d d e w a t e r i n g e q u i p m e n t ( 3 5 p e r c e n t
solids ). N o t e that a f t e r b u r n e r t e m p e r a t u r e is 1 , 430° F
( 7 7 7° C ). N o additional furnaces required f o r future
loading .
Case IV Convert e x i s t i n g f u r n a c e s t o S A C and use t o p hearth
as a n a f t e r b u r n e r. A d d a h e a t r e c o v e r y boiler t o
each furnace . Sludge feed rate calculated from
a l l o w a b l e r a t e s f o r S A C with i m p r o v e d d e w a t e r i n g
equipment ( 3 5 p e r c e n t solids ) and desired afterburner
t e m p e r a t u r e of 1, 200 ° F ( 649 °C ) .N o additional furnaces
are required f o r f u t u r e loading .
Table 1 1- 20 shows a s u m m a r y o f the manufacturer's calculations
for the four cases and the e x i s t i n g condition. A n interesting
c o m p a r i s o n c a n b e m a d e b e t w e e n C a s e s I and I I . Both cases
u s e a n a f t e r b u r n e r and r e c o v e r h e a t but C a s e I I utilizes
S A C. H e a t r e c o v e r y g a i n s b y u s i n g S A C a r e i m p r e s s i v e The .
^
city would save 1.33 x 1 0 B t u per hour ( 1.40 GJ /hr ) by using
SAC , which would produce an annual fuel savings of slightly
1 1- 7 8
TABLE 11- 20
Existing
condition Case I'< A K* ::::
Case II Case III Case IV
Modified b b
Type of operation Incinerator incinerator SAC SAC b SAC
Furnace design C
Number of furnaces 2 3
C
3 2C 2C
Diameter , ft-in.
Number of hearths »
16 -9
7
-
16 9
7
16 9
7
- -
16 9
7
-
16 9d
7
Hearth loading rate ,
lb wet solids/sq
ft/hr 7.0 7.0 7.0 10.2 10.2
Afterburner . None External External External Internal
(top hearth)
Sludge feed
Lb dry solids/hr 1,700 1, 700 1,700 3 ,473 2 , 957
hr ^
Heat value , 10 Btu/
12.75 12.75 12.75 26.05 22.18
Volatile solids, per
cent dry solids
- 75 75 75 75 75
Feed solids , percent 25 25 25 35 35
Afterburner supple
mental fuel
-
Mass, lb/hr N.A. 189 128 0 0
Heat value , 10
Btu/hr N.A. 3.77 2.44 0 0
Mass at 350 F,
lb/hr
° 2 ,391 2 ,391 5 ,919 0 0
Heat value , 106
Btu/hr 0.35 0.35 1.09 0 0
Ash
866e
e e
Mass , lb/hr 425 425 478 975
Heat value, 106
Btu/hr 0.04 0.04 0.14 0.28 0.25
Radiation
Heat loss , 10 ^ Btu/hr 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29 0.29
11- 79
TABLE 11- 20
Existing
condition Case I Case II Case III Case IV
Modified ;b
Type of operation Incinerator incinerator SAC b SAC
b
SAC
Furnace exhaust
Mass at 800 F , lb/hr
° 24 ,209 24 , 209 16 ,145 21,454 17 /448
Heat value , 10 Btu/
hr ^ 12.07 12.07 11.23 14.87 10.55
Afterburner combustion
air
Mass at 60 F , lb/hr N.A. 2 , 555 4 ,296 11,534 10,989
°
Afterburner exhaust
Mass , lb/hr N.A. 26 ,764 19 ,366 32 ,987 28 ,437
Temperature , °F N.A. 1 , 200 1 ,200 1,430 1 , 200
Heat value , 10 Btu/
hr ^ N.A. 15.84 14.05 24.24 21.64
Boiler exhaust
Heat value at 400
106 Btu/hr °F , N.A. 9.51 8.78 13.92 12.89
Recoverable heat
70 percent efficiency ,
106 Btu/hr 2.24f 4.43 3.69 '
7.22 6.13
Gas exhaust
Mass , lb/hr 21 , 368 20 ,759 15 ,480 26 ,220 27 ,837
Temperature , F 120 120 120 120 120
Heat value , 106 Btu/hr 6.35 7.53 4.11 8.52 2.64
standby.
d
Note , top hearth is afterburner , therefore , not
1 x 106
Btu/hr = 1 ,055 MJ/hr
included in hearth loading calculations. 1 gpm = 0.06 1/s ^
3
eincludes combustible heat content. 1 MGD = 0.044 m /s
^ Existing system does not include boiler.
o v e r $ 3 0 , 0 0 0 a t $ 2 . 7 0 p e r 106 B t u ( $ 2 . 6 0 p e r G J ) H o w e v e r, .
it a p p e a r s that this savings would n o t justify the conversion
w h e n compared with t h e l a r g e capital e x p e n d i t u r e.
1 1- 8 0
Cases III and IV both use SAC , but start with a cake that has
been dewatered t o 3 5 p e r c e n t solids , R e c o v e r a b l e heat q u a n t i t i e s
are f a r higher than for Cases I and II. Case IV , which does n o t
use a n external afterburner has a c a p i t a l c o s t a d v a n t a g e over
Case III. Also, the s y s t e m could easily handle t h e e x p e c t e d
s l u d g e loads through t h e d e s i g n y e a r. The fuel savings would be
a l m o s t $ 9 0 , 0 0 0 p e r y e a r , a n d t h e e n e r g y g e n e r a t e d w o u l d be
sufficient t o save another $ 2 5 0 , 000 p e r y e a r ( a t 1 0 , 6 0 0 Btu /kWhr
[ 1 1 . 1 8 MJ / kWhr ] a n d $ 0 . 0 5 /k W h r ). T h e s e s a v i n g s a l o n e w o u l d
j u s t i f y c a p i t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s o f over $ 3 , 6 0 0 , 0 0 0 ( 2 0 y e a r s a t
7 p e r c e n t p e r y e a r ), In addition , t h e r e w o u l d be a c a p i t a l
savings because a third furnace would n o t be required .
1 1 -8 1
2,64 a IQ6 StU/fw
.
GAS EXHAUST
27,837 Ifc Tir $ 12 F
^
6
41.56 aid BtiiiTir
* ea
21 ,S x 10 t4 /hr HEAT m AOD°F
* # RECOVERY
28,*37 \h/hr BOILER BOILER
# 1200
^ EXHAUST
22,18
SLUDGE FEED
^ ittn/tir
a 10
* 456 qpttn
2,067 IfcVRr DRY > 70®f
3S% SOLIDS FEED 4*
(
f SCRUBBER
. WATER
MULTIPLE
HEARTH
STARVED
AIR
REACTOR *
0 --
SUPPLEMENTAL
532 ®wi
4»
DRAIN
FUEL
6 Btu/ hr
0.29 x 1 Qw
RADIATION
°
65 gpm # 70 F
FRE COOLER AND
9,667 Ih /hr VENTURI WATER
#
COMBUSTION
AIR
.
1 Btv.«Tir - 1055i/hr
0.25 x 10 BtuAw HWhr ." 045 ka/hr
15,438 Ib/lnr
ASH BBB IfenTw -
Igpm Q,C6 I/s
FIGURE 11- 28
11-82
in m a n y p l a n t s that are close t o coal mines o r coal -fired p o w e r
stations. C o a l , however , is not a w a s t e material , a n d its use t o
improve filtration and increase the fuel value of t h e furnace
feed is not as desirable a s using a combustible waste for these
p u r p o s e s. T w o p l a n t s , one in Rochester , New Y o r k , and an o t h e r
in Vancouver, Washington, are experimenting with sawdust a s a
filter aid prior t o combustion , The results t o date have been
very g o o d , but detailed data are not available , Minneapolis has
tried using woodchips a s a s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel ( 7 0 ).
T h e r e a r e t w o basic a p p r o a c h e s t o c o - c o m b u s t i o n o f s l u d g e
w i t h M M R: ( a ) use o f r e f u s e c o m b u s t i o n t e c h n o l o g y b y a d d i n g
dewatered o r dried s l u d g e t o a n M M R combustion unit , a n d ( b ) use
of s l u d g e combustion t e c h n o l o g y by adding raw o r p r o c e s s e d M M R
as a s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l t o t h e s l u d g e f u r n a c e , T a b l e 1 1 - 2 1
illustrates the c o m m o n l y used approaches t o co- combustion.
TABLE 11- 21
1 1-8 3
GAS
EXHAUST
.V
< '
X
X
•
<
: ft <:
•
V
i
•
-
; A' < .
:
<
-
r WATER WALLED
£2 \ COMBUSTION UNIT ft'• STACK
'
2 — GAS FLOW
>
•
:•
S
§
lV '
!
•
?
“Xffi,
;•;
!'
« <
>•••.y»
.•
•:
’
>
• S|
A.
•• «• *V . I * I*
\ :
•>
ft - •:
FEED^
HOPPER ®
^ * ELECTROSTATIC
.•
PRECIPITATOR :• : :
?
,
,
•:
.v • \%
V
•
>
A
v ;
*
g Xy
r -
-1-
% v: :•
>:
•, •> • v; s f 1 >
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BSCiiViNG
INDUCE U
DRAFT
FAN
-
<• <<• v
-
? *.« > &
Wi
OKK'. TJ: MIXED MUNICIPAL
FIGURE 11- 29
-
Historically , grate fired refractory and waterwalled combustion
units have been used to burn raw mixed municipal refuse.
-
Figure 11 29 illustrates this approach. This practice is common
throughout Europe , where there are several hundred installations.
When sludge disposal became a problem , the first approach was to
burn the sludge with the refuse. The quantity of sludge was
normally small compared to the refuse, This was attempted in
several locations , but efforts were generally unsuccessful , with
failures due to the following problems:
Uniform mixing of sludge and refuse was difficult to
accomplish on a large scale. Poorly mixed feeds produced
alternate " hot" and " cold " feeds , resulting in erratic
furnace operation.
-
11 84
• H i g h moisture c o n t e n t o f t h e s l u d g e a n d i n a d e q u a t e
furnace detention times sometimes caused non-a u t o g e n o u s
combustion and w e t residues.
H o w e v e r , a s previously s t a t e d , s e v e r a l s y s t e m s c u r r e n t l y in
o p e r a t i o n have been designed specifically t o incinerate MMR with
sewage s l u d g e ( 7 8 ). A number o f these are described below.
T w o p l a n t s in t h e United S t a t e s u s e f l u e g a s e s g e n e r a t e d in
g r a t e-fired , r e f r a c t o r y-walled combustion units t o d r y w a s t e-
w a t e r s o l i d s p r i o r t o c o m b u s t i o n with M M R ( 7 4 ). I n A n s o n i a ,
C o n n e c t i c u t , s l u d g e w i t h f o u r p e r c e n t s o l i d s is dried in
a disk - t y p e , co - c u r r e n t s p r a y d r y e r w i t h 1 , 2 0 0 ° F ( 6 4 9 ° C )
incinerator flue g a s e s. Dried s l u d g e and v a p o r s are injected
into the incinerator for suspension burning. The p l a n t capacity
is 200 tons 181 t ( ) p e r d a y o f solid w a s t e. P r e s e n t l y , t h e
s l u d g e is not being incinerated but used a s a soil conditioner.
Holyoke , M a s s a c h u s e t t s, uses a similar incinerator and a v e r a g e s
250 t o n s ( 227 t ) p e r week o f r e f u s e and 1 9 t o n s ( 1 7 t ) p e r w e e k
of d r y s l u d g e t h r o u g h p u t. H o w e v e r, the s l u d g e is dewatered t o 28
p e r c e n t solids prior t o drying in a r o t a r y unit using hot flue
g a s e s. Dried s l u d g e and v a p o r s a r e added t o t h e furnace above
the combustion z o n e.
1 1 -8 5
Sludge Added Directly to Furnace
There are two vertical packed bed , solid waste , starved air
combustion systems currently available in the United States:
-
- -
Andco Torrax and PUR0Xtm (see Figure 11 30 ).
-
The Andco Torrax system (84 , 85 ) is a vertical shaft , slagging
type furnace in which unprocessed municipal solid waste is
charged into the unit from the top. The refuse is burned at
the bottom of the ram at 3 ,000°F ( 1 ,649°C ) by the addition of
small quantities of air heated by countercurrent heat exchange
with the afterburner exhaust. The combustible off - gases are
afterburned at 2 ,000°F ( 1 ,093°C ) and processed by electrostatic
precipitators. Wet sludge has been added to an existing 75 ton
( 68 t ) per day system , but detailed test data are not presently
available.
was successfully run through the test unit for two months at
South Charleston , West Virginia ( 87 ). Average wet test feed
rates were 90 tons (82 t ) per day . Test data indicated that the
refuse- to- sludge ratio was 4.26:1. Lower ratios were not tested
because the availability of sludge was limited , The pure oxygen
feed rate was approximately 0.2 tons of oxygen per ton ( 0.2 t
0 2/t ) of feed . Fuel gas production and quality , and slag
-
production and quality from mixed refuse sludge feeds , did not
differ radically from that of pure refuse combustion in the PUROX
reactor. Heavy metals in the sludge were trapped in the slag and
were not discharged with the exhaust gases.
-
11 86
MIXED
MUNICIPAL
OFF GAS REFUSE
>
$?
*
:: :
::
-
I
FEEDER
SHREDDED
MIXED
MUNICIPAL
r
(
REFUSE REFUSE / UPPER
PLUG 'i STACK
\ 1
SHAFT > l
ifft
FURNACE OFF GAS
FEEDER DRYING /
tit
ZONE i m
GASES
SOLIDS .N DRYING
ZONE SOLIDS
COMBUSTION
ZONE
%
PYROLYSIS
ZONE
OFF GAS
RECYCLE
PYROLYSIS
ZONE — GASES
'
f
SHAFT
FURNACE
COMBUSTION
AND !
MiLTlNG
ZONE
\
GRANULAR ! SLAG
RESIDUE {; DROPOFF
AND
WATER QUENCH
QUENCH " J
FIGURE 11- 30
1 1- 8 7
2
-
I
FIGURE 11- 31
11-88
h a v e b e e n experienced ( 88 ). All of t h e s e p r o b l e m s a p p e a r t o be
a direct result o f p o o r solid w a s t e processing prior to addition
into t h e furnace. P o o r p r e-processing causes e x t r e m e variations
in feed heat value, which in t u r n causes wide and uncontrollable
t e m p e r a t u r e f l u c t u a t i o n s in t h e f u r n a c e , T h e s e r e s u l t in
r e f r a c t o r y failures a n d air emission p r o b l e m s.
T h e s e p r o b l e m s w e r e r e s o l v e d in t e s t w o r k c o n d u c t e d a t t h e
C e n t r a l C o n t r a C o s t a S a n i t a r y District w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t a t C o n c o r d , C a l i f o r n i a ( 1 7 ). A l l r e f u s e w a s s h r e d d e d ,
air - classified , and s c r e e n e d p r i o r t o u s e. T h i s p r o v i d e d a
feed which w a s relatively free of metals and had a r e a s o n a b l y
consistent heating value, as w e l l as a consistent p a r t i c l e size.
W h e n t h e f u r n a c e w a s o p e r a t e d in a n incineration m o d e , n o n e
o f t h e p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d in G r e a t B r i t a i n o r E u r o p e w e r e
experienced , but t e m p e r a t u r e control w a s still difficult. This
was corrected by operating the furnace in a S A C mode. This work
a n d t h e E u r o p e a n e x p e r i e n c e indicates t h a t f o r M H F f u r n a c e s
p r e-processing of municipal r e f u s e is required and SAC of refuse
and s l u d g e is p r e f e r r e d over M H F incineration.
1 1- 89
RAW
SLUDGE
AIR TO WixUMa
AFT 6 RHURN6 R
l CENTRIFUGE
J ROTARY
Hf'iwiivvw >
Ti
dr
CYCLONE
BLENDER
SLUDGE
r
\
"
\
U A | R LOCK
* AIR r %
-U ’
l
I
RE FUSE
OE RIVED
FUEL
GAS FUEL i
EXHAUST GAS
AFTERBURNER j
MULTIPLE
HEARTH
FURNACE
REJECTS TO
LANDF i LL
ee £
< MIXED
f
ASH
5 SHREDDER * MUNICIPAL
REFUSE
t
HEAVY MATERIAL
TO LANDFILL
FIGURE 11- 32
11 -90
TABLE 11- 22
Alternative
. K« » *> ?-
“
..
Furnace design
Diameter , ft in.
Number of hearths
- -6
22 3 16 9
7
- -
25 9
6
18 9
8
- -9
25 9 -a
22 3
Sludge feed
Lb dry solids/hr 1,806 2,131 2,713 3,201 4,292 5 ,064
Percent of total furnace
'
feed 50 50 50 50 50 50
c
Volatile content , percent 77 65 77 65 77 65
RDF feed
Lb dry solids/hr 7,224 4,267 10,850 6 ,400 17,172 10,128
Percent of total furnace
feed 50 50 50 50 50 50
Volatile content, percent? 84 84 84 84 84 84
Percent moisture 20 20 20 20 20 20
:
Furnace combustion air ,
lb/hr 12,753 7,320 19 , 316 10, 782 29,747 16,806
d-
Excess air rate , percent 40 40 40 40 40 150
A
Ash
Mass , lb/hr & 1,749 1,589 2 ,627 2 ,384 4 ,158 3,772
Heat value, 10 Btu/hr ,0.50
-0.46 0.76 0.69 1.20 1.09
Afterburner exhaust
Mass , lb/hr 63,186 42,260 94,861 63,461 150 , 355 151,240
Heat value , 10 Btu/hr
Temperature , °F
^ 63.27
2,290
42.80
2,457
95.27
2,294
64.29
2,458
150.9
2,294
101.8
1,800
.•*
Radiation
Heat loss, 10 ^ Btu/hr 1.62 1.12 2.33 1.61 3.57 2.45
Recoverable heat
70 percent efficiency,
106 Btu/hr ' •
23 20 42 26 70 42
Connected power
Horsepower 555 343 725 418 725 555
a . . .
All data supplied by the Eimco BSP Division- of Envirotech* Corporation.
bSolids for B alternatives (40 percent solids feed), larger than A alternatives
(20 percent solids feed).
3
°Sludge volatiles heat value 10 ,000 Btu/lb: RDF volatiles heat value 8,500 Btu/lb. 1 MGD * 0.04 m /s
d
e
For total system - furnace and afterburner. .
.
1 ft = 0.3 m
1 in. = 0.02 m
_
Costs as of early 1978. 1 lb/sq ft/hr = 4.9 kg/m /hr
1 lb/hr = 0.45 kg/hr
1 x 106 Btu/hr = 1,055 MJ/hr
11-91
Fluid B e d
M u n i c i p a l s o l i d w a s t e a n d w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e h a v e b e e n c o-
incinerated in a fluid bed f u r n a c e in Franklin , Ohio, since 1 9 7 1
( 9 7 ). I n t h e s o l i d w a s t e s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e s s, a w e t p u l p e r
removes ferrous metal and heavy solids from 150 tons ( 136 t )
p e r d a y o f s h r e d d e d r e f u s e. Fiber is recovered from t h e p u l p e r
e f f l u e n t b y selective s c r e e n i n g a n d elutriation. All u n r e c o v e r e d
residuals from the fiber-r e c o v e r y s t e p a r e c o n v e y e d t o a barrel
thickener. S l u d g e f r o m a 2 . 5-M G D ( O.ll -m /s ) s e c o n d a r y w a s t e w a t e r
^
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t i s a d d e d t o t h e t h i c k e n e d r e s i d u a l s, a n d t h e
combined s t r e a m i s d e w a t e r e d in a c o n e p r e s s t o a solids c o n t e n t
o f 4 5 p e r c e n t b e f o r e i n j e c t i o n into t h e furnace , The furnace
f e e d i s b l o w n i n t o t h e b e d a b o u t o n e f o o t o v e r t h e t u y e r e s.
B e c a u s e h e a v y inert materials accumulate within t h e bed , t h e r e is
b u i l d u p in bed v o l u m e, a n d a s m a l l a m o u n t o f bed material m u s t b e
r e m o v e d p e r i o d i c a l l y f r o m t h e furnace. The preparation steps
r e d u c e t h e a m o u n t o f noncombustible material in t h e f u r n a c e feed
t o b e t w e e n t h r e e a n d six p e r c e n t a n d t h e feed size t o 1/2 inch
( 1 . 2 7 c m ) o r l e s s ( 9 7 ).
1 1-9 2
guidelines for allocating costs for co combustion systems ( 100 ).
As solid waste disposal and fossil fuel costs increase and
-
funding becomes more available , co disposal economics will
become favorable in more applications. Although the technical
-
feasibility of co combustion of sludge and solid waste has been
demonstrated , there remain a number of institutional constraints
-
that may have to be resolved prior to implementation of a large
-
scale co combustion project , Because full scale operations are
limited and the technology is growing , risk analyses should be
-
conducted. These analyses would provide authorities with a basis
for making a decision and with an understanding of the impacts
of that decision ( 101 ).
1 m nmt Ih/rtey
WAS t CHEMICALS
TO SFITONnAFlY MIAED
PROCESS REFUSE MUNICIPAL
RECEIVING
HfflAfaqN uNDgrt PiOW DISSOLVED AIR
80.3W If FLOTATION SLUDGE
THICKENERS i
w
- PRIMARY
SHREDDER
| SLUDGE. CONDITIONING
1 SLUDGE
>
CHEMICALS
4800 1ihU
i —- STORAGE l
I UM1 *
Ri/ihy
MAGNETIC
SEPARATOR
* J SLUDGE VACUUM ;j
FILTRATE
I
7.0W*
•
DWATiniEDi SLMDee
FILTERS i
i
taHlY GLIDS
*
i
FINE SHREDDER i
1
1
r* ftOF I M
AND
AIR CLASSIFIER
i
\ HEAT RECOVERY
©OILER
F LUE |
FLUID BED
f om ACE RDF kfAVY
STACK .
Si t AM UfcPi LAP 4f.I?OC! ikifiv . *( HIAT INPUT^. FEMP
Yu gPiRATtM
« ®
. STORAGE MAGNETIC
——
i SLL ?DQ£ XL 7 10 Bta fer
HEIGHT j STEAM TEMP ft PRESSURE ZS8 F ° IHEAT WFUT HEFU1E TU3 * IQ SEPARATOR
AHbVE 'iSATVAATTEDI -
FTEAM I * "Hr*’ ' *< 1
* \
*
TT'xT/TTxx x
ROOF
44 If, ASM 1
ASH J1 '
'
I1 FLUE GAS «MAWET
m
SCRUBBER
PAftTfCilLA TE EMISSION
'
BUILDING
1
OPERATION OF I
PROCESSING P|HH0U¥
ta&fcTAL
2SOCP &K3 GIVD8CF EiXX] vaiivr
MAX SMCW.t OPACITY 10% H.V.A.C. STEAM POWEREO
-
m a.30m
1uvaser * und. DRY
1 Ityfay r £. 45
EQUIPMENT
n
- irjmMXvxv.w
fifl
AJM
l
— TO
"
LAWPPILL
.
TlbAw * QM kffci’hf
1 Kni ' yr * <1>,3 uxwtj 'fs
1 KirVdiY v 0,3 Sonn»/iS Y
m
1 * sq@ » fiw * 1056 MJ W *
-
FIGURE 11- 33
11-93
disposal c o n t r a c t negotiations , local g o v e r n m e n t s have a t t e m p t e d
t o retain ownership o f the refuse, with t h e private firm a c t i n g
strictly a s a collector and hauler. Retaining ownership o f the
w a s t e material would simplify resource recovery operations.
Consolidation o f the g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
solid a n d l i q u i d w a s t e d i s p o s a l would a l s o s i m p l i f y d i s p o s a l
operations as t h e y relate t o co- d i s p o s a l , With more e m p h a s i s
o n co- combustion techniques by both federal and s t a t e agencies,
serious institutional p r o b l e m s may be resolved by g o v e r n m e n t a l
interaction with local agencies.
S e v e r a l h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s a r e u s e d in w a s t e w a t e r
treatment plants for purposes other than wastewater sludge
reduction. These processes include reduction o f other wastewater
solids such a s screenings , grit , and scum , and a l s o t h e regenera-
t i o n o f c h e m i c a l s s u c h a s l i m e a n d c a r b o n. H i g h t e m p e r a t u r e
equipment configurations are basically the same as those
d i s c u s s e d in Sections 1 1 . 3 a n d 1 1 . 4 , b u t some new t y p e s o f
furnaces are introduced in the sections that follow.
Grit is o f t e n o d o r o u s , e x t r e m e l y a b r a s i v e , n o r m a l l y
contains f a i r l y l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f o r g a n i c s , a n d i s
relatively d r y , thus m a k i n g it a u t o g e n o u s l y combustible
i n m a n y cases , B e c a u s e of the odors, high t e m p e r a t u r e
disposal t e n d s t o be t h e desirable stabilization method.
1 1-9 4
• Scum and grease are very difficult to handle because o f
their adhesive properties; however , they have a very high
heating value up to 16 , 700 Btu per pound ( 37.8 MJ /kg ) o f
dry solids ( Table 11- 2 ) ( 104 ). Air flow must be adequate
t o assure that the scum is totally burned ; if it is not ,
the furnace will smoke. To provide thorough mixing and
thus proper burning , the scum and air should be injected
into the furnace at the same point. S c u m has been fed
through atomizers, but this feed system was not totally
effective because the resulting vapors and smoke have
been difficult to control ( 105 ).
1 1-9 5
T o address the problem o f scum burning , Nichols Engineering and
Research C o r p. h a s d e v e l o p e d a f u r n a c e specially suited f o r high
e n e r g y l i q u i d s that a r e l i g h t e r than w a t e r , s u c h a s g r e a s e ,
w a s t e o i l s , a n d scum. T h e i r WATERGRATEtm f u r n a c e is s h o w n
o n Figure 1 1-34. It is a two- chamber , refractory-lined furnace
that uses water a s the feed g r a t e. A s the material is burned ,
the ash sinks and is removed . T h e lower chamber is a reducing
furnace ( starved air ), a n d t h e resulting combustible g a s e s are
burned in t h e upper chamber , which functions as an afterburner,
t h e r e b y p e r m i t t i n g b e t t e r c o n t r o l o f t h e p r o c e s s. M o r e t h a n
t e n units have b e e n installed and a r e o p e r a t i n g . S o m e h a v e
experienced severe p r o b l e m s with scum t r a n s p o r t and feed s y s t e m s
external t o the furnace .
Other small , modular furnaces ( s e e Section 11.7 ) have consider-
able potential for screening , grit , and scum reduction , provided
that pollution control devices are adequate t o meet strict air
emission c o d e s. U S E P A a n d t h e S t a t e o f California h a v e b e e n
conducting several tests on modular furnaces to determine
expected air emission levels ( 107 ).
I n t h e l i q u i d p r o c e s s , t h e bulk o f t h e lime r e a c t s t o f o r m
calcium c a r b o n a t e ( CaCOg ). The resultant slurry, commonly
called lime s l u d g e, can be t h e r m a l l y p r o c e s s e d for r e c o v e r y o f
calcium oxide ( quicklime or CaO ), while simultaneously oxidizing
any e n t r a p p e d organic solids. T h e recalcining reaction is:
1 1-9 6
THERMOCOUPLE : m
.v
* CASTABLE
REFRACTORY
a f
‘ ii
vvv
/
&
IS ’ ,
-~f *
*
INSULATION
*/
&
#3
-
*
i
S3
; &S
*
CIRCULAR STEEL
SHELL
COMBUSTION TEMPERATURE * .
I
iss BETWEEN 1600 AND 1 BOO°F
II
:
x
fe’:
>
ACCESS DOOR .i *
REFRACTORY
iff BAFFLE
; > Si:
COMBUSTION AIR
INLETS ( 4 )
s;Smi
miP
THERMOCOUPLE
SB
fifi> ACCESS
DOOR
IGNITION AIR
INLET
MECHANICAL CRUST
BREAKER ( RAKE )
FEED INLET
t -
MAKE UP WATER
c*
/
N DRAIN
FIGURE 11- 34
11- 97
Economies are realized when lime is recovered and reused , s i n c e
n e t l i m e r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d the a m o u n t o f material t o b e disposed
of are drastically reduced. However , lime recovery is expensive
and always energy- intensive because recalcining is endothermic.
Generally , wastewater lime sludges are low in organic material
( volatiles ) that can contribute t o the heat value of the sludge,
s o s u p p l e m e n t a l fuel requirements t o calcine the wet s l u d g e cake
are substantial . T h e major o p e r a t i n g c o s t of recalcination is
s u p p l e m e n t a l f u e l , F u e l c o s t c a n be minimized by c o n t r o l o f
excess a i r a t a r a t e n o g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t r e q u i r e d t o assure
c o m p l e t e combustion a n d c o m p l e t i o n o f the chemical reaction.
Fuel c o s t s may also b e lowered b y reducing the water content o f
the feed . An overall economic balance m u s t be made t o determine
if the f u e l savings e x c e e d the added c o s t o f dewatering .
C o m p l e t e recovery o f spent lime cannot be expected for several
reasons . Lime s l u d g e contains inert materials t h a t m u s t be
wasted from the s y s t e m or the quantity o f s l u d g e t o be handled
will build - u p i n f i n i t e l y , Magnesium hydroxide and calcium
p h o s p h a t e are p r e c i p i t a t e d a l o n g w i t h CaCOj a n d s h o u l d b e
r e m o v e d p r i o r t o recalcination t o r e d u c e r e c y c l e o f inerts.
C o m p l e t e rejection o f M g ( 0 H ) 2 and other inerts , such a s silica,
can never be achieved , However, w e t and d r y classification s t e p s
can limit recycle o f inerts, thus providing a relatively clean
p r o d u c t . T h e s e classification s t e p s n e c e s s a r i l y r e j e c t some
CaCC> 3 and CaO, so that t h e recovery of available lime is limited
t o 6 0 t o 77 p e r c e n t ( 108, 112 ).
1 1 -9 8
TABLE 11- 23
Granular Powdered
Thermal
Fluid bed
-
Multiple hearth X
L X
Transport reactor NA X
Rotary kiln X L
Indirect heated
vertical moving bed X NA
Radiant heated belt
reactor X X
Chemical
Wet air oxidation NA X
Chemical oxidation X NA
Solvent extraction X NA
Acid or base extrac
tion
- X NA
Biological regenera-
tion L L
11-99
a carbon regeneration furnace are relatively high in carbon
particles and unburned organics , Afterburning and wet scrubbing
are suggested. The injection of steam at 1 pound per pound of
carbon ( 1 kg/kg ) reduces the apparent density of the carbon and
increases the iodine number. Heat required for the process ,
including steam but excluding any afterburner fuel requirements ,
is approximately 4 , 250 Btu per pound (9.88 MJ/kg ) of carbon
regenerated. Further details on the MHF regeneration process can
be found in the literature ( 123 ).
The electric furnace is also becoming an alternative for granular
carbon regeneration , with several units either under construction
or in the planning stages. A test unit is being installed in
Pomona , California , to develop detailed long -term data.
11.6.3.3 -
Jet Propulsion Laboratory Activated Carbon
-
Treatment System (JPL ACTS )
Extensive laboratory and pilot testing by the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory in Pasadena , California , has led to the development of
an activated carbon treatment system for wastewater ( 129 ,130 ).
-
The system is based on starved air combustion of sludge. All PAC
used in this process is produced by the SAC of sewage sludge and
lignite coal. The system was tested for the Orange County
-
Sanitary District in a 1 MGD ( 0.04 m
Huntington Beach , California.
Vs
) pilot plant at
-
11 100
rotary kiln. Activated carbon and ash are generated by starved -
air combustion of the carbon-sludge solids. Activated carbon-ash
mixture is fed back to the secondary clarifier to complete the
carbon cycle. A portion of the carbon- ash is purged from the
kiln to prevent build - up of inert materials. The energy value of
the purged carbon can be recovered in a separate furnace.
RAW
!!
EFFLUENT EFFLUENT EFFLUENT
SEWAGE
#
PRIMARY J SECONDARY GRAVY FILTER
( DEGRITTED )
CLARIFIER H CLARIFIER (MIXED MEDIA )
,II SEWAGE
SOLIDS +
I CARBON
* FINES
t
ACTIVATED CARBON
(10% SLURRY )
1F
{
- 5 % SOLIDS )
FIGURE 11- 35
11-102
r TABLE 11- 24
Main products
Vertical-flow reactors
Moving packed bed Forest Fuels Mfg ., Inc. (Antrim , FARa X
(gravity solids flow ; N.H.)
also called fixed bed ) Battelle Northwest (Richland , WA) Refuse X X
American Thermogen (location un
known)
- Refuse X
11-103
TABLE 11- 24
schemes)
Multiple-reactor systems
Combined entrained- U. of California (Berkeley , CA ) Pulping liquor X
-
bed/static bed
reactor system
Combined moving
-
packed bed/entrained -
Battelle Columbus Laboratories
(Columbus, OH)
^ Paper , biomass X
bed reactor
Combined mechanically Mansfield Carbon Products , Inc. Refuse X
conveyed static
solids-bed/moving
- (Gallatin , TN)
packed-bed reactor
11-104
_
l 100
z rev
L - v/X.
UJ
E
z
- 90
O
o
8 8#3 \, ®
h" 80
mmm
UJ
D
-J
’&
mrnrnm
LL
z
70 £*
MNk
LL
O
3
*
60
mmm
o
Q<
50 ^mmmm Ilk 5fc
. .
^
.
SOLUBLE
Q
*
o
co
Q
-
J
f
40
30 “Hifck
Ess?
^ ^Silll .
-V'
co 20
m
u INSOLUBLE
H
10
5
o
> i
o
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
O X I D A T I O N- %
FIGURE 11- 36
1 1- 1 0 5
The high pressure /high temperature wet air oxidation process is
shown schematically in Figure 11 - 37. Thickened sludge , at about
six percent solids , passes through a grinder to reduce the size
of all feed solids to less than 1/4 inch ( 0.64 cm ).
SLUDGE HEAT
GROUND EXCHANGER
SLUDGE LU
STORAGE o 5<
TANK o UJ REACTOR
Cl
- 1
<J1
SLUDGE o
LU
Q
* N
o *
X
#
ATMOSPHERE STEAM!
PRESSURE
CONTROL
AIR COMPRESSOR VALVE
POWER
RECOVERY
ALTERNATE METHODS GASES (OPTIONAL!
OF DEWATERING GAS
CLEAN-UP
UNIT h )
FILTER PRESS
LEVEL SEPARATOR
VACUUM FILTER CONTROL
STERILE
NON -PUTRESCIBLE CENTRIFUGE VALVE
SOLIDS
DRAINAGE BEDS
OXIDIZED
LAGOONS SLUDGE
SLURRY
( 1) WET SCRUBBING , CARBON
ABSORPTION, OR AFTERBURNING
SUPERNATANT
11-106
separator , and the gases are reduced to atmospheric pressure
through a pressure control valve. The gases are processed to
eliminate odors. They consist mainly of oxygen , nitrogen, carbon
dioxide , and water vapor. Nitrogen oxides are formed from the
organic nitrogen present in the feed , but no nitrogen is fixed
from the air . Elemental sulfur , hydrogen sulfide , and organic
sulfur compounds are oxidized to sulfate ( SO4 ). Gas clean up -
methods have included wet scrubbing , activated carbon absorption ,
afterburning with fossil fuel, and catalytic oxidation , With
the last two methods, energy recovery is possible through use of
-
heat recovery boilers , gas liquid heat exchangers , and similar
.
-
methods ( 135 137)
Slurry from the gas- liquid separator is removed through a
-
liquid level control valve and dewatered for final disposal , At
high degrees of oxidation, the residual solids resemble ash from
thermal incineration and are easily dewatered to a high solids
content by conventional means ( settling , centrifugation , or
vacuum filtration).
The liquid phase is recycled to the treatment plant or given
separate treatment for reduction of the residual soluble
organics. Treatment and effects of this liquid stream are
discussed in Chapter 16.
High pressure/high temperature wet air oxidation processes
generate excess heat when they operate with a high heating
value sludge and an adequate solids content ( approximately
six percent ). Still , a source of high pressure steam ( separate
boiler or an existing plant system ) must be provided for
-
start up.
There are over ten HPO systems in operation on sewage sludge in
the United States. The most notable of these are Rockland County
and Rensselaer , New York , and Akron , Ohio. These units operate
at approximately 500°F ( 260°C ) at pressures of 1,000 to 2,000 psi
( 6 ,895 to 13 ,790 kN/m ). The capacities of the units as well
^
as the sludge oxidized are very different in each of these plants
Rockland County processes 12.4 tons per day ( 11.3 t/day ) of a
-
mixed digested primary plus waste activated sludge. The Akron
facility ( Botzum Plant ) oxidizes 50 tons per day ( 45 t/day ) of
waste activated sludge. The Rensselaer facility oxidizes a more
-
-
conventional mixture of primary plus waste activated sludge.
Shutdowns with HPO systems are associated with the high pressures
involved , heat exchanger scaling and corrosion , and required
supernatant liquid treatment. The HPO process may provide a good
system for oxidation of toxic and hazardous waste materials , and
research in this area is under way ( 138 ).
Lack of extensive operating data prevents reliable estimation of
the cost of HPO as a means to sludge disposal. It appears that
if equipment maintenance and replacement costs are reasonable ,
the costs would be competitive with thermal processing. The only
11-107
additional element of cost is treatment of the recycle stream.
Electrical energy requirements are shown in Figure 11 - 38.
Additional information can be found in the literature ( 134-139 ).
mn nnn
1 ¥VjVVV
9
Q
7
5
tO 4
to
it 3
> PRIMARY +
WASTE ;
2
ACTIVATED
3
SLUDGE
10,000
> 3
a
-c 7
5 6 nan WASTE
5 ACTIVATED
13
C 4 SLUDGE ^
a
o 3
£ ASSUMPTIONS :
Q 2 SLUDGE FEED
UJ
cc PRIMARY + WAS = 4,0% SOLIDS,
69% VOLATILES
ID -
WAS ^2.5% SOLIDS, ©3% VOLATILES
a
Ui
L000
9
-
VOLATILES 10,DOG Btu/lb
oc REACTOR PRESSURE
8 PRIMARY + WAS 1 ,700 pwg
CC
LU
7
6
-
WAS 1,000 pita
CONTINUOUS OPERATION
S 5 INCLUDES:
o
CL 4 PRESSURIZATION PUMPS
SLUDGE GRINDERS
o 3 DECANT TANK DRIVES
DC BOILER FEED PUMPS
AIR COMPRESSORS
O 2 TYPE OF ENERGY REQUIRED : ELECTRICAL
LLi
NOTE: FUEL IS REQUIRED
UJ ONLY AT START -UP
I
100
1,0 2 3 4 5 6 7 B 910 2 3 4 5 6 7 S 9100 2 3 4 5 6 7891,000
FIGURE 11- 38
11-108
11.7.2 REACT -0-THERMtm
This is a three-stage combustion device with SAC in the first two
stages followed by complete combustion in the third stage , This
proprietary system developed by Met -Pro Corporation , Systems
Division , is unique in that auxiliary fuel and air are burned in
the primary combustion chamber ( first stage ) and the resulting
gases pass into the rotary chamber , where the sludge is burned .
The interior design of the rotary kiln second stage recovers the
heat generated in the first stage and transmits this heat through
a stainless steel helix and chains to the sludge , The residue,
which contains some combustibles , is deposited into a fixed ,
cylindrical ash chamber, where it is removed by an auger , The
gases from the rotary chamber flow into the secondary combustion
chamber ( third stage ), and air and fuel are added as required to
complete the combustion of the gases and destroy odors prior to
discharge to atmosphere. The unit is available as a complete,
skid - mounted package ( see Figure 11-39 ). The unit is primarily
designed for low- volume applications ( 50 to 300 gallons per hour
of wet sludge [ 0.05 to 0.30 1 /s ] ). Two units are presently
operating on a physical - chemical sewage sludge in Prudhoe Bay ,
Alaska.
STACK
SECONDARY
BURNER
ACCESS SLUDGE
DOOR
VIEW*
PQPT
—
- PRIMARY
BURNER
ASH
REMOVAL
OR I VC
11-109
Detailed heat and material balances are available from the
manufacturer for specific applications. Emission test data from
the manufacturer indicate that the unit , operated at rated
conditions , can meet USEPA's New Source Performance Standards.
However , the New Source Review Rule may be applicable in
some areas and Best Available Control Technology ( BACT) may be
required.
11.7.3 -
Modular Starved Air Incinerators
-
Modular controlled air incinerators are static , and contain
-
two chambers. The first chamber is operated by starved air
combustion , and the gaseous products of combustion are passed
-
to the second chamber where combustion is completed and odors
are destroyed ( see Figure 11 40 ) ( 107 ). A number of these
-
incinerators have been installed for municipal and industrial
solid waste. There are also units under study for co disposal of
-
municipal refuse and sewage sludge ( 141 ). There are no known
installations ( or test data ) for sludge alone. However , the
unit appears to be suitable for sludge reduction. The units
are available in modules from 60 pounds per hour ( 27 kg /hr ) to
250 tons per day ( 227 t/d ). Equipment manufacturers ( Consumat ,
Kelley , and others ) state that USEPA New Source Performance
Standards can be met without additional air pollution control
equipment ; however , the New Source Review Rule may be applicable
in some areas and BACT may be required. A test program being
funded jointly by the EPA and the State of California is
currently underway at Little Rock , Arkansas , to obtain definitive
air emission data on municipal solid waste incineration. Further
literature ( 107 ,140 145 ).
-
-
information on controlled air incinerators is included in the
11-110
SEE NOTE
BELOW
*-
r SEE NOTE
BELOW
SECONDARY g
BURNING
'V REACTOR
BURNER REACTOR
%
1600° - 20MDF
^ B '’
i 200°F SECTION
--
-i
AFTERBURNER
SECONDARY
4 4
AIR SUPPLY FAN CONTROL
IGNITION
BURNER
w
V
\ PRIMARY /
* +
O O O C C C
L
O O O T CHAMBER
COMBUSTION AIR SUPPLIED
AT HIGH VELOCITIES
SEE NOTE
BELOW
SE LF-SUSTAINING
DIRECT - FLAME AFTERBURNER
;
SMOKE ZONE
Vr V
4 4 w 4
-
i:in
FORCED AIR
id Third Majo# Configuration
NOTE: STACK TO ENERGY RECOVERY EQUIPMENT
AND /OR EMISSION CONTROL DEVICE
OF NECESSARY )
FIGURE 11- 40
11-111
a d r y c y c l o n e w h e r e the particulate m a t t e r l a r g e r than 1 0 microns
is r e m o v e d . T h e h o t g a s i s p u l l e d t h r o u g h a w e t s c r u b b e r /
quencher where the remaining particulates are removed , The
small amount of w a t e r that circulates to the scrubber/q u e n c h e r,
receives primary and s e c o n d a r y treatment , including filtration,
before disposal t o the plant sewer or t o an on-site treatment
plant. T h e scrubbed g a s has a heating value of 4 0 0 -5 0 0 B t u /cu ft
( 1 4 . 9 t o 1 8 . 6 MJ /m 3 ).
&0SLIX
MAKE -UP WATER
TREATMENT
F LED
PAQftl.Cf[T WATER
ENCLOSURE DC At KA 1 U H
MANIFOLD RFH* KN
WA I L'
4
LNE
BELT FEEDER A!RLOCK
CONvEYO« CERAMIC K
FIBER .;K
si >V
INCONEL VfcASTE HEAT RECOVERY MANIFOLD <•
HEAT TUBES
i
aoiLFn
My'
""
--
EXTERIOR PANELS
OQNvFYOR 1
CYCLONE SCHUSBEH
BLUWLR \
WAT.TF
V IE RAT INLi BEE HEAT
SuflGF MOW STORAlit
* TANK
BOILEF
FIGURE 11- 41
11-112
11.7.5 Bailie Process
The Bailie Process integrates a combustion fluid bed furnace
with a pyrolysis fluid bed reactor ( 146 - 147 ). The process, shown
on Figure 11 -42, involves feeding solid waste into the pyrolysis
fluid bed reactor , The endothermic pyrolysis reaction is
maintained in the 1 , 300 to 1, 500 °F ( 704- 816 °C ) range by recycling
hot fluidized sand from the combustion reactor. The fuel for the
combustion reaction is contained in the same recycle from the
pyrolytic reactor and from char collected in the combustion and
pyrolysis gas cyclones. Some of the pyrolysis gas is returned to
the pyrolytic reactor to control reaction kinetics. Both excess
pyrolysis gas and char may be recovered.
COMBUSTIOM PYROLYSIS
PRODUCTS
TQ STACK "8 fu>
.
•u AMVMWP'fMMtMl GAS
PRODUCT
CYCLONE
Hi
t t
"
.
—
]
:
CYCLONE F77EE3
i
COMBUSTION PYROLYSIS
FLUID FLUID
BED BED
REACTOR REACTOR
hr .
SAND
BED
’ ^ LOCK
HOPPER
SAND RECYCLED
RECYCLE j""
' ‘ .zP SCREW PYROLYSIS
FEEDER GAS
COLD GAS HOT
\ WIND
GlSYFHBUTlGN / BOX \
c Mil4
" '»“
AIR BLOWER
A
PYROLYSIS GAS
RECYCLE BLOWER
FIGURE 11- 42
11-113
power f r o m municipal solid w a s t e and wastewater s l u d g e ( 148 , 149 ).
Figure 1 1-43 shows the p r o c e s s in t e r m s of e n e r g y flows . The
pressurized gasifier p r o d u c e s a hot , low heat value fuel g a s that
is combusted and fed directly t o the g a s turbine. T h e turbine
drives a n electrical g e n e r a t o r and the associated air c o m p r e s s o r.
T h e hot exhaust is used t o p r e h e a t t h e s l u d g e and t o raise s t e a m
t e m p e r a t u r e in a heat recovery boiler. T h e steam is s u p e r h e a t e d
a n d p a s s e d b a c k t o t h e kiln , w h e r e it c o o l s a n d c o n d e n s e s ,
supplying heat for the gasification process.
MIXED
MUNICIPAL
REFUSE 2E35 331D
22BS ' COMBUSTION
CHAMBER
__ ROTARY
^ Kl LM
GASlFlER 900%
27m
3250
1960%
SLUDGE
fT '
43C 345 f
2S0 470
RESIDUE
135
COMP -
'
Mi A\ R
1095 RiS$0& TURBINE 85C
10 MW
SUPERHEATER
GENERATOR
1910 960* f
90
l 1960
660* F 2000
HEAT
EXCHANGER
730
1100 S0Q %
V
120
1270
440%
250
®
NOTE : ALL UNITS IN 10 BTu /day 11065 375 “ f 140 SLUDGE
UNLESS NOTED PREHEATER
110 1130
SLUDGE 290%
\7
EXHAUST
FIGURE 11- 43
1 1-1 1 4
in t h e W - M p r o c e s s g e n e r a t e s s t e a m in t h e kiln . This steam,
along with the burned fuel gas, drives the turbine . The
r e s u l t i n g fuel e f f i c i e n c y is c l o s e t o t h e c o m b i n e d c y c l e
efficiency. This p r o c e s s appears ideal f o r very moist fuels , and
t h e h i g h m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t o f t h e s l u d g e is beneficial . The
W r i g h t- Malta process h a s been o p e r a t e d in a batch mode o n a b e n c h
scale . Further p r o g r e s s depends o n d e v e l p m e n t o f a r o t a r y kiln
t h a t c a n be o p e r a t e d a t h i g h p r e s s u r e s a n d t e m p e r a t u r e s.
S t a n d a r d s o f P e r f o r m a n c e f o r N e w S t a t i o n a r y S o u r c e s,
p a r t s A , 0, a n d probably E , if c o- combustion is p r o p o s e d.
N e w S o u r c e Review Rule.
1 1- 115
• Regulations Pertaining to Prevention of Significant
Deterioration o f Air Q u a l i t y.
I n all c a s e s , t h e m i n i m u m s t a n d a r d s a r e s e t b y t h e U S E P A .
However , s t a t e and local jurisdictions may p r o m u g a t e stricter
standards.
A basic p r o b l e m in e v a l u a t i n g a n y e m i s s i o n i s p r e d i c t i n g t h e
e f f e c t o n t h e o v e r a l l air b a s i n , Projecting emissions and
e s t i m a t i n g r e s u l t i n g a i r q u a l i t y is , at b e s t , a n i m p e r f e c t
science . Air basins in which critical air quality levels are
consistently exceeded have been studied in d e p t h and have been
the object of mathematical modeling , The results of these
efforts h a v e b e e n mixed.
11-1 1 6
The USEPA guidelines require the SIPs to provide for emission
controls, transportation controls , source monitoring , ambient
air quality monitoring , and procedure for review and approval
of new sources of air pollution prior to construction . The
USEPA has the authority to approve or disapprove these plans
and to promulgate an acceptable plan if the submitted plan is
disapproved . The USEPA, state air resources boards and local air
quality management districts also have the authority to restrict
issuance of permits for construction of stationary sources if
emissions from that source would cause a violation of any air
quality standards , This is accomplished by an emission offset
policy. In both nonattainment and nondegradation areas , major
stationary sources may be constructed only by permit and must at
least meet applicable new source performance standards.
PHOTOCHEMICAL
OXIDANTS
PRIMARY SECONDARY
POLLUTANTS SUNLIGHT
POLLUTANTS
FIGURE 11 -44
AIR EMISSIONS
11-117
TABLE 11- 25
Pollutant levels
Signif ican t
harm
1,000 2,620 57.5 1,200 3,750 1
!
Moderate
50 percent b b
75 80 • 5.0 120 a
of NAAQS
Good
0 3 0 0 a
3
NO index values reported at concentration levels below those spec.lied by “ Alert. Level ” criteria.
b
Annual primary NAAQS. -
c 3 ' 3
400|jg/m was used instead of the O 3 Alert Level of 200 pg/m .
1 1 . 8.3 S t a n d a r d s o f P e r f o r m a n c e f o r N e w Stationary
Sources ( NSPS )
Subpart A o f N S P S ( 4 0 C F R 6 0 ) involves g e n e r a l p r o v i s i o n s
covering definitions , performance tests, authority , and
monitoring requirements. S u b p a r t 0 is applicable t o incinerators
that burn municipal wastewater sludge and requires that
particulates discharged cannot b e in excess o f 1.30 p o u n d s per
t o n ( 0.65 kg /t ) of d r y s l u d g e feed and that the g a s d i s c h a r g e d
s h a l l n o t h a v e m o r e t h a n 2 0 p e r c e n t o p a c i t y ( 1 5 4 ). F o r
c o-combustion , S u b p a r t E is applicable t o a l l incinerators with a
c h a r g i n g r a t e g r e a t e r t h a n 5 0 t o n s p e r d a y ( 4 5 t / d ) with
municipal refuse c o m p r i s i n g 50 p e r c e n t o r more of the c h a r g e.
Subpart E requires that particulates discharged be no g r e a t e r
t h a n 0 . 0 8 g r a i n s p e r s t a n d a r d d r y c u b i c f o o t ( 0 . 1 8 g /m 3 d r y )
corrected t o 1 2 p e r c e n t carbon dioxide.
1 1-1 1 8
11.8. 4 New Source Review S t a n d a r d s ( N S R )
1 1-119
11.8.6 T h e Permit Process
P e r m i t s f o r construction a n d /o r o p e r a t i o n o f p r o c e s s e s t h a t
discharge gases to the atmosphere are the primary means for
control of air emissions by a s t a t e and , in some cases, the local
jurisdictions. R e g u l a t i o n s applicable t o a specific p l a n t site
m u s t be t h o r o u g h l y reviewed t o determine if permits are required
f o r the p r o p o s e d project . G e n e r a l l y , s l u d g e incineration and
m o s t other combustion operations require permits, T h e form and
s t a g e s o f p e r m i t r e q u i r e m e n t s will v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y b e t w e e n
s t a t e a n d l o c a l a g e n c i e s a n d m u s t be e x p l o r e d a t t h a t l e v e l.
F e d e r a l p e r m i t s f o r P S D r e g u l a t i o n s m a y be r e q u i r e d . I n t h e
S a n Francisco Bay A r e a of California , f o r e x a m p l e, t w o s t a g e s of
p e r m i t s a r e required ( 1 5 4 ). These are:
11.8.8 Design E x a m p l e
T h e r e a r e m a n y r e g i o n a l a n d l o c a l variations in t h e r u l e s,
t e s t p r o c e d u r e s , a n d m e t h o d o l o g i e s u s e d t o a t t a i n t h e N A A Q S.
Therefore , firm guidelines for p r o c e d u r e s cannot be provided t o
e n c o m p a s s a l l a r e a s o f t h e n a t i o n. D e s i g n e r s m u s t d e t e r m i n e
federal , s t a t e, and local requirements a t a n e a r l y project s t a g e
and meet with U S E P A Regional officers and a s well a s state a n d
local officials t o negotiate changes o r additions t o the p r e s e n t
r e g u l a t i o n s b a s e d o n t h e p r o j e c t d e s i g n , construction , a n d
initial o p e r a t i o n . T h i s is j u s t t h e s t a r t ; c o n t a c t m u s t b e
continued with the U S E P A Regional Offices, and s t a t e and l o c a l
air quality m a n a g e m e n t districts t h r o u g h o u t t h e project . Also,
t h e F e d e r a l R e g i s t e r a n d n a t i o n a l a n d statewide n e w s l e t t e r s
s h o u l d be monitored b e c a u s e t h e y p r o v i d e a g o o d s o u r c e f o r
p r o p o s e d c h a n g e s in requirements.
11-120
The following design example provides a framework for project
analysis. It is based upon experience with the San Francisco Bay
Area Air Quality Management District ( BAAQMD ) which governs a
nonattainment area. The BAAQMD generally promulgates rules more
restrictive than federal requirements , This particular area was
selected for the example since the local authority ( BAAQMD ) has
developed a complex set of regulations that many areas may be
using as guidelines.
The first step is to identify the applicable emission regulations
-
( 154 156 ) and then establish the requirements for emission
control devices. These requirements are reviewed with several
manufacturers to determine feasibility and cost before the device
is incorporated into the design. The last step is the startup
and testing of the control device and the receipt of a permit
to operate. To maintain the operating permit , good plant
.
monitoring , operations , and maintenance procedures are required
and TSP ; and 1 ,500 pound per day ( 681 kg/d ) for CO. Below these
levels , a permit may be granted without regard to NAAQS , and BACT
need not be applied. A permit can be issued where BACT is used
and the criterion is not met ; however , the NSR rule allows no
exemption from BACT.
11-121
Another requirement is that existing facilities owned or operated
by the applicant must meet all air pollution regulations, Any
wastewater treatment plant , or other facility operating under
common ownership, must be upgraded to meet existing regulations
before a new source can be added .
Recent rulings make exemptions
to this doubtful.
The third requirement of the NSR rule applies to stationary
sources that will emit more than 250 pounds per day ( 114 kg /d )
of NO x > SOx , H C , or TSP and more than 2 , 500 pounds per day
( 1135 kg /d ) of CO. This requirement is intended to prevent the
plant from contributing to violations or increased violations of
the clean air standards. Since some standards in the Bay Area
are already being violated , no sources with controlled emissions
above this level can be built unless project proponents reduce
emissions from another source , thus offsetting the air quality
effects of the project. In other words, if BACT is employed , and
if the emission level is above 250 pound per day ( 114 kg /d ), the
project cannot be built unless offsets are applied . The project
proponents can offset the project ' s emissions by modifying other
facilities to reduce emissions or by shutting down polluting
facilities.
In the p a s t , the B A A Q M D has required that the offset facilities
be in the vicinity of the proposed project so that the portion of
the air basin surrounding the project receives the benefit of
the offset. The rule also requires that the amount of emission
reduction be slightly higher than the amount of emission increase
anticipated from the project. The c u r r e n t offset a m o u n t is
1.2 times the emission. For example, an industry can purchase
a paint shop presently discharging 500 pounds per day ( 227 kg /d )
of hydrocarbons , close the shop , and credit the industry
with : 500 -4 1.2 = 417 pounds per day ( 184 kg /d ).
The feasibility of offsets depends on the availability of
suitable existing polluting plants , t h e cost o f p u r c h a s e o r
modification , and the p u b l i c acceptability o f the offset.
If suitable p l a n t s are found , p u r c h a s e of additional control
devices t o reduce emissions will probably be more politically
a c c e p t a b l e than purchasing a privately owned f a c i l i t y and
closing it down. The cost of any of these alternatives would be
extremely high.
The alternative route for a large-scale plant would be t o obtain
an exemption from the offset portion of the new source review
rule. T h e rule provides exemptions for a new stationary source
that " represents a significant advance in the development of a
technology that appears to offer extraordinary environmental or
public health benefits o r other benefits of overriding importance
to the public health or welfare." An exemption granted by the
B A A Q M D would require concurrence of C A R B and the USEPA. While an
exemption may be provided , the likelihood that one would be given
at t h e p r e s e n t time is s l i g h t. Facilities t h a t p o t e n t i a l l y
represent an advance in technology are normally reviewed at the
USEPA h e a d q u a r t e r s in W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., r a t h e r t h a n l o c a l l y .
11-122
The BAAQMD is seriously considering adoption of an NSR rule that
would apply the offset requirement only t o CO and HC , but not
to N0 X . This is . important t o any combustion process proposed ,
because N 0 X control is u n p r o v e n a n d v e r y c o s t l y . B A C T w o u l d
continue to apply as previously stated .
Prevention of Significant Deterioration ( P S D )
T h e USEPA p r e v e n t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t deterioration rule is
designed to prevent increases in air pollutant concentrations
that are below the national health standards in a particular air
basin. T h i s is in c o n t r a s t t o t h e N e w S o u r c e Review Rule
designed t o prevent increases in levels of air pollutants that
already exceed standards. In the San Francisco Bay Area , levels
for two pollutants , particulates and sulfur dioxide, are below or
better than standards. If BACT is applied , as required by NSR,
and if controlled emissions of SO 2 or TSP d o n o t e x c e e d the
50 - t o n p e r y e a r ( 45 - t / y r ) criterion l e v e l , P S D will add n o
additional constraints.
New Source Performance Standards ( NSPS )
Sludge incinerators will be subject t o BAAQMD NSPS regulations.
These limits are 1.30 pound per ton ( 0.65-kg /t ) of dry solids ,
with gas discharge of not more than 20 p e r c e n t opacity.
Limitation o n Pollutant Concentrations
The BAAQMD requires, as do many other jurisdictions , that the
concentration of major pollutants in the gas stream ( NO x' S x ,
HC , T S P , a n d C O ) b e l i m i t e d t o s o m e m a x i m u m v a l u e. T h e °
limits established for the San Francisco Bay Area are shown in
Table 11 - 26. If supplemental fuel is used in an incinerator, a
correction is required t o remove the product of combustion of the
fuel from the calculation . Note that the concentrations shown in
Table 11- 26 are based upon concentrations per standard dry cubic
foot ( m d r y ) c o r r e c t e d t o a s t a n d a r d o f six p e r c e n t o x y g e n.
^
This correction is applied in the design portion of this example,
11.8.6 . 3. Regulatory agencies v a r y in their treatment of these
corrections , but generally , all require the gas volumes to be
c o r r e c t e d t o some standard concentration of C O 2 ( u s u a l l y
12 percent ) or 02 ( usually six or nine percent ). Some require a
supplemental fuel correction, which can have a significant effect
on the allowable emissions.
1 1 -123
TABLE 11- 26
C o n c e n t r a t i o nb
3
Component
Particulates 0 . 0 5c
sox 300
d, e
NOx 175
HCf 2 5d
3
B A A Q M D R e g u l a t i o n 2.
^Af lo lo t c co on rc re en ct tr ea dt i ot no s 6 p pe er r dc er ny t s Ot a n d a r d cubic
2.
CGrains/s d c f ( 2 . 3 s t d g/m 3 ).
d
p p m.
eFuel oil fired - there is no BAAQMD
s t a n d a r d f o r s o l i d f u e l.
^ N o n m e t h a n e h y d r o c a r b o n s.
a . Q u a n t i t y o f d r y s l u d g e s o l i d s = 5 1 . 5 t o n/d a y ( 4 6 . 7 t /d ).
1 1 -1 2 4
b. From Table 11 - 27, daily emissions are:
dry solids
Particulates: 51.5 tons x ton 33
pound
day dry solids
TABLE 11- 27
Emission factor ,
lb/ton dry sludge
Pollutant solids
Particulates 33.0
sox 1.0
NOx 5.0
Hydrocarbons 1.0
CO 0.0
Step 2
n n
- -
Calculate Degree of Control Required to Meet NSPS
a " '
—
at asamamstaam3mnm»mmm m. « * » o.* ~~r ' ~
11-125
c. Required particulate removal efficiency:
1 67 pound day
1 ,700 pound day x 100 percent 96.1 percent
|8110 Correction lor the use ol auxiliary fuel shall be as specified in Example :
(c ) -100,000 + 12,000 = 412,000
f Bill, and correction to a basis of 6% oxygen by dry volume shall be u Assume an emitted gas c omposition as follows:
specified in g 8112. For ihc purposes of gg 8111 and 8112 the term " meas-
ured volume " shall mean the emitted or metered volume to be corrected, (d) 412,000 - 18.000 = 394.000 standard cubic f«t Component ( Vol.. wet ) % tVol drs) SC F
expressed in standard cubic feet . TABULATION OF VOLUME CHANGE (SCF)
CO , .
B 64 9 53 34,000
CO 2.03 2.24 8 ,000
|81ll AUXILIARY FUEL CORRECTION This calculation is in - O, 8.53 9.42 33, 600
tended to correct the measured volume to the volume which would have
Com poneHI Corircnon Finil N, 71 36 78.81 281,200
existed if the auxiliary fuel had not been introduced, and results obtained CO, 40, 000 6.000 34.000 HtO 944 0.00 37,200
CO 8,000 8.000
by this procedure shall be deemed to represent such correction. The O , 21 ,600 + 12,000 33.600 Total 100 00 100 00 394.000
method consists of four steps: N , 281, 200 281.200
,
H0 49 ,200 - 12,000 37,200 _
Also assume the weight of air contaminant is 7.9 pounds.
(a) Calculate the amount of oxygen required (or stoichiometric exsa ua
taotsof the auxiliary fuel, at the rate of coenbuehoa occurring during the
^ - ( a) 394.000 37 , 200 = 356,800 SCF dry volume .
Total 400.000 6,000 394,000
.
period of test
{ 8 ) 12 OXYCEN CORRE.CTlON This calculation is intended to cor -
( b) 33.600
l5b,So<l = ^.0942 . volume fraction of oxygen
(b) Calculate the composition and quantity of the products of such stoi- rect the measured concentration of an air contaminant to that which
chiometric combuation in oxygen would exist if the same quantity of air contaminant were contained in a
(c) 0 2095 - 0.0942 = 0 1153
dry volume corrected to an oxygen content of 6 5 . and results obtained by (d) 0 1153
(c) Add . to the measured volume, the amount of oxygen calculated in ^
this procedure shall be deemed to represent such correct uni Where correc 0 1495 = 0.782
step (a) non for the use of auxiliary fuel is applicable, the volume and cont|>osition
(e) (0 782) (.156.1100 ) = 275.800 SDCF, at fi'4 oxygen, the corrected
resulting from the correction procedore of g 8111 shall be taken as the
(d) Subtract, from the result of step (c ) , the volume of combiuboa volume.
measured volume for purposes of this section 8112. The method consists
products calculated in step ( b ) ; the result is the measured volume cor -
reeled (or auxiliary fuel use
of six steps : ( f) ( 7 9 lb) ( 7(>00 gr / lb) .
= 0 20 gr / SIXiF the corrected concentration.
275.8(H) SDCF
-
(a ) Sohtract JIIV water vajmr ctinu nt of the measured volume , to give a
EXAMPLE; Assume that the gases emitted from an operation using xu
* - dry volume. Where a concentration subject to thss correction is based on a measured
iluLry fuel total 400.000 standard cubic feet during a test period, and have volume, the correction shall consist of multiplying ihe concentration by
a composition as shown in the ' measured ' ’ column of the tabulae below . (b) Cal< ufaie the oxygen tonteni of the measured volume as a decimal the ratio of the measured volume to the corrected volume obtained in step
Assume further that auxiliary fuel usage during the test is 6.000 standard . -
fraction ol the ills tolume ohl iiitt d in step ( a ) . (e) above
FICURE 11- 45
11 126 -
Step 4 - C h e c k C o n f o r m a n c e with t h e N e w S o u r c e Review
Rule ( N S R )
a. The BAAQMD requires that all pollutants be below
1 5 0 p o u n d p e r d a y ( 6 8 . 1 k g / d ), e x c e p t C O w h i c h i s
1 , 5 0 0 p o u n d p e r d a y ( 6 8 1 k g /d ) ( u n l e s s B A C T i s a p p l i e d ).
A s p e r S t e p 1 , so 2 , H C, a n d C O m e e t this r e q u i r e m e n t,
e v e n a s u n c o n t r o l l e d emissions a n d n e e d n o t be considered
f u r t h e r under N S R.
T h e o b j e c t i v e is t o c a l c u l a t e p o l l u t a n t concentrations a t s o m e
s t a n d a r d c o n d i t i o n, s o t h a t t h e p a r t i c u l a t e e m i s s i o n c a n b e
compared with emissions from other sources on an equivalent
basis. T h i s correction is m a d e b y first c a l c u l a t i n g p o l l u t a n t
1 1-1 2 7
gas flow ( under standard conditions ), then calculating total
standard exhaust gas flow and correcting the latter for auxiliary-
fuel. Finally , the pollutant concentrations are calculated
to a six percent oxygen basis , A detailed calculation for
hydrocarbons ( HC ) is presented below , It is assumed that HC
are not removed in the wet scrubbing system.
a. Calculate the volumetric HC flow at standard temperature
and pressure ( STP ). The volumetric flow rate of HC is
calculated as:
51.5 pound HC mole HC
day x pound
28 pound HC
cu ft
x pound359mole day
at STP x 1440 min.
-
11 128
T h e a u x i l i a r y fuel correction p r o c e d u r e is:
1. C a l c u l a t e t h e a m o u n t o f o x y g e n , 2 0 0 s c f m ( 0 . 0 9 std
^ .
m /s ) f o r s t o i c h i o m e t r i c c o m b u s t i o n o f a u x i l i a r y
f uel
3. Add t h e o x y g e n calculated , 2 0 0 s c f m ( 0 . 0 9 s t d m s )
to the measured gas volume 18, 325 scfm ( 8.65 std ^
m ’/ s ) , t h e n s u b t r a c t t h e v o l u m e o f c o m b u s t i o n
p r o d u c t s c a l c u l a t e d in S t e p 5 c 2, 3 0 0 s c f m ( 0 . 1 4 std
m 3 / s ). T h e s u m , 1 8 , 2 2 5 s c f m ( 8 . 6 0 s t d m 3 /s ) , i s
gas volume corrected for auxiliary fuel ( see
T a b l e 1 1- 2 9 ).
d. C o r r e c t f o r o x y g e n ( see F i g u r e 1 1- 4 5 ). T h e intent o f
t h i s calculation i s t o c o r r e c t t h e m e a s u r e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n
o f contaminant t o t h a t which w o u l d exist w e r e t h e same
q u a n t i t y o f c o n t a m i n a n t c o n t a i n e d in a d r y v o l u m e ,
corrected t o six p e r c e n t o x y g e n. All calculations are
based o n t h e final flow r a t e a t S T P p e r T a b l e 1 1- 2 8 The.
p r o c e d u r e is a s f o l l o w s:
1. S u b t r a c t t h e v o l u m e o f w a t e r v a p o r , 7, 0 5 6 s c f m
^
( 3 . 3 3 s t d m /s ) f r o m t h e final v o l u m e , 1 8 , 2 2 5 s c f m
( 8 . 6 0 std m 3/s ), t o g i v e t h e d r y volume , 1 1 , 169 scfm
( 5 . 2 7 s t d m /s ).
^
2. C a l c u l a t e t h e o x y g e n c o n t e n t a s a decimal fraction o f
t h e d r y v o l u m e:
1 ,1 5 6 scfm =
0.1035 02
1 1,1 6 9 s c f m
0.1060 0.709
0.1495
5. M u l t i p l y t h e d r y v o l u m e obtained in 5 d l , 1 1 , 1 6 9 s c f m
( 5 . 2 7 s t d m 3 /s ), b y t h e q u o t i e n t o b t a i n e d i n S t e p
.
0 . 7 0 9 0 x 1 1 , 1 6 9 s c f m = 7 , 9 1 9 s c f m ( 3 . 7 4 s t d m /s ) ^
1 1- 1 2 9
-
’WKA MtAi
TABLE 11- 28
Percent of
total gas Actual
Constituent lb/hr volume CFM
TABLE 11- 29
11-130
Step 6 - Compare Calculated Pollutant Concentrations
Against Emission Standards ( Table 11- 30 )
The emissions standard is 25 ppm. The HC limit is exceeded and
afterburning will be required.
From similar calculations , the concentrations in Table 11- 30 are
obtained ( corrected to six percent oxygen and auxiliary fuel,
prior to afterburning ).
None of the other pollutants ( particulates , NO x S0 X ) are in
violation of concentration standards. ’
TABLE 11- 30
Particulates,
grains/sdcf 0.04 0.05
HCb, ppm 58 c 25
NOxd, ppm 147 175
11-131
11.9 Residue Disposal
The residues remaining after sludge combustion ( ash, particulates
from dry scrubbing , etc. ) must be disposed of. Due to the drain
of natural resources, the constructive utilization of residues,
particularly ash , is undergoing considerable research. Because
the ash concentrates the setteable material in wastewater, there
is an interest in recovering valuable scarce metals such as gold .
In Palo Alto, California, a firm is working o n methods to recover
such metals from the ash ( 182 ) .
In this case , recovery may be
cost -effective, since the treatment plant receives the wastewater
from many electronics firms and the scarce metal content is high.
In general , however, there is no economical process to use ash ;
consequently , it is typically disposed o f t o a landfill.
Detailed design and operating data are beyond the scope of this
manual . M o r e detailed discussions o n landfilling ash and
s l u d g e l a n d f i l l i n g p r o c e d u r e s can be found in the literature
( 184, 185, 186 ).
11-1 3 2
TABLE 11- 31
11-133
TABLE 11- 32
CLASSIFICATION OF WASTE DISPOSAL SITES ( 183)
Class I Class II Class III
Class I disposal sites are those at which Class II disposal sites are those at which Class III disposal sites are those at which
complete protection is provided for all protection is provided to water quality from protection is provided to water quality from
time for the quality of ground and surface Group 2 and Group 3 wastes. The types of Group 3 wastes by location , construction, and
waters from all wastes deposited therein and
against hazard to public health and wildlife
physical features and the extent of pro
tection of groundwater quality divides
- operation which prevent erosion of deposited
material.
resources. The following criteria must be Class II sites into the two following
met to qualify a site as Class I ; categories:
(a) Geological conditions are naturally Class II-l sites are those overlying usable
capable of preventing vertical groundwater and geologic conditions are
hydraulic continuity between liquids either naturally capable of preventing
and gases emanating from the waste in lateral and vertical hydraulic continuity
the site and usable surface or ground
waters.
- between liquids and gases emanating from the
waste in the site and usable surface or
groundwaters, or the disposal area has been
< b) Geological conditions are naturally
modified to achieve such capability.
capable of preventing lateral hydraulic
continuity between liquids and gases Class II-2 sites are those having vertical
emanating from wastes in the site and and lateral hydraulic continuity with usable
usable surface or groundwaters , or the groundwater but for which geological and
disposal area has been modified to
achieve such capability.
hydraulic features such as soil type , arti
ficial barriers, depth to groundwater , and
-
other factors will assure protection of the
(c) Underlying geological formations which
quality of usable groundwater underneath or
contain rock fractures or fissures of
questionable permeability must be adjacent to the site.
permanently sealed to provide a com
petent barrier to the movement of
- The following criteria must be met to qualify
a site as Class II:
liquids or gases from the disposal site
(a) Disposal areas shall be protected by
to usable waters.
natural or artificial features so as
(d) Inundation of disposal areas shall not to assure protection from any washout
occur until the site is closed in and from inundation which could occur
accordance with requirements of the as a result of tides or floods having
regional board. a predicted frequency of once in 100
(e ) Disposal areas shall not be subject to years.
washout. (b) Surface drainage from tributary areas
shall not contact Group 2 waters in the
(f) Leachate and subsurface flow into the
site during disposal operations and for
disposal area shall be contained within
the active life of the site.
the site unless other disposition is
made in accordance with requirements of (c ) Gases and leachate emanating from waste
the regional board. in the site shall not unreasonably
(g) affect groundwater during the active
Sites shall not be located over zones
life of the site.
of active faulting or where other
forms of geological change would impair (d) Subsurface flow into the site and the
the competence of natural features or depth at which water soluble materials
artifical barriers which prevent con
tinuity with usable waters.
- are placed shall be controlled during
construction and operation of the site
to minimize leachate production and
-
(h) Sites made suitable for use by man made
physical barriers shall not be located
assure that the Group 2 waste material
will be above the highest anticipated
where improper operation or maintenance elevation of the capillary fringe of
of such structures could permit the the groundwater. Discharge from the
waste , leachate , or gases to contact
usable ground or surface water.
-
site shall be subject to waste dis
charge requirements.
(i) Sites which comply with a, b, c , e, f,
g, and h, but would be subject to
inundation by a tide or a flood of
-
greater than 100 year frequency may be
considered by the regional board as a
limited Class I disposal site.
11-134
-
CerwfRjoili Aia n i or Observed
*
Comfeuftlon Calculittont— MoM B sl«
* Omit
*
and MrtceflftiOQu
*
Fuel L
Flue Da CF. Cwnjxisitifir'i
Fuel, Oj, and Air pev Draft of Fuel ^
Moles*per Fuel Unit (AF) Source I
Matas Fuel Ufwt / 100 3b. idiid QT liquid fuels N
l Per Mol. Fuel 0 0» , 1.100 moles, gaseous fuels £
I
N
Fuel
Ccpjstituerrt
Fuel W1 Con Mul» Mole?
Unit, Drvi - stit- ti- Theo
- COt
+ P= Ns MiO CD
Fuel Anal. a Fired (AF), % by wt or Vpt
*
E lb sor U nt plier Fteqd SGj c
* HB
\ C to CO? 12 1 5
2 C to CO 12 b
imp m
.5 0
3
*
CD to CO; 28 -5 tt
4 C ynfc rned ,
^
iine K 12 %.Slp« •
•-
.
ttfl
% jh
f
\ rjil
*J
5 HE 2 .5
£3 3- * co,
J0O.U
£ 5
0-2 (deduct}
32 1 ^^ iV
*v
, ,
Oi
.
Total aw (TA ) assigned Of by ORSAT
Co Ni
% d
c
7 32 1
1' * v-
‘
*> Lifin: f, g, h For Gaseous- Fuels t
<
N? 28 0
r
•V *
-
Wt fuel uftit a (moles each x md , wt) lb f
9
10
CO s 44 o . 1
>
: • Mol, w4 of fuel llrae f ; 103 - E
u
HrQ
Ash
IB Q
a
Density uf fuel # EG F 4c 30 in, -» line E Hb
4 curt
h
21 Nate far — fL
ajr at SO F anri100% relative hwmrdi'ty ~ ,
g j * &037 is often used as standard.
•
Debsnnination of Fliw 6» mnd Combwiisbta itl 9Vu per Fuel Unil ( AF)
22 Rue gas constituents
^ COJ + SOJ 0? Mi HzO CO I Total
23 Mc>, mean, h to f
* ( fpr ( ' i
- w - te - 3
24
25
III dry flue gas » males each, line 20 .x Mcp X ( fz
In HjO in air - moles HjO, line 10 x Wc ?- x ( fa t'l) —
— Fj) cm
.
:
26 -
In sensheai HSjQinfuee mctJes, lines (5 + 10) v, Afe ? x (0 - Ti)
-
’
f
l
27 in. latent heat, M?Q in fuel mpfies, lines ( 5 + 10) x. 1040 x 18
28 Tefal in wet flue gas
29 Due to carbon in refuse
- line it x 14,100
30 Oue to wnbumed CO in flue gas
- moles C ta CO x 12 x 9.75 S
31
_
Total flue gas losses i unhurned cpmPuaSJble
100 x line ! for solid and liquid fuels
- lines 2B + 29 t 301 radiation ttt Total
32 Heat value pf fuel unit "
3 *t x line •» x 100. for gaseoys fuels
33 Teut exe ais tresi per fuel unit » Ita# 32 — Itaa 51
^ -
*
t Fti4« ga * analyxix by ORSAT. If CO i9 praifflll tin flue a darbon GENERAL NOTES:
balance ix uSexJ to determine distribution of C „ thus:
AIK C in fuel “ C In flu gaa eomtltuenla + C hn rafusa Mol C In
fu«l = 4 C by analy I* + 12 , * . ** «*
See text Tor uxe of table .
lUfusa , a uied in thU
Wolci c in refuse *line k -f-12. Moles C In COj * ratfcdu (aah)
in refuse] x|COj by ORSAT % ( C02 CO) by ORSAT,
* (modn C In fu«l - mol ** C table, I th
* r *
Inara the* procw
Mole In C In CO = nwl« C In fu l - mala C In refuie - mole C In
* * * *
tt By Dubng Formula ( 11- tJ or by calorimetry -
ttt Radiation aavumad to be a fixed percent of line 11, normally 2 to 5 percent .
-' -
I lb = 0 , 45 kg
1 In. J.W c a i
1 Btuv ib 2,31 J / ta
1 lb / cu ft = f
«
« Iv/oT
Copyright 1975 by the Babcock and Wilcox Company . Minor changes have been
made to this table to allow for ease of use with sewage sludge . Table may be
used without permission . However , credit to Babcock and Wilcox Company
should be given .
11-135
11.10 References
1 . Niessen , W R . .
Combustion and Incineration Processes .
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3 . Dunn, K S . .
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Mechanical Engineers McGraw H i l l I n c 1967 . - . .
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-
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and Monitoring .
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1 7. B r o w n a n d C a l d w e l l. Solid W a s t e R e s o u r c e R e c o v e r y F u l l
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P h a s e 2 R e p o r t o f A l t e r n a t i v e s f o r N e w Y o r k- N e w J e r s e y
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T r e a t m e n t T e c h n o l o g y. 1 9 7 7.
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A u g u s t 1 9 7 5.
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Alternative ." Proceeds of the Annual Conference of the
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1 1-1 3 7
30 . vonDreusche , C • / and J S Negra . .
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Alternatives and Economic Factors for Pyrolysing Sewage
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No .76 , S o l i d Waste and Residues: Conversion by Advanced
Thermal Processes .
American Chemical Society 1978 . .
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Anderson , B Pickart , and D Brailey . . .
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the Annual Conference of the Water Pollution Control
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Jacknow . .
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1977 . wwu'W’vn
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.
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M C D- 3 2 , E P A 4 3 0 / 9 - 7 7 - 0 1 1 1978 . .
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.
P u b l i c a t i o n W P - 2 0- 4 May .
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——
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C o n f e r e n c e . 1 9 7 6.
mif.1
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"
-
11 140
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,
,
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. . .
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.
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.
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.
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.
45268 E P A 6 0 0 / 2 - 7 5- 0 3 8 October 1975
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. .
.
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A_
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, ,.
P a t e n t No 3 623 975.
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.
1 1 0 1 0 FYM 1974 .
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. .
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.
.
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1 9 7 8.
1 4 0. .
H a t h a w a y 9 S A. D e s i g n F e a t u r e s o f P a c k a g e I n c i n e r a t o r
S y s t e m s. U .S .Army Construction Engineering Research
L a b o r a t o r y. N T I S: A D/A - 0 4 0 7 4 3 .
M a y 1 9 7 7.
1 4 1. N i e s s e n, W. R • r A.A. Kalotkin , S a p i e n z a , a n d P. N e s e.
F.C.
"Air Pollution from Refuse - Sludge Coincineration in
M o d u l a r Combustion Units." Presented a t t h e Mid -Atlantic
S t a t e s Section o f t h e Air Pollution Control Association.
N e w a r k. A p r i l 1 9 7 9.
1 4 2. H o f m a n n , R . E. " C o n t r o l l e d - A i r I n c i n e r a t i o n Key to
P r a c t i c a l Production o f E n e r g y f r o m W a s t e s." Public W o r k s
M a g a z i n e. April 1 9 7 6.
1 1 -1 4 6
1 4 7. Fluidized B e d Gasification P r o j e c t , D e p a r t m e n t o f Chemical
E n g i n e e r i n g , W e s t V i r g i n i a U n i v e r s i t y. "S o l i d W a s t e: A
N e w N a t u r a l R e s o u r c e." M o r g a n t o w n , W V. M a y 1 9 7 1.
148 . . .
C o f f m a n , J A., a n d R H . H o o v e r m a n. " P o w e r f r o m W a s t e s
v i a S t e a m G a s i f i c a t i o n." A C S S y m p o s i u m S e r i e s N o. 7 6 ,
Solid W a s t e a n d Residue: Conversion by A d v a n c e d T h e r m a l
P r o c e s s e s . A m e r i c a n C h e m i c a l S o c i e t y. 1 9 7 8.
1 4 9. H o o v e r m a n , R . H . , a n d J . A . C o f f m a n. " Rotary Kiln
Gasification o f Solid a n d L i q u i d W a s t e s." P r e s e n t e d a t t h e
Annual Meeting of the American Institute of Chemical
E n g i n e e r s. 1 9 7 7.
1 5 0. U S E P A. Feasibility S t u d y o f U s e o f M o l t e n S a l t T e c h n o l o g y
f o r P y r o l y s i s o f Solid W a s t e. O f f i c e o f a n d D e v e l o p m e n t.
Cincinnati 4 5 2 6 8. E P A-6 7 0/2- 7 5- 0 1 4. J a n u a r y 1 9 7 5 .
1 5 1. E a s t o n , E . B. , a n d F .J . O' D o n n e l l. "T h e C l e a n A i r A c t
A m e n d m e n t s o f 1 9 7 7 , R e f i n i n g t h e N a t i o n a l A i r Pollution
C o n t r o l S t r a t e g y." J o u r n a l o f t h e Air P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l
Association. V o l. 2 7. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 7.
1 5 2. U S E P A. Environmental N e w s. A u g u s t 2 3 , 1 9 7 6.
P e r f o r m a n c e S t a n d a r d s: S e w a g e Sludge Incinerators. O f f i c e
o f E n f o r c e m e n t. W a s h i n g t o n , D C 2 0 4 6 0. S t a t i o n a r y S o u r c e
E n f o r c e m e n t Series, E P A 3 4 0/1- 7 5-0 0 4. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 5 .
1 5 4. S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l D i s t r i c t.
N e w S o u r c e R e v i e w R u l e s. S e c t i o n s 1 3 0 4 t h r o u g h 1 3 1 1 . 2 .
D e c e m b e r 2 0 , 1 9 7 7.
155 . S a n F r a n c i s c o B a y A r e a A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l D i s t r i c t.
R e g u l a t i o n 2. A d o p t e d M a y 4, 1 9 6 0 , a n d a m e n d e d t h e r e a f t e r.
1 6 0. U S E P A. I n d u s t r i a l G u i d e f o r A i r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l R e s e a r c h I n f o r m a t i o n C e n t e r. C i n c i n n a t i
4 5 2 6 8. E P A-6 2 5/6-7 8-0 0 4. J u n e 1 9 7 8.
1 1-1 4 7
161. USEPA. Scrubber Handbook. Research Triangle Park , North
Carolina 27711. NTIS: PB 213 016. 1972. -
162. Calvert , S. " How to Choose a Particulate Scrubber."
Chemical Engineering . 84:18. August 29 , 1977.
163. Calvert , S. " Upgrading Existing Particulate Scrubbers."
Chemical Engineering . 84:23. October 24 , 1977.
164. Farrell , J . B . , H . O. Wall , and B. A . Kerdolff . " Air
Pollution from Sewage Sludge Incinerators : A Progress
Report . Presented at the U S ./Japan Conference ”
-
11 148
176 . W e i r, A • / D.G. Jones , L.P. P a p a y, S. Calvert , a n d S. Y u n g.
" F a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g P l u m e O p a c i t y." Environmental Science
a n d T e c h n o l o g y. V o l. 1 0. 1 9 7 6.
1 8 4. U S E P A . T h e S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l i n g o f S l u d g e a n d / o r A s h.
P r e s e n t e d a t t h e U S E P A T e c h n o l o g y Transfer S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t
a n d Disposal Seminar. B o s t o n , M a s s a c h u s e t t s. September
1 9 7 7.
1 8 5. U S E P A. P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l , M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e Landfills.
T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r. Cincinnati , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8. EPA - 6 2 5/1-
7 8- 0 1 0 , S W- 7 0 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
1 1 -1 4 9
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 12
COMPOSTING
12.1 Introduction
Although sludges have been composted as a minor constituent of
refuse in m a n y countries since the early 1900 s , only since the
early seventies has major attention been directed to composting
of municipal wastewater sludges in the United States.
A m a j o r s t u d y of the composting of w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s wa s
conducted at Salt Lake City from 1967 t o 1969 ( 1 ). This work
was followed in 1 9 7 2 by research at pilot - s c a l e wastewater
sludge composting facilities at the USDA Agricultural Research
Center at Beltsville , Maryland ( 2- 4 ) and full-scale operations at
C o u n t y Sanitation Districts of L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y p l a n t a t
C a r s o n , California . Based o n the operating e x p e r i e n c e s and
d e v e l o p m e n t s at these plants, new projects were undertaken at
B a n g o r , Maine ( 5 ) ; D u r h a m , N e w H a m p s h i r e ( 6 ) ; and Windsor ,
Ontario ( 7 ). A number of other plants are in various phases of
planning or development.
Sludge composting is the aerobic thermophilic decomposition of
organic constituents t o a relatively stable humus- like material
( 8 ). Environmental factors influence t h e activities of the
bacteria , fungi, and actinomycetes in this oxidation decomposi -
tion p r o c e s s and affects the s p e e d and course of composting
cycles. The volatility and t y p e of material , moisture content ,
oxygen concentration, carbon / nitrogen ratio, t e m p e r a t u r e , and
pH are k e y determinants in the p r o c e s s ( 9 ). S l u d g e is n o t
rendered t o t a l l y inert by composting . The composting process is
considered complete when the product can be stored without giving
rise t o nuisances such as odors, and when pathogenic organisms
have b e e n reduced t o a level such t h a t the material can b e
handled with minimum risk.
Compost produced from municipal wastewater sludges can provide a
portion of the nutrient requirements for growth of crops. The
organic matter in compost is particularly beneficial as a soil
conditioner , because it has been stabilized , decomposes slowly ,
and remains effective for a longer time than the organic matter
in uncomposted wastes. Composted sludge can improve the quality
of soils containing excessive amounts of sand or clay as well as
a l r e a d y more balanced soils. I m p r o v e d physical properties
include :
• Increased water content for sandy soils
• Increased water retention for s a n d y soils
12-1
Enhanced aggregation
Increased aeration for clay soils
Increased permeability for clay soils
Increased water infiltration for clay soils
Greater root depth
Increased microbial population
Decreased surface crusting ( 10 )
-
12 2
such a s c a r b o n ( for e x a m p l e, sawdust , rice hulls, etc. )
are added t o the dewatered s l u d g e t o p r o v i d e a mixture
suitable for composting , T h e mixture m u s t be p o r o u s,
structurally stable , and c a p a b l e of self-sustaining the
decomposition reaction.
A t e m p e r a t u r e in t h e r a n g e o f 1 3 0 ° t o 1 5 0 ° F ( 5 5° t o 6 5°C )
is attained t o ensure destruction o f p a t h o g e n i c o r g a n i s m s
a n d p r o v i d e the d r i v i n g f o r c e f o r e v a p o r a t i o n , which
reduces the moisture c o n t e n t .
The compost is stored for extended periods after the
primary composting operation t o further stabilize the
mixture at l o w e r t e m p e r a t u r e s.
Additional air drying ( for e x a m p l e , windrowing ) may be
r e q u i r e d if t h e cured c o m p o s t is t o o w e t f o r f u r t h e r
processing .
1 2 . 2.1 Moisture
Decomposition of o r g a n i c m a t t e r is d e p e n d e n t upon moisture , T h e
lowest moisture content at which bacterial activity takes p l a c e
is from 1 2 t o 1 5 p e r c e n t ; h o w e v e r , l e s s than 4 0 p e r c e n t moisture
m a y limit t h e r a t e of d e c o m p o s i t i o n , T h e o p t i m u m moisture
content is in t h e r a n g e of 5 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t , If t h e mixture is
over 6 0 percent w a t e r , the proper structural integrity will not
be obtained .
Dewatered municipal sludges are usually too wet to satisfy
o p t i m u m c o m p o s t i n g conditions , T h e moisture c o n t e n t c a n be
reduced by blending t h e s l u d g e with a d r y bulking material or a
recycled product , and dewatering the s l u d g e t o a s g r e a t a n extent
as e c o n o m i c a l l y possible , T h e b e s t approach for a particular
site c a n b e determined f r o m a mass b alance of the particular
composting f a c i l i t y and b y a s i t e - s p e c i f i c economic a n a l y s i s
based o n the mass balance results , Figure 12-1 illustrates the
effect of the solids content o f dewatered sludge o n the required
mixing ratio of wood chips t o s l u d g e by volume for one c o m p o s t
o p e r a t i o n. T h e a m o u n t o f w o o d c h i p s n e e d e d f o r a 4 0 p e r c e n t
filter cake would b e about one- fifth t h e amount required f o r a
2 0 p e r c e n t solids cake , I n addition t o savings o n wood chips,
there would be a substantial reduction in material management
c o s t s a n d site sizes ( 1 3 ).
1 2- 3
5 NOTE : THIS CURVE IS SITE — SPECIFIC FOR
ONE COMPOST OPERATION . THIS
CURVE WILL SHIFT DEPENDING ON
THE RELATIVE VOLATILITY AND
LU
5 SOLIDS CONTENT OF THE WOOD
3 CHIPS AND SLUDGE .
3
O 4
>
LU
o
a
t/5
UJ
3
3
O
>
o .
X
CJ
Q
O 2
o
I
o
t~
<
cc
o 1
x
£
1
10 20 30 40 50
FIGURE 12- 1
12.2 2 . Temperature
1 2- 4
as heat will be carried off by evaporation. On .the other hand ,
low moisture content will decrease the rate of microbial activity
and thus reduce the rate of heat evolution.
i
12.2.3 pH
12-5
be discussed . An e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t d e s i g n consideration is
f l e x i b i l i t y. A c o m p o s t o p e r a t i o n m u s t be a b l e t o o p e r a t e
c o n t i n u o u s l y even with c h a n g e s in s l u d g e solids c o n t e n t and
volume . Changes in bulking agent supply and equipment failure
must also be anticipated , and the design must be flexible to deal
with these changes.
T o obtain minimal assurance t h a t t h e c o m p o s t i n g a c t i v i t y is
proceeding properly , the t e m p e r a t u r e and oxygen content within
the pile are constantly monitored . Equipment required to conduct
this monitoring includes a portable , 0 to 25 percent , dry-gas
oxygen analyzer which is used to measure the oxygen content ; a
p r o b e - thermistor - t y p e t e m p e r a t u r e indicator , with at least a
6 - foot probe and scale reading from 3 2° t o 212 ° F ( 0 ° to 100 ° C )
is also needed .
Additionally , monitoring of heavy metals , patho-
gens, and environmental parameters such as air and water quality
ensures a safe and acceptable compost and composting operation.
A comprehensive monitoring program is outlined in Table 12-1.
TABLE 12 1 -
Before composting Sludqe and bulking Heavy metals and PCB's Monthly
material
During composting Aerated pile or windrows Acceptable time , temperature, Temperature and oxygen con
dissolved oxygen relation - tent measurements taken at
-
ships , that is, 131 F ( 55 C) least 6 days during f ^rst
° °
and 5 to 15 percent oxygen 2 weeks. (Additional
content for 3 bo 5 days. measurements sometimes
required to get true
average).
After composting Compost ( prior to Certain selected indicator Monthly or bimonthly depending
marketing) heavy metals and pathogens. on use of compost.
12- 6
Four locations for t e m p e r a t u r e a n d o x y g e n m e a s u r e m e n t s a t both
ends o f e a c h p i l e are s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 2- 2.
A
iK
o
H
X
O
O
O O
f in
X
I M
V t T
B
4
B
2
BASE "B"
*
FIGURE 12- 2
H a u g a n d H a u g ( 1 7 ) h a v e s h o w n t h e c o m p o s t r e a c t i o n i s s e l f-
s u s t a i n i n g w h e n t h e r a t i o W i s <_ 1 0 . T h i s r a t i o i s d e f i n e d
a s:
_ m a s s o f w a t e r in t h e initial c o m p o s t mixture
mass o f o r g a n i c s d e g r a d e d u n d e r c o m p o s t i n g conditions
I n w i n d r o w a n d mechanical c o m p o s t i n g , p o r o s i t y a n d s t r u c t u r a l
s t a b i l i t y a r e p r o v i d e d w h e n t h e s l u d g e i s mixed with r e c y c l e d
c o m p o s t p r o d u c t o r b u l k i n g a g e n t t o obtain a solids concentration
o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 t o 6 0 p e r c e n t. With a e r a t e d p i l e c o m p o s t i n g ,
a b u l k i n g a g e n t such a s wood c h i p s i s used t o p r o v i d e p o r o s i t y
a n d s t r u c t u r a l s t a b i l i t y. When the composting process is
c o m p l e t e , t h e bulking a g e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y s c r e e n e d o u t o f t h e
c o m p o s t a n d r e c y c l e d back t o t h e mix p o i n t for reuse. T h e fine
p o r t i o n o f t h e b u l k i n g a g e n t i s u s u a l l y retained with t h e c o m p o s t
p r o d u c t b e c a u s e it p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e screen with t h e finished
c o m p o s t. Fresh b u l k i n g a g e n t m u s t be a d d e d a t t h e mix p o i n t t o
c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h i s material l o s s.
1 2- 7
F i g u r e 1 2- 3 s h o w s a g e n e r a l i z e d m a s s b a l a n c e d i a g r a m f o r t h e
c o m p o s t p r o c e s s. T h e r e c y c l e stream could consist of finished
c o m p o s t o n l y ( t y p i c a l f o r w i n d r o w a n d m e c h a n i c a l m e t h o d s ),
bulking agent only ( typical for aerated pile methods ) or a
combination o f bulking a g e n t a n d finished c o m p o s t , Amendment m a y
a l s o b e added with bulking a g e n t , T h e e x a c t q u a n t i t i e s o f t h e
various s t r e a m s a r e d e p e n d e n t o n t h e m a s s b a l a n c e e q u a t i o n s ( 1 2-1
a n d 1 2-2 ) derived f r o m F i g u r e 1 2-3 a n d the t y p e o f c o m p o s t i n g
p r o c e s s utilized .
XR =
xc( sM -sc ) + XA( SM-SA ) + XB( SM-SB ) ( 12-1 )
( SR- SM )
T o d e s i g n a c o m p o s t f a c i l i t y employing no e x t e r n a l bulking a g e n t ,
the parameters ,SQ , ,k ,SR ,VR ,kR , a n d m u s t b e determined
^
a n a l y t i c a l l y, a s s u m e d , o r c a l c u l a t e d . T h e w e t w e i g h t o f r e c y c l e d
c o m p o s t ( XR ) i s c a l c u l a t e d , a s s u m i n g n o a m e n d m e n t o r e x t e r n a l
b u l k i n g a g e n t addition ( X = XB = 0 ), t o p r o v i d e a desired s o l i d s
^
c o n t e n t o f t h e mixture ( S ) in t h e 0 . 4 0 t o 0 . 5 0 r a n g e :
^
XR =
xc( sM -sc ) ( 1 2- 3 )
( SR- SM )
O n c e XR i s d e t e r m i n e d f o r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , t h e ratio W i s
c a l c u l a t e d:
xcd ~
sc ) + XR( 1-SR ) ( 1 2- 4 )
xCsCvCkC + xRsRvRkR
If t h e ratio W i s l e s s t h a n t e n , the c o m p o s t mixture h a s
sufficient energy available for temperature elevation and water
evaporation. T h e r a t i o n u m b e r of t e n i s n o t a b s o l u t e b e c a u s e
climatic conditions affect the thermodynamic energy requirements.
In a hot , arid climate , W may be higher because evaporation of
w a t e r f r o m t h e c o m p o s t mass is increased b y a high h u m i d i t y
-
12 8
1
AMMENDMENT EXTERNAL
SA VA
xA' ' 'kA SULKING AGENT
KfrSfljVjfrkg iH2Q, co2, NH3)
DEWATERED
SLUDGE CAKE
*
MIXTURE COMPOSTING
t NWWOMfti
SCREENING PRODUCT
MIXING
PROCESS |IF REQUIRED)
#* -
xC'%vC‘kC
RECYCLE
=
Total wet weight of sludge VR = Volatile solids content of
cake produced/day. recycle , fraction of dry
solids (0.00 to 0.90).
= Total wet weight of
amendment/day.
VB = Volatile solids content of
external bulking agent ,
XR = Total wet weight of fraction of dry solids
recycle/day. (0.55 to 0.90 ).
X0 = Total wet weight of external = Volatile solids content of
bulking agent/day. VM mixture , fraction of dry
X = Total wet weight of mixture/ solids (0.40 to 0.80 ).
M day. _
kL = Fraction of sludge cake
sc= Fractional solids content of
sludge cake (0.20 to 0.55).
volatile solids degradable
under composting conditions
(0.33 to 0.56 ).
SA = Fractional solids content of
amendment (0.50 to 0.95). kA = Fraction of amendment
volatile solids degradable
SR = Fractional solids content of under composting conditions
recycle (0.60 to 0.75). (0.40 to 0.60).
SB = Fractional solids content of = Fraction of recycle volatile
external bulking agent (0.50 kR solids degradable under
to 0.85).
composting conditions (0.00
= to 0.20).
SM Fractional solids content of
mixture (0.40 to 0.50).
kQB = Fraction of external bulking
vc = sludge
Volatile solids content of
cake , fraction of
agent volatile solids de
gradable under composting
-
dry solids (0.40 to 0.60) - conditions (0.00 to 0.40).
Digested ; (0.60 to 0.80) - = Fraction of mixture volatile
Raw. kM solids degradable under com -
= posting conditions (0.20 to
VA Volatile solids content of
amendment , fraction of dry 0.60).
solids (0.80 to 0.95).
FIGURE 12- 3
12-9
d r i v i n g f o r c e a n d higher initial p i l e t e m p e r a t u r e s, In a cold
climate , m o r e b i o l o g i c a l e n e r g y is r e q u i r e d t o h e a t t h e p i l e t o
normal operating temperatures and thus W may have to be as low as
s e v e n t o t e n ( 1 7 ).
T h e r a t i o W c a n be r e d u c e d b y a d d i n g a m e n d m e n t. T h e p a r a m e t e r s
SA , VA , a n d kA are k n o w n , T h e a m e n d m e n t d r y weight is assumed ,
a n d a new r e c y c l e c o m p o s t mass ( XR ) is c a l c u l a t e d :
Xc ( SM -SC ) + XA ( SM-SA )
XR = ( SR~SM ) ( 1 2- 5 )
T h e r a t i o W is a l s o r e c a l c u l a t e d :
If W i s s t i l l n o t b e l o w t e n , t h e q u a n t i t y o f a m e n d m e n t i s
increased and XR and W a r e r e c a l c u l a t e d until t h e W r e q u i r e m e n t
is satisfied .
If these guidelines are followed , a mixture with sufficient
e n e r g y t o c o m p o s t will b e p r o d u c e d , The actual values for the
p r o c e s s p a r a m e t e r s a r e s i t e -s p e c i f i c a n d t h e m o s t e c o n o m i c a l
design i s d e p e n d e n t o n accurate information a b o u t t h e composting
characteristics t h a t a f f e c t t h e m a s s and t h e r m o d y n a m i c b a l a n c e.
C o m p o s t P r o c e s s e s U s i n g E x t e r n a l Bulking A g e n t
D e s i g n c r i t e r i a f o r p r o c e s s e s using e x t e r n a l b u l k i n g a g e n t are
similar t o t h o s e j u s t described e x c e p t t h a t t h e r e c y c l e r a t e is
c a l c u l a t e d in a d i f f e r e n t m a n n e r , In t h e f o r m e r p r o c e s s, t h e
ratio of total bulking agent to sludge is specified without
r e g a r d t o t h e m i x t u r e' s m o i s t u r e c o n t e n t , s i n c e i t i s n o t a s
i m p o r t a n t as t h e s t r u c t u r a l i n t e g r i t y o f t h e pile , T h e r e c y c l e
r a t e , XR , a n d m a k e u p s u p p l y a r e c a l c u l a t e d using E q u a t i o n s 1 2-7
a n d 1 2-8.
XR = ( 1- f 2 ) flXC ( 1 2- 7 )
XB “
fl XC “
XR ( 12-8 )
XR + XB
fl =
XC
12-10
and f 2 r e p r e s e n t s the fraction of total external bulking a g e n t
l o s t from the p r o c e s s b y volatilization o r because it r e m a i n s
with the finished c o m p o s t.
f2 = XB
XB + XR
T h e v a l u e s f o r f i a n d f 2 m u s t be a s s u m e d b a s e d o n o p e r a t i n g
experience at an existing facility. The range of values for f
a r e 0 . 7 5 t o 1 . 2 5 , a n d f o r f 2 a r e 0 . 2 0 t o 0 . 4 0. O n c e t h e s e
v a l u e s a r e c h o s e n , t h e a m o u n t o f r e c y c l e d b u l k i n g a g e n t ( XR )
^
a n d n e w e x t e r n a l b u l k i n g a g e n t ( Xg ) c a n be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g
Equations 1 2- 7 and 1 2- 8.
F o r a n y a m o u n t o f a m e n d m e n t addition , t h e r a t i o W c a n a g a i n
be c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g E q u a t i o n 1 2- 2 . I n c r e a s i n g t h e a m o u n t o f
amendment until W is below ten will result in t h e p r o p e r c o m p o s t
energy balance.
12-11
t h e windrow m e t h o d , o x y g e n is d r a w n into the p i l e b y n a t u r a l
c o n v e c t i o n a n d t u r n i n g , w h e r e a s in t h e s t a t i c p i l e method ,
aeration is induced b y forced a i r circulation.
TABLE 12- 2
Density ,
Material lb/cu yd
3
1 lb/cu yd = 0.595 kg/m
1 2 . 3.1 Windrow P r o c e s s
The windrow p r o c e s s is normally conducted in uncovered areas and
relies on natural ventilation with frequent mechanical mixing
o f t h e p i l e s t o maintain aerobic c o n d i t i o n s , In a r e a s of
s i g n i f i c a n t rainfall , it m a y b e desirable for o p e r a t i o n a l
reasons to provide a roofed structure t o cover the windrows for
composting s l u d g e . T h e l a r g e s t operating windrow p r o c e s s in t h e
United S t a t e s is located at the Joint Water Pollution Control
Plant o f the C o u n t y Sanitation Districts of Los A n g e l e s C o u n t y in
Carson, California.
In the windrow composting p r o c e s s, the mixture t o be c o m p o s t e d is
stacked in l o n g p a r a l l e l rows o r windrows. The cross section of
the windrows m a y be trapezoidal o r triangular , depending largely
o n the characteristics of the mobile equipment used for mixing
and turning the piles. The width of a typical windrow is 1 5 feet
( 4.5 m ) and the height is 3 t o 7 feet ( 1 to 2 m ).
12-12
sawdust , straw , rice hulls , or licorice root. The quantity of
bulking agent is adjusted t o obtain a mixture solids content of
40 to 50 percent , The use of a bulking agent also increases the
structural integrity of the mixture a n d t h u s , its ability t o
maintain a properly shaped windrow , Porosity of the mixed
material is greatly improved , which in turn improves the aeration
characteristics. External bulking a g e n t s can also provide a
source of c a r b o n for the c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s , T h e c a r b o n t o
nitrogen ( C/ N ) ratio of digested activated sludge is in the range
of 9 t o 1 5:1. If wood chips are used as the bulking agent , the
C / N ratio will be raised t o approximately 2 0 t o 3 0:1 in the
composting mixture.
1 2-13
( 60 percent solids ) in a 1:2.2 ratio ( dry weight). A compost
mixing machine is used to turn the mixture. Recycled compost is
added to the sludge before the windrow is constructed . Each
windrow must be turned two or three times a day for the first
five days to mix the material completely , minimize odors, and
ensure sufficient oxygen transfer , The sludge is then turned
once a day for about 30 days , depending on weather conditions.
-
Figure 12 5 shows a windrow being turned at Los Angeles.
u LL
O O
LLT LU
t£ CL
3 D
h* h
< <
tr £E
LU LU
.
Q .
Q
E
LU
2
LU
(
- -
(
FIGURE 12- 4
-
12 14
FIGURE 12- 5
1 2-1 5
a fresh supply of wood chips was required to make up for the
estimated 2 5 t o 3 0 p e r c e n t l o s t in t h e c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s , S o m e
o f t h e bulking a g e n t w a s c o n s u m e d in t h e biological oxidation
p r o c e s s e s during composting , a n d a l a r g e p o r t i o n w a s l o s t in t h e
screening p r o c e s s.
Operating R e q u i r e m e n t s
p e r d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 0.9 t/d a y ) f o r a
1 0 t o 5 0 d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 9 t o 4 5 t/ d a y ) o p e r a t i o n
W h e r e f i n i s h e d c o m p o s t i s u s e d a s t h e b u l k i n g a g e n t , and
increased windrow t u r n i n g f r e q u e n c y is p r a c t i c e d , a h i g h e r diesel
f u e l c o n s u m p t i o n s h o u l d be e x p e c t e d.
1 2-1 6
attained , but higher values for exterior samples have been
measured consistently. Very low levels of virus , parasitic ova ,
and Salmonella have been assayed in the majority of final compost
samples.
TIME, days
3
MOST PROBABLE NUMBER
1° C = 5 /9 ( °F - 32 )
FIGURE 12 - 6
12- 17
Recycling large quantities of finished compost as bulking agent
provides good odor control for digested sludges , as long as
process upsets are kept under control. Interruption of regular
turning of the sludge may cause odor problems , since compost
windrows quickly become anaerobic under these circumstances.
Unpleasant odors may also be generated during periods of high
rainfall , as well as by poor mixture control and inefficient
mixing. In dry and windy areas , wetting of the compost windrows
should be practiced to prevent excessive dust generation.
A drainage and collection system is required for stormwater
runoff from the site because the contaminated water requires
treatment. The runoff may be returned to the wastewater
treatment plant , At Beltsville , a wooded area adjacent to the
site was spray irrigated ( 2).
Workers at a compost site should avoid inhaling dust. Respira -
tory protection , such as breathing masks , should be worn in
dusty areas , and the area should be sprinkled with water during
dry periods. Although recent experiments have shown high
concentrations of the fungus Aspergillus fumigatus, a secondary
pathogen , to be airborne at sludge composting sites , preliminary
data indicate that these higher spore levels are generally
restricted to the immediate composting area and should not pose a
significant health threat to surrounding residential , commercial ,
or industrial areas ( 22). However , individuals with a history of
lung ailments should not work in composting operations. Research
is continuing on potential health effects of exposure to the
fungus A. fumigatus
~~
( 23 to 27 ). For additional discussion , see
Chapter 7.
12 18-
The values for the process variables defined previously
are assumed to be as follows:
Xc ( SM - S Q ) 50 ( 0.04 0.20)
XR = ( SR - SM ) ( 0.70 - 0.40 )
W
Xc( i-sc ) + XR( 1-SR )
xCSCvCkC + xRsRvRkR
50( 1- 0.20 ) + 33.3 ( 1- 0.70 )
50( 0.20 )( 0.50 )( 0.45 ) + 33.3 ( 0.70 )( 0.35 )( 0.15 )
14.4
12-19
=
Xc ( SM ~ SC ) + XA( SM SA )
~
XR ( SR-SM )
= 2 5 . 0 t o n s p e r d a y ( 2 2 . 7 t /d a y )
The amount of recycled compost has dropped from 0.67 tons per ton
( 0 . 6 1 t / t ) t o 0 . 5 t o n s p e r t o n ( 0 . 5 t/ t ) o f s l u d g e c a k e , The
r a t i o W is c a l c u l a t e d using E q u a t i o n 1 2-6:
W
XC ( 1 ~ SC ) + XR (1-SR ) + XA ( 1-SA )
^
xcsCvC C + XRS RVRJCR + XASAVAkA
50( 1-0.20 ) + 25( 1-0.70 ) + 5( 1-0.90 )
50( 0.20 )( 0.50)( 0.45) + 25( 0.70 )( 0.35 )( 0.15 ) + 5( 0.90 )( 0.90 )( 0.50)
9.2
-
12 20
piles and loading transfer trucks; and transfer trucks to haul
the sludge and amendment to the compost facility and to haul the
finished compost away.
DIGESTED
DEWATERED
SLUDGE
4 OFF GASES
RECYCLED
COMPOST
AMENDMENT
FIGURE 12- 7
12- 21
Optimum windrow compost design will do the following :
FIGURE 12- 8
12- 22
The forced air method provides for more flexible o p e r a t i o n and
more precise control of oxygen and temperature conditions in
the pile than would b e obtained with a windrow s y s t e m , Since
c o m p o s t i n g t i m e s tend t o be s l i g h t l y s h o r t e r a n d anaerobic
conditions can be more readily p r e v e n t e d , the risk o f odors is
reduced .
SCREENED OR
IJWSCREFNED
COVER
BULKINS AGENT —'
AND SLUDGE
BULKING
AGENT BASE
NON PERFORATED PiPE ^
FILTER PILE
SCREENED
COMPOST
FIGURE 12- 9
1 2- 2 3
At Beltsville a mixer or front - end loader is used t o mix one
v o l u m e o f s l u d g e c a k e containing 22 p e r c e n t solids and t w o
volumes of bulking a g e n t . The resulting mixture contains
40 p e r c e n t solids and is placed loosely upon the prepared base by
the front - end loader to form a pile with a triangular cross
section 15 feet ( 4.6 m ) wide by 7.5 feet ( 2.3 m ) high .
T h e p i l e is then c o m p l e t e l y covered with a 1 2- inch ( 0 . 3 m )
layer of cured , screened c o m p o s t or an 18 - inch ( 0.4 m ) layer of
unscreened c o m p o s t . This o u t e r blanket of c o m p o s t provides
insulation and p r e v e n t s e s c a p e of o d o r s during composting .
Unstabilized sludge can g e n e r a t e odors during dumping and initial
pile construction . Conditioning with lime during dewatering will
minimize this , however. The non- perforated pipe is connected to
a 1/3 horsepower ( 0.25 kW ) , 335 cubic feet per minute ( 158 1/ s )
blower that is controlled by a timer ( 28 ). Aerobic composting
conditions are maintained if air is intermittently drawn through
the pile. The timing sequence for the blower is 5 minutes on and
15 minutes off for a 56- foot ( 17 m ) long pile containing up to
8 0 wet t o n s ( 73 t ) of sludge. If the aeration rate is t o o high
or the blower remains on too long , the pile will cool , and the
thermophilic process will be inhibited ( 12 ).
The effluent air from the compost pile is conducted into a small ,
cone-shaped filter pile of cured , screened compost approximately
4 feet ( 1 . 2 m ) high and 8 feet ( 2 . 5 m ) in diameter where
malodorous gases are absorbed . The odor retention capacity of
these piles is inhibited if their moisture content is greater
than 50 percent. The odor filter pile should contain one cubic
yard ( 0.76 m 3 ) of screened c o m p o s t for each four dry tons ( 3.6 t )
of s l u d g e in t h e c o m p o s t p i l e . Filter piles are sometimes
constructed with a 4- inch ( 1 0 cm ) base l a y e r of wood chips t o
prevent high back pressures o n the blower.
1 2-24
by covering the additional pipe with more bulking agent and
sludge-bulking agent mixture so as to form a continuous or
e x t e n d e d p i l e. T h i s p r o c e s s is r e p e a t e d d a i l y f o r 28 d a y s.
T h e first section is removed a f t e r 2 1 d a y s. A f t e r seven sections
are removed in s e q u e n c e , t h e r e is sufficient s p a c e f o r operating
the equipment so that a new extended pile can be started .
,
T " KiXTUHl 7U
/ CUMFOST
ntwnvfa Bfc CLHltrUj^t D
HERE \ AUtieD
/ JJ
JO
) r
// - \
\
FIGURE 12 - 10
T h e a e r a t e d p i l e s y s t e m h a s p r o v e n e f f e c t i v e o n a f u l l -s c a l e
basis at Beltsville , Maryland ; Bangor , Maine ; Durham ,
N e w H a m p s h i r e ; Detroit , M i c h i g a n ; and Windsor , Ontario. After
s t a r t- u p, m e a n t e m p e r a t u r e s in aerated p i l e s are 1 7 6 °F ( 7 0 ° C ) ;
a n d a f t e r s t a b l e conditions a r e achieved , minimum t e m p e r a t u r e s
are usually 1 3 0 ° F ( 5 5 ° C ). When the piles are constructed
p r o p e r l y , n e i t h e r excessive r a i n f a l l n o r l o w a m b i e n t t e m p e r a t u r e
a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s ( 2 8 ).
C u r r e n t l y m o s t o f t h e i n t e r e s t in c o m p o s t i n g o f w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e s i s c e n t e r e d o n this t e c h n i q u e. T h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f this
s y s t e m f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t o f u n d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s p r o v i d e s it with a
s i g n i f i c a n t a d v a n t a g e o v e r t h e w i n d r o w m e t h o d. O t h e r a d v a n t a g e s
a r e s u p e r i o r o d o r c o n t r o l , g r e a t e r inactivation o f p a t h o g e n i c
o r g a n i s m s, a n d u s e o f l e s s s i t e a r e a. T h e aerated p i l e t e c h n i q u e
e x p o s e s a l l s l u d g e t o m o r e uniform t e m p e r a t u r e. Capital costs
are a l s o lower for the aerated pile system, but operating costs
t e n d t o be h i g h e r b e c a u s e o f t h e c o s t o f t h e b u l k i n g a g e n t.
Comparisons of capital and operating costs using wood chips as
b u l k i n g a g e n t in a e r a t e d p i l e s, a s w e l l a s in windrows , are m a d e
b y C o l a c i c c o ( 1 8 ). I n e x p e r i m e n t s a t L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y , i t
has been found necessary to follow this technique by windrow
1 2- 2 5
composting f o r 2 t o 3 d a y s t o dry o f f the moisture , At other
locations, t h e air flow is r e v e r s e d without d i s r u p t i o n o f t h e
pile a s a n o t h e r m e a n s t o reducing moisture c o n t e n t.
1 2 . 3 .2 . 4 Oxygen Supply
1 2 . 3 .2 . 5 Bulking A g e n t
While bulking a g e n t s a r e in t h e aerated p i l e c o m p o s t i n g s y s t e m ,
t h e y s e r v e primarily t o maintain the structural integrity and
porosity o f the p i l e. T h e quantity o f external bulking a g e n t
required is determined by the need f o r s t r u c t u r a l s u p p o r t and
porosity. The requirements for moisture control are not as
critical a s a d e q u a t e porosity ; t h u s , s l u d g e moisture c a n v a r y
considerably as long as sufficient bulking agent is added to
assure adequate porosity. The design factors discussed for
windrows d o n o t apply h e r e ( 1 7 ).
W o o d c h i p s a n d o t h e r bulking a g e n t s a l s o increase t h e volatile
s o l i d s c o n t e n t o f t h e c o m p o s t i n g mixture; volatility o f new a n d
recycled wood chips has been reported as 90 and 86 percent,
respectively ( 1 8 ). T h e actual contribution of t h e w o o d chips t o
t h e c o m p o s t mixture is limited because their composting rate is
s i o w e r.
1 2- 2 6
ivhoel na t iwood
lity
chips a r e mixed with unstabilized s l u d g e a n a v e r a g e
o f a b o u t 7 5 p e r c e n t r e s u l t s ; t h i s is w e l l in excess o f
t h e 4 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t v o l a t i l i t y achieved i n t h e m i x t u r e o f
d i g e s t e d s l u d g e a n d r e c y c l e d c o m p o s t . V o l a t i l i t y c o n t e n t is
therefore not a limiting factor in aerated pile composting o f
unstabilized s l u d g e , a s it can be in t h e digested s l u d g e windrow
s y s t e m.
1 2 . 3.2.6 E n e r g y Requirements
Operating Requirements
p e r d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 0.9 t/d a y ) f o r a
10 t o 50 d r y t o n p e r d a y ( 9 t o 4 5 t/d a y )
operation ( 20 percent sludge )
Labor 1 . 5 t o 2 . 8 hours
Wood Chips 2 t o 8 cubic y a r d s ( 2 . 1 )
Gasoline 1.1 gallon ( 4.11 )
Diesel Fuel 2.7 t o 3.5 gallon ( 1 0 . 2 t o 1 3 . 2 1 )
Electricity 7 . 5 t o 1 7 . 5 kWhr ( 2 9 . 7 t o 69.3 MJ )
1 2- 2 7
a n d f o r m a t i o n o f t h e a e r a t e d p i l e. I n addition , l u m p s o f
material or p u d d l e s o f liquid m u s t n o t b e allowed t o remain in
the mixing area. N o thin s p o t s or holes s h o u l d be p r e s e n t in
t h e c o m p o s t b l a n k e t. T h e r e s h o u l d b e l e a k p r o o f t r a n s p o r t o f
a e r a t i o n air b e t w e e n blower a n d o d o r filter p i l e . Moisture
content within o d o r filter p i l e s ( F i g u r e 1 2-1 2 ) should be k e p t
below 5 0 p e r c e n t. Condensate , leachates, and runoff from the
piles m u s t b e collected and t r e a t e d a s quickly a s possible. T h e
c o m p o s t should be a d e q u a t e l y cured before it is removed from the
area , and a n y unstabilized material s h o u l d be r e c y c l e d back into
t h e composting p r o c e s s for further treatment .
E
D>
6 J \
S3I ! s 60
u
-LU - TEMPERATURE
Q
UJ
U CE
o
o 4
V <—
I
cc
FECAL LU
COLi FORMS
.
Q
< 40
> LU
H
>
CC
D 2
20
0
0 5 10 15 20
DAYS
1°C = 5 /9 ( °F - 32 )
FIGURE 12- 11
1 2- 28
FIGURE 12- 12
1 2 . 3.2 . 8 Design E x a m p l e
This d e s i g n e x a m p l e is b a s e d o n a B e l t s v i l i e - t y p e s l u d g e
composting s y s t e m utilizing existing t e c h n o l o g y and available
d e s i g n c r i t e r i a. The example provided is specific to a
1 0 million g a l l o n p e r d a y ( 0 . 4 5 m 3 / s ) m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r
s e c o n d a r y treatment plant.
T h e w e i g h t a n d v o l u m e o f s l u d g e a n d - b u l k i n g a g e n t a t various
points in the process must be k n o w n s o t h a t t h e volumetric flow
capacity o f a composting facility can be determined , The basic
d e s i g n decisions include t h e bulking a g e n t t o s l u d g e ratio and
the ratio o f new t o recycled bulking a g e n t.
S l u d g e t o be c o m p o s t e d is 50 wet t o n s p e r d a y ( 45 t /d )
o f u n d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , seven d a y s p e r w e e k , w i t h n o
digestion.
1 2- 29
• The water content and total weight of the compost
mixture is reduced by approximately 30 to 40 percent
and volatile solids content is reduced by about 10 to
1 5 percent, The density decreases 15 to 20 percent
b e c a u s e o f e v a p o r a t i o n.
• T h e e x t e n d e d a e r a t e d p i l e s y s t e m will b e used .
Information o n t h e b u l k d e n s i t y o f s l u d g e i s s u r p r i s i n g l y scarce .
Tests conducted at Beltsville for an engineering study of a
l a r g e- s c a l e c o m p o s t i n g f a c i l i t y p r o v i d e s o m e b a s i c d a t a o n
t h e b u l k d e n s i t y o f s l u d g e a n d w o o d c h i p b u l k i n g a g e n t s, The
f o l l o w i n g b u l k densities are u s e d in t h i s d e s i g n e x a m p l e ( 2 0 ):
Bulk Density
Pounds per
Constituent cubic y a r d k g/m ^
Dewatered Sludge 1 ,6 0 0 960
( 20 % solids )
I t is a l s o a s s u m e d t h a t t h e p r o c e s s v a r i a b l e s h a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g
v a l u e s:
S l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g will o p e r a t e 5 d a y s p e r w e e k , 8 h o u r s p e r d a y
u s i n g t h e extended a e r a t e d static p i l e m e t h o d , T h e v o l u m e t o b e
c o m p o s t e d p e r w o r k d a y i s a s f o l l o w s:
50 wet tons 7 week-days 70 wet tons per work day ( 63.5 t/work day)
week day 5 work-days
I t is a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e a r r i v e s o n-s i t e 5 d a y s
per week from the dewatering operation which runs only 5 days per
week . Equalization storage to cover weekend operation of the
plant is provided for sludge in the liquid state upstream from
the dewatering process .
1 2- 3 0
The amount of recycled and new wood chips can be calculated using
E q u a t i o n s 1 2- 7 a n d 1 2- 8 a n d a s s u m i n g f ]_ = 0 . 7 5 a n d f 2 = 0 . 2 5 ;
XR = ( 1- 0 . 2 5 )( 0 . 7 5 ) 7 0 = 3 9 . 4 t o n s p e r d a y ( 3 5 . 7 t/d a y ) .
T h e r a t i o W c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g E q u a t i o n 1 2- 2:
9.0
S i n c e W i s l e s s t h a n 1 0, n o a m e n d m e n t a d d i t i o n i s r e q u i r e d.
The daily volume of the compost material is calculated using the
a s s u m e d v a l u e s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d:
Mass Volume
Constituent t o n s/d a y cubic yards/day
Dewatered sludge 70 87.5
New wood chips 13.1 52.4
Recycled wood chips 39.4 131.3
( 5 0 f t )( 1 8 . 5 )( 1 f t ) =
3 4 . 3 c u b i c y a r d s ( 2 6 . 2 m 3 )/d a y
2 1 c u f t/c u y d
U n s c r e e n e d c o m p o s t i s r e q u i r e d e a c h d a y t o c o v e r t h e p i l e.
T h i s l a y e r w i l l b e 1 8 i n c h e s ( 0 . 4 6 m ) t h i c k:
( 5 0 f t ) ( 1 8 . 5 f t )( 1 . 5 f t ) =
5 1 . 4 c u b i c y a r d s ( 3 9 m 3 )/d a y
2 7 c u f t/c u y d
1 2-3 1
Figure 12-13 is the process flow diagram for the extended aerated
pile compost facility and summarizes the design materials
balance. -
UNSCREENED
NEW WOOD
7 COMPOTT
WOOD CHIP
CHIPS PAD
e 5
DRYING COMPOST
EXTENDED AERATED CURING
OF REQUIRED)
MIXING
0^
“
PILE COMPOSTING
Jt DAYS RETENTION 6 DAYS
SCREENING
—0*" AND STORAGE
GO DAYS
RETENTION CAPACITY
I
3 OFF-GAS
o RECYCLED
WOOD CHIPS
4 -
UNDIGEST ED
DEWATERED
SLUDGE
naBxvftaa
FIGURE 12- 13
12-32
feet per minute ( 158 1/s ) will be used to draw air into the pile .
In general , the blower should be rated at a minimum of 150 cubic
feet per hour per wet ton ( 1.3 1/ s/t ) of sludge in the daily
pile. Non-perforated pipe should be used to connect the aeration
pipe loop to the blower. The exhausted air will be filtered in a
pile of screened compost. The filter pile will contain at least
one cubic yard of material per 30 wet tons ( 1 m 3/ 35.5 t ) of
sludge in the daily pile or 4 cubic yards ( 3 m 3 ) for this
design . Figure 12-14 illustrates this design example. The
minimal area requirements for various composting site components
is as follows:
12- 33
PAD AND PIPE BEFORE ADDlTlbM
\ OF WOOD CHIPS AMD COMPOS? CfliiNED COMPOST
yiV$
COVER
PERFORATED * W& ,
AERATION
PIPE
w
\\
/
/
TEE
CONfWECTGR — I.
PILES
1 in = 2.54 cm
FIGURE 12- 14
A l t h o u g h p o r o s i t y i s t h e k e y f a c t o r f o r t h e a e r a t e d p i l e , control
of moisture is important for a successful sludge composting
s y s t e m . T h e s l u d g e s h o u l d b e d e w a t e r e d o r mixed with sufficient
b u l k i n g a g e n t t o obtain e n o u g h p o r o s i t y in t h e c o m p o s t i n g p i l e s
f o r o p t i m u m c o m p o s t i n g conditions. For optimum composting the
c o m p o s t e d mixture s h o u l d h a v e a s o l i d s c o n t e n t o f n o t l e s s t h a n
4 0 p e r c e n t o r m o r e t h a n 5 0 p e r c e n t. F i g u r e 1 2-1 5 s h o w s a c o m p o s t
p i l e a s it i s b e i n g t a k e n d o w n.
T h e b l o w e r s a r e o p e r a t e d i n t e r m i t t e n t l y t o maintain t h e o x y g e n
level i n t h e 5 t o 1 5 p e r c e n t r a n g e and t o obtain a s uniform a
t e m p e r a t u r e a s p o s s i b l e.
1 2- 3 4
FIGURE 12- 15
1 2- 3 5
aeration pipes. Special precautions would be necessary t o k e e p
the centralized aeration piping and p i l e drainage t r e n c h e s from
clogging and t o provide for condensate water drainage.
1 2 . 3. 3 C a s e Studies ( Unconfined S y s t e m s )
1 2-36
yards ( 11 m 3 ) of finished compost are added to the truck along
with the dewatered sludge , The wet and the dry materials are
initially mixed in the truck. Complete mixing is subsequently
provided by a compost turning machine in the windrow , Given the
current consistency of the sludge and the type of equipment used ,
the windrows that can be constructed are about 3 feet ( 0.9 m )
high and 10 feet ( 3.0 m ) wide. Typically , each windrow is about
500 feet ( 451 m ) long and is constructed with eight to ten
truckloads of material . The windrows are placed on sixteen to
eighteen foot ( 14.6 to 16.5 m ) centers , leaving a clear aisle for
the wheels of the turning machine.
irr
I
"
FIGURE 12- 16
-
12 37
t o increase their capacity , a n d sealed bottoms , so that they m a y
be used t o haul w e t c a k e o n p u b l i c r o a d s. A t a p r o d u c t i o n r a t e
of 5 0 0 t o n s per d a y ( 450 t /d a y ) of w e t cake, about 2 5 hours o f
truck time are r e q u i r e d each d a y t o construct windrows , Four
turning machines, each with a rated capacity o f 3 , 4 0 0 tons per
hour ( 3 , 0 8 4 t/ hour ), are available for the o p e r a t i o n. T h e y are
relatively high maintenance items, and generally , o n l y t w o o r
three are o p e r a t e d , With t h e c u r r e n t s l u d g e p r o d u c t i o n and a
composting time o f three weeks, about ten hours o f machine time
are required t o t u r n a l l the windrows each d a y ( 3 2 ).
In addition , t w o loaders are used for loading d r y s l u d g e into t h e
t r u c k s ; one crawler tractor i s used for pushing windrows into
s t o c k p i l e s ; o n e g r a d e r is used f o r r o a d maintenance and cleaning
between the windrows ; and a w a t e r truck is used t o control d u s t
o n t h e p l a n t r o a d s.
1 2- 38
s l u d g e ( approximately 2 0 t o 2 2 p e r c e n t solids ). The sludge is
conditioned with lime and ferric chloride, dewatered a n d loaded
into tractor- trailer d u m p t r u c k s at the treatment p l a n t during
t h e n i g h t. Each t r u c k h o l d s 2 0 w e t t o n s ( 1 8 t ) a n d h a s a
watertight rear door. Depending on the quantity o f s l u d g e t o be
c o m p o s t e d , t h r e e t o six t r u c k s t r a n s p o r t t h e s l u d g e t o t h e
c o m p o s t site in the morning . All o f the s l u d g e is delivered a t
once , which facilitates pile construction.
DRY
6 COMPOST
RECYCLE -
SLUDGE
P# LOADING
I STATION
LANDFILL
I
I
I
I
SOLID'S DRY COMPOSTING
I KELLOGG
SLUDGE STORAGE
PROCESSING 1 n LOADING 2 AND DRYING 4 G
AREA
SUPPLY
FACILITIES OPERATION COMPANY
STATION
3 OFF-GASES
PERCENT
WET TONS PERCENT DRY TONS DENSITY VOLUME VOLATILE
LOCATION PER DAY SOLIDS PER DAY (Ib / cu yd) ( cu yd ) SOLIDS
FIGURE 12- 17
1 2- 39
The composting area for each daily mixture is prepared by laying
out aeration piping on the concrete composting pad and covering
- -
it with a 12 inch ( 0.3 m ) layer of wood chips using a front end
loader. The compost mixture is then placed on the wood chip base
-
using a front end loader. The mixture is piled to a height of
8 feet ( 2.5 m ) , and the top and ends are then capped with an
- -
18 inch ( 0.5 m ) layer of unscreened finished compost or a 12 inch
( 0.3 m ) layer of screened , finished compost. At the end of each
day ' s operation , the side of the pile ( which will have new
material added to it the next day ) is covered with a thin layer
of compost. A pile containing 60 wet tons ( 54 t ) of sludge and
wood chips is approximately 8 feet ( 2.5 m ) high , 12 feet ( 3.6 m )
wide and 75 feet ( 23 m ) long .
To insure proper aeration , a 1/3 horsepower ( 0.25 kW) blower ,
rated at 335 cubic feet per minute ( 158 1/s ) at 5 inches
piping . ^
differential water pressure ( 1.2 kN/ m ) is connected to the
The exhausted air is filtered through a 5 cubic yard
^
( 3.8 m ) filter pile of screened compost for deodorization.
The blower' s is operation is controlled by a timer. Currently ,
blowers are operated for 8 minutes out of every 20 minutes.
-
12 40
Those at the b a s e and at 12 feet ( 4 m ) levels o p e r a t e at negative
p r e s s u r e while t h e pipe a t t h e 6 - foot ( 2 m ) level o p e r a t e s a t
positive pressure . T e s t s are p r e s e n t l y u n d e r w a y t o determine the
m a x i m u m h e i g h t a t w h i c h p i l e s c a n b e built a n d e f f e c t i v e l y
aerated with pipes placed o n l y at the base ( 35 ) .
T h e B e l t s v i l l e s t a f f c o n s i s t s o f e i g h t f u l l- t i m e p e o p l e , t w o
administrative p e r s o n n e l and six o p e r a t o r s, e x c l u d i n g the s l u d g e
transfer truck drivers. This number is more than a c t u a l l y needed
for normal operations , The additional p e r s o n n e l are used f o r
s p e c i a l o p e r a t i o n s a n d t o s u p p o r t t h e r e s e a r c h demonstration
p r o g r a m. E a c h m e m b e r o f t h e o p e r a t i o n s t a f f i s q u a l i f i e d o n
e a c h p i e c e o f e q u i p m e n t a n d t h e s t a f f is a b l e t o p e r f o r m a l l
p r e v e n t i v e maintenance and much o f t h e r e p a i r w o r k , A list o f
equipment is s h o w n on Table 1 2-3. All equipment h a s enclosed
o p e r a t o r cabs so t h a t d u s t and moisture d o not interfere with t h e
equipment o p e r a t o r s.
TABLE 12-3
BELTSVILLE EQUIPMENT ( 15 )
T h e a p p r o x i m a t e m a t e r i a l q u a n t i t i e s u s e d in t h e B e l t s v i l l e
operation are based o n t h e following : annual undigested sludge
c a k e ( with a solids concentration of approximately 2 3 p e r c e n t )
input of 1 5,0 0 0 w e t t o n s ( 1 3,6 0 5 ' t ); ratio o f 2 . 5 :1 wood c h i p
bulking a g e n t t o s l u d g e cake b y volume ; and 5/8 - inch ( 1.5 cm )
screening of a l l c o m p o s t for wood c h i p recovery and r e c y c l e of
75 t o 8 0 p e r c e n t ; the wood c h i p loss/ attrition r a t e at Beltsville
i s c u r r e n t l y a b o u t 4 1 p e r c e n t ( 3 6 ). In this example , the
materials l o s s t h r o u g h composting and curing is estimated .
1 2- 4 1
The building used for test purposes at Beltsville has a concrete
floor with aeration piping built in . Channels 6 inches by
6 inches ( 15 cm x 15 cm ) are recessed in the floor and the
aeration piping is placed into them. The channels run the width
of the building and are spaced 6 feet ( 2 m ) apart along the
length of the building . One end of the piping is connected
to a header system and the other is closed off . One large
blower draws air through the header system , Limited tests have
suggested this arrangement will be proven successful , and a
refined version of this system is being constructed at Durham ,
New Hampshire. The Beltsville structure is approximately 80 feet
( 24 m ) wide and 240 feet ( 73 m ) long . Composting is conducted in
an 80 by 200 foot ( 24 by 61 m ) area and the remainder is an
enclosed and heated equipment storage and maintenance area.
The total area required for composting 3 ,000 cubic yards per year
( 2 , 28 0 mVyear ) of dewatered sludge at 20 percent solids is
about 1.7 acres ( 0.7 ha), Precipitation , runoff , and condensate
from the composting operation are channeled into a drainage ditch
leading to the sanitary sewer line ( Figure 12 18 ).
-
-
The base for the compost pile is prepared using 7 foot ( 2 m )
lengths of perforated schedule 40 steel pipe , joined together by
short pieces of plastic pipe . The city found that the short
-
12 42
lengths of s t e e l pipe can be r e m o v e d from the p i l e without
significant damage and reused m a n y times . L o n g e r pipes were used
previously but were easily bent when pulled from the pile.
TABLE 12- 4
-
Total , excluding off site 512,570 469 ,551 291,801 581,050
compost.
CIncludes screening performed by outside contract , screening
now performed on site.
dWhen this analysis was conducted a wood chip attrition rate of
20 percent was used . 1979 analysis indicates that an actual value
of 41 percent should be used for wood chip attrition. ( 36 )
1 ton = 0.907 t
1 2- 43
t — DRAINAGE DITCH FENCE
Q COMPOST PILES
\
.f- fjr~
UNSCREENED COMPOST STORAGE
y.
A
1
C i 0! E F wV
£ /
/
MIXING ^
9 SC R E EN E D COMPOST STO Ft AG E SC R EEN ^
\
O UTILITY POLE MANHOLE TO SANITARY SEWER
— BLOWER HOUSING
*
BARK STORAGE *- WATER TRAP
FIGURE 12- 18
Unstabilized s l u d g e i s n o t s t o r e d a t t h e c o m p o s t s i t e .
Generally , operations are scheduled so that sludge is dewatered
and a c o m p o s t pile is constructed once a week. The exact d a y of
pile construction is varied depending on weather conditions. The
1 2-44
city has been able to compost nearly all of the sludge produced,
b e c a u s e it i s p r e p a r e d t o c o n s t r u c t t h e c o m p o s t p i l e d u r i n g g o o d
w e a t h e r.
A Lindig r o t a r y d r u m screen i s used t o s e p a r a t e c o m p o s t p r i o r t o
d i s t r i b u t i o n. T h e d r u m i s p r e s e n t l y f i t t e d w i t h a o n e- i n c h
( 2 . 5 c m ) mesh screen , C i t y p e r s o n n e l a r e planning t o construct
a 5/8 - inch ( 1 . 6 c m ) s c r e e n a s s e m b l y s o t h a t either size material
c a n b e p r o d u c e d. T e s t s p e r f o r m e d a t B a n g o r indicate t h a t t h e
s c r e e n is c a p a b l e o f handling a b o u t 2 0 t o 2 5 cubic y a r d s p e r h o u r
^
( 1 5 t o 1 9 m /h r ) o f feed u n d e r t h e b e s t conditions , Compost is
p u t in t h e s c r e e n with a f r o n t l o a d e r. O n e l o a d e r o p e r a t o r a n d a
l a b o r e r a r e r e q u i r e d during s c r e e n i n g o p e r a t i o n s.
Currently, operations at Bangor are performed by treatment
plant personnel under the direction of the treatment plant
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t. T h e r e a r e n o f u l l - t i m e c o m p o s t i n g p e r s o n n e l
because of t h e cyclical n a t u r e of t h e o p e r a t i o n s. A p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 1 m a n-h o u r s p e r w e e k are r e q u i r e d f o r a t r u c k d r i v e r t o deliver
a n d u n l o a d s l u d g e a t t h e s i t e. S a m p l i n g a n d m o n i t o r i n g f o r
t e m p e r a t u r e and o x y g e n c o n t e n t r e q u i r e 1 0 m a n- h o u r s p e r w e e k .
P a t h o g e n and h e a v y m e t a l s m o n i t o r i n g i s p e r f o r m e d u n d e r c o n t r a c t
with the University of Maine. Supervision and administration
r e q u i r e a b o u t 1 5 m a n-h o u r s p e r w e e k. A n n u a l e q u i p m e n t and l a b o r
r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e s h o w n in T a b l e 1 2- 5. The equipment used for
composting operations i s s h o w n in Table 1 2- 6. This e q u i p m e n t is
p r o v i d e d b y t h e c i t y m o t o r p o o l and i s available f o r c o m p o s t i n g
w h e n needed .
TABLE 12- 5
Labor , Equipment ,
Operation hours hours
Composting
labor 572
front loader 468
Sludge hauling
labor 468
truck 468
Monitoring
labor 520
pickup 520
Administration
labor 780
Screening (8 ,000 cubic yards)
labor 1 , 040
screen 520
front loader 520
Maintenance
labor 100
* .i
3
1 cu yd = 0.76 m
1 2- 4 5
TABLE 12- 6
BANGOR EQUIPMENT ( 5 )
3
1 cu yd = 0.76 ni
A p p r o x i m a t e m a t e r i a l s q u a n t i t i e s f o r 1 9 7 6 a r e s h o w n in
T a b l e 1 2- 7. T h i s i s b a s e d o n a n a n n u a l s l u d g e i n p u t o f
3 , 0 0 0 cubic y a r d s ( 2, 2 8 0 m 3 ) and a mixture o f three p a r t s bulking
a g e n t t o one part s l u d g e.
TABLE 12- 7
1 ton = 0.907 t ,
1 cu yd = 0.76 in
1 lb/cu yd = 0.6 kg/m ^
12.3.3.4 Durham , N e w Hampshire
D u r h a m , N e w H a m p s h i r e, p r o v i d e s p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t t o
approximately 1 M G D ( 4 4 1/s ) o f wastewater. About 1 5 wet t o n s
( 13.6 t ) of unstabilzed , dewatered , primary s l u d g e ( 2 0 p e r c e n t
s o l i d s ) is p r o d u c e d each w e e k . T h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t is b e i n g
upgraded t o s e c o n d a r y treatment capability, and this is expected
t o double the quantity o f s l u d g e generated.
1 2- 46
"‘»1
Estimated c o s t o f t h e c o m p o s t f a c i l i t y w a s 6 5 8 , 0 0 0
dollars, o f which Durham , by virtue o f state and Federal
funding , would pay approximately 3 3 , 000 d o l l a r s.
T h e n e w c o m p o s t i n g f a c i l i t y i n c o r p o r a t e s m a n y innovations
t h a t reduce operation and maintenance p r o b l e m s. It should be
recognized that since there a r e m a n y innovations in this design
t h a t t h e y a r e n o t a p r o v e n t e c h n o l o g y. T h e c o m p o s t i n g a n d
all o t h e r o u t d o o r operations will t a k e place o n a concrete pad
which is easier t o c l e a n than a g r a v e l b a s e , p r e v e n t s r o c k s from
m i x i n g with t h e c o m p o s t , and is a b e t t e r y e a r - r o u n d w o r k i n g
surface. The pad is sloped t o allow runoff collection from the
c o m p o s t piles. T h e runoff is recycled t o the t r e a t m e n t plant t o
provide protection for t h e surrounding land and s t r e a m s. The pad
is 250 x 1 5 2 feet ( 76 x 46 m ) , and is spacious enough for t h e
screening operation.
T h e a e r a t i o n p i p e s a r e p l a c e d in t r i a n g u l a r t r o u g h s 6 inches
( 1 5 cm ) d e e p which are recessed below the pad surface and covered
with an aluminum grating , flush with t h e pad . O n c e the aeration
pipe is in p l a c e , wood chips a r e used t o fill u p t h e remaining
s p a c e in t h e t r o u g h under the g r a t e s , It is anticipated that
c h i p s d i r e c t l y under the grating will b e changed o c c a s i o n a l l y ,
but the pipe will be used for an extended period o f time , T h e
s l u d g e - w o o d c h i p mixture will t h e n b e p l a c e d d i r e c t l y o n t h e
c o n c r e t e pad o v e r t h e g r a t e s w i t h o u t a n y w o o d c h i p base .
Figure 1 2-1 9 s h o w s a cross section of an aeration t r o u g h with t h e
aeration pipe.
1 2- 47
A 4 - f o o t r e t a i n i n g w a l l w i l l b e built a l o n g t h e e d g e o f t h e
c o m p o s t i n g area o f t h e p a d . This wall will be constructed t o
p r o t e c t t h e blowers which will b e located o n t h e side a w a y from
t h e c o m p o s t i n g o p e r a t i o n a n d t o p r o v i d e a p o s i t i v e b a c k s t o p for
f r o n t loader o p e r a t i o n s.
ALUMINUM
GRATE t CONCRETE PAD
o
i
w
0
&
A « . & m
Q • -
* m
FIGURE 12- 19
T h e s l u d g e processing b u i l d i n g o f t h e n e w s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t will b e p l a c e d a d j a c e n t t o t h e c o m p o s t i n g p a d . Primary
a n d w a s t e - a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e s w i l l b e mixed t o g e t h e r p r i o r t o
coil vacuum filter dewatering to provide for more consistent
o p e r a t i o n. T h e m i x i n g t a n k s f o r b o t h p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y
s l u d g e will b e l o c a t e d in t h i s b u i l d i n g a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n d i-
tioning chemicals, chemical feed e q u i p m e n t a n d coil filters. T o
provide flexibility in operation, the new plant will have a
o n e - w e e k l i q u i d s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y f o r b o t h activated s l u d g e
and p r i m a r y s l u d g e.
A f t e r t h e s l u d g e i s d e w a t e r e d , a p u g mill will mix it w i t h w o o d
c h i p s f e d f r o m a h o p p e r. A c o n v e y o r b e l t w i l l t r a n s p o r t t h e
c o m p o s t m i x t u r e f r o m t h e b u i l d i n g f o r p i c k-u p b y t h e l o a d e r
and placement on the pad . T h e m i x i n g o p e r a t i o n is c o n d u c t e d
inside t h e building t o p r o t e c t t h e o p e r a t i o n f r o m t h e w e a t h e r.
Coil filter personnel will operate the mixing process, thus
m i n i m i z i n g p e r s o n n e l r e q u i r e m e n t s.
Screening will be executed using a Lindig Rotary Screener
with a material t h r o u g h p u t capacity o f 2 8 0 t o 4 0 0 c u b i c y a r d s
p e r d a y ( 2 1 3 t o 3 0 4 m / d a y ).^ Screening capacity exceeds
p r o d u c t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t s, s o t h a t t h e s c r e e n n e e d s t o b e run o n l y
p a r t o f t h e time . This frees the screen and loader operators
t o u n d e r t a k e o t h e r t a s k s.
Storage bins for the composted material and chips will be
p l a c e d d i r e c t l y a g a i n s t t h e c o m p o s t i n g p a d s u c h t h a t the t o p o f
t h e bins a r e e v e n with t h e p a d . T h e r e will b e f o u r bins with a
1 2- 4 8
capacity o f 1 , 2 0 0 y a r d s ( 9 1 2 m 3 ) each , T h r e e of t h e bins will
be u s e d for s t o r i n g c o m p o s t a n d o n e bin for t h e s t o r a g e o f w o o d
chips. A s the c o m p o s t e d material is screened o n t h e composting
pad , t h e c o m p o s t will d r o p into the bins for storage and curing .
A conveyor will collect the wood c h i p s and return them to the
fourth bin for s t o r a g e. The screen can be shifted t o link the
c o m p o s t pile being dismantled with a s t o r a g e bin ( 3 1 ).
1 2- 4 9
be generalized , and the type of composting systems used , aerated
pile or windrow , will largely influence the capital cost. The
replacement cost of the equipment can be a large portion of the
capital cost. The largest capital cost is usually the compost
pad . The capital cost for all equipment and structures at Durham
is estimated to be about $ 600 , 000. Durham' s annualized cost is
anticipated to be $ 80 per dry ton ( $ 88/t ) for capital and $ 60 per
dry ton ( $ 66/1 ) for operating . This makes the total annual cost
for sludge composting at Durham $ 140.00 per dry ton ( $ 154/t ).
This facility is highly mechanized and may represent one of the
most capital- intensive composting operations. The operation at
Bangor , however , utilizes a portion of an abondoned taxi way and
uses the individual pile composting method . The capital costs
for this facility are estimated at about $ 10 to $ 15 per dry ton
( $ 11 to $ 16/ t ).
Except for wood chips and labor , the best approach for estimating
annual operating costs for design purposes is to determine
the costs from a similar compost facility operating in the
same geographic area , Wood chip and labor costs must be
determined for the specific site , Capital costs are best
developed and annualized for the specific site chosen for the
facility .
TABLE 12- 8
Percent of
Dollars/yr Dollars/dry ton operating cost
Operations b
Wood chips at $3.5 Q/cu yd 35 ,000 9.60 23
Plastic pipe 12 , 200 3.34 8
Gasoline 2.300 0.63 1
Diesel 5.300 1.45 4
Electricity 1,500 0.41 1
Equipment maintenance 8.400 2.30 6
Equipment insurance 1.400 2.30 6
Pad , road maintenance 1, 200 0.33 0.5
Water/sewer 500 0.14 0.5
Labor 77 ,500 21.23 52
Miscellaneous supplies 4 , 400 1.20 3
12- 50
12.4 Confined Composting S y s t e m
Meehanical c o m p o s t i n g is a c c o m p l i s h e d inside a n e n c l o s e d
container or basin. Mechanical s y s t e m s are designed t o minimize
odors and process time by controlling environmental conditions
s u c h a s air flow, t e m p e r a t u r e , and o x y g e n concentration .
1 2 . 4.1 Description o f P r o c e s s
The primary differences a m o n g mechanical composting s y s t e m s a r e
in t h e m e t h o d s o f p r o c e s s c o n t r o l . S o m e p r o v i d e a e r a t i o n b y
tumbling or dropping the material from one floor t o the next.
Others use devices which stir the composting mass. Tumbling the
c o m p o s t in a rotating c y l i n d e r is another a p p r o a c h . I n addition ,
an endless belt is used t o combine forced bottom aeration and
s t i r r i n g . W a t e r is a d d e d t o t h e c o m p o s t i n g m a s s a t critical
times t o increase biological activity in some mechanical s y s t e m s.
A l s o, s o m e m e c h a n i c a l c o m p o s t e r s c a n i n t r o d u c e h e a t t o t h e
composting mass t o k e e p the composting reaction continuing a t t h e
optimum r a t e during c o o l weather.
T h e brief detention times which equipment manufacturers s p e c i f y
for mechanical c o m p o s t e r s d o not a l l o w adequate stabilization o f
t h e s l u d g e. If s h o r t e r detention times are provided , a t w o- t o
three- month maturation period will be necessary t o reduce the
remaining volatile m a t t e r . T h u s, the a m o u n t of time and total
area required for mechanical processes approaches that for
unconfined processes. Mechanical p r o c e s s e s a r e more capital -
intensive t h a n unconfined p r o c e s s e s , Currently only a few
m e c h a n i c a l c o m p o s t i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e o p e r a t i n g in t h e United
S t a t e s a n d t h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y u s e d t o c o m p o s t a mixture o f
r e f u s e a n d wastewater s l u d g e. A schematic o f a t y p i c a l confined
composting process is s h o w n o n Figure 1 2- 2 0.
F i g u r e 1 2- 2 2 s h o w s a t y p i c a l l a y o u t o f a D a n o Bio- Stabi 1 i z e r
p l a n t. The process makes use of a large, slowly rotating
1 2- 51
d r u m,
Material
the interior of which i s equipped with vanes or baffles
i s injected into one end of the machine, rotated
.
s l o w l y f o r one t o t h r e e days, and e j e c t e d from t h e o p p o s i t e end
A e r a t i o n i s a c c c o m p l i s h e d b y t u m b l i n g a c t i o n,
.
Air is injected
into the interior of the drum to insure a constant supply of
oxygen .
WASTEWATER
SLUDGE
MIXING
i
BULKING
AGENT
MECHANICAL
COMPOSTER
( REACTOR !
HEAT
( IF REQUIRED )
AIR
f
SCREENING
I
CURING
FINISHED
PRODUCT
FIGURE 12- 20
1 2- 5 2
The " maturation " or " curing " period for a D a n o Bio Stabilizer
c a n b e r e d u c e d t o o n e m o n t h if t h e m a t e r i a l i s t u r n e d
occasionally ( 9 ). The Dano process is g e n e r a l l y designed for
refuse composting with sludge addition .
TRIPPER AG I LOADER
V\
M
\
//
55 \N
1
\\S
PERFORATED
ZONING FLOOR
FIGURE 12 - 21
PARTIAL DIAGRAM
METRO - WASTE SYSTEM -
RESOURCE CONVERSION SYSTEMS , INC .
1 2- 53
design s t a g e s ; Switzerland has nine ; France has five ; t h e United
K i n g d o m h a s o n e ; I t a l y a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s h a v e n o n e. T h e s e
s y s t e m s are located where wastewater sludge is the p r e d o m i n a n t
waste c o m p o n e n t u s u a l l y mixed with municipal solid w a s t e , The
number o f sludge-o n l y composting s y s t e m s are few.
CONVEYOR FOR
PULVERIZED
CONVEYOR FOR MATERIALS
REJECTS \ \
N AIR SUPPLY
EXHAUST AIR TO
SOIL FILTER
HAUL AWAY
MATURING IN
WINDROWS
ADDITION OF SEWAGE
SLUOGE OR WATER
* HAUL AWAY
SCREEN RESIDUE
HAUL AWAY
INDUSTRIAL AND CINDERS
BULKY WASTES AND ASHES
INCINERATOR
FIGURE 12- 22
T h e f e a s i b i l i t y o f c o m p o s t i n g w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e mixed with
a b u l k i n g a g e n t is established in E u r o p e , but t h e f u t u r e o f
general composting technology in E u r o p e a p p e a r s t o d e p e n d o n the
market economics and continued public a c c e p t a n c e , rather t h a n o n
technological i m p r o v e m e n t s.
The p r e d o m i n a n t e x p e r i e n c e in E u r o p e h a s b e e n with e n c l o s e d
m e c h a n i c a l s y s t e m s. T h i s is p r i m a r i l y a r e s u l t o f a t t e m p t s
to minimize c o m p o s t facility area requirements, Table 1 2-9 lists
t h e various o p e r a t i n g E u r o p e a n w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e c o m p o s t i n g
p r o c e s s e s.
1 2- 54
*
—
" "essHsasix
'
'
without additives , h a s a l o w p o r o s i t y w h i c h i m p e d e s n a t u r a l
aeration. S t r o n g , o b j e c t i o n a b l e o d o r s d e v e l o p e d , a n d c a u s e d a l l
attempts to be abandoned , T h e f o l l o w i n g illustrates r e c e n t
composting experiences, in G e r m a n y , the United Kingdom , Sweden ,
and Switzerland ( 38 ).
West Germany
United Kingdom
A s o f 1 9 7 8 , o n l y one operating p l a n t located at W a n l i p, near
L e i c e s t e r , i s c o m p o s t i n g w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e in t h e United
Kingdom. Although 10 t o 1 5 years a g o, municipal solid waste
( M S W ) composting in D a n o rotating d r u m s was common , m o s t o f
t h e p l a n t s using these have shut d o w n. In 1974 , t h e W a n l i p
p l a n t reopened , and it now processes 1 , 100 t o n s ( 1 ,0 0 0 t ) o f
MSW mixed with 551 t o n s ( 5 0 0 t o n n e s ) of digested w a s t e w a t e r
s l u d g e ( five p e r c e n t s o l i d s ) each w e e k , The product,
packaged under the brand - name , " L e s c o s t ," is marketed with
some success throughout Great Britain.
Sweden
In 1 9 7 5 , t h e Swedish parliament passed a resolution which
emphasizes recycling through better soTid waste management.
With this resolution , 2 0 Swedish communities or regions are
planning , o r are in t h e p r o c e s s of constructing , composting
p l a n t s. At p r e s e n t , l e s s t h a n o n e p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l
MSW and wastewater sludge produced is recycled by a
composting technique. According t o r e c e n t estimates b y t h e
Swedish National Protection Board , in the next t w o y e a r s
approximately seven percent of the total MSW and wastewater
sludge produced will be recycled by composting methods .
1 2- 55
Switzerland
C u r r e n t l y , there are nine composting p l a n t s in Switzerland ,
t h e n e w e s t o f which w e n t into o p e r a t i o n in 1 9 7 5 in Biel .
All but one , in Uzwel , mix sewage sludge with MSW. In most
cases, incineration and composting equipment are located side
by side , T h e c o m p o s t i n g o p e r a t i o n is u s e d t o d i s p o s e o f
s e w a g e s l u d g e. T h e incinerator b u r n s m o s t o f t h e municipal
w a s t e a n d t h e r e j e c t s f r o m t h e c o m p o s t i n g installation .
N e a r l y a l l the p l a n t s use the D a n o s y s t e m for composting .
T h e a u x i l i a r y mechanical m a c h i n e r y , such a s hammermills ,
c o n v e y o r s and screens, is u s u a l l y produced b y Buehler.
MIXTURE TO BE OOMPCSTEO
w*
SCREW- TYPE
CONVEYER
‘
7
A A j
AIR
\ /
I
COMPOST DISCHARGE
FIGURE 12- 23
BAV BIOREACTOR
1 2- 56
1
"N«6U«r/ A
TABLE 12- 9
EUROPEAN WASTEWATER SLUDGE COMPOSTING PROCESSES ( 38 )
Number of
Category Process operating plants
Within vessel BAV 19
Carel Fouche Languenin 1
Roediger/Fermenttechnik 1
Schnorr Valve Cell 2
Societe General
D * assainissement et de
Distribution ( SGDA) 1
Triga 2
We i ss 3
Windrow -
BIO Manure
Hazemag
1
PLM
Rotating drum Buehler 9
Dano 9
HKS 2
Pressed brick Brikollare 2
Fermentation cells Prat 1
-- .
V 'WU «M < »
'
12.6 References
1. Satriana , M .J . Large Scale Composting . Noyes Data
Corporation, Park Ridge , NJ. 1974.
2. ..
Willson, G.B. and J M Walker .
"Composting Sewage Sludge,
How?" Compost Science Journal of Waste Recycling.
-
September October (1973 ) .
P 30.
-
3. Epstein , E. and G.B. Willson. " Composting Raw Sludge. "
Proc. 1975 National Conference on Municipal Sludge
Management and Disposal. Information Transfer Inc. P 245.
August 1974. -
4. Epstein , E • / G.B . Willson , W.D. Burge , D.C. Mullen , and
N.K . Enkiri. " A Forced Aeration System for Composting
Wastewater Sludge." Journal Water Pollution Control
5. USEPA.
-
Federation. P 6 88 , Vol. 48, No. V. April 1976.
" Composting Sewage Sludge by High Rate Suction -
Aeration Techniques." Office of Solid Waste. Washington,
DC 10460. -
Interim report SW 614d. 1977.
6 . Wolf , R. " Mechanized Sludge Composting at Durham , New
Hampshire." Compost Science Journal of Waste Recycling,
P
-25. November December 1977.
-
7. Heaman, J. "Windrow Composting -
A Commercial Possibility
for Sewage Sludge Disposal." Water and Pollution Control.
-
P 14. January 1975 .
-
12 57
8. E h r e t h , D .J . a n d J . M . W a l k e r , "T h e R o l e o f C o m p o s t i n g
a n d O t h e r B e n e f i c i a l U s e O p t i o n s in M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e
M a n a g e m e n t. " P r o c. N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n C o m p o s t i n g
o f M u n i c i p a l R e s i d u e s a n d S l u d g e s. P 6. I n f o r m a t i o n
T r a n s f e r, I n c. , Rockville, M D. A u g u s t 1 9 7 7. -
9. G o l u e k e , C .G . B i o l o g i c a l R e c l a m a t i o n o f S o l i d W a s t e s.
R o d a l e P r e s s, E m m a u s, PA. 1 9 7 7.
10 . E p s t e i n , E . a n d J .F . P a r r . "Utilization of Composted
M u n i c i p a l W a s t e s." P r o c. National C o n f e r e n c e o n C o m p o s t i n g
o f M u n i c i p a l R e s i d u e s a n d S l u d g e s . P 4 9. I n f o r m a t i o n
T r a n s f e r, I n c., R o c k v i l l e, M D. A u g u s t 1 9 7 7.-
1 1. J e l e n e k , C . F • / F . B . R e a d , a n d G . L. B r a u d e . "H e a l t h
P e r s p e c t i v e, U s e o f M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e o n L a n d . " P r o c.
N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n C o m p o s t i n g o f M u n i c i p a l Residues a n d
S l u d g e s. ] ?! 2 7. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r, I n c., Rockville, M D.
" ”
A u g u s t 1 9 7 7.
1 7. Haug , R .T . , a n d L. A . H a u g . "S l u d g e C o m p o s t i n g: A
Discussion o f E n g i n e e r i n g P r i n c i p l e s," P a r t s 1 & 2. C o m p o s t
S c i e n c e/L a n d U t i l i z a t i o n J o u r n a l o f W a s t e R e c y c l i n g .
N o v e m b e r- D e c e m b e r ( 1 9 7 7 ) a n d J a n u a r y- F e b r u a r y. 1 9 7 8.
1 8. Colacicco, D. " A C o s t C o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e A e r a t e d P i l e a n d
W i n d r o w M e t h o d s." P r o c. National C o n f e r e n c e o n Composting
M u n i c i p a l R e s i d u e s a n d S l u d g e s. P • 1 5 4. Informa tion
T r a n s f e r , The • f Rockville, M D. A u g u s t 1 9 7 7.
1 2- 5 8
1 9. S h u v a 1 , H . I. "Nightsoil Composting State of the Art
and Research P i l o t S t u d y N e e d s ." Research Working
P a p e r S e r i e s , P. U. r e p o r t R E S 1 2 , I n t e r n a t i o n a l B a n k f o r
Reconstruction a n d D e v e l o p m e n t , W a s h i n g t o n , D C . N o v e m b e r
1 9 7 7.
20. S m i t h , D . a n d M . W. S e l n a . P a t h o g e n I n a c t i v a t i o n D u r i n g
S l u d g e C o m p o s t i n g. I n t e r n a l R e p o r t s, C o u n t y S a n i t a t i o n
Districts o f L o s A n g e l e s. S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 6 , F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7.
21. B u r g e , W.D. " Occurrence of Pathogens and Microbial
A l l e r g e n s i n t h e S e w a g e C o m p o s t i n g E n v i r o n m e n t ." P r o c.
N a t i o n a l C o n f e r e n c e o n C o m p o s t i n g o f M u n i c i p a l Residues a n d
S l u d g e s. I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r , I n c., R o c k v i l l e , M D. A u g u s t
1 9 7 7.
22 . 0 1 v e r , W. M . J r • f " T h e L i f e a n d T i m e s o f A s p e r g i l l ujs
fumigatus." C o m p o s t Science/ Land Utilization. March - April
1 9 7 9.
2 3. B u r g e , W.D • / P.B. M a r c h , a n d P.D. M i l l n e r. " O c c u r r e n c e o f
Pathogens and Microbial Allergens in the Sewage Sludge
C o m p o s t i n g E n v i r o n m e n t." P r o c. 1 9 7 7 National C o n f e r e n c e o n
C o m p o s t i n g o f M u n i c i p a l Residues a n d S l u d g e s. Information
T r a n s f e r , I n c., Rockville , M D. 1 9 7 8.
2 4. Slueski , S. " B u i l d i n g P u b l i c S u p p o r t f o r a C o m p o s t P l a n t."
C o m p o s t Science/ L a n d Utilization. V o l. 1 9 , P 1 0. 1 9 7 8.
-
2 5. S o l o m o n , W . R . , H . P . B u r g e , a n d J . R. B o i s e . " Airborne
Aspergillus fumigatus Levels Outside and Within a Large
ClTnTcal C e n t e r." J o u r n a l A l l e r g y C l i n i c a l I m m u n o l o g y.
V o l. 6 2, p. 5 6. 1 9 7 8.
2 6. S c h w a r t z , H.J ., K . M. C i t r o n , E . H . C h e s t e r , J . K a i m a l ,
P. Barlow , G.L. B a u m , and M.R. S c h u y l e r. " A Comparison o f
the Prevalence of Sensitization to Aspergi11 us Antigens
A m o n g Asthmatics i n C l e v e l a n d a n d L o n d o n/” J o u r n a l A l l e r g y
C l i n i c a l I m m u n o l o g y. Vol. 6 2, P 9. 1 9 7 8.
-
27. Slavin , R.G. " W h a t D o e s A F u n g u s A m o n g U s R e a l l y M e a n? "
J o u r n a l A l l e r g y Clinical I m m u n o l o g y. Vol . 6 2, P * 7. 1 9 7 8.
2 8. E p s t e in , E. "Composting Sewage Sludge at Beltsville,
Maryland " . P r o c. of L a n d A p p l i c a t i o n o f Residual Materials
E n g i n e e r i n g , Foundation C o n f e r e n c e . Publishing ASCE. N e w
Y o r k, NY . October 1976 .
2 9. U S E P A. S l u d g e H a n d l i n g a n d Conditioning . Office of Water
Program O p e r a t i o n s. W a s h i n g t o n , D C 1 0 4 6 0 . E P A 4 3 0/9 -7 8 -
0 0 2. F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8 .
3 0. Kalinske , A.A. " S t u d y o f S l u d g e D i s p o s a l Alternatives f o r
t h e N e w Y o r k - N e w J e r s e y M e t r o p o l i t a n A r e a." P a p e r p r e s e n t e d
a t 4 8 t h W a t e r Pollution C o n t r o l Federation Conference , Miami
B e a c h , F l o r i d a . O c t o b e r 1 9 7 5.
1 2- 5 9
3 1. C r o m b i e , G. " M e c h a n i z e d F o r c e d A e r a t i o n C o m p o s t i n g f o r
Durham , N e w H a m p s h i r e ". T o w n o f D u r h a m. 1 9 7 8.
3 2. Horvath , R.W. " Operating and Design Criteria for Windrow
Composting o f S l u d g e." P r o c. National Conference on Design
o f M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e C o m p o s t F a c i l i t i e s. I n formation
T r a n s f e r , I n c • Rockville , M D. A u g u s t 1 9 7 8.
/
3 3. C a m p, D r e s s e r and M c K e e , I n c. Alternative S l u d g e D i s p o s a l
S y s t e m s f o r t h e D i s t r i c t o f Columbia W a t e r Pollution P l a n t
a t Blue Plains, District o f Columbia. Unpublished r e p o r t
prepared for the Department of Environmental Services
District o f Columbia, D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 5.
34. C o l a c i c c o , D • E. E p s t e i n , G . B. W i l l s o n , J .F . P a r r , a n d
/
L. A. C h r i s t e n s e n. " C o s t o f S l u d g e C o m p o s t i n g ". U S D A ,
Agricultural R e s e a r c h Service , ARS- NE- 7 9. Washington , DC.
F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 7.
3 7. R e s o u r c e Conversion S y s t e m s, I n c • / C o m p a n y P r o c e s s B r o c h u r e ,
H o u s t o n , T e x a s. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 7.
1 2- 6 0
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
structure of the solids ; a monolithic solid is much less subject
to leaching than is a g r a n u l a r solid . However , monolithic solids
may deteriorate if exposed t o wet -dry or freeze-thaw cycles ( 11 ).
Leaching t e s t s t o estimate long - t e r m weathering resistance
of the fixed solids are still being formulated ( 12 ). It should
be emphasized that the information p r e s e n t e d in this paragraph
was derived from experience with sludges of an industrial origin.
Experience with municipal sludges may be similar t o that with
some industrial ones.
TABLE 13- 1
Additive
quantity ,
Vendor Process Additives percent References
(nonproprietary) -
Flyash limestone Fly ash
Limestone
4
Registered -
trademarks. Process is in full scale use on hazardous
industrial sludge or flue gas desulfurization sludge or both.
bAdditive as percent by weight of dry sludge solids for flue gas
-
desulfurization sludge and fly ash at coal burning power plants.
CBench scale tests.
dAdditive as a percent of dry sludge solids.
• A v a i l a b i l i t y o f f l y ash . S o m e p r o c e s s e s u s e f l y ash
t o reduce the need for other chemicals.
13- 2
Volume and mass of sludge t o be treated .
Physical p r o p e r t i e s required for the fixed sludge , A
g r a n u l a r p r o d u c t t e n d s t o cost less than a monolithic
product , for e x a m p l e.
13.3 Encapsulation P r o c e s s
Encapsulation is the encasing o f sludge in a n impervious , d u r a b l e
material. Encapsulation p r o c e s s e s a r e expensive t o employ b u t
are a u s e f u l t r e a t m e n t alternative w h e n t h e s l u d g e contains
significant concentrations of leachable toxic materials , A s with
fixation p r o c e s s e s , there is little r e p o r t e d experience for t h e
s y s t e m with municipal s l u d g e s , The information p r e s e n t e d h e r e
h a s b e e n obtained f r o m e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n d u s t r i a l l y derived
sludges. T w o e x a m p l e s of encapsulation p r o c e s s e s are discussed
below.
1 3 . 3.1 Polyethylene P r o c e s s
1 3- 3
• T h e s l u d g e m u s t b e in a t h o r o u g h l y d r y f o r m s u c h a s
e i t h e r s l u d g e i n c i n e r a t o r a s h o r h e a t - d r i e d s l u d g e.
A s p h a l t m a y b e u s e d t o e n c a p s u l a t e w a s t e s, I n t h i s p r o c e s s ,
t h e w a s t e i s mixed with a s p h a l t a t 3 0 0 ° F ( 1 5 0°C ) in s u c h a w a y
t h a t e a c h individual p a r t i c l e i s c o a t e d w i t h a s p h a l t , Moisture
is r e m o v e d a s s t e a m. T h e c o a t e d p a r t i c l e s a r e t h e n p l a c e d in
5 5- g a l l o n ( 2 0 8 1 ) d r u m s o r o t h e r c o n t a i n e r s w h e r e t h e y c o o l
and f o r m a solid , n o n p o r o u s m a s s , T h e e n c a p s u l a t e d p r o d u c t is
h i g h l y resistant t o leaching , mechanical d a m a g e , a n d bacterial
a t t a c k. A b o u t o n e p o u n d o f a s p h a l t is r e q u i r e d f o r e a c h p o u n d o f
d r y solids ( 1 5 ).
A s p h a l t e n c a p s u l a t i o n h a s b e e n u s e d in E u r o p e o n medium -level
radioactive w a s t e s since 1 9 6 5. T h e r e i s little United S t a t e s
o p e r a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e , b u t E u r o p e a n e x p e r i e n c e m a k e s it p o s s i b l e
to estimate costs for wastewater sludge a p p l i c a t i o n s. An
installation with a c a p a c i t y of five h u n d r e d 5 5-g a l l o n ( 2 0 8 1 )
d r u m s p e r y e a r could h a n d l e a b o u t 8 4 t o n s ( 7 6 t ) o f d r y s l u d g e
solids p e r y e a r . Capital and operating c o s t s are estimated at
$ 1 . 4 5 million and $ 6 2 , 0 0 0 p e r y e a r , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a t 1 9 7 7 U.S.
p r i c e l e v e l s. A m o r t i z i n g c a p i t a l o v e r t w e n t y y e a r s a t 7 p e r c e n t ,
the total cost is about $ 2,400 per ton dry solids processed
( $ 2 ,6 0 0/ t ). This cost includes encapsulation machinery and
associated b u i l d i n g s p a c e , d r u m s , d r u m s t o r a g e , a s p h a l t , s t e a m ,
c o o l i n g w a t e r , a n d o p e r a t i n g l a b o r. It does not include
e n g i n e e r i n g ( e x c e p t f o r e n g i n e e r i n g p e r f o r m e d b y the e q u i p m e n t
s u p p l i e r ) , s l u d g e dewatering which p r e c e d e s t h e encapsulation
p r o c e s s, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d d i s p o s a l o f t h e f i n i s h e d p r o d u c t ,
treatment of contaminated steam that might be produced , or
m a i n t e n a n c e. Possibly, cost savings can be obtained from
economies of scale and l e s s rigorous conditions t h a n t h o s e at
n u c l e a r p o w e r p l a n t s.
13.4 E a r t h w o r m Conversion P r o c e s s
1 3 . 4 .1 Process Arrangement
1 3- 4
and dewatered sludge is put into the beds , although experiments
a r e u n d e r w a y , where raw l i q u i d s l u d g e is p l a c e d in beds. If
anaerobic digestion is used p r i o r t o earthworm conversion ,
additional p r e t r e a t m e n t may be needed , A bulking a g e n t such as
wood chips may be useful in some cases for keeping the bed porous
and aerobic , especially if moisture is high . Sludge is, however ,
g e n e r a l l y a p p l i e d without a n y bulking a g e n t . A worm bed m a y
take the form of a simple t r a y. Windrows similar t o those for
composting may also be used . After the worms have consumed the
sludge , they must be separated from the castings. This may be
done with an earthworm harvester , a drum screen that rotates on
a n e a r l y horizontal axis. Castings fall through the screen
openings while w o r m s tumble t h r o u g h the l e n g t h of t h e drum.
Table 13- 2 contains some critical operational p a r a m e t e r s for the
earthworm conversion process.
MAKE -UP
EARTHWORMS
BULKING AGEJfT
IIP REQUIRED
Af ft061-CALL V
-
DIGESTED SLUDGE
DEWATERING MIXFH
CASTIHQZ
FOP LAND
WO HM (EARTHWORM
BULKING AGENT HARVESTER UTILISATION
BIDS
ANAEROBICALLY
DIGESTED
SLUOGE PHE - TREATMENT
1
I IF REQUIRED * AS SC'ifL
AMENDMENT
* DEWATERING
^ .
\ AE RATION,,ETC ,)
MfXEfl
RECYCLED EARTHWORMS,
ifl
cc
o
UNEATEN SLUDGE PARTICLES,
AND |IF USED) BULKING AGENT
1
«*
< f
ui ^
— --
vi
P
;
,
—
T
£T
! SEPARATION Of I
BULKING AGENT EARTHWORMS FROM
FOR RECYCLE BULKING AGENT
| ( IF REQUIRED I 1
J
SURPLUS EARTHWORMS
FDR SALE
FIGURE 13 - 1
1 3- 5
fish bait or animal protein supplement. Earthworm marketing is a
complex problem . For municipal sludge applications , surplus
-
earthworms may be considered a by product ; the principal product
is the castings , which can be a resource.
TABLE 13 - 2
Parameter Values
.
mM. A
° =
1 F °
32 + 1.8 C
13 - 6
The earthworm conversion process would appear to be low in cost ,
although this cannot be said with certainty , since no cost data
-
are available for full scale operations on sludge , The process
does not require chemicals , high temperatures , or large amounts
of electricity . Only a small amount of low speed mechanical
-
equipment is needed. Significant expenditures may be required to
offset the potential operating difficulties discussed below.
13.4.4 Limitations
Limitations are:
-
13 7
r e d u c t i o n c o u l d o n l y be c a u s e d b y s i m p l e dilution
with uncontaminated waste or by concentration of the
contaminants in the earthworms.
TABLE 13- 3
Worm shortage in the process , so that Worms reproduce via egg capsules. These
worm additions are required capsules may be lost from the process in
the castings. Also , toxic conditions,
drowning , and other problems will cause
worm populations to drop. At Hagerstown,
Md . , a worm raising operation has been
-
proposed to supply the necessary make up
worms to the sludge conversion process ( 19).
Shortage of worms for initial inventory To begin operation , a large worm inventory
or restart may be needed , so large that local worm
suppliers may be unable to fill it.
-
Gradual start up is therefore desirable ,
especially for large plants. Also, earth
worm exchanges may become available
-
nati&«iwide so that sludge operations can
draw on larger numbers of earthworm
suppliers.
13- 8
TABLE 13- 3
POSSIBLE OPERATING DIFFICULTIES IN EARTHWORM CONVERSION ( CONTINUED )
°C = ° -32).
0.555 ( F
T h e s e limitations m a y be s i g n i f i c a n t b u t not o v e r w h e l m i n g , T h e r e
i s c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h a n d d e v e l o p m e n t u n d e r w a y, It appears
t h a t e a r t h w o r m conversion m a y have a role in m u n i c i p a l wastewater
t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s l u d g e p r o c e s s i n g.
13.5 References
1. R . K . S a l a s. " D i s p o s a l o f L i q u i d W a s t e s b y C h e m i c a l
F i x a t i o n/ S t a b i l i z a t i o n T h e C h e m f i x ( R ) P r o c e s s. "
T o x i c a n d H a z a r d o u s W a s t e D i s p o s a l , Volume 1. R.B. P o j a s e k ,
e d . A n n A r b o r Science , 1 9 7 9.
2. J .T. S c h o f i e l d . " S e a l o s a f e ( S M ). " Toxic and Hazardous
W a s t e D i s p o s a l , V o l u m e 1. R.B . Pojasek , ed. Ann Arbor
S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 9.
3. F r a n c i s O ' D o n n e l l. "Scrubber Sludge: Nightmare for
Utilities." S l u d g e M a g a z i n e . V o l. 1 n o. 2 , P 26. M a r c h -
-
April, 1978 .
1 3- 9
4 . J W . .
Barrier , H L Fawcett , and L J . . Henson "E conomic . . .
Assessment of FGD Sludge D i s p o s a l A l t e r n a t i v e s " Journal .
Environmental E n g i n e e r i n g D i v i s i o n ASCE
Oct , 1978 . .
Vol 104 p 951, . . .
5 . Hugh Mullen, Louis Ruggiano, and S I Taub "C o n v e r t i n g . . .
Scrubber Sludge and Flyash into Landfill Material " .
Pollution Engineering V o l 1 0 , n o 5 , p. 7 1 M a y , 1 9 7 8 . . . . .
6 . USEPA .
D e v e l o p m e n t o f a P o l y m e r i c C e m e n t i n g a n d E n c a p s u l-
ating Process for Managing Hazardous Wastes Office of .
Research and Development , Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 E P A- .
- -
6 0 0/ 2 7 7 0 4 5 August 1977 . .
7 . Raymond Swan . "Indianapolis Project: From Lagoons to
..
Landspreading i n T h r e e N o t - s o- E a s y L e s s o n s " Sludg
.- — e
Magazine Vol . . 1, n o 3 , P 1 6 . -
May June , 1978 . - iWi > #» . (ft
*
8. USEPA .
Field Evaluation of Chemically Stabilized Sludges .
Land Disposal of Hazardous Wastes Proceedings of the .
Fourth Annual Research Symposium San Antonio, Texas . .
March 6 8 , 1978 - .
Office of Research and Development ,
Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 E P A- 6 0 0 / 9 - 7 8 0 1 6 1978 . - . .
9 . USEPA .
Laboratory Assessment of Fixation and Encapsulation
.
Processes f o r A r s e n i c- L a d e n W a s t e s Land Disposal of
Hazardous Wastes, Proceedings of the Fourth Annual
Research Symposium San Antonio, Texas .
March 6 8 , 1978 . - .
-
EPA 6 0 0/9 7 8 0 1 6 - - .
10. USEPA .
P o l l u t a n t P o t e n t i a l of Raw and Chemically Fixed
Hazardous Industrial Wastes and Flue Gas Desulfurization
Sludges .
Interim report .
O f f i c e o f R e s e a r c h a n d D e v e l o p-
ment, Cincinnati , Ohio 45268 E P A- 6 0 0 / 2 7 6 -1 8 2 July 1976 . - . .
11 . R E. .Landreth and J L Mahloch . .
"Chemical F i x a t i o n of .
Wastes " . I n d u s t r i a l W a t e r E n g i n- e e r i n g— Vol 14 , no 4, . . .
P 1
-
6 . J u l y - A u g u s t 1 9 7 7 . —— '
I !
1 3-1 0
1 5. R .D. D o y l e , " U s e o f a n E x t r u d e r/ E v a p o r a t o r t o S t a b i l i z e
a n d S o l i d i f y H a z a r d o u s W a s t e s." Toxic and Hazardous Waste
D i s p o s a l , V o l u m e 1. A n n A r b o r S c i e n c e , 1 9 7 9. R.B. P o j a s e k ,
e d. P 6 5.
-
1 6. Frank Carraody , "P r a c t i c a l P r o b l e m s i n A p p l i c a t i o n o f
E a r t h w o r m s t o W a s t e C o n v e r s i o n P r o c e s s e s." Utilization o f
Soil Organisms in Sludge Management , proceedings of
c o n f e r e n c e , S y r a c u s e , N e w Y o r k : 6 / 2 5 -1 7/7 8 . National
Technical Information S e r v i c e P B -2 8 6 9 3 2. e d. R . H a r t e n s t e i n.
1 7. M .J . M i t c h e l l , R . M . M u l l i g a n , R o y H a r t e n s t e i n , a n d
E.F. N e u h a u s e r. " Conversion o f S l u d g e s i n t o 'T o p s o i l s' b y
E a r t h w o r m s ." C o m p o s t S c i e n c e. V o l. 1 8 , p. 2 8 . J u l y- A u g u s t ,
1977 .
23. L i n d a T h e o r e t , R o y H a r t e n s t e i n, a n d M .J . M i t c h e l l. " A S t u d y
o n t h e Interactions o f E n z y m e s w i t h M a n u r e s a n d S l u d g e s."
C o m p o s t S c i e n c e. V o l. 1 9 , p. 2 9. J a n u a r y-F e b r u a r y , 1 9 7 8 .
2 4. S o i l a n d P l a n t L a b o r a t o r y , I n c. S o i l F e r t i l i t y A n a l y s i s -
E a r t h w o r m C a s t i n g s. R e p o r t o n s l u d g e-derived c a s t i n g s f r o m
S a n J o s e - S a n t a C l a r a , C a l i f , , e x p e r i m e n t s . M a y 1 7 , 1 9 7 7.
2 7. R . H a r t e n s t e i n e t a 1., " H e a v y M e t a l s , S l u d g e s , a n d
t h e E a r t h w o r m Eisenia foetida." J o u r n a l o f Environmental
Q u a l i t y. I n review , 1 9 7 8.
2 8. R . I. V a n H o o k , " C a d m i u m , L e a d , a n d Z i n c D i s t r i b u t i o n s
B e t w e e n E a r t h w o r m s a n d S o i l s: Potentials f o r B i o l o g i c a l
Accumulation." Bulletin o f Environmental Contamination a n d
. .
T o x i c o l o g y. V o l 1 2, P 5 0 9 1 9 7 4 .
-
29 . A n P r o S , A n Ecologically , E n v i r o n m e n t a l l y , & Economically
S o u n d ApTproach t o S e w a g e S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t . G T A , I n c • /
W i l m i n g t o n D e l a w a r e, 1 9 7 8 , pamphlet.
^
1 3-1 2
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
Chapter 14 . Transportation
September 1979
CHAPTER 14
TRANSPORTATION
U n l e s s a s l u d g e h a s b e e n d e w a t e r e d , it c a n b e t r a n s p o r t e d
most efficiently and economically by pumping through pipelines.
S l u d g e i s s u b j e c t t o t h e s a m e p h y s i c a l l a w s a s o t h e r fluids.
Simply stated , w o r k p u t into a fluid b y a pump a l t e r s velocity,
elevation , and pressure, and overcomes friction loss. T h e unique
flow characteristics of sludge create special problems and
constraints. Nevertheless , s l u d g e h a s been s u c c e s s f u l l y pumped
t h r o u g h s h o r t pipelines a t u p t o 20 p e r c e n t solids by weight , a s
w e l l a s in p i p e l i n e s o f o v e r 1 0 m i l e s ( 1 6 km ) l o n g at u p t o
8 p e r c e n t solids concentrations.
1 4-1
procedures may give imprecise or misleading results, A more
e l a b o r a t e m e t h o d f o r situations demanding g r e a t e r accuracy i s
given in Section 14.1. 2.
I n w a t e r piping , f l o w is a l m o s t a l w a y s turbulent , F o r m u l a s
f o r friction l o s s with w a t e r, s u c h a s H a z e n- W i 1 1 iams a n d
Darcy-Weisbach, are based o n turbulent flow . S l u d g e also m a y
flow turbulently , in which c a s e t h e friction loss m a y be r o u g h l y
t h a t o f w a t e r. S l u d g e, h o w e v e r, is unlike w a t e r in that laminar
f l o w a l s o is common. W h e n laminar flow occurs, t h e friction l o s s
may be m u c h g r e a t e r than for water, Furthermore, laminar flow
laws f o r ordinary "Newtonian " fluids , s u c h a s w a t e r, c a n n o t b e
used f o r laminar f l o w o f s l u d g e because s l u d g e is n o t a Newtonian
fluid ; it f o l l o w s different f l o w l a w s.
Figure 1 4-1 m a y be used t o provide r o u g h estimates o f friction
loss under laminar flow conditions, This figure should be used
w h e n:
1 4- 2
v f
14
12
y:
o 10
i-
o
<
LL
2
8
o UNTREATED PR ( MARY AND
CONCENTRATED SLUDGES
< 6
u
CL
DIGESTED
h-
4 SLUDGE
D
5
0
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Water , oil , and most other common fluids are " Newtonian." This
means t h a t the p r e s s u r e d r o p is directly proportional t o the
velocity and viscosity under laminar flow conditions. As the
velocity increases p a s t a critical value , t h e f l o w becomes
turbulent . The transition from laminar t o turbulent flow depends
on the R e y n o l d s n u m b e r , which is i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o
the fluid ' s viscosity. The viscosity is a constant for the fluid
a t any g i v e n t e m p e r a t u r e . F o r m u l a s f o r Newtonian fluids a r e
available in fluid mechanics textbooks.
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e , however , is a n o n - Newtonian fluid , The
pressure d r o p under laminar conditions is not simply proportional
14- 3
t o flow , s o the viscosity is n o t a c o n s t a n t , S p e c i a l p r o c e d u r e s
m a y b e u s e d , however , t o d e t e r m i n e h e a d l o s s u n d e r laminar f l o w
c o n d i t i o n s , a n d t h e v e l o c i t y a t w h i c h t u r b u l e n t f l o w b e g i n s.
T h e s e p r o c e d u r e s u s e a t l e a s t t w o c o n s t a n t s t o d e s c r i b e t h e fluid
instead o f a single constant ( the viscosity ) which i s used for
Newtonian fluids.
• T u r b u l e n t f l o w m a y o c c u r, b u t a m u c h h i g h e r v e l o c i t y i s
n e e d e d for s l u d g e t h a n f o r w a t e r.
I f t h e t w o c o n s t a n t s T- Q a n d TJ c a n b e d e t e r m i n e d , i t is q u i t e
easy to determine pressure drop over the entire range of
velocities with t h e aid o f F i g u r e 1 4- 3 and o r d i n a r y equations f o r
w a t e r. T o use this figure , c a l c u l a t e the t w o dimensionless
numbers ( R e y n o l d s and Hedstrom ) by reading the graph , The
o n l y r e a l d i f f i c u l t y is in obtaining the t w o constants ; see
Section 14.1.2.4.
The t w o dimensionless numbers are a Reynolds number , g i v e n b y:
Re = ( 1 4-1 )
V
1 4-4
where:
Re = Reynolds number, dimensionless
P = density of sludge, lb ( mass )/ft 3, ( g /cm 3 )
V = average velocity , ft ( cm/s )
D = diameter of pipe, ft ( cm )
n = coefficient of rigidity , lb ( mass )/ft-sec, poise ( same
as ayne-s/cm 2 and g /cm-s ) ;
D 2 To 9 c P
He ,
7 2
( 14- 2 )
where :
. 2 fPLV 2 ( 14- 3 )
Apgc =
Q
where:
L = length of pipeline, ft ( cm )
14- 5
different definition of f , which is four times the value as
with units.
-
used in Equation 14 3 and Figure 14-3. Third , care is required
For English units , it is not possible to use
pounds ( mass ) in density at the same time as pounds ( force ) in
stress without introducing the conversion factor ( gc ) into
- -
Equations 14 2 and 14 3. Alternatively , the "slug ," English mass
unit could be used.
K DCN
CC ^
- OUE TO PLUG
f LOW IN THE
MIDDLE OP SLOPE «COEFFICIENT
//
H£ £ I N'
THE PIPE
v
OF RIGIDITY
*7
s:°;< /
EC O“ YIELD STRESS T0
te b £
OJ O
•
.- i
/
SLDPE = VISCOSITY
I i 1
APPARENT RATE OF SHEAR
PROPORTIONAL TO VELOCITY IN PIPELINE
UNITS : SECONDS f
'
FIGURE 14- 2
14 6-
fully turbulent , and the pressure drop will be given by the
o r d i n a r y w a t e r f o r m u l a t o a s u f f i c i e n t l y good a p p r o x i m a t i o n f o r
engineering purposes ( 3) .
1.0
cc 0.1
O
u
<
u.
IX 0.01
u.
- CURVE
-
Figure 14 3 also shows whether flow i s laminar or tubulent .
The friction factor f i s located by the intersection of the
Reynolds and Hedstrom numbers ( Re and He ) .
If this point is
above t h e d a s h e d l i n e o n F i g u r e 1 4 - 3 , o r i f t h e R e y n o l d s n u m b e r
Re i s less than 2 ,000 , the flow i s laminar; otherwise i t i s
turbulent . For example, a t Re = 104 , a Hedstrom number of
104 g i v e s t u r b u l e n t f l o w, w h i l e a Hedstrom number o f 1 0 g i v e s ^
laminar flow .
I n t e r p o l a t i o n o n l o g a r i t h m i c g r a p h s s u c h a s F i g u r e 1 4-3 i s
somewhat d i f f i c u l t , This i s particularly true for the Hedstrom
number c u r v e s o n F i g u re 14 3 - . I f the logarithm (base 10 ) of He
is calculated , interpolation between lines w i l l be linear.
Alternatively , i f f l o w i s l a m i n a r, t h e Buckingham e q u a t i o n ( 3,4 )
may be used . F i g u r e 1 4- 3 i n c o r p o r a t e s t h e B u c k i n g h a m e q u a t i o n i n
the laminar region . T h e B i n g h a m p r e s s u r e loss e q u a t i o n i s a n
approximate s o l u t i o n of t h e Buckingham equation ( 5,3) .
1 4- 7
1 4 . 1.2 . 2 Design Example
T h e d e s i g n e r wishes t o t r a n s p o r t anaerobically digested s l u d g e
6 miles from one plant to another plant where there are
dewatering facilities. If t r a n s p o r t e d a t 5 p e r c e n t solids , t h e
s l u d g e q u a n t i t y is 1 0 0 ,0 0 0 g a l l o n s p e r d a y ( 3 7 8 m 3/d a y ) . The
s l u d g e m a y b e d i l u t e d o r t h i c k e n e d , if d e s i r e d , t o i m p r o v e
economics. A l l of t h e s l u d g e m u s t be p u m p e d in a 4 -h o u r p e r i o d
e a c h d a y t o a c c o m m o d a t e d e w a t e r i n g s c h e d u l e s a t t h e receiving
p l a n t.
Solids C o e f ficient
concentration, Yield s t r e s s r G, of rigidity
Case percent d y n e/c m ^ v , g /c m-s
1 7.12 100 0.40
2 5.34 30.5 0.24
3 3.56 5.8 0.13
F o r a c o m p a r i s o n, w a t e r h a s a y i e l d s t r e s s o f z e r o a n d a
c o e f f i c i e n t o f r i g i d i t y o f a b o u t 0 . 0 1 g /c m -s. T h e p i p e i s
a s s u m e d t o b e unlined s t e e l p i p e, schedule 4 0 ; nominal p i p e s i z e s
o f 4 t o 1 0 inches ( 1 0 0 t o 2 5 0 m m ) in diameter will be considered.
100 ,000 x -
^ 12
a n d t h e flow r a t e i s:
= 7 0,2 2 4 g a l l o n s ( 2 6 6 m 3 )
7 0, 2 2 4 g a l l o n s/d a y = 2 9 2 . 6 g p m ( 18.46 1 /s )
4 h o u r s flow /d a y x 6 0 min /h r
2 9 2 . 6 g p m x 3 . 7 8 5 1 /g a l x 1 ,0 0 0 c m 3/l = 1 8 ,4 6 0 c m 3/s e c
6 0 sec/min
1 4- 8
-
The internal diameter of an 8 inch ( 200 mm ) Schedule 40 pipe is
7.981 inches ( 20.27 cm ) and the cross sectional area is
322.7 cm 2. The velocity V is the flow rate divided by the
area:
18 ,460 cm 2/sec
V
322.7 cm2
=. 57.2 cm/sec
not turbulent.
-
Refering to Figure 14 3 , f is about 0.08. The flow is laminar ,
-
Now Equation 14 3 is used to calculate pressure drop due to
friction:
Ap = 2f P LV
2 _ 2 x 0.08 x 1.0 x 965,600 x (57.2)2 = 24,940,000 dyne/cm2
Dgc 20.27 x 1.0
14 9-
This value may be c o m p a r e d t o t h e v a l u e f o r w a t e r f o r t h e s a m e
c o n d i t i o n s, c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e H a z e n-W i l l i a m s e q u a t i o n:
RO.63
V = 1.318 C S
°- 54 ( 1 4- 4 )
w h e r e:
V = a v e r a g e v e l o c i t y, ft/s e c,
C = friction coefficient,
R = hydraulic radius = -j o f diameter, f t ,
S = h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t , f t/f t.
T h i s e q u a t i o n m a y b e r e a r r a n g e d a n d s o l v e d o n a c a l c u l a t o r,
o r t a b l e s o r n o m o g r a p h s m a y b e u s e d. I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e,
V 5 7 . 2 c m /s e c = 1 . 8 8 f t /s e c a n d R = 0 . 1 6 6 f t. W i t h a C o f
1 0 0, S i s 0 . 0 0 3 1 0, i n d i c a t i n g a p r e s s u r e d r o p o f 9 8 . 2 f t o r
4 2 p s i. T h e d r o p w i t h this s l u d g e is 3 6 2 p s i o r a b o u t 9 t i m e s
h i g h e r t h a n t h e d r o p f o r w a t e r.
A p0g c D
To9 c ( 1 4- 5 )
4L
where:
ApQ = p r e s s u r e d r o p needed t o exceed y i e l d s t r e s s .
R e s u l t s o f t h e calculation a r e s h o w n f o r C a s e 1 a n d C a s e 2 in
T a b l e 1 4- 2. E q u a t i o n 1 4- 5 i s a l s o u s e f u l a s a s c r e e n i n g
test . I f To' D , a n d L a r e k n o w n , it i s p o s s i b l e t o q u i c k l y
c a l c u l a t e t h e minimum p r e s s u r e d r o p t h a t could o c c u r, r e g a r d l e s s
o f v e l o c i t y o r f l o w r a t e. I f A p0 is e x c e s s i v e , t h e d i a m e t e r
D should be increased. Impractical pipe sizes could be
quickly eliminated as requiring too high a pressure drop for
consideration.
1 4-1 0
V a l u e s f r o m T a b l e 1 4 - 1 a n d 1 4 - 2 a r e p l o t t e d o n F i g u r e 1 4 - 5.
Selection of the optimum pipe diameter and solids content
requires an economic analysis, H o w e v e r , it i s evident t h a t a t
t h e more r e a s o n a b l e p r e s s u r e d r o p s ( below 2 0 0 p s i or 1 4 0 0 k N/ m 2 ) ,
the 7.12 percent solids has a much higher pressure drop at a
g i v e n p i p e diameter e v e n t h o u g h t h e volumetric flow r a t e is m u c h
l o w e r t h a n f o r t h e o t h e r t w o cases. A t 8 inches ( 2 0 0 m m ), t h e
p r e s s u r e d r o p s a r e a b o u t t h e same f o r t h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t a n d t h e
3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t s l u d g e s. H o w e v e r , a s n o t e d in Table 1 4- 1 , t h e flow
is n o t in t h e t u r b u l e n t r e g i m e f o r t h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t s l u d g e , T h i s
i s a d i s a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e s m a l l c h a n g e s in t h e r h e o l o g i c a l
constants ro a n d v could c a u s e c h a n g e s in f. T h e 3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t
solids content is probably a better selection based on the
l i k e l i h o o d o f more s t a b l e o p e r a t i o n. A t 1 0 inches ( 2 5 0 m m ), t h e
v a l u e o f f is considerably h i g h e r f o r t h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t s l u d g e
t h a n f o r t h e 3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t s l u d g e, T h e choices between 8- inch
a n d 1 0 - inch ( 2 0 0 a n d 2 5 0 m m ) d i a m e t e r a n d 3 . 5 6 p e r c e n t a n d
5.34 p e r c e n t s l u d g e w o u l d h a v e t o be made o n t h e basis o f minimum
o v e r a l l c o s t. T h e 5 . 3 4 p e r c e n t s l u d g e will be more e x p e n s i v e
to transport, but this cost increase may be offset by more
economical d e w a t e r i n g a t t h e p l a n t r e c e i v i n g t h e s l u d g e.
TABLE 14- 1
CNote that p r e s s u r e drop for sludge , by equation 14 - 3 ,, is less than the pressure
drop for water if C = 100 . The pressure drops would be about the same if C = 110.
2 2
1 psi = 6.9 kN/m = 69 , 000 dyne/cm
1 4-11
Note that the pressure drop for Cases 1 and 2 is greater in all
cases than the minimum drop Ap0 ( see Figure 14- 5 ).
FIGURE 14- 4
FRICTION FACTORS FOR EXAMPLE PROBLEM
1.0
u
<
-
u f 4
0
4
lyFWULfcNT
LAMINAR
O
+
_
u
rr
u
. NEWTONIAN
0.01 .
- CUBVt ft
TABLE 14- 2
PRESSURE REQUIRED TO EXCEED YIELD
STRESS - EXAMPLE PROBLEM
.a
Pressure drop Ap0, psi
1 in. = 2.54 cm
1 psi = 6.9 kN/m = 69 ,000 dyne/cm
14- 12
which "sets up" in its container and will only flow out when the
container is rapped or jarred several times. The structure
rebuilds when the rapping is stopped. Paints typically not only
are Bingham plastics but are thixotropic as well. They will flow
for a short time after being "worked " by the paint brush so brush
lines tend to disappear. Their "plastic" characteristics rebuild
quickly after shearing stops so the paint does not flow downwards
on vertical surfaces.
2,000
1,000
CL
600
CL
o
IX
a
yj 400
CL
CASE 1
m
UJ
m
CASE 2
100
APo FOR CASE 2
eq 1 Inch = 2.54 cm
1 psi ^ 6,9 kN /rrr CASE 3
40
4 5 6 7 8 9
FIGURE 14- 5
14 - 13
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e is a l s o t h i x o t r o p i c , T h e e f f e c t is
increasingly important as t h e p e r c e n t solids and p e r c e n t
volatile solids increase. Thixotropy has three major effects:
9 It complicates the m e a s u r e m e n t of constants such as the
yield stress TQ.
I t makes pump suction conditions very important. In one
case , a centrifugal pump produced ample pressure to move
the sludge through a hose. The pump was suspended in a
l a g o o n but the s l u d g e would n o t flow into t h e p u m p
suction . I t w a s found t h a t mixers n e x t t o t h e p u m p
caused thixotropic breakdown sufficient for satisfactory
pumping ( 5 , 6 ).
I t raises the pressure needed t o start a pipeline that
has been shut down , At one installation, this effect was
found t o be significant for shutdowns exceeding o n e day .
An operating procedure is used t o p r e v e n t this problem ;
that is, if shutdowns over 8 hours are expected , the line
is purged of sludge ( 5 ,6 ) .
P e r m a n e n t degradation o f yield s t r e s s c a n occur with time of
shearing . I n t e n s e shearing p r o d u c e s t h i s result in high
polymers. This phenomena can be e x p e c t e d in w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e s ,
when shear levels are sufficiently high t o physically disrupt a
portion of the particles making u p the s l u d g e. If this occurs,
it may b e difficult to later thicken or d e w a t e r t h e sludge.
Sometimes t h e reduction in viscosity t h a t occurs with time
of s h e a r i n g is a c t u a l l y t h e e f f e c t o f a t e m p e r a t u r e increase
p r o d u c e d by t h e e n e r g y delivered t o t h e l i q u i d. T h e g e n e r a l
effect o f a n increase in t e m p e r a t u r e with both Newtonian and
non-Newtonian liquids is a reduction in viscosity. However, for
s l u d g e, t h e main effect of t e m p e r a t u r e is that low t e m p e r a t u r e s
may cause the grease fraction of the sludge t o harden. Other
t e m p e r a t u r e e f f e c t s a p p e a r t o be u n i m p o r t a n t , a t least u p t o
160 ° F ( 7 0° C ) ( 5 , 7 ).
T h e r e is a n o t h e r unusual e f f e c t t h a t occurs in w a s t e w a t e r
sludge pipelines: slippage and seepage ( 6 ). Essentially , the
sludge is riding on a thin film of water next to the wall of the
p i p e. This effect is noticeable at v e r y l o w velocities w h e n
starting a sludge pipeline ; it partially offsets the thixotropic
e f f e c t. S e e p a g e and s l i p p a g e a r e h a r d t o calculate b u t a r e
useful w h e n starting pipelines flows ( 6 ).
Figure 1 4-3 cannot be used unless the yield stress 0 and the
coefficient of rigidity can be obtained. There is a reasonable
amount o f data on anaerobically digested sludges ( 3 , 5 ,7,8 ) but
very little data on s l u d g e that has not been digested.
1 4- 14
Several t y p e s of instruments are available f o r viscosity
m e a s u r e m e n t s . H o w e v e r , o n l y t w o o f t h e s e t y p e s a r e suitable
for s l u d g e: t e s t pipes a n d rotational viscometers , Some
instruments, such as capillary viscometers, are unable t o handle
t h e relatively large p a r t i c l e s in s l u d g e ; o t h e r instruments ,
s u c h a s ball - d r o p viscometers , are not suited t o strongly
non-Newtonian fluids such as sludge.
Flow curves from test pipes are directly scalable to full-scale
pipes provided flow is laminar. However, the onset of turbulence
in a l a r g e pipe c a n n o t be predicted directly from small pipe
tests. It is necessary to use the yield stress and coefficient
of rigidity , c o m p u t e R e y n o l d s a n d Hedstrom n u m b e r s , a n d use
Figure 14- 3 t o predict the o n s e t o f turbulence , T h e flow curves
obtained with test pipes d o n o t provide fundamental rheological
d a t a, b e c a u s e a t a g i v e n f l o w r a t e , s h e a r s t r e s s a n d r a t e o f
s h e a r v a r y across t h e r a d i u s of t h e p i p e . By using the
Rabinowitsch equation, the flow curve can be transformed into
a rheologically c o r r e c t s h e a r s t r e s s versus r a t e of s h e a r
curve ( 9 ). A n offsetting disadvantage o f test pipes is that a
high degree of experimental skill is required t o get reliable
d a t a. Also t h e s e installations a r e relatively expensive a n d
cumbersome and require large sample volumes.
F o r s l u d g e , t h e best instrument a p p e a r s t o be a rotational
viscometer. I n this type o f machine , t h e t e s t liquid is placed
b e t w e e n t w o c o n c e n t r i c cylinders , o n e o f which r o t a t e s , T h e
t o r q u e o n a cylinder is m e a s u r e d a s a function of rotational
speed. Such machines can produce approximately uniform shear
rates at given shear stresses, provided the space between the bob
( inner cylinder ) and cup ( outer cylinder ) is small compared t o
the bob radius. Viscometers in which the bob r o t a t e s and the
t w i s t i n g f o r c e o n t h e c u p is m e a s u r e d are relatively e a s y t o
design mechanically but turbulence occurs at low shear rates for
low viscosity materials. Turbulence onset does not occur until
much higher shear rates for viscometers in which the cup rotates
and the twisting force on the bob is measured . In both t y p e s of
viscometers, end effects become substantial if the bob and c u p
are not long relative to the clearance.
There are a number of viscometers which feature rotational
movement , but either do not have constant clearances between an
inner a n d a n o u t e r cylinder , or d o n o t c o n t r o l o r measure
shearing r a t e or s h e a r s t r e s s. These devices a r e of little value
f o r o b t a i n i n g consistency c u r v e s f o r non- Newtonian l i q u i d s.
The n e a r l y u n i f o r m s h e a r r a t e a c h i e v a b l e in r o t a t i o n a l
viscometers allows direct measurement of the fundamental s h e a r
s t r e s s-r a t e of shear curve , which is a major advantage when it
comes t o application t o complex flow relationships , Rotational
viscometers are simple to operate. Their primary disadvantage is
t h a t c l o s e c l e a r a n c e s b e t w e e n o u t e r a n d inner cylinders a r e
n e e d e d t o give uniform s h e a r r a t e s across t h e gap b e t w e e n
cylinders. Obviously t o o small a clearance will give erroneous
results for sewage sludges. G a p size should n o t be reduced below
1 4-1 5
1.0 mm ( 0.025 inch ). Sludge must be screened to remove large
particles. This creates no substantial error because a few
large particles do not strongly affect the coefficients.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 ICK)
700
600 -/
t
CN
E
500 l
u \
CJ \
THIXOTROPIC_BR EAKDOW
^
c
> \
Q 400
aLU T0 = 232 dyne / cm ^ 235
SEC - 1
C£
H) 300 100 RPM
tS
CE
<
fill
X
to 200
re -
SAMPLE : LAGOONED ANAEROBICALLY
100
DIGESTED SLUDGE
13% SOLIDS, 40% VOLATILE
1 1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 100 200 220
FIGURE 14- 6
-
14 16
14.1.2.5 Additional Information
Sludge has been successfully and reliably pumped in the
l a m i n a r f l o w r a n g e. S o m e o f the installations describedin
Section 14.1.6 , L o n g Distance Pumping , o p e r a t e in this r a n g e.
That section also contains several design recommendations.
14.1.3 T y p e s of S l u d g e P u m p s
14.1.3.1 Centrifugal P u m p s
T h e b a s i c p r o b l e m with u s i n g a n y f o r m o f c e n t r i f u g a l p u m p
o n sludges is choosing the correct size . At any given speed ,
centrifugal p u m p s o p e r a t e well only if pumping head is within a
relatively narrow r a n g e ; the variable n a t u r e o f s l u d g e , however ,
causes pumping h e a d s t o v a r y. T h e selected p u m p s must be l a r g e
e n o u g h t o pass solids without clogging o f the impellers and y e t
s m a l l e n o u g h t o a v o i d t h e p r o b l e m o f d i l u t i n g t h e s l u d g e by
.
d r a w i n g in l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f o v e r l y i n g s e w a g e Throttling
the discharge t o reduce the capacity o f a centrifugal p u m p is
impractical both because of energy inefficiency and because
f r e q u e n t c l o g g i n g o f t h e t h r o t t l i n g v a l v e w i l l o c c u r. I t i s
recommended that centrifugal p u m p s requiring capacity adjustment
b e e q u i p p e d w i t h v a r i a b l e -s p e e d d r i v e s. Fixed capacity in
multiple pump applications is achieved by equipping each pump
with a d i s c h a r g e f l o w m e t e r a n d u s i n g t h e f l o w m e t e r s i g n a l
in conjunction with t h e variable s p e e d drive t o c o n t r o l t h e s p e e d
1 4- 17
'
X
of the pump. Seals last longer if back suction umps are used.
Utilizing the back of the impeller for suction removes areas of
high pressure inside the pump casing from the location of the
seal and prolongs seal life.
DISCHARGE
BEARINGS
X
VuJl
SHAFT SUCTION
/pn.J
SEAL
NON CLOG IMPELLER CASING
FIGURE 14- 7
CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
-
A torque flow pump ( Figure 14 8 ), also known as a recessed
impeller or vortex pump , is a centrifugal pump in which the
impeller is open faced and recessed well back into the pump
casing. The size of particles that can be handled by this
type of pump is limited only by the diameter of the suction or
discharge openings. The rotating impeller imparts a spiralling
motion to the fluid passing through the pump , Most of the
fluid does not actually pass through the vanes of the impeller ,
thereby minimizing abrasive contact with it and reducing the
chance of clogging . Because there are no close tolerances
-
14 18
between the impeller and casing, the chances for abrasive
wear within the pump are f u r t h e r reduced . The price paid for
increased pump longevity and r e l i a b i l i t y i s that the pumps are
r e l a t i v e l y i n e f f i c i e n t c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r n o n -c l o g c e n t r i f u g a l s ;
45 versus 65 percent efficiency i s typical . Torque flow pumps
for sludge service should always have nickel or chrome abrasion
resistant volute and impellers. The pumps must be sized
accurately so that excessive recirculation does not occur a t any
condition a t operating head. Capacity adjustment and control i s
achieved in the same manner as for other centrifugal pumps .
DISCHARGE
OPEN
IMPELLER
SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 8
.
14.1 3.3 Plunger Pumps
P l u n g e r p u m p s ( F i g u r e 1 4-9 ) c o n s i s t o f p i s t o n s d r i v e n b y a n
exposed drive crank .The eccentricity of the drive crank i s
adjustable, offering a variable stroke length and hence a
variable positive displacement pumping action .
The check v a l v e s,
ball or flap, are usually paired in tandem before and after
the pump . Plunger pumps have constant capacity regardless
of large variations in pumping head , and can handle sludges
up to 15 percent solids if designed specifically for such
service . -
Plunger pumps are cost effective where the installation
r e q u i r e m e n t s d o not e x c e e d 500 g p m ( 32 1 /s ) , a 200 f e e t ( 6 1 m )
1 4 -1 9
discharge head , or 15 percent sludge solids , Plunger pumps
require daily routine servicing by the operator, but overhaul
maintenance effort and cost are low .
DESURGING
CHAMBER
PACKING
r t BALL
DESURGING
C HAMBER
DISCHARGE CHECK
PISTON
\
/
/
/
CYLINDER
1 SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 9
PLUNGER PUMP
1 4- 2 0
is obstructed , serious damage may occur to the pump , motor , or
pipeline ; this problem can be avoided by a simple shear pin
arrangement.
DISCHARGE
In
M HYDRAULIC
SYSTEM
led
DIAPHRAGM
(TYP)
SUCTION
o POWER
/y PISTON
GUIDE
PISTON
FIGURE 14- 10
PISTON PUMP
-
14 21
A v a r i a t i o n of the p i s t o n pump has been developed f o r use where
r e l i a b i l i t y and close control are needed
f l u i d power piston driving an intermediate hydraulic f l u i d
. The pump u t i l i z e s a
t 4
I
I
I
*1
L
*
i
FLUID
*
I
I
I
SUCTION SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 11
.
14.1 3.5 P r o g r e s s i v e C a v i t y Pumps
T h e p r o g r e s s i v e c a v i t y pump ( F i g u r e 1 4 - 1 2 ) h a s b e e n u s e d
successfully on almost a l l types of sludge .
T h i s pump c o m p r i s e s
a s i n g l e -threaded r o t o r t h a t operates w i t h an i n t e r f e r e n c e
clearance i n a double -threaded h e l i x s t a t o r made o f rubber .
A v o l u m e o r " c a v i t y " moves "p r o g r e s s i v e l y " f r o m s u c t i o n t o
d i s c h a r g e when t h e r o t o r i s r o t a t i n g, h e n c e t h e name " p r o g r e s s i v e
cavity " . T h e p r o g r e s s i v e c a v i t y pump m a y b e o p e r a t e d a t
d i s c h a r g e heads o f 4 5 0 f e e t ( 1 3 7 m ) o n s l u d g e , Capacities are
a v a i l a b l e t o 1, 2 0 0 g p m ( 7 5 1 / s ) . Some progressive c a v i t y
pumps w i l l p a s s s o l i d s u p t o 1 . 1 2 5 inches ( 2 . 9 c m ) i n d i a m e t e r .
1 4- 2 2
Rags or stringy material should be ground up before entering this
pump .The rotor i s inherently self locking in the stator -
housing when not in operation , and will act as a check valve
for the sludge pumping line , An a u x i l i a r y motor brake may be
specified to enhance this operational feature .
( TVP )
ROTOR
STATOR
.
DISCHARGE *+
, bn-rf'l
‘
cc
- CAVITIES
FIGURE 14- 12
1 4- 2 3
discharge t o p r e v e n t r u p t u r e of blocked discharge lines , N o-flow
safety s h u t d o w n devices are o f t e n used t o p r e v e n t t h e r o t o r a n d
stator f r o m becoming fused d u e t o d r y operation , A s previously
mentioned , these p u m p s are expensive t o maintain, However , flow
rates are easily controlled , pulsation is minimal, and operation
is clean. Therefore , progressive cavity pumps are widely used
for pumping s l u d g e.
14.1.3.6 Diaphragm P u m p s
Diaphragm pumps ( Figure 1 4- 13 ) utilize a flexible membrane that
is pushed or pulled t o contract or enlarge an enclosed cavity.
Flow is directed through this cavity by check valves , which may
be either ball or flap type. T h e capacity of a diaphragm pump is
altered by changing either the length of the diaphragm stroke
or the number of strokes per minute , P u m p capacity can be
increased and f l o w p u l s a t i o n s smoothed o u t by providing t w o
pump chambers and utilizing both strokes of the diaphragm for
pumping. D i a p h r a g m p u m p s a r e r e l a t i v e l y low head and l o w
capacity units; the l a r g e s t available air -o p e r a t e d diaphragm pump
delivers 220 g p m ( 14 1 /s ) against 50 feet ( 15 m ) o f head , The
distinct advantage of the diaphragm p u m p s is their simplicity .
Their n e e d s f o r o p e r a t o r attention and maintenance are minimal.
T h e r e a r e n o s e a l s , s h a f t s , r o t o r s , s t a t o r s , o r p a c k i n g in
contact with t h e fluid ; a l s o, d i a p h r a g m p u m p s c a n r u n in a d r y
condition indefinitely.
Flexure of the diaphragm may be accomplished mechanically ( push
rod or spring ) or hydraulically ( air or water ). Diaphragm life
is more a function of the discharge head and the total number of
flexures than the abrasiveness or viscosity of the p u m p e d fluid .
Power t o drive air driven diaphragm pumps is typically double
that required t o operate a mechanically driven pump of similar
capacity . However, hydraulically operated (air or water )
diaphragms generally outwear mechanically driven diaphragms by a
considerable a m o u n t . Hydraulically driven diaphragm pumps
are suitable f o r o p e r a t i o n in hazardous explosion -p r o n e areas ;
also a p r e s s u r e release means in the hydraulic s y s t e m provides
protection against obstructed pipelines , Typical repairs t o a
diaphragm pump usually cost less than $ 75 ( 1978 basis ) for p a r t s
and require approximately two hours of labor. I n some locations ,
high humidity intake air will cause icing p r o b l e m s t o d e v e l o p at
t h e a i r r e l e a s e v a l v e and m u f f l e r o n a n a i r d r i v e n d i a p h r a g m
pump. A c o m p r e s s e d air d r y e r should be used in -the air s u p p l y
s y s t e m w h e n such a condition exists.
T h e o v e r a l l construction of s o m e d i a p h r a g m p u m p s , t h e c o m m o n
" trash pump , " is such that abrasion may cause the lightweight
casings t o fail before the diaphragms , since the pumps are not
d e s i g n e d for continuous s e r v i c e. For wastewater treatment
a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e mechanical diaphragm " walking beam " p u m p s
are more appropriate. These pumps are dependable , have quick
1 4- 24
cleanout ball or flap check valves and are presently used to
,
DIAPHRAGM
M
L "
'
CHECK
VALVE
I
FIGURE 14- 13
DIAPHRAGM PUMP
-
One air driven diaphragm pump is sold in a package expressly
intended for pumping sludge from primary sedimentation tanks
and gravity thickeners. The basic pump package consists of a
-
single chambered , spring return diaphragm pump , an air pressure
regulator , a solenoid valve, a gage , a muffler , and an electronic
transistorized timer. This unit pumps a single 3.8 gallon
( 14.4 1 ) stroke after an interval of time. The interval is
readily adjusted to match the pumping rate to the rate of
formation of the sludge blanket in the sedimentation tank or
thickener. The large single stroke capacity of this pump has
several maintenance advantages. Not only is total flexure count
reduced , but ball valve flushing is improved , so large particles
cause less difficulty. The maximum recommended solids size is
7/8 inch ( 2.2 cm ). Pump stroke speed is constant regardless of
the selected pump flow so that minimum scouring velocities are
always maintained in the discharge piping during the pumping
surge.
-
14 25
T h e traditional s e q u e n c e o f intermittent p u m p i n g f o r p r i m a r y
sedimentation t a n k s h a s been t o thicken for an interval without
p u m p i n g and t h e n d r a w t h e s l u d g e b l a n k e t d o w n. A r e l a t i v e l y
long interval is required by pump motors, since f r e q u e n t m o t o r
s t a r t s can cause o v e r h e a t i n g . T h e o r e t i c a l l y if t h e s l u d g e
c o n c e n t r a t i o n is 1 0 p e r c e n t o n the b o t t o m a n d d e c r e a s e s t o
8 p e r c e n t at t h e t o p o f the p u m p e d s l u d g e zone , then the p u m p e d
a v e r a g e is 9 p e r c e n t. H o w e v e r , by using air drive, a diaphragm
pump can o p e r a t e with s t a r t s e v e r y few seconds instead o f e v e r y
several minutes or l o n g e r. T h e manufacturer claims its s y s t e m
will draw single intermittent p u l s e s from the 1 0 p e r c e n t bottom
l a y e r since t h e s l u d g e blanket d e p t h is maintained a t a virtually
constant height . D o w n s t r e a m s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s can h a v e
g r e a t e r s o l i d s c a p a c i t y b e c a u s e more concentrated s l u d g e s can b e
obtained.
The City of San Francisco ran independent pump evaluation tests
in 1 9 7 5 ( 2 5 ). T h e y c o n c l u d e d t h a t p r o p e r u s e o f a i r - d r i v e n
diaphragm p u m p s will increase the sedimentation t a n k s' ability
t o c o n c e n t r a t e s l u d g e s. T h e s l u d g e c o l l e c t i o n s y s t e m in t h e
sedimentation t a n k s and t h e s l u d g e pumping equipment had t o be
c o n t r o l l e d t o g e t h e r t o g i v e o p t i m u m t h i c k e n i n g. S a v i n g s in
operations and maintenance as well as improved thickening were
accomplished by lowering the overall average rate of sludge
withdrawal and making t h e s l u d g e collectors w o r k continuously at
a reduced r a t e instead o f i n t e r m i t t e n t l y . W h e n c o n s i d e r i n g s u c h
a pump installation , t h e capacity requirement is based o n the
maximum r a t e a t which t h e s l u d g e blanket forms in t h e tank and
not the capacity required t o maintain minimum pipe velocities.
1 4- 26
the failure of the lobe liners .
Rotary pumps , l i k e other
p o s i t i v e displacement pumps, must be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t p i p e l i n e
obstructions .
DISCHARGE
SUCTION
FIGURE 14- 14
ROTARY PUMP
2 DISCHARGE
AIR C H A R G E
CONNECTION
SUCTION ISOLATION
VALVE
(TYR)
CHECK CHECK
VALVE Hi r .'
VALVE
* ll
-'.'
• ‘*
*
> < V
FIGURE 14- 15
EJECTOR PUMP
W a t e r e d u c t o r s u s e t h e suction f o r c e ( v a c u u m ) c r e a t e d w h e n a h i g h
p r e s s u r e w a t e r s t r e a m i s p a s s e d t h r o u g h a streamlined c o n f i n i n g
t u b e ( venturi ). Like t h e a i r l i f t p u m p , w a t e r e d u c t o r s h a v e n o
1 4- 2 8
moving parts . W h e n w a t e r is r e q u i r e d t o t r a n s p o r t a solid
m a t e r i a l , t h e w a t e r e d u c t o r b e c o m e s a v e r y c o n v e n i e n t p u m p.
Most water eductors with reasonable w a t e r demands cannot pump
solids of g o l f ball size. T h e y have , however , been s u c c e s s f u l l y
used t o remove grit from aerated grit removal tanks and discharge
the grit into dewatering classifiers.
14.1.4 Application of S l u d g e P u m p s
1 4- 29
useful to prevent crystals of struvite from growing on the pipe
wall. ( Refer to the anaerobic digestion portion of Chapter 6 for
control of struvite ), Smooth linings are especially valuable in
pump suction piping and in key portions of piping ( header pipes
and the like ) where maintenance shutdowns would cause process
difficulties.
TABLE 14- 3
Thickened
sludge
Ground Settled Thickened Trickling Activated Mixed Thickened Wet Dry
Pump type Screenings Grit Scum Septage sludge 3ludge filter sludge Float Gravity <6 >6 < 10 >15 Comments
Centrifugal 0 0 0 0 3 2 4 4 oa 3 4 3 4 1
b
Torque flow 5 4 J S 4 3 4 4 oa
C
4 4 3
d
3 0
-
b
; low efficiency
Plunger 0 0 4 4 4 4 1 1 4 4 4 4 0 Daily attention
required
e ,f
Piston 0 0 0 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 High cost
Progressive h
cavity 49 1 5 49 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 5 5 5
e ,f
Piston/hydraulic 0 0 0 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 0 High cost
diaphragm
Diaphragm 4 0 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 3 0
^
£
Maximum 15 percent solids.
4
-- Suitable
High discharge pressure only. 5 Best type to use
14- 30
grease clogging or particle blockage and facilitate maintenance
Blind flanges and cleanouts should be provided for ease of line
.
maintenance .
Gas formation by wastewater solids l e f t for long
periods in confined pipe or equipment can create explosive
pressures ; therefore , provision should be made for flushing and
draining a l l pipes, pumps , and equipment , The pressure rating of
wastewater solids pipelines should be adequate for unusual as
well as routine operating pressures , Unusual pressures
will occasionally occur due to high solids concentrations ,
pipe obstructions , gas formation , water hammer , and cleaning
operations .
Temperature changes may cause s t r e s s i n t h e pipe, Temperatures
a r e changed by h e a t e d m a t e r i a l a s i t e n t e r s cold p i p e; f l u s h i n g ;
and the use of hot fluids during cleaning t o remove grease, Pipe
should be designed t o accommodate such stresses .
14.1 6. Long Distance Pumping
Sludge may be pumped f o r miles , A pipeline is frequently
less expensive than the alternatives of trucks, rail cars , or
.
barging ( see Section 14.1 3 and reference 28 ) , especially if , by
pipelining, mechanical dewatering can be avoided , P i p e l i n e s may
have less environmental impact along their routes than trucks .
14.1 6.1 . Experience
Tables 1 4- 4 a n d 1 4- 5 d e s c r i b e s o m e t y p i c a l p i p e l i n e s f o r
unstabilized and digested sludges, There is considerable
additional U S . . -
e x p e r i e n c e ; s e e T a b l e s 1 4 6 a n d 1 4- 7 An .
examination of t h e s e t a b l e s shows t h a t:
Centrifugal pumps are widely used, even on unstabilized
sludge .
O p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e s a r e u s u a l l y below 1 2 5 p s i g ( 860 kN /m
gage ) . ^
e V e l o c i t i e s a r e u s u a l l y b e l o w 3 . 5 f t /s e c ( 1 . 1 m /s ) .
« If the v o l a t i l e solids content of the sludge i s low ,
the sludge can be pumped a t a high t o t a l s o l i d s
concentration .
This i s well illustrated by the lagoon
sludge pipelines , which have operated a t up to 18 percent
solids ; lagooned sludge has a very low volatile content .
In some cases , sludge thickening a t the receiving location was
adversely affected by the shearing or the septicity that occurred
in the pipelines .
Special flushing practices after pipeline use
or use of a pipe cleaning device were not used in several cases .
Need for these techniques seem t o depend on the nature of the
sludge being pumped , although experience i s not conclusive on
this point .
1 4- 3 1
TABLE 14- 4
Use of cleaning tool Every 4-6 weeks None Possible , not needed Weekly Every 1 to 2 weeks' ^
Septicity of sludge Yes Yes Some; chlorine used Not much odor
Comments Difficulty with
solids accumulation
Thickeners do not
work as well on
Heat treatment de
watering less >
- Good thickening at
receiving plant
Good thickening at
receiving plant
at receiving plant sludge that has
been pumped from
Southport
3
Two ductile iron lines will replace a single line , The old lines is subject to external corrosion and
will be abandoned over most of its length. The new lines have polyethylene wrap and cathodic protection.
^Pickle liquor is added to primary treatment for phosphorus removal. Skimmings are handled separately.
-
Data from Reference 10. Later , sludge thickness was decreased to 1 2 percent solids to reduce operating
pressures and line hreaks.
^There is a heavy grease buildup in the pipe , especially in winter.
1 mi = 1.6 km
1 in. = 25.4 mm
1 gpm = 0.063 1/s
1 ft/sec = 0.30 m/s
1 ^
psig = 6 . 9 kN/m gage
Proper p r e -p l a n n i n g o f a p i p e l i n e i n s t a l l a t i o n is o f g r e a t
importance .
For e x a m p l e , a pump breakdown or a p l u g g e d pipeline
h a s a g r e a t impact on p l a n t operation, and its likelihood can be
g r e a t l y minimized by g o o d initial design and equipment selection.
I f d i g e s t i o n is t o be p a r t o f t h e s y s t e m , the d i g e s t e r s m a y
be located either b e f o r e o r a f t e r t h e l o n g s l u d g e p i p e l i n e.
H o w e v e r , s l u d g e i s m u c h e a s i e r t o p u m p a f t e r it h a s b e e n
digested. I n addition , raw s l u d g e s may cause problems related t o
thickening , o d o r s , and corrosion at t h e receiving point , since
septic conditions m a y d e v e l o p in the pipeline. If raw sludge is
t o be p u m p e d long distances, the least environmental impact will
result if the p i p e l i n e c o n t e n t s a r e d i s c h a r g e d d i r e c t l y into
anaerobic digesters.
14- 32
TABLE 14- 5
Length, mi 1.7 2 3 3 •
7.5
Diameter , in . 16 Twin 8 12, some 10 8 8
Material Steel Cast iron Unlined cast iron Fiber reinforced plastic
Sludge type Lagooned Anaerobically digested
primary
- Digested ^ Anaerobically di-
gested primary and
Anaerobically digested
primary
waste-activated
Percent solids 13 average 4 - 7 5 maximum 3 - 4 Up to 7.56
15 maximum
Percent volatile 40 49 35
- '40 57
Flow rate, gpm 1 , 300 700 600 500 550 - 60C
Velocity , ft/sec 2.1 2 1.6 3 3. 5
Total pressure , psig 87 40 - 60 20 - 30 80 155
Pumps Centrifugal with Centrifugal Centrifugal ^ -
Two stage centrifugal , Torque flow
q
3
1 mi = 1.6 km
1 i.n. =
25.4 mm
1 gpm = 0.063 1/s
1 ft/sec = 0. 30 m/s
1 psig = 6.9 kN/rrr gage
Sludge that has been piped for a long distance may experience
floe breakdown , If this occurs, thickening and dewatering may be
impaired. Chemical conditioning may require a higher chemical
dose ; thermal conditioning may produce a sludge with poorer
dewatering properties.
The following special design features should be considered for
long distance pipelines:
1. Provide two pipes unless a single pipe can be shut down
for several days without causing problems in wastewater
treatment system .
2. Consider external corrosion and pipe loads just as
for any other utility pipeline , for example , water
or natural gas. External corrosion has been a problem on
some long sludge pipelines. Electrical return currents,
-
14 33
TABLE 14- 6
LONG PIPELINES FOR UNSTABILIZED SLUDGE
ADDITIONAL LOCATIONS
Length , Diameter of Percent
City Treatment plants mi pipe , in. Sludge type solids Pump type
3
Houston , TX Simms Bayou to Northside 6.8 8 Waste-activated 0.5 1- Centrifugal , 2 in series
Jersey City , NJ Eastside to Westside 2.5 Primary 4 Plunger , 3 speed
1
(maximum)
Knoxville , TN Loves Creek to Third
Creek system
3.2 6 Primary, trickling
filter
-
1 3 Centrifugal
-
Linden Roselle , NJ
-
Linden Roselle Sewerage
Authority
1 24 Primary 2-4 Centrifugal
C
Seattle, WA Renton to West Point
system
3.7 12 -
Primary , waste activated 0.5 1- Progressive cavity ,
variable speed
1 mi
1 in.
-= 1.6
'
km
25.4 mm
>
TABLE 14- 7
Chicago , IL
loading3
- 1970 rail 3.5 12 Anaerobic, lagoon 4- 15
9.2 average
Chicago , IL - barge loading 1.0 16 Anaerobic , lagoon 8 - 18 Centrifugal with mixers
Chicago, IL - Calumet 1 18 Anaerobic , lagoon 12 Centrifugal
lagoons
East Kockaway , NY
Park plant
- Bay 1.5 16 .1 Anaerobic
. 3.7 Variable speed
1 mi = 1.6 km
1 in. = 25.4 mm
14- 34
acid s o i l s, saline g r o u n d w a t e r , a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s m a y
cause serious difficulty unless special corrosion control
measures a r e u s e d. A d v i c e o f s p e c i a l i s t s o n t h e n e e d f o r
cathodic p r o t e c t i o n i s advised.
3. Provide f o r a d d i n g c o n t r o l l e d a m o u n t s o f w a t e r t o dilute
t h e s l u d g e o r f l u s h t h e line. Primary effluent may be
u s e d in r a w s l u d g e p i p e l i n e s ; disinfected f i n a l e f f l u e n t
m a y b e p r e f e r r e d f o r d i g e s t e d s l u d g e p i p e l i n e s, T h e
w a t e r connection s h o u l d have a f l o w r a t e indicator , T h e
f l u s h i n g w a t e r s h o u l d f l o w at a b o u t 3 f p s ( 0.9 m /s ).
b. F l u s h i n g w a t e r p r e s s u r e s h o u l d be sufficient t o p u s h
t h e t o o l t h r o u g h t h e f u l l l e n g t h o f p i p e l i n e.
c. Pipe bend fittings should be 45-degree or, if
p o s s i b l e , 2 2- 1/ 2-d e g r e e , S o m e c l e a n i n g t o o l s will
p a s s 9 0- d e g r e e b e n d s , but s u c h bends are l i k e l y t o b e
t r o u b l e s p o t s. L e n g t h /r a d i u s of b e n d s s h o u l d b e
c h e c k e d w i t h t h e t o o l supplier.
d. A recording or totalizing flowmeter should be
provided. '( See C h a p t e r 1 7, Instrumentation. ) If t h e
t o o l g e t s s t u c k in t h e l i n e , t h e f l o w r e c o r d c a n be
u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e n u m b e r o f g a l l o n s p u m p e d since
t h e t o o l w a s inserted. T h u s , t h e t o o l c a n be l o c a t e d
a n d retrieved .
5. The pipeline route should be selected for ease of
maintenance.
6. A t h i g h p o i n t s, a i r o r g a s r e l i e f v a l v e s s h o u l d b e
p r o v i d e d. W i t h c a r e , a u t o m a t i c r e l i e f v a l v e s c a n b e
made reliable on digested sludge lines ; however, in
unstabilized s l u d g e l i n e s , g r e a s e a n d debris g e n e r a l l y
c a u s e automatic v a l v e s t o be unreliable. S i m p l e manual
blowoff valves are generally better for unstabilized
sludge , Air and gases _ from sludge pipelines may be
o d o r o u s. I n confined s p a c e s, t h e air o r g a s m a y a l s o b e
t o x i c, flammable, e x p l o s i v e, a n d corrosive.
7. I f s l u d g e i s t o be p u m p e d a t more t h a n a b o u t 3 p e r c e n t
solids , t h e p u m p s and pipeline should be d e s i g n e d f o r
h i g h a n d variable f r i c t i o n h e a d l o s s e s. S l u d g e m a y f l o w
1 4- 35
more like a Bingham plastic than an ordinary Newtonian
f l u i d . A multiplication factor , such as those on
Figure 14-1, should not be used , A more accurate design
method , such as the one in Section 14.1. 2 , should be
used .
8. If centrifugal pumps are used , flow rates will be
somewhat unpredictable because of the varying flow
resistance properties of the sludge. Storage provisions
should be made for these variations. Pumps should be
capable of operating at shutoff head with very low flow
during pipeline startup.
In- line grinders are used to reduce the size of sludge solids to
prevent problems with the operation of downstream processes.
Grinders require high maintenance ; therefore they should not be
installed unless shown to be absolutely necessary. For locations
where a grinder may be installed in the future , removable spool
pieces should be inserted into the pipeline to facilitate the
later installation of a grinder . Grinders may be applicable
to streams carrying debris , rags or stringy materials , but
are usually not needed for streams carrying only secondary
( biological ) sludge , Grinders have often been installed
preceding equipment with ball or flapper check valves, However,
utilizing dual check valving , proper stroke seating can be
14-36
obtained a n d t h e g r i n d e r s can o f t e n be eliminated , Grinders
remain a necessity u p s t r e a m from small diameter , high p r e s s u r e
positive displacement p u m p s.
Sophisticated , s l o w speed , hydraulic o r electric grinders that
can sense blockages and clear themselves by reverse operation are
now available. Special combination centrifugal pump -grinders
a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r u s e as d i g e s t e r c i r c u l a t i o n p u m p s , a n d a r e
effective in preventing r a g balls , .E x p e r i e n c e indicates such
p u m p s require as much maintenance as grinders.
1 4 . 2.2 Belt C o n v e y o r s
T r o u g h e d belt c o n v e y o r s are simple and reliable ( Figure 1 4- 1 6 ) .
T h e y m a y be equipped with load -cell weigh - bridge sections for
totalization o f c o n v e y e d solids w e i g h t . ( See Chapter 17,
Instrumentation ). Totalization is useful w h e n an a c c u r a t e solids
balance must be calculated for a dewatering facility o r treatment
plant . S l u d g e concentrated e n o u g h t o maintain a semi - s o l i d
s h a p e ( 1 5 p e r c e n t ) c a n be conveyed at a b o u t 18 d e g r e e s maximum
inclination on t r o u g h e d belt c o n v e y o r s. S l u d g e s with a higher
solids content can be moved u p s t e e p e r slopes. W h e r e wash sprays
a r e utilized , s p l a s h p a n s should be p r o v i d e d on t h e underside of
belts t o direct t h e used washwater t o a proper disposal point .
S u c h s p l a s h p r o t e c t i o n w i l l a s s i s t in k e e p i n g t h e a r e a d r y
and preventing head and tail pulley s l i p p a g e . H e a d a n d t a i l
p u l l e y lagging ( grooving ), crowning and other , a u x i l i a r y w a y s o f
maintaining belt guidance should be t h o r o u g h l y r e v i e w e d w i t h
conveyor manufacturers before specifying a troughed belt
1 4- 37
installation. M o s t t r o u g h e d belt installations for s l u d g e
currently utilize s t e e l idlers and p u l l e y s with lubricated
anti -friction bearings. The fisheries industry , which also uses
conveyors in constantly wet applications , is successfully using
lubricated thermoplastic ( T F E , Delrin ) idler bearings with
Schedule 80 PVC pipe rollers ; these provide longer service life
than is achieved with all steel construction.
HEAD DRIVE
PULLEY UNIT
TROUGHED BELT
CARRYING IDLERS
/DISCHARGE
CHUTE
FEED CHUTE /
LOADING SKIRTS
CROSS SECTION
PULLEY
TROUGHED
IDLERS
SUPPORT
FIGURE 14- 16
BELT CONVEYOR
14- 38
specific information available relating to the special problems
associated with the cohesive , non- uniform properties of dewatered
sludge. Experience at existing facilities using this type of
conveying equipment and transporting sludge with similar
characteristics provides the most useful design information.
The experience of the County Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles
County in the first three years of operation of a two- stage
digested sludge dewatering station provides useful guidance
for conveying centrifuge- dewatered digested sludge ( 31 ), The
facility includes solid bowl centrifuges as a first stage, after
which the centrate is screened and then dewatered using basket
centrifuges. The system uses belt conveyors to transport
dewatered sludge between production, storage, and truck loading.
The system has 44 belt conveyors totaling approximately one- half
mile in length. Troughed conveyor belts carry both first stage
centrifuge cake at 32 percent solids and second stage centrifuge
cake at 17 percent solids. Dewatered sludge is usually stored in
the twelve storage bins at 22 to 24 percent solids and then
transported to trucks by additional belt conveyors.
Helpful guidelines resulting from start - up of this facility
include the following:
1. Reduction of splashing at transfer points: The dump
point should be enclosed and the drop distance minimized.
Skirtboards ( stationary sidewalls at edges of belts )
should be used at critical areas and covered if
necessary. Rubber gaskets from hoppers to skirtboards and
on the bottom of skirtboards may be required to reduce
splashing or spillage , Where long drops cannot be
avoided transfer chutes should have interior impact
baffles to dissipate the momentum of falling sludge.
2. Removal of sludge from returning belts: Counter-weighted
rubber-bladed scrapers at head pulleys are not effective
in scraping sludge off return belts and are a maintenance
problem . The use of adjustable tension finger -type
scrapers is recommended , To avoid problems with idler
roller vibration and irregularities , and to ensure
continuous contact , scrapers should be installed beyond
the idler on the flattened portion of the belt.
3. Assuring minimum pulley slippage: Appurtenances that
contact the dirty side of the belt should be avoided.
Figure 14-17 illustrates both the undesirable and the
recommended design features of inclined belt conveyors.
Snubber pulleys and trippers ( devices that remove the
moving material from the belt ) cannot be successfully
used for sludges, Gravity counterweight take- ups should
be avoided , and screw take- ups should be used instead.
Where long lifts are required , multiple short belts
should be used instead of one long belt to avoid the need
for gravity take- ups.
14-39
4. I m p o r t a n c e o f h o u s e k e e p i n g facilities: Notwithstanding
the care taken to avoid spillage or splashing, sludge
h a n d l i n g facilities a r e d i r t y , and m u s t be d e s i g n e d t o
facilitate c l e a n u p , N o n -skid c o v e r p l a t e s, r a t h e r t h a n
g r a t i n g , should b e u s e d f o r all access areas e x c e p t t h o s e
immediately over storage hoppers, Convenient hose
stations s h o u l d be located t o s e r v e a l l a r e a s , Floors
and slabs s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d w i t h e x a g g e r a t e d d r a i n a g e
s l o p e s ( u p t o o n e i n c h p e r f o o t [ 8 c m /m ] ) a n d s h o u l d
drain t o l i b e r a l l y distributed d r a i n s u m p s , S p e c i a l c a r e
s h o u l d be u s e d at a l l t r a n s f e r p o i n t s , t a k e -u p p u l l e y s,
a n d d u m p p o i n t s t o minimize s l u d g e s p i l l a g e o r s p l a s h i n g ,
o r t o p r o v i d e s u r r o u n d i n g s t h a t a r e e a s i l y c l e a n e d.
T h e r e a r e p a t e n t e d flexible c o n v e y o r s that c a n n o t o n l y c h a n g e
inclination b u t a l s o c h a n g e direction o r even s p i r a l -v e r t i c a l l y
u p w a r d s . O n e u n i t m a y r e p l a c e s e v e r a l s t r a i g h t l i n e b e l t s.
These units are not actually belts but segmental chain and
s p r o c k e t -d r i v e n m e c h a n i s m s w i t h i n t e r l o c k e d , p l e a t e d r u b b e r
t r o u g h sections. D r i v e mechanism w e a r a n d corrosion is h i g h in
c o m p a r i s o n w i t h f l a t b e l t c o n v e y o r s, These conveyors are not
recommended where there is sufficient room to allow installation
o f m u l t i p l e c o n v e n t i o n a l t r o u g h e d o r p o c k e t e d c o n v e y o r s.
Screw c o n v e y o r s ( F i g u r e 1 4- 1 9 ) a r e s i l e n t , r e l i a b l e, a n d
economical ( 3 2 ). T h e y a r e u s e d f o r horizontal m o v e m e n t o f g r i t
o r s l u d g e , or m a y be used t o c o n v e y dewatered s l u d g e u p inclines.
( The degree of incline depends upon sludge moisture content
a n d c o n s i s t e n c y ), Conservative sizing, abrasion resistant
construction m a t e r i a l s , a n d i n t e g r a l w a s h d o w n s y s t e m s w i t h i n
e n c l o s e d h o u s i n g s a r e r e c o m m e n d e d f o r solids h a n d l i n g facilities.
All e n c l o s e d h o u s i n g s s h o u l d h a v e numerous q u i c k o p e n i n g access
plates for maintenance and observation , Screw conveyors for
d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e s h o u l d n o t h a v e internal intermediate b e a r i n g s
b e c a u s e s l u d g e c a n p i l e u p o n t h e b e a r i n g a n d restrict o r p r e v e n t
f l o w. F o r t h i s r e a s o n , s c r e w c o n v e y o r l e n g t h s s h o u l d b e limited
t o 20 feet. S c r e w c o n v e y o r s w i t h reversible direction , o r w i t h
s e v e r a l slide g a t e controlled d i s c h a r g e o p e n i n g s in t h e b o t t o m o f
t h e c o n v e y o r h o u s i n g , a l l o w t h e p o i n t o f c o n v e y o r d i s c h a r g e t o be
c h a n g e d a s a p p r o p r i a t e, p r o v i d i n g f l e x i b i l i t y o f o p e r a t i o n.
1 4- 4 0
" TRIPPER WITH
SHUTTLE BELT FOR
TRANSFER TO MULTIPLE
BINS
SNUBBER
O - PULLEY
WALKWAY
“
TAIL
PULLEY
UNDESIRABLE LAYOUT
* NOT RECOMMENDED FOR USE WITH SLUDGE
TAIL
PULLEY
DUMP INTO
TANK AT HEAD
- OF CONVEYOR
TAIL
PULLEY
QQ
SCREW TAKEUP
FOR CONVEYOR
BELT TENSION
RECOMMENDED LAYOUT
FIGURE 14- 17
1 4- 4 1
FLEXIBLY CLEATED AND
SIDE WALLED
FLAT BELT CONVEYOR
FIGURE 14- 18
INLET
DISCHARGE
FIGURE 14- 19
SCREW CONVEYOR
14- 42
14.2 .4 Positive Displacement T y p e Conveyors
Positive displacement type conveyors include tubular conveyors
a n d bucket e l e v a t o r s. T u b u l a r c o n v e y o r s ( F i g u r e 1 4- 2 0 ) a r e
tubular conduits through which circular flights are pulled by
chains. They may be used f o r the horizontal t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f
d r y solids such a s incinerator ash o r semi -d r y grit , T h e y are
several times as expensive a s flat belts p e r linear foot , but
require much less room, are f u l l y enclosed and air tight , and can
be r o u t e d a n y w h e r e a conduit will fit. Maintenance is h i g h.
Most plants utilizing these conveyors routinely r e p l a c e the chain
elements at least once per month.
% MATERIAL
OUT
MATERIAL
FIGURE 14- 20
TUBULAR CONVEYOR
1 4 . 2.5 Pneumatic C o n v e y o r s
Pneumatic conveyors are usually not appropriate for dewatered
sludge, but can effectively handle screenings, grit , and dry
finely divided materials such as incinerator ash. Screenings and
1 4- 43
grit can be easily transported , even over long distances, through
the use of a batch pneumatic ejector system ( Figure 14 22 ). -
Such pneumatic ejector systems have provided good s ervice for
-
distances up to one half mile and up to 100 feet of lift , The
transport system between the points of loading and discharge is a
easily routed along available passages ,
-
totally enclosed pipe, which is clean and odor free and can be
The entire system
utilizes a minimum of moving parts , Consideration must be given
to the use of abrasion resistant materials , especially at pipe
bends , and an air pressure system consistent with the distance
and lift to be traversed.
MATERIAL
OUT
t
>
MATERIAL
>
)
t
>
W
FIGURE 14- 21
BUCKET ELEVATOR
-
Continuous pneumatic conveying systems (Figure 14 23 ) , either
pressure or vacuum type , are widely used where dry , particulate
materials are to be transported , Their use in sludge transport
is limited to materials such as incinerator ash. Where long
distances or complex routings are involved pneumatic conveyor
systems are especially well suited to ash transport.
Ash is an extremely abrasive material and rotary valves and elbow
segments in particular must be carefully specified to provide
maximum abrasion resistance , The blowers may require noise
shielding.
14- 44
transported product whenever possible , In general , inclinations
for dewatered sludge should be greater than 60 degrees from
the horizontal. For dry bulk materials , such as ash , the
inclinations should at least be greater than the material's
natural angle of repose.
DISCHARGE
HOPPER
V
SCREENINGS
OR GRIT
INLET CONTROLS
GATE GATE
\
I oo
L
n
DISCHARGE
‘1
EJECTOR
l A;
COMPRESSOR
uu \ CLEANOUT
RECEIVER
FIGURE 14-22
PNEUMATIC EJECTOR
MATERIAL
AND AIR
MATERIAL
OUT
FIGURE 14- 23
PNEUMATIC CONVEYOR
-
14 45
14.2.7 Odors
O p e n s l u d g e c o n v e y a n c e c a n b e a s o u r c e of o d o r s , A l l solids
t r a n s p o r t i n g facilities s h o u l d be w e l l ventilated a n d , if
necessary , provided with o d o r c o n t r o l for the vented air. E v e n
with stabilized s l u d g e s, if large holding o r equalization tanks
a r e required f o r t h e pumping s y s t e m , floating covers o r s p e c i a l
o d o r c o n t r o l facilities for venting t a n k air should be p r o v i d e d
w h e n t h e d e t e n t i o n t i m e is g r e a t e r t h a n s e v e r a l h o u r s. S e e
C h a p t e r 1 5 for more detailed information o n s l u d g e s t o r a g e.
Ettlich ( 2 8 ), in d e v e l o p i n g c o s t f o r m u l a s f o r t r a n s p o r t o f
wastewater s l u d g e, makes t h e following general observations about
t h e comparative economics of t h e long distance s l u d g e hauling
methods:
1. Transportation of dewatered sludge
1 4- 46
Pipeline is not economically attractive for annual
s l u d g e v o l u m e s o f 1 0 million g a l l o n s ( 3 8 , 000 m 3 ) o r
less because o f t h e high c a p i t a l investment.
1 4 . 3.1 . 1 T y p e s of T r u c k s
S l u d g e h a u l i n g t r u c k s a r e similar t o s t a n d a r d h i g h w a y t r u c k s
b e c a u s e both t y p e s o f trucks m u s t u s e public roads and c o m p l y
w i t h their o v e r a l l v e h i c l e w i d t h , h e i g h t a n d g r o s s w e i g h t
r e s t r i c t i o n s. M o s t o f t h e v a r i a b i l i t y c a n b e s e e n in s l u d g e
containment b o d y configuration. For t h e majority o f c a s e s, which
involve comparatively s h o r t distances with o n e-w a y t r a v e l times
l e s s t h a n o n e h o u r, e a s e a n d s p e e d o f l o a d i n g a n d u n l o a d i n g
a r e o f p a r a m o u n t i m p o r t a n c e. T h e l a r g e r t r u c k s a r e t h e m o s t
economical e x c e p t f o r one-w a y haul distances l e s s t h a n t e n miles
a n d a n n u a l s l u d g e v o l u m e s l e s s t h a n 3 , 0 0 0 cubic y a r d s f o r
dewatered sludge and for less than one million gallons per
1 4- 4 7
year for liquid sludge , Generally , diesel engines are used in
the larger trucks and are the economical choice for small trucks
that are operated at high annual mileage ( 35).
Where it is determined that economic , environmental , and
institutional considerations allow direct land application
of liquid digested sludge , special tank trucks are available
equipped with specially designed spreaders , auger beaters , and/or
special application apparatus. Some manufacturers equip their
-
trucks with subsoil injectors for sub surface treatment. Use of
such dual purpose trucks allows transport and ultimate disposal
without an intermediate storage/pumping step. Specialized
tanks or trucking equipment can be custom built for specific
applications. One company produces flexible tanks designed to
fit on a flatbed truck ( 37 ).
Spillage or leakage from sludge hauling operations are
unacceptable because of aesthetic and health considerations.
-
This has meant a shift away from belly dump vehicles, even for a
very well dewatered sludge cake. There is increased concern for
covering the top of the sludge to minimize both odor release
during transit and the chance of spillage due to sudden stops or
accidents. Consequently , tank type bodies are gradually becoming
-
the most common, even for mechanically dewatered sludges. These
vehicles require unusually large hatch openings for loading
for unloading .
-
purposes , and well designed water tight hatches or tailgates
Tanks for liquid sludge transport are of more
standard design , but the provision of internal baffles to
minimize load shifting is recommended for highway transport.
-
14 48
14.3 . 1.3 H a u l Scheduling
I n d e s i g n i n g s l u d g e h a n d l i n g f a c i l i t i e s , i t is d e s i r a b l e t o
provide several d u m p points with the capability t o quickly shift
from one t o a n o t h e r , If trailers are used , the ability t o fill
s e v e r a l units before t h e t r a c t o r unit r e t u r n s a d d s flexibility t o
scheduling and r e d u c e s s t o r a g e requirements , If t h e receiving
v e s s e l f o r d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e is n o t s e 1 f - p o w e r e d ( s u c h a s a
trailer ), consideration should be g i v e n t o movable d u m p c o n v e y o r s
t o allow t h e load t o b e distributed uniformly within the vessel.
D e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w i l l m o u n d w h e n l o a d e d f r o m a s i n g l e p o i n t.
This m a y p r e v e n t effective utilization o f t h e t r a n s p o r t vessel.
1 4 . 3 .1 . 4 Trucking C o s t s
1 4 . 3.2 Rail T r a n s p o r t
Rail transport is suitable for transporting sludges of any
solids concentration. I t is , however, n o t a common m e t h o d o f
transporting s l u d g e in the United S t a t e s.
1 4- 4 9
case with a pipeline. Rail t r a n s p o r t c a n suffer from many o f the
same p r o b l e m s as pipelines , such as l a r g e unrecoverable c a p i t a l
e x p e n d i t u r e s and fixed terminal p o i n t s. I n addition , it has some
of the same p r o b l e m s associated with trucking, such a s a n ongoing
administrative b u r d e n , v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o l a b o r d i s p u t e s a n d
strikes, risk of spills, a n d because of t h e labor requirements,
a n operational c o s t that will rise continually , However, s p e c i a l
circumstances may favor rail hauling , F o r e x a m p l e, if s l u d g e is
t o be used t o rehabilitate s t r i p- mined lands , a rail line may
have b e e n built for hauling o u t the coal , That line would still
be available f o r the t r a n s p o r t o f sludge.
14.3.2 . 2 Routes
R a i l r o a d c a r s m u s t b e h a u l e d by a r a i l r o a d c o m p a n y , e x c e p t
possibly for switching , Therefore a contract m u s t b e obtained
with the railroad , Since this contract h a u l i n g is a major c o s t
element , and since t h e railroad o f t e n c a n n o t provide rapid and
realistic cost estimates , some time and consideration will be
required.
Railroads a r e a r e g u l a t e d u t i l i t y ; t h i s c o m p l i c a t e s t h e r a t e
quotation process , R a t e s are o f t w o g e n e r a l t y p e s: a " class
.
r a t e" a n d a "s p e c i a l c o m m o d i t y r a t e " T h e c l a s s r a tes are
readily obtained , but are u s u a l l y prohibitively expensive for
s l u d g e. To obtain a special commodity rate , the f o l l o w i ng
p r o c e d u r e is n e c e s s a r y:
1 4- 50
1n production of fertilizers ) ; and a statement of the
price the shipper would be willing to pay in cents per
100 pounds net weight ( 45.4 kg ) .
2. The
distance,
local
terrain ,
railroad
the carrier
—
reviews the load ,
switching requirements , and
competition and calculates a rate .
—
3 . The r a t e i s published by the local freight bureau ( f o r
example, f o r S e a t t l e, Washington, t h e North C o a s t F r e i g h t
Bureau ) for a notice period of 30 days for review by
other, possibly competing , carriers , and by one of the
five regional freight bureaus: Western, Southwest,
Central , Southern, or Northeastern , The regional freight
bureaus are conglomerations of the local ones and they
regulate and control prices between bureau jurisdictions .
4 . Comments and appeals of r a t e s can be made t o the
I n t e r s t a t e Commerce Commission ( ICC ) , An a p p e a l of a
proposed rate will cause that rate t o be suspended for a
-
seven month period f o r the case to be heard by the
suspension board of ICC and for the c a r r i e r t o justify
. that rate .
Historically , appeals have caused proposed
rates to be eliminated from the carriers ' tariffs This .
effectively eliminates the option of rail transport of
sludge for this locality .
Generally speaking , railroads are interested in providing sludge
transportation .
However , many r a i l r o a d s are unfamiliar with
sludge hauling; s i m i l a r l y , many environmental engineers are
unfamiliar with railroad procedures ( 38 ) .
14.3 2.4 . Railcar Supply
-
14 51
unloaded within 24 hours, Reference time is 7 a.m . If a car is
delivered between midnight and 8 a . m., the time begins at 7 a.m.
the same day . If a car is delivered between 8 a .m. and midnight ,
the time begins at 7 a.m. the following day. Typical hopper car
capacities are 2,600 , 3 , 215 , and 4 ,000 cubic feet ( 75, 91, and
113 m 3 ), with the smallest size being typically the most readily
available .
Tank cars are normally rented by the month from private tank car
rental companies with a minimum five-year commitment , A large
non- insulated coiled car ( coiled to prevent freezing during the
winter months ) will rent for approximately $ 450 per month
( 1978 prices ) . Tank car capacities are typically 10, 000 to
20 , 000 gallons ( 37 , 850 to 75 , 700 1 ) . The selection of rail
transport , with its high transit times , for more putrescible
sludges without special gas venting and control equipment , should
be avoided , Typical minimum tank and hopper car requirements are
shown in Table 14- 8.
TABLE 14- 8
Car loadsa
Approximate secondary
treatment plant size , Annual sludge One -way Per Per Cars
MGD volume , MG distance , mi year day required ^
5 7.5 20 375 1 5
40 375 1 5
80 375 1 7
160 375 1 8
320 375 1 9
10 15 20 750 2 9
40 750 2 9
80 750 2 13
160 750 2 15
320 750 2 17
50 75 20 3 ,750 10 47
40 3 ,750 10 47
80 3 ,750 10 68
160 3 ,7 50 10 78
320 3 ,750 10 89
3
aCar size 20 ,000 gal (76 m ).
^Estimate assumes that ample storage is available so
that extra cars are not required for peak sludge
production or scheduling problems.
1 MGD = 0.044 m 3/s
1 MG = 3 ,785 m 3
1 mi 1.6 km
1 gal = 3.8 1
14- 52
T h e e x a c t c a l c u l a t i o n o f c a r r e q u i r e m e n t s i s v e r y s i t e- a n d
-
area specific and should be checked directly for any given
situation . I t should be recognized that the speed of railroad
transport will depend in part on the track conditions and on the
r a i l r o a d ' s normal t r a f f i c schedule; the track conditions may a l s o
limit the loads carried per car , and hence the size and number of
cars required .
As a guide only , typical t r a n s i t times are shown
i n T a b l e 1 4- 9 .
TABLE 14- 9
O n e-w a y d i s t a n c e , R o u n d- t r i p t r a n s i t t i m e , a
miles .
* iWW‘iib « !i :
days
20 4
40 4
80 6
160 7
320 8
1 4-5 3
estimates a r e g i v e n in T a b l e 1 4 - 1 0 . D a t a o n e n e r g y d e m a n d s
associated with railroad t r a n s p o r t a r e n o t readily available ,
but e n e r g y d e m a n d s a r e r e l a t i v e l y l o w c o m p a r e d w i t h o t h e r
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n m o d e s . T h e f u e l c o n s u m e d in t r a n s p o r t i n g t h e
s l u d g e s h o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s b e estimated f o r inclusion i n t h e
s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t program' s energy effectiveness analysis.
TABLE 14- 10
1 cu yd = 0.76 m 3
1 mil gal = 3 ,785 mJ
1 4 . 3.3 B a r g e Transportation
I t is e v i d e n t t h a t t h e k e y f e a t u r e in consideration o f b a r g e
transportation is t h e proximity t o a suitable w a t e r w a y , H o w e v e r ,
in planning a b a r g e t r a n s p o r t s y s t e m , t h e transit time a l s o p l a y s
a critical r o l e , T h e traffic o n t h e w a t e r w a y ; physical f e a t u r e s
s u c h a s drawbridges , locks , a n d height limitations , a n d natural
characteristics s u c h a s c u r r e n t s , tides, and e v e n w a v e heights
will all affect the transit time , Local operators familiar
with the waterway should be contacted for information and a
c o n s e r v a t i v e s a f e t y f a c t o r s h o u l d be a p p l i e d , Loading and
unloading times then must be added to estimate the overall
t u r n a r o u n d time -- t h e k e y f e a t u r e w h e n c o n t r a c t i n g f o r t o w i n g
s e r v i c e. Towing speeds and cost estimates are g i v e n i n
T a b l e 1 4-1 1.
1 4- 5 4
TABLE 14- 11
TUG COSTS FOR VARIOUS BARGE CAPACITIES3
Barge Capacity ,
Average velocity , knotsb _ c
Tug costs ,
barrels Loaded Unloaded dollars/hour
25 ,000 6 7 120
50,000 7 8 150
100 ,000 8 10 195
-
14 55
14.3.3.3 Barge Selection and Acquisition
Both the useful life and salvage value of barges tend to be high.
This will often lead to a decision to purchase rather than
lease equipment. Size and number of barges will depend on
plant size and the specific sludge processing system.
Some data on typical barge sizes and costs are g i v e n i n
Table 14- 12. Physical dimensions of barges are not standardized ,
since they are usually custom built within certain dimensions set
by some waterway constriction , such as lockage limitations. Lead
times on construction are about two years .
Barge proportions are
commonly length to breadth 4 or 5 to 1 , and breadth to depth
3 or 4 to 1. For inland waterways, about two feet ( 0.6 m ) of
freeboard under the maximum loaded condition is usually adequate.
Barges are very common in the 20, 000 to 25,000 barrel ( 3 , 200 to
4, 000 m 3 ) capacity range. Construction costs in 1976 were about
$ 6 per cubic foot ( $ 212/m 3 ) for a 25 , 000 barrel ( 4,000 m 3 ) barge,
with only a slight reduction in unit costs as size increases, to
about $ 5.50 per cubic foot ( $ 194/ m 3 ) at the 100 , 000 barrel
( 16 , 000 m 3 ) size. Greater flexibility in operations will usually
dictate the choice of smaller barges, unless distances are about
200 miles ( 330 km ) or more and number of waterway restrictions
low . Then the increased speed offered by a larger tug / barge
combination will substantially cut transit time and thus reduce
towing fees.
TABLE 14- 12
8
TYPICAL BARGE SIZES AND COSTS
C
Cost,
Dimensions , ft thousand dollars
. b
Capacity ,
barrels Length Breadth Depth Draft Newd'G Used ^
14 ,000 225
20 ,000 240 52 15 13.5 1 , 100
23 , 000 240 60 13.5
27 , 000 650
33 , 000 625
35 ,000 286 62 18 16 1 , 750
50 , 000 320 70 20 13 2 , 300
aExamples are for barges custom built for liquid sludges but do not include
pumps necessary for unloading.
^ One barrel equals 42 gallons ( 159 1).
CCosts are for 1976. Inflation in new and used barges has been about 15
percent per annum compounded 1976 through 1979.
d
Source: L. R. Gloston and Associates , Naval Architects , Seattle , Washington.
Construction costs were approximately 50 cents/lb of steel in the barge ($1.10/kg) in
1976 and are about 80 cents/lb ($1.80/kg) in 1979.
f
Source: William Drury Company , Seattle , Washington , communication to
Metropolitan Engineers/Brown and Caldwell , September 30 , 1976.
3
1 barrel = 0.16 m
1 ft 0.30 m
1 cent/lb = $0.022/kg
14-56
1 4 . 3.3 . 4 Ancillary Facilities
A critical factor in determining the feasibility of barging
s l u d g e l i e s in t h e c o s t o f facilities f o r loading a n d o f f l o a d i n g ,
a n d r e c e i v i n g t h e s l u d g e. If t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t is n o t c l o s e t o
t h e w a t e r w a y, i t m a y b e d e s i r a b l e t o l o c a t e a s l u d g e s t o r a g e
t a n k o r l a g o o o n n e a r t h e b a r g e loading d o c k , F o r a t a n k , d e s i g n
would need to be similar to an unheated digester because of
continued a n a e r o b i c d e c o m p o s i t i o n , L a g o o n s s h o u l d b e o p e r a t e d a s
facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s , I n either c a s e , c o s t s o f t h e t a n k o r
l a g o o n should be included in t h e b a r g e s y s t e m c o s t s.
I n m o s t c a s e s, it is desirable t o load a n d m e t e r t h e f l o w from a
fixed p u m p i n g s t a t i o n l o c a t e d o n a f i x e d w h a r f. O f f l o a d i n g i s
often accomplished by a pump mounted on the barge itself .
The disposal site should be located near a dock capable of
mooring a suitably sized barge. Floating d o c k s a r e u s u a l l y m o r e
e x p e n s i v e in b o t h m a r i n e a n d f r e s h w a t e r environments t h a n fixed
w h a r f s, d u e t o t h e c o m p l e x i t y o f a n c h o r i n g d e v i c e s c a p a b l e o f
s u s t a i n i n g t h e l o a d s i m p o s e d b y a l a r g e b a r g e. In certain
i n s t a n c e s, h o w e v e r , a floating d o c k m a y b e m o r e a c c e p t a b l e f r o m
a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l s t a n d p o i n t.
U n l o a d i n g t o a land p i p e l i n e typically t a k e s a b o u t 6 h o u r s, If a
t u g m u s t remain with t h e b a r g e d u r i n g t h e u n l o a d i n g p e r i o d , r a p i d
u n l o a d i n g b e c o m e s e c o n o m i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t.
14.4 References
1. Metcalf & Eddy, I n c. W a s t e w a t e r E n g i n e e r i n g ; T r e a t m e n t ,
D i s p o s a l , R e u s e. M c G r a w-H i l l. 1 9 7 9 ( s e c o n d edition ).
-
P 554
3. C a l d w e l l , D. H. a n d H . E. B a b b i t t . " The Flow of Muds,
S l u d g e s, a n d S u s p e n s i o n s i n Circular P i p e . " Transactions o f
American Institute of Chemical Engineers. V o l. 3 7, p . 237 .
A p r i l 2 5 , 1 9 4 1.
1 4- 5 7
4. Buckingham , E. " O n P l a s t i c F l o w T h r o u g h Capillary T u b e s."
Proceedings of the Ame ric a n Socie ty of Testing and
Materials. V o l. 2 1 , P 1 1 5 4. 1 9 2 1.
-
5. Rimkus , R.R. a n d R.W. Heil. "T h e R h e o l o g y o f Plastic S e w a g e
S l u d g e." Proceedings of the Second National Conference on
C o m p l e t e W a t e r R e u s e. C h i c a g o, I l l i n o i s: 5 / 4 - 8/ 7 5.
A m e r i c a n I n s t i t u t e o f C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r s. L.K . C e c i l, e d.
P 7 2 2.
-
6. R i m k u s , R.R. a n d R.W. H e i l. " Breaking the Viscosity
Barrier." Proceedings of the Second National Conference on
C o m p l e t e W a t e r R e u s e. C h i c a g o , Ill i n o i s : 5 / 4 - 8/ 7 5.
American Institute o f C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r s. L.K. C e c i l, e d.
P 7 1 6.
-
7. K e n n y , J .P. Bulk Transport of Waste Slurries to Inland and
O c e a n D i s p o s a l S i t e s. V o l u m e I I I. B e c h t e l C o r p o r a t i o n.
1 9 6 9. Published b y N a t i o n a l T e c h n i c a l Information Service
a s P B 1 8 9 7 5 9/B E.
8. B a b b i t t, H.E. a n d D.H . C a l d w e l l. "L a m i n a r F l o w o f S l u d g e s
in P i p e s w i t h P a r t i c u l a r R e f e r e n c e t o S e w a g e S l u d g e. "
U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s E n g i n e e r i n g E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n,
Bulletin S e r i e s, N o. 3 1 9. 1 9 3 9.
9. Rabinowitsch, B. Z. P h y s i c a l C h e m i s t r y . V o l. 1 4 5 A , P 1.
1 9 2 9.
-
1 0. Wolfs, J.R. " F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g S l u d g e F o r c e Mains. " S e w a g e
a n d Industrial W a s t e s. V o l. 2 2, p. 1. J a n u a r y 1 9 5 0.
1 1. H o l l a n d , F.A. F l u i d F l o w f o r C h e m i c a l E n g i n e e r s. Chemical
P u b l i s h i n g C o m p a n y. 1 9 7 3.
12 . B o u r k e , J .D . "Sludge Handling Characteristics in Piped
S y s t e m s." Proceedings of the Northern Regional Conference
o f t h e C a l i f o r n i a W a t e r P o l l u t i o n C o n t r o l A s s o c i a t i o n. i' a
1 4-5 8
17. Hanks, R.W. "The Laminar-Turbulent Transition for Fluids
With a Yield Stress." American Institute of Chemical
Engineers Journal. Vol. 9, No. 3, P 306. 1964.
.
18. Hanks, R.W. and D.R. Pratt. "On the Flow of Bingham Plastic
Slurries on Pipes and Between Parallel Plates." Society o.f
Petroleum Engineers Journal .P * 342. December 1967.
19. Kenny , J.P • r E .J. Wasp , and T.L. Thompson. " A Design Model
for Pipeline Flow of Solid Wastes." Water-1970. Chemical
Engineering Progress Symposium Series, American Institute
of Chemical Engineers. Vol. 67, no. 107, P 364. 1971.
-
20. Dick , R. I . and B.B. Ewing . " The Rheology of Activated
S l u d g e." Journal Water Pollution Control Federation.
Vol. 39 , p. 543. 1967.
21. Bingham, E.C. Fluidity and Plasticity. McGraw-Hill. 1922.
22. Brisbin, S.G. "Flow of Concentrated Raw Sewage Sludges in
Pipes." Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division ASCE.
.
Vol. 83, no. SA 3 , p 1274. June 1957.
23. Chou , T. L . " Flow of Concentrated Raw Sewage Sludges in
Pipes." Journal of the Sanitary Engineering Division ASCE.
Vol. 84 , no. SAl , p. 1557. February 1958.
24. Vesilind , P.A. " Treatment and Disposal of Wastewater
Sludges." Ann Arbor Science. Chapter 4. 1979 ( Second
Edition ).
25. City of San Francisco. "Primary Sludge Pump Evaluation."
Prepared by the City's Division of Sanitary Engineering.
October 1975.
26. Sparr , A.E. " Pumping Sludge Long Distances." Journal Water
Po 11 ution Control Federation . Vol. 43 , P - 1702. August
1971.
27. Williams, M.L. " A Guide to the Specification of Glass Lined
P i p e ." Water & Sewage Works. Vol 124 , no. 10 , p. 76.
October 1977.
28. USEPA. Transport of Sewage Sludge. U . S . Environmental
Protection Agency report EPA-600/2- 77-216 . December 1977.
.
28 a Weller , L . W . " Pipeline Transport and Incineration." Water _
1 4- 6 0
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 15
STORAGE
15.1 Introduction
Storage is an integral part of every wastewater solids treatment
and disposal system , since it is necessary to the assurance
that the system will be used to full capacity , Recent emphasis
on the control of wastewater solids treatment and disposal
mandates that effective storage be provided , Storage that is
compatible with the objectives of a system must be incorporated
into its design to enhance both the system 's reliability and its
efficiency.
-
15 1
"“mtea&t
1 5- 2
during these operations reduces the concentration of
putrescible o r g a n i c material. Conversely , if p r o c e s s e d
a n d t r a n s p o r t e d mechanically ( that is, without washing ) ,
they may b e the source o f strong o d o r s w h e n subsequently
s t o r e d.
• p H is a d j u s t e d t o v a l u e s a b o v e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 2 a n d
below approximately 4 by adding chemicals like lime o r
c h l o r i n e. N o t e t h a t pH e x t r e m e s m u s t b e maintained.
T h e s e t r e a t m e n t s d o n o t d e s t r o y p u t r e s c i b l e materials,
and t h e biocidal e f f e c t s caused by e x t r e m e p H are l o s t a s
the pH drifts toward neutral values as the result of
interaction with a t m o s p h e r i c c a r b o n dioxide.
Nuisance o d o r s w i l l n o t d e v e l o p in anaerobic s t o r a g e w h e n
sufficient methane bacteria are p r e s e n t. If t h e m e t h a n e bacteria
a r e d e s t r o y e d , h o w e v e r, serious o d o r p r o b l e m s m a y result. A s a n
e x a m p l e , consider anaerobically digested s l u d g e which is p l a c e d
o n a drying bed o r in a drying l a g o o n. T h e t o p l a y e r of s l u d g e
is dewatered , and methane bacteria die as the s l u d g e a e r a t e s and
dries. O d o r l e v e l s a r e e x t r e m e l y low , since t h e s l u d g e is t o o
dry t o s u p p o r t anaerobic biological activity. S h o u l d t h e surface
o f t h e s l u d g e b e r e-w e t t e d ( f o r e x a m p l e, by rainfall o r surface
flooding ), h o w e v e r, anaerobic activity would resume, t h e organic
acid concentration w o u l d r a p i d l y i n c r e a s e , a n d o d o r s w o u l d
increase t o nuisance l e v e l s . O d o r p r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h
approximately 5 8 0 acres ( 2 3 5 h a ) o f drying l a g o o n s a t S a n J o s e,
California, i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g a rainstorm , is a n e x a m p l e o f
this t y p e o f p r o b l e m ( 2 ).
1 5- 3
f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s without being contaminated by freshly digested
s l u d g e , its o r g a n i c s content ( 4 0 t o 5 0 p e r c e n t ) a n d its c o n t e n t
o f pathogenic bacteria, viruses, and p a r a s i t e s will be greatly
r e d u c e d ( 1 , 3 ).
W a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s m a y b e s t o r e d in f a c i l i t i e s within t h e
treatment system, within the sludge treatment and disposal
s y s t e m , a n d within t a n k s, l a g o o n s, bins , o r stockpiles provided
primarily for s t o r a g e , This latter g r o u p is divided into t w o
divisions, t h o s e provided for either liquid o r dewatered sludge.
T h e use o f w a s t e w a t e r and sludge t r e a t m e n t facilities for solids
s t o r a g e m u s t n o t adversely a f f e c t their treatment capability . If
this potential exists , t h e n facilities dedicated primarily t o
s t o r a g e m u s t b e provided .
• S i n g l e - P h a s e C o n c e n t r a t i o n. S o l i d s a c c u m u l a t e in a
completely-mixed vessel as a result of increasing
concentration. T h e solids concentration i s uniform
t h r o u g h o u t a n d vessel volume is c o n s t a n t. F o r e x a m p l e,
solids b u i l d u p w i t h i n t h e a e r a t i o n r e a c t o r o f a n
activated s l u d g e s y s t e m if solids a r e not w a s t e d .
1 5- 4
Long -T e r m Storage Solids detention time is greater
t h a n one m o n t h.
Table 1 5-1 lists wastewater solids storage by type, facility ,
m e t h o d , a n d detention time category.
TABLE 15- 1
Detention time
I n f l u e n t v a r i a b i l i t y a n d fixed e f f l u e n t r e q u i r e m e n t s m a k e
operational flexibility a necessity for every wastewater
treatment plant, O n e o f t h e m o s t c o s t- effective m e a n s o f
p r o v i d i n g f l e x i b i l i t y f o r s m a l l p l a n t s is t o a s s u r e t h a t
treatment p r o c e s s e s contain s t o r a g e within themselves.
15 6-
TABLE 15- 1
WASTEWATER SOLIDS STORAGE APPLICABILITY (Continued )
Detention time
Facilities provided
primarily for stor-
age of dewatered
sludge
Sludge drying -
Two phase concentra- X -
Initial settling accomplishes two phase
lagoons tion and displace
ment
- concentration. Process solids not
normally removable for one to two
months. Odor minimization requires
anaerobically digested solids. Can be
odorous if aerobically stabilized sur
face layers begin to decompose
-
anaerobically when rewetted.
Confined hoppers Displacement X X Moist (15 to 30 percent solids) dewatered
or bins sludge can present major material manage
ment and odor production problems if
-
storage time exceeds 3 to 4 days.
Structures usually too expensive for
long- term storage. Short-term storage
can be successful with dry (greater than
30 to 40 percent solids) stabilized
sludges.
Unconfined stock - Displacement X X X Requires stabilized dry (greater than 30
piles to 40 percent solids) sludge. Stock
piles are usually covered in very wet
-
climates. Natural freeze drying is
possible.
I f s t o r a g e is p r o v i d e d in p r i m a r y s e d i m e n t a t i o n , solids
processing systems can operate at rates independent of
t h e r a t e at which solids are removed f r o m t h e w a s t e w a t e r.
This is especially useful f o r small p l a n t s which are not
manned continuously and for a n y size p l a n t t h a t e x p e r i e n c e s
l a r g e diurnal o r s e a s o n a l fluctuations in settleable solids.
1 5- 7
Concentration of s l u d g e r e m o v e d from t h e primary sedimentation
t a n k m a y b e c o n t r o l l e d t o s o m e d e g r e e if t h e d e p t h o f t h e s l u d g e
l a y e r in t h e s l u d g e r e m o v a l h o p p e r s is controlled , H o p p e r sides
s h o u l d b e s l o p e d a t l e a s t 6 0 d e g r e e s o f f t h e horizontal s o
that solids c a n flow by gravity t o the pump suction. Primary
sedimentation t a n k s t o r a g e capacity should be sufficient t o allow
suitably sized primary sludge pumps t o remove the p e a k sludge
loadings. Otherwise t h e solids m a y interfere with t h e gathering
function of the longitudinal sludge collectors in r e c t a n g u l a r
t a n k s o r t h e main collector in circular clarifiers.
T h e d e s i g n e r o f a 7 . 5- M G D ( 0 . 3 3 - m 3 /s ) a v e r a g e d e s i g n f l o w
wastewater treatment plant wishes to determine the available
s l u d g e s t o r a g e v o l u m e in t h r e e r e c t a n g u l a r primary sedimentation
t a n k s, t h e t a n k s a r e d e s i g n e d t o t r e a t a p e a k w e t w e a t h e r
flow o f 2 0 M G D ( 0 . 8 8 m /s ). ^ Available s t o r a g e will determine
t h e maximum time allowed between s l u d g e pumping c y c l e s and t h e
maximum capacity o f t h e s l u d g e p u m p s.
T a n k d e s i g n is b a s e d o n c o n s e r v a t i v e e x p e r i e n c e i n v o l v i n g
o v e r f l o w r a t e s a n d mean velocities a t a v e r a g e d e s i g n f l o w s. Each
t a n k is 1 1 0 feet ( 33.5 m ) l o n g and 1 9 feet ( 5 . 8 m ) wide, with a n
a v e r a g e s i d e w a t e r d e p t h o f t e n f e e t ( 3 . 0 5 m ). Longitudinal
c o l l e c t o r s operating continuously bring t h e settled sludge t o the
head e n d o f the t a n k , where it is conveyed t o t h e s l u d g e removal
h o p p e r by cross- collectors , T h e sludge is t h e n p u m p e d from t h e
removal h o p p e r o n a timed c y c l e with d e n s i t y a n d blanket l e v e l
instrumentation. C r o s s collection channels a n d s l u d g e r e m o v a l
h o p p e r s have b e e n laid o u t t o aid in t h e concentration, s t o r a g e,
a n d r e m o v a l o f t h e c o l l e c t e d s l u d g e by p r o v i d i n g s t e e p s i d e
s l o p e s , a m p l e d e p t h s , a n d s h o r t suction p i p e l i n e s. Combined
s t o r a g e volume o f t h e cross c o l l e c t o r c h a n n e l a n d r e m o v a l h o p p e r
o f t h e s e l e c t e d t a n k d e s i g n is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 5 0 c u b i c f e e t
( 9 . 9 m 3 ) f o r each t a n k.
I t is a s s u m e d t h a t p e a k a n d w e t w e a t h e r f l o w s will b e o f a t
least eight hours duration and will h a v e a n a v e r a g e s u s p e n d e d
solids content of 2 0 0 mg/1. Primary sedimentation t a n k removal
1 5-8
efficiency is a s s u m e d t o b e o n l y 5 0 p e r c e n t a t p e a k w e t w e a t h e r
f l o w , d o w n f r o m 6 0 p e r c e n t a t a v e r a g e d e s i g n f l o w , because o f
h i g h e r o v e r f l o w r a t e a n d h i g h e r m e a n v e l o c i t y. U s i n g t h e s e
a s s u m p t i o n s, t h e s o l i d s collected in e a c h primary sedimentation
t a n k d u r i n g t h e s t o r m c a n be calculated a s follows:
2 3 1 l b s/h r
= 5 8 f t 3/h r ( 1 . 6 m 3/h r )
( 0 . 0 6 ) ( 1 . 0 7 ) ( 6 2 . 4 l b s/f t 3 )
B y d i v i d i n g t h i s p r o d u c t i o n i n t o t h e s t o r a g e v o l u m e available,
the designer finds the maximum period of time between pump
c y c l e s t o b e slightly g r e a t e r t h a n six h o u r s.
T h e p r i m a r y s l u d g e piping t o t h e d i g e s t e r is a r r a n g e d s o t h a t
o n l y o n e p r i m a r y s l u d g e p u m p c a n o p e r a t e a t a t i m e, To assure
sufficient pumping capacity to handle the peak wet weather
s l u d g e, it is n e c e s s a r y t h a t e a c h p u m p o p e r a t e o n l y o n e-third o f
t h e t i m e. E a c h pump , t h e r e f o r e, m u s t h a v e t h e c a p a c i t y t o r e m o v e
,
a l l o f t h e s l u d g e s t o r e d d u r i n g t h e s i x - h o u r c y c l e in t w o h o u r s.
T h i s capacity is c a l c u l a t e d a s f o l l o w s:
As a n additional s a f e t y f a c t o r , t o a s s u r e maximum r e l i a b i l i t y
a n d o p e r a t i o n a l f l e x i b i l i t y, t h i s p u m p i n g r a t e i s d o u b l e d a n d
r o u n d e d o f f t o 5 0 g a l l o n s p e r m i n u t e ( 3 . 2 1 /s ) , The pump
s e l e c t e d ( a d i a p h r a g m p u m p, s e e C h a p t e r 1 4 ) c a n b e a d j u s t e d d o w n
t o 2 5 g p m ( 1 . 6 1/s ) if h i g h e r f l o w r a t e s a r e f o u n d t o p u l l l i q u i d
instead o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g s o l i d s.
Solids a r e s t o r e d in a e r a t i o n r e a c t o r s a n d s e c o n d a r y sedimen-
tation tanks whenever there is an increase in the solids
concentration o f t h e mixed l i q u o r. T h i s solids i n c r e a s e r e q u i r e s
t h e t w o p r o c e s s e s t o b e o p e r a t e d a s o n e, w i t h t h e sedimentation
t a n k p r o v i d i n g t h e t w o-p h a s e concentration n e c e s s a r y t o f u l l y
15-9
utilize the single- phase concentration storage capabilities of
the reactors . Reactors should be designed with the flexibility
t o o p e r a t e either in the p l u g flow , s t e p feed , reaeration o r
contact stabilization modes or any combination o f these , Given a
fixed reactor size , maximum solids storage capability is provided
when the process o p e r a t e s in a combination of the reaeration and
contact stabilization modes. O f t e n the ability t o switch between
c o m p l e t e plug flow a n d partial reaeration m o d e s allows the solids
t o be removed from the hydraulic flow stream and p r e v e n t s their
loss when t h a t stream receives a shock loading . Operation in the
s t e p feed mode also minimizes the solid loading rates t o the
secondary sedimentation tanks. This solids storage flexibility
should be provided regardless of whether the source o f aeration
c o m e s from dissolved air o r pure oxygen. Plug flow nitrifying
a e r a t i o n s y s t e m s , w h i c h are o f t e n r e q u i r e d t o retain s o l i d s
f o r t w o t o t h r e e w e e k s , o p e r a t e a t maximum efficiency w h e n
t h e hydraulic and organic l o a d i n g s h a v e t h e least diurnal
fluctuation. This uniformity i s often achieved in smaller plants
t h r o u g h u p s t r e a m flow e q u a l i z a t i o n. Oxidation ditches a r e a
simple t y p e of aeration r e a c t o r found in many small treatment
plants . More design information o n aeration reactors and flow
equalization is available ( 4- 8 ).
Both the Imhoff and t h e community septic tank were in use long
before m o s t of the sludge treatment processes discussed in this
manual . For this reason , it is not surprising that their design
includes significant sludge s t o r a g e capabilities. Imhoff tanks
a r e still in use in m a n y o f t h e o l d e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s , a n d
t h e r e f o r e , still p r o v i d e t h o s e p l a n t s with e x t e n s i v e solids
s t o r a g e c a p a c i t y in w h a t are essentially unheated low r a t e
anaerobic digesters ( see C h a p t e r 6 ). T h e s t o r a g e capacity of
Imhoff and septic tanks is part of the empirical design criteria
f o r t h e s e facilities . While their f u t u r e use m a y b e limited
because of today ’ s secondary treatment mandate , both processes
offer low c o s t primary treatment f o r upgrading small community
wastewater stabilization pond facilities . In Newman , California ,
existing community septic t a n k s are being upgraded t o provide
1 5-1 0
primary treatment for a 0 . 7 6-M G D ( 33.3-1/s ) c o m p l e t e treatment
plant with p o n d stabilization f o r s e c o n d a r y treatment a n d
overland flow for tertiary treatment ( 1 1 ). M o r e information o n
Imhoff and community s e p t i c t a n k design is available ( 4,1 2,1 3 ).
W a s t e w a t e r stabilization p o n d s a r e c o s t - e f f e c t i v e b e c a u s e
o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s t o r e s o l i d s. Pure aerobic wastewater
stabilization p o n d s provide only single- p h a s e concentration t y p e
s t o r a g e, w h e r e a s t h e m o r e c o m m o n l y used anaerobic a n d facultative
p o n d s, can p r o v i d e f o r long -t e r m, t w o-p h a s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t y p e
s t o r a g e o f r e m o v e d s e t t l e a b l e a n d c r e a t e d b i o l o g i c a l s o l i d s.
W h e n debris is t h o r o u g h l y r e m o v e d f r o m their influent , s e c o n d a r y
facultative p o n d s can s t o r e m o s t o f t h e wastewater solids from a
large s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t p l a n t for many y e a r s. I n S u n n y v a l e,
California , secondary t r e a t m e n t facultative stabilization p o n d s
c o v e r i n g 4 2 5 acres ( 1 7 2 h a ) h a v e b e e n r e c e i v i n g t h e majority o f
s e w a g e s o l i d s f r o m a 1 5 - M G D ( 6 5 7 - 1/ s ) p l a n t f o r t h e p a s t t e n
y e a r s with n o ill e f f e c t s. S u n n y v a l e' s t e r t i a r y t r e a t m e n t
f a c i l i t i e s f o r a l g a e a n d n i t r o g e n r e m o v a l r e t u r n a l l solids
removed by dissolved air flotation and gravity filtration t o t h e
p o n d s ( 1 3 ). Primary s l u d g e is r e m o v e d f r o m t h e p l a n t before t h e
primary e f f l u e n t is d i s c h a r g e d into t h e p o n d a n d anaerobically
stabilized in c o m p l e t e- mix digesters. S u p e r n a t a n t from t h e s e
digesters is discharged daily into the p l a n t's influent. M o s t o f
the solids eventually find their way t o the facultative pond.
B o t t o m s l u d g e is w i t h d r a w n e v e r y w e e k o r t e n d a y s f r o m t h e
c o m p l e t e - mix d i g e s t e r s a n d d i s c h a r g e d t o a n a e r o b i c s l u d g e
l a g o o n s. T h e primary sedimentation e f f l u e n t , a n d t h e u n c a p t u r e d
and unrecycled contents of the supernatant merge with the
anaerobic b o t t o m l a y e r s in t h e s e c o n d a r y t r e a t m e n t facultative
stabilization p o n d s.
1 5 . 2.2 S t o r a g e Within W a s t e w a t e r S l u d g e
Treatment Processes
T a b l e 1 5 -1 l i s t s w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s t h a t
p r o v i d e some d e g r e e of solids s t o r a g e. T h e following p a r a g r a p h s
discuss how much of this s t o r a g e capability can be used and how
its u s e c a n b e m a d e a s effective a s p o s s i b l e.
1 5-1 1
1 5 . 2. 2 . 1 Gravity Thickeners
Gravity thickeners s e p a r a t e liquid f r o m primary a n d fixed - g r o w t h
b i o l o g i c a l s e c o n d a r y s o l i d s. I n t h i s s e n s e, t h e y f u n c t i o n
like p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y sedimentation facilities , Cool
temperatures and chemicals which retard septicity enable
gravity thickeners t o s t o r e sludge f o r s e v e r a l d a y s. Equipment
precautions recommended for primary sedimentation facilities
a p p l y t o gravity thickeners , Using t h e same t y p e o f calculation
indicated in t h e primary sedimentation d e s i g n e x a m p l e s , s t o r a g e
capacity can be increased by providing e x t r a d e p t h , For more
design information o n gravity thickeners s e e C h a p t e r 5.
S e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r s c a n b e u s e d f o r t w o- p h a s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
s t o r a g e b y m e a n s o f l i q u i d -s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n a s l o n g a s t h e y
are not treating stabilized biological suspended growth
( w a s t e- a c t i v a t e d ) s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e. Biological fixed growth
s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e n o r m a l l y d o e s n o t u s e s e c o n d a r y d i g e s t e r,
t w o- p h a s e concentration s t o r a g e. More and m o r e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s
a r e finding t h a t t h e stabilization o f w a s t e- activated s l u d g e h a s
a major impact o n digester operation. Without w a s t e- activated
s l u d g e , t h e 1 i q u i d - s o l i d s s e p a r a t i o n p r o c e s s in s e c o n d a r y
digesters can concentrate and store solids for considerable
p e r i o d s o f t i m e. These time periods usually equal the time
r e q u i r e d t o fill t h e s e c o n d a r y digester a t design flow r a t e s a n d ,
depending o n the quality o f a c c e p t a b l e s u p e r n a t a n t , c a n often be
extended.
A l l d i g e s t e r s c a n b e u s e d t o p r o v i d e e q u a l i z a t i o n s t o r a g e.
Digesters m a y be used t o equalize peak loadings and thereby m a k e
d o w n s t r e a m d e w a t e r i n g m o r e c o s t- e f f e c t i v e a s t h e f o l l o w i n g
e x a m p l e illustrates.
Design E x a m p l e
1 5-1 2
FEED
270,100 = RAW INFLUENT SOLIDS , Ibc / dey
31,500
GRIT CHAMBER GRIT
RECIRCULATED
259,262
SOLIDS
I
PRIMARY 90,742 PRIMARY
SEDIMENTATION
EFFLUENT
65% CAPTURE
168,520
DIGESTERS SOLIDS
SUPERNATANT 65,723 CONVERTED
{ 39% SOLIDS
( ZERO ) DESTRUCTION ) TO GAS AND
A WATER
102,797
516
POLYMER
20,663
103,313
f
FILTER CENTRIFUGES
(80% CAPTURE ) (80% CAPTURE )
FILTRATE
CENTRATE
i 82,650 SOLIDS TO
WASTE
FIGURE 15- 1
-
15 13
p e r d a y ( 9 0 , 8 0 0 k g /d ) ; u n d e r a v e r a g e l o a d i n g conditions , t h e
dewatering units are clearly n o t s t r e s s e d. T h e treatment p l a n t ,
however , r e c e i v e s f l o w f r o m a c o m b i n e d s a n1 t a r y / s f o r m s e w e r
n e t w o r k. During s t o r m s, h y d r a u l i c loadings increase dramatically
a s a r e s u l t o f infiltration a n d inflow t o t h e s e w e r s y s t e m.
P l a n t solids l o a d i n g s a l s o increase s h a r p l y a s t h e r e s u l t o f
solids being carried into t h e s e w e r by r u n- off and t h e s c o u r i n g
of previously accumulated materials from the sewer s y s t e m.
1 5- 1 4
The effects of these operations can be estimated from an
unsteady state analysis of digester operations , The basic
predictive equation is derived by an unsteady state mass balance:
Where:
Q = digester feed rate , volume per time ;
t time.
QCi - ( Q-k )C - _
QC i X = d(VC )
dt
3. -
The right hand side of the above equation can be further
developed :
d( VC )
dt
dc dV
V dt + C dt =
^
V dt + Ck
4. Simplifying:
dc
QCi (1 X )- - QC = V dt
15 15-
5. M a k e t h e s i m p l i f y i n g a s s u m p t i o n s t h a t d i g e s t e r feed f l o w ,
f e e d c o n c e n t r a t i o n, a n d l i q u i d v o l u m e a r e c o n s t a n t f o r t h e
p e r i o d t. The above equation is integrated and solved
f o r C.
E q u a t i o n 1 5-1 p r e d i c t s d i g e s t e d s l u d g e s o l i d s c o n c e n-
t r a t i o n a t a n y t i m e b e y o n d initiation o f t h e o p e r a t i n g
s t r a t e g y. CQ i s d e f i n e d a s d i g e s t e d s l u d g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n
a t t h e t i m e t h e o p e r a t i n g s t r a t e g y i s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n.
Note that the product of digested sludge concentration
( C ) a n d d i g e s t e r e f f l u e n t l i q u i d f l o w ( Q-k ) i s t h e l o a d
w h i c h t h e d e w a t e r i n g u n i t s m u s t p r o c e s s.
TABLE 15- 2
1 5-1 6
average conditions , dropping t o 20 percent ( X = 0.20 ) during
the storm due to decreased digester retention time , T h e c a l c u l a-
tion shows that dewatering capacity ( 200 , 000 pounds per day
t e , 8 0 0 kg /d ] ) i s n o t exceeded d u r i n g t h e storm , t h u s t h e
operating strategy has been successful , Calculations for two
other strategies which were not successful are also included .
The results are shown graphically on Figure 15 2 - .
300,000
T - STRATEGY 8.
FEED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
m \ 5%; ALLOW COVERS TO RISE 1 ft/ day
~ u
a
o — STRATEGY d
FEED SOLIDS CONCENTRATION
7% ; COVERS ARE STATIONARY
-8>
. 2G0fG0Q
- Q
CAPACITY OF
m
T3
DEWATERING UNITS
n
LU STRATEGY A.
< FEED MUDS CONCENTRATION
CC 7%; ALLOW COVERS TO RISE 1 ft / day
n
LU
LU
LL
t 100,000
3
ID
cc
LU
<
5
LU
o
1 ft/ day = 0.305 m /day
0 1 2 3 4 5
FIGURE 15- 2
15- 17
1 5 . 2. 2 . 3 Aerobic D i g e s t e r s
T o u s e a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r f o r t w o- p h a s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n t y p e
s t o r a g e, t h e n o r m a l l y h i g h l y a g i t a t e d c o n t e n t s m u s t b e m a d e
quiescent and t h e solids m a d e t o s e t t l e from t h e l i q u o r before
the whole mass becomes anaerobic and starts to decompose and
c r e a t e nuisance o d o r s . Chemical t r e a t m e n t can facilitate solids
settling. W i t h o u t s u c c e s s f u l d e c a n t i n g , o n l y s i n g l e- p h a s e
concentration t y p e s t o r a g e and displacement t y p e s t o r a g e can b e
u s e d by aerobic d i g e s t e r s. W h e n displacement t y p e s t o r a g e is
used with a fixed surface a r e a, t h e liquid s u r f a c e m u s t rise o r
fall. U n d e r s u c h conditions, t h e aeration and mixing source m u s t
automatically a d j u s t t o s u c h c h a n g e s. Floating mechanical units
and fixed - b o t t o m m o u n t e d diffusers a r e both a d a p t a b l e t o t h e s e
r e q u i r e m e n t s ; fixed m e c h a n i c a l a e r a t o r s a r e n o t . Long- term
s t o r a g e in aerobic digesters will h a v e a relatively low capital
c o s t and a very high operating ( energy ) c o s t. O f t e n, evaporation
can a c c o u n t f o r significant concentration o f t h e stored solids.
A s long a s t h e solids remain aerobic t h r o u g h o u t the digester ,
the odor impact of such storage is very minimal. For more
information o n aerobic digesters , s e e C h a p t e r 6.
15.2.2.4 Composting
1 5 . 2. 2 . 5 Drying B e d s
D r y i n g b e d s a r e used e x t e n s i v e l y b y m a n y s m a l l e r p l a n t s in
c o n j u n c t i o n with a n a e r o b i c a n d a e r o b i c d i g e s t i o n. T h e y a r e
o p e r a t e d o n a fill and d r a w basis and a r e o f t e n used t o provide
t w o-p h a s e concentration and displacement t y p e s t o r a g e between
production a n d disposal. T o a s s u r e a d e q u a t e s t o r a g e capability ,
t h e designer should allow for u p t o 50 p e r c e n t excess drying bed
area. M o r e design information o n s l u d g e drying beds c a n b e found
in C h a p t e r 9.
W h e n s o l i d s s t o r a g e within w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s e s and
sludge solids t r e a t m e n t processes cannot provide the operational
flexibility n e c e s s a r y t o maintain c o s t- effective solids t r e a t m e n t
1 5-1 8
" MMWSASS*
a n d d i s p o s a l , t h e s e w i t h i n -p r o c e s s s t o r a g e c a p a b i l i t i e s m u s t
be a u g m e n t e d with s p e c i a l dedicated s t o r a g e facilities. These
dedicated s t o r a g e facilities can provide s t o r a g e f o r s l u d g e in
e i t h e r t h e l i q u i d o r d e w a t e r e d s t a t e, a n d may , d e p e n d i n g o n
design considerations and u p s t r e a m treatment , be utilized for any
of the three detention times listed in T a b l e 1 5-1.
U s u a l l y , d e d i c a t e d l i q u i d s t o r a g e f a c i l i t i e s consist o f o n e
o f t h e t h r e e t y p e s listed in T a b l e 1 5 -1 . A l t h o u g h listed a s
primarily for s t o r a g e of liquid s l u d g e , any of t h e s e facilities
that are used f o r anything o t h e r t h a n equalizing s t o r a g e ( 3 t o
4 d a y s ) will a l s o p r o v i d e s o m e d e g r e e o f s o l i d s t r e a t m e n t.
H o l d i n g t a n k s , without air a g i t a t i o n , a n d facultative s l u d g e
l a g o o n s u s u a l l y c o n t i n u e a n a e r o b i c s t a b i l i z a t i o n, Holding
t a n k s, with air agitation, a n d aeration basins continue aerobic
stabi 1 ization. As t h e s e are side benefits t o t h e main design
functions of t h e s e facilities, they h a v e been ignored for t h e
p u r p o s e of t h e s e classifications. H o w e v e r , if t h e s t o r a g e is for
a l o n g t e r m, then t h e additional t r e a t m e n t afforded certainly
must b e t a k e n into a c c o u n t in setting final disposal criteria.
15.3.1.1 Holding T a n k s
1 5-1 9
If the holding tank is located downstream from a sludge treatment
process , special precautions may be required. For example , if
downstream from anaerobic digestion and planned for more than a
few hours of storage, the blending tank should be designed with a
cover and be equipped to collect and remove combustible digester
gas. If downstream from chlorine stabilization, it should be
designed to function in a very low pH ( acid ) environment ,
Whatever its function , however , the holding tank must be designed
to eliminate the production of malodorous gaseous discharges.
This elimination is made especially difficult when the holding
tank must provide equalizing storage and operate on a batch
basis. Unless the solids supplied to the holding tank are
completely stabilized ( a condition seldom encountered with
wastewater sludge ), the tank ' s use for extended periods of
storage will result in the creation of nuisance odors.
Design Examples
fiAWCE Dr urcnATiiViG
WATER SURFACE ( W SVl .
14‘(T 6Jt PRESSURE - VACUUM
RiUFf AND FLAME FLEXi& Li
TRAP HOSES FQS
14" Am ttr DIA COVER TRAVEL
GAS COLLECTION AND
TV FREEBOARD SLUDGE SUPPLY
PIPELINES
CONCRETE GAS DOME SLOPE TO GAS DOME
4L
1}
ROOF
BALLAST
n
-
- J1.—in'*
-
IS
i:
i
QQWINES TYPE .TYPICAL W .S. ALWAYSAT PROVIDE
FLOATING COVERV v ~
LEAS? 1 0" ARQVE BOTTOM OF GAS
X DOMt SPIRAL
GUIDES
A W STABILITY CONCRETE BALLAST RING H I | TYP OF 12 l
ACCESS ,
< 11 Qf OIA
PIPE
{ COVER SUPPOFiT CORBEL |TYT OF 2 AI
TRENCH EQUIPMENT
\s IP 0
\ GALLERY
4?'* OIA
ACCESS o s
0" DIA Cl RC SLUDGE
SUCTION AND 0
r
*
MH ’i SUPPLY PIPING 47" OIA BOTTOM
i (TYPICAL OF 61 (TYPICAL OF 4.1 ACCESS M.H.
1
GAS DIFFUSER
B" DIA DIGESTED 4
J-x - '
ASSEMBLY SLUDGE
.U U Li PIPELINE
(TYP OF 4
1 ft = 0,305 m
*
1 in “ 2.54 cm \
^ fO" DIA PIPE TD DIGESTER PSA IN
POMP STATION
FIGURE 15- 3
General Comments
15- 21
material , t h e designer m u s t m a k e sure t h a t material is either
r e m o v e d o r c u t u p before reaching t h e b l e n d i n g t a n k , Likewise ,
h y d r a u l i c m i x i n g p u m p s m u s t b e o f t h e n o n- c l o g t y p e o r t h e
material r e d u c e d in p a r t i c l e size by grinding s o t h a t it c a n p a s s
through the minimum clearances o f the t y p e o f pump u s e d.
l
fr
L
mmMEfesiisssllfe - OM
&
6 " DIA
LOW PRESSURE
42 DIA
J1
TO DIGESTERS
s
MIN W L ElEV 196.0
II
TO ASSURE MIXING 6" DIA
RAW
SLUDGE >; - Q
I
ELEV 194.3 SUPPLY
m CT?
<$ rMm *
6” OIA SUCTION
TO OTHER
v. P . > -
fig DIGESTER
\ *
6" DIA CIRC PUMP 6" DIA DIGESTER SUPPLY
SUCTION INV ELEV 191 £ SUPPLY SUCTION PUMPS
AND DRAIN
1 ft = 0,305 nn SUMP
1 m 2.56 unft
TABLE 15- 4
-
15 22
T h e o t h e r major design p r o b l e m involves t h e c o n t r o l o f odors t h a t
a r e s o o f t e n a n i n t e g r a l p a r t o f any t y p e o f s l u d g e holding t a n k .
T h e S a c r a m e n t o and Aliso holding t a n k design e x a m p l e s indicate
t w o very s u c c e s s f u l means o f dealing with s u c h o d o r s ( that is ,
containing and incorporating them with the low pressure
digester g a s s y s t e m ). In many locations stabilized material is
h e l d within t h e holding t a n k o n l y a f e w h o u r s , U n d e r t h e s e
circumstances, their design d e p e n d s o n minimum o d o r g e n e r a t i o n , a
r e a s o n a b l e assumption given t h e s h o r t retention p e r i o d , Often
decant t a n k s and conditioning blending t a n k s c a n n o t depend o n
either of these methods of odor control, The designer should be
very a w a r e that w h e n s u c h a situation exists it will be e x p e c t e d
t h a t o d o r s will be confined and treated t o t h e point w h e r e their
d i s c h a r g e ceases t o c r e a t e a nuisance , O d o r control is a very
c o m p l i c a t e d s u b j e c t. Designers are referred to a Manual of
Practice s o o n t o be released by a Joint Committee of t h e ASCE a n d
Water Pollution C o n t r o l Federation.
1 5 . 3.1 . 2 Facultative S l u d g e L a g o o n s
Introduction
Sludge lagoons have been used for years to store wastewater
solids. Unfortunately , m o s t of this u s e h a s been with c o m p l e t e
disregard t o t h e aesthetic impact o n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g environment .
Such misuse has become so widespread that just the use of
t h e t e r m " s l u d g e l a g o o n " is o f t e n e n o u g h t o e l i m i n a t e t h e i r
consideration in p r e s e n t-day alternatives analyses.
R e c e n t studies in S a c r a m e n t o, California, based o n t h e successful
operation of facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s in Auckland , N e w Zealand ,
indicate t h a t sludge l a g o o n s c a n be d e s i g n e d t o be environmen-
t a l l y a c c e p t a b l e a n d s t i l l r e m a i n e x t r e m e l y c o s t- e f f e c t i v e
( 1 7 , 1 8 ). T h e facility studied in S a c r a m e n t o provides s t o r a g e f o r
a t least five years o f sludge production. T h e s l u d g e s t o r e d in
the facultative sludge lagoon continues to stabilize without
creating a n o d o r level u n a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g neighbor-
hood. Table 1 5- 3 lists the a d v a n t a g e s and limitations of using
facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s f o r l o n g -t e r m s t o r a g e.
Theory
Facultative sludge lagoons ( FSLs ) are designed to maintain
a n a e r o b i c s u r f a c e l a y e r f r e e o f s c u m o r m e m b r a n e - t y p e film
build - u p. T h e aerobic layer is maintained by keeping the annual
organic loading t o the l a g o o n a t or below a critical a r e a loading
r a t e a n d by using s u r f a c e mixers t o provide agitation and m i x i n g
of t h e aerobic surface layer. T h e aerobic surface l a y e r o f t h e
F S L s is u s u a l l y f r o m one t o t h r e e feet ( 0 . 3 0 t o 0.91 m ) in d e p t h
a n d s u p p o r t s a v e r y d e n s e p o p u l a t i o n o f b e t w e e n 5 0 x 1 0 -3 a n d
6 x 1 0 ® o r g a n i s m s/ m l o f a l g a e ( u s u a l l y C h o r e 1 1 a ). Dissolved
o x y g e n is s u p p l i e d t o t h i s l a y e r b y a l g a l p h o t o s y n t h e s i s , b y
direct surface transfer f r o m t h e a t m o s p h e r e , and by t h e surface
m i x e r s. T h e o x y g e n is u s e d by t h e b a c t e r i a in t h e a e r o b i c
1 5- 2 3
degradation of colloidal a n d s o l u b l e o r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e
digested sludge liquor, while t h e digested sludge solids settle
t o t h e bottom of the basins a n d continue their anaerobic
d e c o m p o s i t i o n. S l u d g e liquor o r s u p e r n a t a n t is periodically
returned t o the plant ' s liquid process stream.
TABLE 15- 3
Provides long -term storage with 1. Can only be used following anaerobic
acceptable environmental impacts stabilization. If acid phase of
(odor and groundwater contamination digestion takes place in lagoons they
risks are minimized ). will stink.
Continues anaerobic stabilization , with up 2. Large acreages require special odor
to 45 percent VS reduction in first year. mitigation measures.
Decanting ability assures minimum solids 3. Requires large areas of land , for
recycle with supernatant (usually less example , 15 to 20 gross acres (6 to
than 500 mg/1) and maximum concentration 8 ha) for 10 MGD , (438 1/s) 200
for storage and efficient harvesting gross acres (80 ha) for 136 MGD
( > 6 percent solids) starting with digested (6 ,000 1) carbonaceous activated
sludge of < 2 percent solids. sludge plants.
-
Long term liquid storage is one of few
natural (no external energy input) means
4. Must be protected from flooding.
1 5-2 4
unstabilized o r aerobically d i g e s t e d s l u d g e , I f t h e acid p h a s e
o f a n a e r o b i c stabilization b e c o m e s p r e d o m i n a n t, t h e l a g o o n s will
stink . F i g u r e 1 5-5 p r o v i d e s a schematic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e
reactions i n a t y p i c a l F S L .
SOI AR PM PR r,V
u
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n Q
if US jc V m I
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FIGURE 15 - 5
Current Status
F a c u l t a t i v e s l u d g e l a g o o n s w e r e installed i n i t i a l l y i n 1 9 6 0
in the Auckland, New Zealand , Manukau sewage treatment plant
to provide for the storage and disposal of that plant's
anaerobically digested primary sludge, Although lagoons were
i n s t a l l e d a t D u b l i n- S a n R a m o n , C a l i f o r n i a i n 1 9 6 5 , M e d f o r d ,
O r e g o n i n 1 9 7 1 , a n d o t h e r s i t e s in t h e United S t a t e s s i n c e 1 9 6 0
i n a n a t t e m p t t o d u p l i c a t e t h e s u c c e s s f u l Auckland i n s t a l l a t i o n ,
it was not until 1974 that the area loading became the critical
c r i t e r i o n f o r their s u c c e s s , S t u d i e s a t S a c r a m e n t o s i n c e 1 9 7 4,
w i t h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 0 a c r e s ( 1 6 . 2 h a ) o f F S L s, h a v e d e t e r m i n e d
that the standard annual loading rate can be doubled during the
1 5-2 5
warm , long , sunny days of July , August , and September , Reduced
algae activity during the colder winter months indicates that the
standard loading rate should not be exceeded.
Design Criteria
Design considerations for the FSLs include the area loading
rate , surface agitation requirements , dimensional and layout
limitations , and physical factors , All have been developed
during the studies conducted over the past five years at the
Sacramento lagoons.
Area Loading Rate. To maintain an aerobic top layer , the
annual organic loading rate to that FSL must be at or below
20 pounds of volatile solids ( VS ) per 1 ,000 square feet per day
-
( 1.0 t VS/ha d ). Lagoons have been found to be capable of
receiving the equivalent of the daily organic loading rate every
second , third , or fourth day without experiencing any upset.
That is , lagoons have assimilated up to four times normal daily
loadings as long as they have had three days of rest between
loadings. Loadings as high as 40 pounds VS per 1 ,000 square feet
-
per day ( 1.0 t VS/ha d ) have been successfully assimilated for
several months during the warm summer and fall. Experiments on
small basins loaded to failure indicate that peak loadings up to
-
90 pounds VS per 1 ,000 square feet per day ( 4.4 t VS/ha d ) can be
tolerated during the summer and fall as long as they do not occur
for more than one week .
FIGURE 15 - 6
Brush type mixers have been used to limit the agitation to the
surface layer of the FSLs. So far this has been an acceptable
application ; however , there is some question as to their
applicability for very cold climates , Several submerged pump -
type floating aerators have been reviewed , and they could be
-
15 27
adapted to provide the necessary surface agitation if the
-
brush type could not function under severe freezing conditions.
Two mixers are used per FSL to assure maximum scum break up in
those areas of the lagoon where the prevailing wind deposits the
-
daily loading of scum. The agitation and mixing action of the
two mixers located at opposite ends or sides of the lagoon also
act to maintain equal distribution of the anaerobic solids.
-
15 28
PREVAILING WIND DIRECTION
SUPERNATANT
OVERFLOW SLUDGE REMOVAL
AUTOMATIC VALVES
CONTROL VALVE
IV,
m
i. . t
!
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z LINE
¥
DIGESTED SLUDGE *
H.
*•
-
\
\
t •
w
* -- SLUDGE
) I '0
i
* I
REMOVAL
%
\
1 ;
1 i
IV.I
1
l
1
1
1 1
t DREDGE
I
' ANCHOR
m
i I
! 1
I,
\
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POSTS
\ ' i i. BOTH
% i
\
t ENDS
1
i !
\
m = 1
nit
U
1 I
I1
I
V 1
\
FIGURE T 5 “7
t
FREEBOARD
T
3'0" AEROBIC LAYER
SLOPE
12 0 M ANAEROBIC
J
6" IMPERVIOUS
y
//y/s P ROT E cr ION Y///// /7/
LAYER LAYER ' /1/&Z///// ENGINEERED FILL'
8‘r DIGESTED
DIGESTED SLUDGE
INLET SLUDGE LINE
NATURAL
2 '6" COVER GRADE
FIGURE 15 - 8
>1,
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l o c a t e d u p s t r e a m f r o m t h e p r e v a i l i n g winds t o minimize s c u m
b u i l d - u p in i t s v i c i n i t y. F S L s u p e r n a t a n t w i l l p r e c i p i t a t e
magnesium ammonia phosphate ( struvite ) on any rough surface
t h a t is n o t c o m p l e t e l y s u b m e r g e d . I t h a s a l s o b e e n found t o
precipitate inside cavitating pumps. This crystalline material
c a n completely c l o g c a s t iron fittings a n d p u m p valves w h e n t h e
surface g o e s t h r o u g h a fill-a n d - draw c y c l e or w h e n its o p e r a t i o n
r e s u l t s in t h e p r e s e n c e o f d i f f u s e d a i r. T h e m o s t p r a c t i c a l
a p p r o a c h t o successful elimination of this p r o b l e m h a s been t o
use PVC piping throughout the FSL supernatant process and to
design the process for gravity return t o the plant influent , with
a minimum of critical d e p t h conditions. If pumping is required ,
s u b m e r g e d slow -s p e e d n o n-clog centrifugal pumps with low suction
a n d discharge velocities ( t o minimize cavitation ) will be t h e
m o s t trouble- f r e e. All equipment t h a t c a n n o t be P V C o r o t h e r
s m o o t h n o n- m e t a l l i c m a t e r i a l s h o u l d b e c o a t e d w i t h a s m o o t h ,
impervious surface.
T w o d i g e s t e d s l u d g e f e e d l i n e s a r e p r o v i d e d , e a c h w i t h its
o w n automatic v a l v e , t o a s s u r e a d e q u a t e distribution of s o l i d s
over t h e w h o l e volume of the F S L . Surface mixers a r e d o w n s t r e a m
of t h e prevailing winds. T h e harvested s l u d g e d r e d g e h o o k u p is
centrally located. L a g o o n dike slopes are conservative-- t h r e e
horizontal t o one vertical — with a d e q u a t e rip-r a p provided in t h e
w o r k i n g z o n e o f t h e s u r f a c e l e v e l. S u f f i c i e n t f r e e b o a r d is
provided t o p r o t e c t against a n y conceivable o v e r t o p p i n g of t h e
d i k e s. Digested sludge feed pipelines are located directly
below t h e bottom o f the l a g o o n s, with t h e inlet surrounded by a
p r o t e c t i v e c o n c r e t e s u r f a c e. All p i p i n g w i t h i n t h e b a s i n is
o u t of t h e w a y of f u t u r e dredging operations.
1 5- 31
per day ( 1.0 t VS/ ha- d ) on an average annual basis , As indicated
earlier , considerable flexibility does exist . Loads can vary
from day to day , and batch or intermittent loading of once every
four days or less is acceptable . Shock loadings, such as with
digester cleanings , should be distributed to all operating FSLs
in proportion to the quantity of sludge inventory they possess .
FSLs should be loaded during periods of favorable atmospheric
conditions , particularly just above ground surface, to maximize
odor dispersion . The fixed and volatile sludge solids loadings
to the FSLs and their volatile contents should be monitored
quarterly.
Daily Routine . Surface mixers should operate for a period
of between 6 and 12 hours. Operation should not coincide with
FSL loading and should always be during the hours of minimum
human exposure ( usually midnight to 5 a.m. ) and during periods of
favorable atmospheric conditions. FSL supernatant return to the
wastewater treatment process should be regulated to minimize
shock loadings of high ammonia. Supernatant return flows should
be monitored so that their potential impact on the liquid
treatment process can be discerned . The sludge blanket in a
lagoon should not be allowed to rise higher than two feet below
the operating water surface.
15 -32
Actual Performance Data
The following figures and tables report the actual performance of
the eight FSLs in operation at the Sacramento Central Wastewater
Treatment Plant .
Although the plant is designed as a 24 MGD
.
-
(l.l m3/s ) carbonaceous activated sludge secondary wastewater
-
treatment plant with anaerobic digestion for solids
stabilization , it treats the total solids from three upstream
secondary treatment plants , the total annual flow of which is
considerably greater than its own. Solids from those upstream
plants are transported to the Central plant by its tributary
sewer collection system. The Central plant also receives a
substantial solids loading ( up to 35 percent daily surcharge )
from seasonal canning operations. Table 15-4 indicates the FSL
loadings for the four years from 1975 through 1978.
TABLE 15- 4
aDry weight.
Source: Treatment plant records.
lb = 0.4536 kg.
sq ft = 0.0929 sq m.
-
Figure 15 10 summarizes typical surface layer data for four of
the FSLs for July 1977 through June 1978. Unfortunately , some
turbidity and algae count data are missing , but the seasonal
-
trend is quite apparent. Table 15 5 summarizes the FSL's design
data and provides the necessary background to understand the FSL
solids inventory in Table 15 6. Data from Table 15 6 was used to
-
calculate a volatile solids reduction of 42 percent. Solids
-
profiles are taken quarterly in all FSLs.
Recycled FSL supernatant quality for 1978 is given in Table 15 7 ,
and complete mineral , heavy metals , and chlorinated hydrocarbon
-
data for digested , FSL , and harvested solids for 1977 is provided
-
in Table 15 8. While the specific conductance in the supernatant
remains high ( 2 ,500 to 4 ,300 mhos/cm ), the supernatant contains
very little of the heavy metals. Rainfall increases the quantity
-
15 33
of supernatant and decreases i t s strength , Winter specific
conductivity always dropped in Sacramento following significant
-
rainfall .The only solution t o this problem would seem t o be t o
reduce the heavy metals concentrations in the unstabilized
sludge.
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FIGURE 15- 10
1 5-3 4
Public Health and Environmental Impact
FSLs been found to have the following insignificant
have
environmental impagts at Sacramento during five years of study:
No vector impacts
« No groundwater impacts
« Controlled pathogen impacts
Acceptable odor impacts
TABLE 15- 5
TABLE 15- 6
Parameter TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS TS VS
Digested sludge
added3 3 ,925 2,690 4,580 2,995 5,398 3,416 5,801 3,596 2,222 1 ,461 2,211 1 ,454 3 ,486 2,317 3,275 2,177 30 ,898 20,106
Stored sludge *5 1,973 860 3,009 1 ,629 2 ,950 1 ,721 3 ,845 2 ,092 1 ,459 816 1 , 173 719 3 , 782 2 ,214 3,208 1,076 21 , 399 11,727
Quantities account for sludge that has been (1) added to the SSBs , (2) applied to land
(1,256 dry tons in 1974, 1 ,688 in 1975, 976 in 1976 and 1,930 in 1977) and ( 3) transferred
between basins since beginning of operations ,
b
Quantities calculated based on data obtained from sludge samples collected .July 12, 1978.
15-35
TABLE 15- 7
- -
The two to six inch ( 5.08 to 15.24 cm ) engineered fill seal
provided over the natural bottom and side slopes of the typical
- -
FSL cross section on Figure 15 8 assures that none of the FSL
-
start up sewage or diluted sludge content escapes during the
natural sealing process.
Pathogen Impacts. It has been recognized for many years that
-
long term liquid storage significantly reduces the pathogenic
microorganism content in sludge ( 3 ). Studies at Sacramento
confirm this for the most common bacteria , Figure 15 11
indicates that the fecal coliform population decreases as the
-
sludge passes through the sludge management system , Studies of
parasitic protozoans and their cysts, helminths and their eggs
( ova ) , and virus were inconclusive either because insufficient
-
15 36
n u m b e r s w e r e found o r t h e t e c h n i q u e s r e q u i r e d f o r r e a s o n a b l e
reproducibility were unavailable t o the project . T h e system o f
d i s p o s a l selected , t h a t of dedicated land disposal , m a d e further
investigatory work unnecessary.
TABLE 15- 8
Alkalinity 2,556 2,653 2 ,676 2,638 2,348 1,940 1,687 2,239 2,175 2 ,069
Chloride0 143 178 225 204 209 169 166 171 186 171
Ammonia0 444 685 765 751 649 502 452 613 600 573
Soluble0phosDhorus (P)c 65 44 38 49 33 28 50 51 49 45
Sulfate 38 87 97 91 113 73 77 68 49 151
Percent dry weight
Total phosphorus (P) 1.8 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.4 1.6 1.6 1.4 1.9
Total nitrogen ( N) 8.7 5.1 5.2 5.2 4. 1 5.4 6.2 5.8 5.1 5.9
ppm, dry weight
Calcium 21,000 27 ,000 25 ,000 21,000 28 , 000 28 ,000 24 ,000 26 , 000 21,000 24 ,000
Magnesium 5,800 8, 200 7.900 7,900 6.300 5 ,500 5 , 300 6 , 300 3 ,500 8 , 600
Potassium 5 ,500 3 , 200 3.900 3,800 2 , 900 2,600 3 ,000 3,100 3.200 4 , 500
Sodium 9,200 3,10 0 3,450 3 , 500 3.300 4,100 5 ,600 4 ,600 4.200 5 ,400
Arsenic 47 75 72 89 101 22 28 82 62 15.4
Beryllium < 2.2 < 1.1 < 1.1 < 1.0 < 1.1 < 1.4 < 1.5 < 1.0 < 1.2 < 1.3
Cadmium 12 24 26 19 16 14 13 21 17 19
Chromium 165 218 245 224 243 173 220 278 188 181
Copper 340 410 398 385 721 400 477 456 353 384
Lead 185 134 123 96 134 116 183 153 121 159
Mercury 3.7 5.3 5.1 5.3 5.2 5.0 5.8 5.8 4.2 5.6
Molybdenum < 22 < 13.4 < 16 < 14 < 12.5 < 13.7 < 15.4 < 12.2 < 11.8 < 13
Nickel 63 58 72 70 115 46 48 60 53 77
Selenium 1.6 1.7 1.4 1.6 1.4 4.1 3.2 2.6 1.4 5.6
Silver 28 26 26 26 23 34 38 35 27 28
Zinc 930 1,700 1, 500 1, 300 1 ,325 1,207 1,400 1 ,400 1,090 1 , 200
PCB 1242 e < 2.8 < 3.1 < 2.9 < 2.6 < 2.3 < 2.6 < 3.0 < 3.0 < 2.1
PCB 1254 e 5.5 5.3 4.0 4.8 4.7 3.8 6.6 3.3 4.6
Tech chlordane e 3.8 4.0 3.6 4.0 3.9 4.2 5.9 3.8 5.0
Other pesticidals ^ e 0.30 0.27 0.25 0.22 0.25 0.25 0.27 0.23 < 0.7
Units as noted
Cd/Zn ratio, percent 1.3 1.4 1.7 1.5 1.0 1:1 1.3 1.5 1.5 1.5
Total solids , percent 1.7 7.0 6.3 6.1 7.6 4.7 3.4 4.8 5.7 4.1
Volatile solids , per
cent of total
- 68 55 55 53 52 60 62 61 52 54
PH c 7.5 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.3 7.2 7.4 7.3 7.3 7.4
Specific conductance ,
pmhos/cm 4 ,742 5, 109 5 ,847 5,743 4,914 4 ,434 4 ,093 5 ,061 4 ,760 4 ,731
O d o r I m p a c t s. O d o r i m p a c t s c h a n g e in d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o
the F S L's surface area. I n m o s t small plants ( t h o s e requiring
< 4 0 acres 1 6 . 2 h a ] o f
[ F S L s ), controlling t h e loading r a t e, using
a d e q u a t e surface a g i t a t i o n , providing sufficient b u f f e r i n g area
and carefully selecting t h e best time periods f o r f e e d i n g and
s u r f a c e agitation o p e r a t i o n are sufficient t o achieve acceptable
l e v e l s o f o d o r r i s k . T a b l e 1 5 -9 s h o w s t h e a n n u a l o d o r risk
analysis developed for t h e existing 4 0 a c r e s ( 16.2 h a ) o f FSLs a t
t h e S a c r a m e n t o site before t h e installation o f t h e barriers a n d
wind m a c h i n e s ( 1 ). No high technology mitigation has been
15 -3 7
required to maintain this acceptable risk level , For larger
areas of FSLs , additional odor control measures would probably be
required . These might include the installation of a blender
digester to keep raw sludge from short circuiting to the FSLs ,
vacuum vaporization to remove entrained odors from the digested
sludge prior to its discharge into the FSLs , separation of
-
batteries of FSLs , construction of special 12 foot ( 3.7 m ) high
barriers around the FSLs , to ensure maximum odor dispersion
at low wind speeds , and the use of wind machines to aid odor
dispersion when the atmosphere is calm , Figure 15 12 shows
typical wind machines and barriers at the Sacramento FSLs.
-
10'
I09
10s
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RAW DIGESTED FSL FSL TREATED
SLUDGE SLUDGE STORED REMOVED SOILS
SLUDGE SLUDGE
FIGURE 15- 11
-
15 38
TABLE 15- 9
1 AC .4047 ha .
foot 0.3048 m.
1 cf = 0.02832 m 3 .
The major elements involved in determining FSL costs are land and
earth moving. Both are usually quite site specific. Normally ,
land costs vary less predictably than construction costs.
A typical FSL storage facility for a 10 MGD ( 438 1/s ) secondary
carbonaceous activated sludge treatment plant with primary
- -
sedimentation , anaerobic digestion , and normal strength domestic
and industrial sewage will cost about $1.5 million to construct
and $ 25 ,000 per year to operate. Construction costs are based on
a 3500 Engineering News Record Construction Cost Index and do
not include the cost of land. Operation costs are based on 1978
wage rates and do not include dredge operators or any other
removal costs .
15 39-
4 *
8
FIGURE 15- 12
-
15 40
a n o t h e r $ 2 5,0 0 0 p e r y e a r , As indicated by the odor impact
assessment, sufficient area to ensure maintenance of loading
criteria, together with surface agitators and proper buffer,
w o u l d m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o a v o i d t h e c o s t o f t h e aforementioned
m o r e extensive o d o r m i t i g a t i o n facilities.
TABLE 15- 10
°
2 0.44
0.08
0.15
0.02
0.18
0.03
0.41
0.06
0.85
0.13
0.31
0.04
0.22
0.03
0.33
0.05
2.9
0.44
10 0.02 < 0.01 < 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.00 0.01 < 0.09
1 5 . 3 .1 . 3 Anaerobic L i q u i d S l u d g e L a g o o n s
Many such lagoons are being operated throughout the United
S t a t e s. O n e s y s t e m t h a t h a s c o l l e c t e d s o m e m e a n i n g f u l d a t a is
the 220.2 acres ( 89.1 ha ) in operation at the Metropolitan
S a n i t a r y District o f G r e a t e r C h i c a g o ( M S D G C ) Prairie P l a n l a n d
reclamation p r o j e c t in F u l t o n C o u n t y , Illinois. I n a p e r s o n a l
communication R.R. R i m k u s, C h i e f o f M a i n t e n a n c e a n d O p e r a t i o n s
M S D G C p r o v i d e d t h e l a y o u t s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 5-1 3 o f t h e f o u r
l a g o o n s a t t h i s s i t e. H e r e p o r t s t h a t L a g o o n s 1 a n d 2 h a v e b e e n
i n s e r v i c e f o r e i g h t a n d s e v e n y e a r s, r e s p e c t i v e l y , a n d L a g o o n s
3 a a n d 3 b f o r s i x y e a r s. L a g o o n s 1 a n d 2 h a v e a n a v e r a g e d e p t h
o f 3 5 f e e t ( 1 0 . 7 m ), p l u s o r m i n u s o n e f o o t ( 0 . 3 m ), w h i l e
L a g o o n s 3 a and 3 b a r e a b o u t 1 8 f e e t ( 5 . 5 m ) d e e p. L a g o o n s 3 a and
3 b a r e u t i l i z e d m o r e f o r s u p e r n a t a n t t r e a t m e n t a n d s t o r a g e.
1 5- 4 1
PUMP STATION
DREDGE
DREDGE
62,3 AC
DECANT
HOLDING BASINS
SUPPLY
RAFT DECANT
3a TRANSFER [ PUMP
54.9 AC "*f 9 "
3b
37,3 AC
1 acre = 0.4 C 5 ha
FIGURE 15- 13
1 5-42
Rimkus further indicates barged anaerobically digested
waste- activated sludge from Chicago is discharged into Fulton
County Lagoons 1 and 2 throughout the year , when river shipment
conditions permit , at a frequency of about 20 days per month .
Solids loading varies between 65 , 000 to 95 , 000 dry tons
( 59 , 000 to 86 , 200 t ) per year. Based on the total loading
received by Lagoons 1 and 2 and the volatile solids content of
the digested sludge equaling 57 percent, the organic loading rate
to the Fulton County Lagoons varies between 36 and 50 pounds VS
per 1000 square feet per day ( 1.7 to 2.4 t/ ha - d ). This is
considerably above the 20 pounds VS per 1000 square feet per day
( 1.0 t/ ha-d ) established at Sacramento to maintain facultative
conditions within the lagoons , If the area of all four lagoons
is considered , this organic loading rate drops to 21 to 29 pounds
VS per 1 ,000 square feet per day ( 1.0 to 1.4 t/ ha- d ), which is
close to the facultative sludge lagoon concept .
Rimkus reports that the solids concentration of sludge pumped
from the barge to the lagoons varies from four to six percent by
weight. Further , the sludge pumped from lagoons to fields in
1978 varied from 3.57 to 5.93 percent by weight. The average
annual quantity of removed sludge is 60, 000 dry tons ( 54 , 400 t ).
Mean value for volatile solids content of 1978 removed sludge
was 47.5 percent. If the barged sludge volatile content is
57 percent, then the lagoons are reducing the volatile solids
by 17 percent. Data for sludge removed in 1978 are given in
Table 15-11. Sludge removal is usually accomplished in about
115 days, between May 1 and November 15.
According to Rimkus, Fulton County supernatant is disposed of on
1 , 320 acres ( 534.2 ha ) of alfalfa - brome hay fields. Average
annual quantity to dispose equals 700 , 000 wet tons ( 634,900 t )
with an average ammonia content of 109.9 mg /1 and an average TKN
content of 156.4 mg /1. Table 15-12 provides other data on lagoon
supernatant. Dissolved oxygen ( D.O. ) measurements taken in
the summer and fall of 1977 in Lagoons 3 a and 3 b indicate the
surface D.O . ranged between 0.9 and 8.5 mg /1, while the bottom
D.O . ranged between 0.4 and 2.6 mg / 1 . The lowest lagoon
temperature during this period was 40.6 °F ( 15.5 °C ). The lagoon
surface is frozen between 45 and 60 days per year , with scum
build - up experienced only during periods of new sludge input. No
surface agitation equipment is used on any of the lagoons. The
nearest residence to the lagoon is approximately 6 , 000 feet
( 1 ,800 m ) from the perimeter of the installation. No information
is available regarding odors or odor complaints.
15- 43
Sufficient oxygen must be available to maintain aerobic
conditions throughout t h e basin a t maximum attainable
solids concentration.
TABLE 15- 11
1 lb = 0.4536 kg
1 ton .907 t
Mixing Requirements
15-44
-
turbine or propeller type aerators are often affected by very
-
limited side boundaries , while brush type aerators and aspirating
pumps often have almost unlimited side boundaries but rather
restricted vertical mixing capabilities , Submerged static
aeration devices are excellent for vertical mixing but are always
limited by very confined side boundaries. The designer should
-
rely on a performance type specification to achieve desired
results. The equipment supplier should be given information
about the configuration of the basin , its liquid level operating
range , the maximum solids concentration expected , and the level
of dissolved oxygen to be maintained . The designer is expected
-
to have established the most cost effective basin configuration
equipment requirements.
-
based on loading , site specific conditions and available aeration
A maximum horsepower limit should be
established , and the specifications should include a bonus to be
'
TABLE 15- 12
Oxygen Requirements
Oxygen requirements to maintain aerobic conditions within an
aerobic storage basin will be considerably less than that
required for aerobic digesters if the material being stored has
been stabilized prior to its introduction to the basin. Minimum
-
15 45
m e a s u r a b l e dissolved oxygen levels of about 0.5 mg/1 a r e q u i t e
a d e q u a t e t o maintain a basin f r e e from anaerobic activity , as
l o n g a s it is p r o v i d e d w i t h a d e q u a t e m i x i n g , If the basin
i n f l u e n t is n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y s t a b i l i z e d t o m i n i m i z e o x y g e n
requirements , t h e n t h e aerobic s t o r a g e basin m u s t b e designed for
oxygen requirements similar t o aerobic digesters ( see C h a p t e r 6 ).
O x y g e n transfer c a p a b i l i t i e s a r e similar t o mixing c a p a b i l i t i e s
f o r t h e various t y p e s of applicable equipment. T h e design should
t h e r e f o r e include o x y g e n t r a n s f e r r e q u i r e m e n t s a s p a r t o f t h e
p e r f o r m a n c e requirement indicated in t h e preceding section on
mixing specifications.
L e v e l Variability
1 5-4 6
normally unstable organic material is practically impossible.
The most commonly accepted methods of providing dedicated storage
for wet organic material involves the use of drying sludge
lagoons , placing the material in some type of confined structure
or placing it in unconfined stockpiles , All three methods can
involve special ; design considerations.
Performance Data
15-47
layer . The drying lagoon operation took place from 1974 until
1976 , when operational limitations and odor production resulted
in the return to anaerobic liquid sludge lagoon storage , Liquid
sludge lagoon storage had been practiced prior to 1974.
Chicago , Illinois
The Metropolitan Sanitary District of Greater Chicago ( MSDGC)
operates 30 drying sludge lagoons , each with an average storage
capacity of 200 ,000 cubic yards (153 ,000 m 3 ) and a storage depth
-
of 16 feet ( 4.9 m ) ( 23 ). Figure 15 14 provides a plan view of a
typical lagoon. Anaerobically digested sludge is pumped to the
MSDGC lagoons at a solids content of about 4 percent , Volatile
content of this material is approximately 57 percent. Sludge is
-
usually applied to each available lagoon in 6 inch ( 152 mm ) -
layers in rotation. Rotations are repeated .
-
15 48
©
+S + 1 - i1,000 ft
i 305 m
c
® DRAW - OFF BOX & TRUSS
§ 1— ,
UT T
(f) TAIL ANCHORAGE
( BULLDOZERS
+1 +1
0 DRAGLINE ( LOADING
PARTIAL DEWATERED SLUDGE )
0 ADJACENT LAGOONS
FIGURE 15- 14
Once the drying sludge lagoons are filled , they are taken out of
service and preconditioned to provide an improved drainage
gradient. For this purpose , the sludge is excavated from the
-
area adjacent to the draw off box and the slope within the lagoon
is allowed to stabilize to the point at which the area remains
reasonably free of solids. Excavation is by pump with nearby
mixers and additional water , if necessary , to assure sludge
-
fluidity. Figure 15 15 illustrates a cross section of this
area after preconditioning is complete . When the sludge has
stabilized , the lagoon is left dormant through the following
winter and early spring . Trapped water and rainfall runoff are
-
drained by gravity to the draw off structure.
Once relatively dry weather returns , a slackline cable system is
utilized with a dragline crane to further condition the sludge.
The slackline system , which is shown on Figure 15 16 , is used to
improve the lagoon surface drainage and to scrape as much of the
-
dried crust as possible to the side of the lagoon. This system
provides the following four operational benefits:
-
15 49
""s
<
- MONORAIL HOIST
L4
COUNTERWEIGHT -n LJ
“ LJ DISCHARGE
HOSEV
\ PUMP &
DIKE LJ
LJ ^ MIXERS
LJ
H
SLUDGE
SEWER .* ... . ^
DRAW- OFF LAGOON BOTTOM
BOX
FIGURE 15- 15
CRESCENT
SCRAPER TAIL
CRANE
ANCHORAGE
( BULLDOZER }
CARRIER
LAGOON
K, SOLIDS
LAGOON BOTTOM
FIGURE 15- 16
-
15 50
O n c e t h e s l u d g e c r u s t is s c r a p e d t o t h e s i d e o f t h e l a g o o n,
it is r e m o v e d b y p o r t a b l e d r a g l i n e o r c l a m s h e l l , l o a d e d o n t o
w a t e r t i g h t f i v e- a x l e d u m p t r u c k s , a n d delivered t o t h e g e n e r a l
p u b l i c f o r r e u s e. T h i s l a g o o n s l u d g e, a t its time o f delivery ,
usually has an average solids content of 30 to 35 percent by
weight. T r e e nurseries , s o d f a r m s , landfills , a n d s t r i p p e d l a n d
a r e a m o n g t h e m a j o r u s e r s o f t h i s material. I n 1 9 7 7, t h e M S D G C
d i s p o s e d o f 6 9 , 3 6 2 d r y t o n s ( 6 2,9 2 5 t ) o f d r y i n g l a g o o n s l u d g e a t
a n a v e r a g e c o s t o f $ 1 6 . 7 5 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 1 8 . 4 7/ t ). I n 1 9 7 8 ,
p r o d u c t i o n w a s e x p e c t e d t o e x c e e d 1 0 0,0 0 0 d r y t o n s ( 9 0, 7 0 0 t ) a t
a c o s t o f $ 1 7 . 7 6 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 1 9 . 5 8/t ). P r e c o n d i t i o n i n g c o s t s
a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y $ 3 . 0 0 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 3 . 3 1/t ) , which m a k e s t h e
c o s t f o r t h e w h o l e o p e r a t i o n a b o u t $ 2 1 . 0 0 p e r d r y t o n ( $ 2 3 . 1 5/t ).
P r e c o n d i t i o n i n g is a c c o m p l i s h e d by M S D G C m a n p o w e r a n d e q u i p m e n t,
a n d t h e s e r v i c e s o f t h e s l a c k l i n e , d r a g l i n e, a n d t r u c k s a r e
c o n t r a c t e d o u t. The overall operation requires little capital
i n v e s t m e n t, m i n i m a l l e a d t i m e, a n d l i m i t e d e f f o r t, N a t u r a l
p r o c e s s e s a r e o p t i m i z e d a n d o d o r s minimized , T h e l e v e l o f o d o r
involved h a s n o t b e e n q u a l i f i e d.
1 5 . 3.2 . 2 Confined H o p p e r s o r B i n s
A d e s i g n e r is o f t e n t e m p t e d t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e volumetric
r e d u c t i o n in material p r o v i d e d by t h e d e w a t e r i n g p r o c e s s a n d l a y
o u t h i s s l u d g e d i s p o s a l s y s t e m b a s e d o n s h o r t a n d l o n g- t e r m
s t o r a g e ( 3 w e e k s t o > 6 m o n t h s ) o f t h e d e w a t e r e d p r o d u c t. I f t h e
p r o d u c t i s t o o w e t ( < 3 0 p e r c e n t s o l i d s ), s e v e r a l p r o b l e m s
m a y a r i s e w i t h t h i s t y p e o f s t o r a g e. T h e s e p r o b l e m s i n c l u d e
c o n t i n u i n g d e c o m p o s i t i o n, l i q u e f a c t i o n, a n d concentration and
c o n s o l i d a t i o n. A l t h o u g h e a c h m a y h a v e its o w n r e s u l t, a l l t h r e e
p r o b l e m s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d a n d combine t o limit t h e u s e o f t h i s
t y p e o f s t o r a g e t o e q u a l i z a t i o n s t o r a g e a n d t h e n o n l y if s p e c i a l
a t t e n t i o n i s g i v e n t o c o n t r o l l i n g t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s. A b r i e f
d e s c r i p t i o n o f s o m e o f t h e s e d i f f i c u l t i e s i s g i v e n in t h e
f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s.
Continuing Decomposition
Unless it is stabilized to non-reactive levels ( < 50 percent
b y w e i g h t ), t h e b i o d e g r a d a b l e v o l a t i l e o r g a n i c m a t e r i a l o f
wastewater solids will continue to decompose if the moisture
c o n t e n t i s t o o h i g h ( s o l i d s c o n t e n t < 3 0 p e r c e n t ). This
d e c o m p o s i t i o n will r e d u c e o r g a n i c material a n d g e n e r a t e g a s e o u s
b y p r o d u c t s. D e p e n d i n g o n t h e s t a g e a n d sometimes t h e t y p e o f
s t a b i l i z a t i o n e m p l o y e d p r i o r t o d e w a t e r i n g, t h e m e t h o d o f
c o n d i t i o n i n g f o r d e w a t e r i n g , a n d t h e d e w a t e r i n g m e t h o d itself ,
g a s e o u s b y p r o d u c t s m a y o r m a y n o t b e o d o r o u s. F o r e x a m p l e, a
b i o d e g r a d a b l e v o l a t i l e c o n t e n t of <5 0 p e r c e n t w o u l d r e s u l t in
s t r o n g o d o r s ; a e r o b i c a l l y stabilized d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w o u l d b e
more subject to strong odors than anaerobically stabilized
d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e ; p o l y m e r- conditioned d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w o u l d b e
m o r e s u b j e c t - t o s t r o n g o d o r s t h a n l i m e a n d f e r r i c conditioned
dewatered s l u d g e; a n d c e n t r i f u g e d d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w o u l d b e m o r e
s u b j e c t t o s t r o n g o d o r s t h a n v a c u u m f i l t e r e d d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e.
1 5- 5 1
Enclosed structures are often used in this type of storage to
-
assure odor free operation. Such structures may be extremely
hazardous if the designer fails to recognize the potentially
explosive nature of some of these gaseous byproducts and assure
that they are never mixed with air within the combustible
range. If such protection involves the replacement of the
displaced volume , it may become the limiting feature of the
storage structure's ability to manage the sludge.
-
15 52
Total solids ( TS) content, percent 20
Volatile solids , percent 65
Assumed reduction of VS during
6 months storage , percent 20
Water content of dewatered sludge , tons 5 ,000 ( 4 , 535 t )
VS , dry tons at start of storage
,
650 ( 590 t )
VS , dry tons at end of storage 520 ( 472 t )
Fixed solids , dry tons ( unchanged ) 350 ( 317 t )
TS , dry tons at end of storage 870 ( 789 t )
Total solids content at end of storage ,
perce nt 14.8
The example indicates how a reasonably dry , dewatered digested
sludge ( 20 percent solids ) can be liquefied to a fairly wet ,
digested sludge ( 14.8 percent solids) if the putrescible organic
material continues to be reduced , The speed of this reduction is
greatly affected by temperature and organic content in the
dewatered sludge. Thus , liquefaction will be a greater problem
in warm climates or during the hot summer seasons , If lime and
ferric chemicals are used to condition the digested sludge for
dewatering , liquefaction will be greatly reduced , both because
of the lower overall organic content of the material and the
inhibiting effects of the chemicals on the bacterial reduction of
the putrescible organic matter.
-
15 53
pipelines ) m u s t be provided with a discharge s y s t e m capable of
infinite variability under all degrees of moisture content o r
concentration . S u c h s y s t e m s m u s t b e p r o v i d e d with r e m o t e
c o n t r o l s t h a t are c a p a b l e o f detecting overloads p r i o r t o
their overwhelming the transport system . The controls must be
capable of automatically closing the discharge control system' s
back- up, o p e n- close isolating valve. Sonic level detectors and
capacitance p r o b e s can b e used for this function , Chapter 17
provides additional information on this type of level detection
instrumentation.
The use of polymers t o condition the sludge prior t o dewatering
can have a major effect o n its ability to be stored conveniently
in t h e d e w a t e r e d s t a t e. Hansen reports that high polymer
doses used experimentally ( testing a belt filter press ) at the
Los Angeles County plant created a dewatered sludge that was
quite viscous , This material tended t o act like glue and was
e x t r e m e l y difficult t o r e m o v e from c o n v e y o r s e s p e c i a l l y a t
t r a n s f e r p o i n t s and t h e head point a b o v e the h o p p e r s , The
m a t e r i a l c o u l d b e s t o r e d , b u t required a p o s i t i v e type o f
unloading s y s t e m a t t h e s t o r a g e discharge t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e
lumps were pushed o n t o the discharge conveyor.
1 5- 5 4
sanitary f i l l disposal options are unavailable due to excessive
rainf all . The f a c i l i t i e s have been in service about three
years , and according t o Hansen , the maximum period of disposal
unavailability has not exceeded two days to date , although there
have been times when a l l twelve of the bins have been filled with
dewatered sludge . An i s o m e t r i c s k e t c h o f t h e JWPCP s t o r a g e and
t r u c k l o a d i n g s t a t i o n i s s h o w n o n F i g u r e 1 5-1 7 .
END OF CONVEYOR
AND TAKFufS OvFR
fcNL) SU'lKAGt yiNii
SURGE
SCHCW BINS
CONVEYOR
WEIGH
CAUSTIC; SODA
Ai SCFIUBBEHS
* ASSEMBLY
TRUCK
CONTROL
LOAD INii
ROOM
STATION
FIGURE 15- 17
-
15 55
content is g r e a t e r than 18 p e r c e n t and the sludge is not left in
s t o r a g e more than a few d a y s , Bubbles , which can be observed in
the standing w a t e r on top of the stored sludge , attest to the
fact that decomposition is continuing in the bins.
1 5 - 56
several years on between 50 and 100 acres ( 20 and 40 ha ) of
land and then made available for delivery t o the public as
" N u- E a r t h " ( 2 3 ) .
T h e a i r-d r i e d m a t e r i a l w e a t h e r s t o l e s s t h a n
50 percent moisture after one t o two years of aqing .
BULL GATE
HYDRAULIC
OPERATOR
/ LIVE BOTTOM
DRIVE ASSEMBLY
Live BOT
SYSTEM X
MAINTENANCE
TRACK
X
V N EMERGENCY
>
LIVE BOTTOM O V E R L O A D
COUPLING ' DISENGAGED
TO CONTROL NUMBER GF
SCREW CONVEYORS IN OPERATION
1 ft 0.305 rn
- -
1 in 2.5fl cin
1 ion - 0.SO7 1
CONVEYOR LOAD
MONITORING
PHOBFS
FIGURE 15- 18
15- 57
sludges can also be one of these exceptions , Such open
stockpiles usually quickly absorb atmospheric moisture and
r a p i d l y d e t e r i o r a t e in c l i m a t e s w i t h i n t e n s e o r f r e q u e n t
rainfall.
C o v e r e d s t o c k p i l e s a r e o f t e n u s e d in those a r e a s w h e r e rainfall
i s intense o r f r e q u e n t t o a s s u r e the d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e integrity
d u r i n g p e r i o d s o f e q u a l i z i n g s t o r a g e, Such stockpiling is
usually limited because of the expense of developing covered
areas o f sufficient size t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e s t o r a g e area a n d
e q u i p m e n t a c c e s s i b i l i t y. T h e N o r t h S h o r e S a n i t a r y District
( N S S D ) ( 2 5 ), n o r t h o f C h i c a g o, I l l i n o i s , d i s p o s e s o f t h e i r
a n a e r o b i c a l l y s t a b i l i z e d ( d i g e s t e d ) d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e in d e e p
t r e n c h e s o n a 3 0 0 a c r e ( 1 2 1 h a ) s i t e. D u r i n g 1 0 t o 2 0 d a y s
p e r y e a r , t h e N S S D d i s p o s a l o p e r a t i o n is a b a n d o n e d d u e t o w e t
conditions , a n d t h e d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e i s s t o r e d i n a c o v e r e d and
enclosed building for d i s p o s a l within a few d a y s. T h e building
is enclosed to maintain odor control, The District also
f r e q u e n t l y l i b e r a l l y s p r i n k l e s the d e w a t e r e d s l u d g e w i t h l i m e
d u r i n g t r a n s p o r t a n d s t o r a g e t o m a i n t a i n o d o r c o n t r o l.
15.4 References
1 9. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. Innovative a n d Alternative
Technology Documentation Sacramento Regional Wastewater
T r e a t m e n t P l a n t - S o l i d s P r o j e c t. Sacramento Regional
C o u n t y Sanitation District . S a c r a m e n t o, California 9 5 8 1 4.
A p r i l 1 9 7 9.
20 . H a w k , H.C. E d . B u l k Materials H a n d l i n g . _
University of
P i t s b u r g , S c h o o l o f E n g i n e e r i n g. P i t t s b u r g , P e n n s y l v a n i a.
1 9 7 1.
2 5. L u k a s i k , G.D., J . W. C o r m a c k. D e v e l o p m e n t a n d O p e r a t i o n o f
a S a n i t a r y L a n d f i l l f o r S l u d g e Disposal - North Shore
S a n i t a r y D i s t r i c t. N o r t h S h o r e S a n i t a r y District. 1 9 7 6.
1 5-6 0
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 16
S I D E S T R E A M S FROM S O L I D S
TREATMENT PROCESSES
16 -1
Effects of Thermal Treatment of Sludge on Municipal Wastewater
Treatme nt Costs describes the increased wastewater treatment
capacity required by use of thermal conditioning ( 2) .
iMASTE WATER
m - WASTfcWATEfl SOLIDS
NOK Hi.0 RsMATFD E F FUJCNT
bft ft
^ .
GASELXJS DISCHA DG ES
—Q— SlOESTHCAMS
~
\
I
t :
* /
/ %
\
/
/ SECDNl> *
*
SCREENINGS FFS 1 MARY A F RATION ! ARr 1
CHLORINATigiM
^
REMOVAL REMOVAL SEDIMENTATION REACTOR Sf & lME*» lAriOh
I \ /t? /
V
©
© I
!t ;i 1’ '
I
i U
— °°
SCREENINGS
DEYMTL RE 3
O V E R F L O*
SCREEN
*
— G fin i
CYCLONIC
SCPAftATOFI
!I
GRAVITY
TH ICfCENErl
ATMOSPHERE
o : b * f >: |
I
I
SRT
r'
/
'
'
/
®
HEAT
X
FLOTATION
THICKCNER
-
x 1
VV«
*
<
I
4
o i TREATMENT
\\
- orxifl
9 < n LOGiCAL
REMOVAL
c
n
— ® *i-
= rL ——
/
y
QJ rue GAS
SCRUBBING
ATUGGPHFCFLE
CC
‘ s . : i..»
' »
r n_
11 1 r
~
S
"
*! DECANTING
o
n
s *(D ..
l
it C
C
:
• >
FIGURE 16- 1
1 6- 3
1 6 . 3.1 Elimination of Sidestream
Although n o t generally practical , specific situations arise in
which it is possible t o modify the solids treatment and disposal
s y s t e m and eliminate a troublesome sidestream. A particular case
involves anaerobic digester s u p e r n a t a n t , which h a s often been
identified a s a source of p r o b l e m s when a mixture o f primary and
w a s t e- activated s l u d g e s is d i g e s t e d , Mignone h a s pointed o u t
that w h e r e mechanical dewatering follows anaerobic digestion , it
would be beneficial t o eliminate the s e c o n d a r y ( unmixed ) digester
by converting it t o a primary mode ( 9 ,1 0 ,1 1 ). There would be no
variable s u p e r n a t a n t s t r e a m , o n l y a p r e d i c t a b l e f i l t r a t e o r
centrate stream of low solids c o n t e n t which would be amenable t o
b i o l o g i c a l t r e a t m e n t.
1 6- 4
with intensive e f f o r t on t h e p a r t o f p l a n t s t a f f t o i m p r o v e
e l u t r i a t i o n a n d v a c u u m f i l t r a t i o n p e r f o r m a n c e , r e s u l t e d in a
9 0 p e r c e n t solids c a p t u r e t h r o u g h the t w o p r o c e s s e s.
The Metropolitan Toronto main p l a n t and the Richmond , California ,
facility experienced the same r e s u l t s as t h e B l u e Plains p l a n t.
An e x a m p l e o f successful use of p o l y m e r t o improve elutriation is
shown in T a b l e 16 — 1 ( 1 4 ).
TABLE 16- 1
Before After
polymer polymer
Parameter use use
Elutriate suspended
solids , mg/1 3 , 385 365
Solids capture , percent'
65.1 95.3
Underflow solids con-
centration , percent 3.5 4.3
1 6 . 3.4 Modification of W a s t e w a t e r
Treatment Facilities
Liquid t r e a t m e n t facilities should be designed with the capacity
t o t r e a t r e c y c l e d s i d e s t r e a m s w h e n e v e r t h e s i d e s t r e a m will
contain significant concentrations of pollutants o r h a v e a l a r g e
h y d r a u l i c impact , T a b l e 16 - 2 shows an e x a m p l e o f the effect o f
s u p e r n a t a n t r e t u r n o n s u s p e n d e d solids and p h o s p h o r u s loadings at
1 6- 5
-
an activated sludge plant using two stage anaerobic digestion
( 15 ). -
Table 16 3 shows estimated increases in BOD 5 treatment
capacity required by sidestreams from several sludge treatment
processes ( 16 ).
TABLE 16- 2
-
16 6
components of such indirect costs include increased aeration tank
size and blower capacity ( for diffused air - activated sludge
systems ), increased sludge treatment capacity, increased power
requirements for blowers, and increased labor for operating and
maintaining more heavily loaded secondary treatment facilities.
Additional costs will also be incurred if odor control facilities
are required .
TABLE 16- 3
Required capacity
Treatment process increase , percent
Liquid sludge to land 0
Raw sludge to drying beds 7
Chemical conditioning and 6 - 11
filter pressing
Rotoplug dewaterer 10 - 30
.
16.3 5 Separate Treatment of Sidestreams
16 - 7
facilities c a u s e s operating difficulties. H e a t treatment is less
widely used , b u t it results in c o n v e r s i o n o f some o f t h e C O D t o
the soluble form, F u r t h e r m o r e, a p o r t i o n o f t h e C O D c a n b e
nonbiodegradable.
1 6 . 3 .5 . 1 Anaerobic Digester S u p e r n a t a n t
F i g u r e 1 6-2 s h o w s a p o s s i b l e t r e a t m e n t s c h e m e f o r d i g e s t e r
s u p e r n a t a n t based principally o n chemical coagulation ( 20 ). Also
shown are probable removals and common influent and expected
effluent concentrations. S t r a i g h t aeration o f digester s u p e r-
n a t a n t a t p l a n t s c a l e h a s a l s o b e e n a t t e m p t e d ( 1 2 , 2 4 , 2 5 ).
E v e n w h e r e t h e s u p e r n a t a n t a f t e r aeration w a s n o t s e t t l e d prior
t o r e t u r n and n o discernible improvement in quality resulted , it
w a s f o u n d t h a t w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t operation improved , probably
a s a r e s u l t of b e t t e r settling in t h e primary clarifiers.
H o w e s u g g e s t e d s t o r a g e of d i g e s t e r s u p e r n a t a n t in l a g o o n s
for long periods to reduce contaminant levels ( 2 2). In one
e x p e r i m e n t , a detention time of 6 0 d a y s reduced B O D5 , s u s p e n d e d
solids , c o l o r , a n d ammonia by a b o u t 8 5 p e r c e n t ; h y d r o g e n sulfide
1 6-8
was reduced by approximately 95 percent . Facultative sludge
lagoons designed f o r l o n g- t e r m s t o r a g e h a v e b e e n f o u n d t o r e d u c e
levels of a l l contaminants except ammonia : ( see Chapter 15 ) .
SUPERNATANT
BOD5 = 7,600
SS * 5,000
ORG.N = 400
i P = 150
NH 3 600
002 = 1,000
REDUCTIONS
C O2 S T R I P P I N G -
95 98 PERCENT C02
LIME/
FERRIC CHLORIDE
-
70 85 PERCENT
80- 90 PERCENT
BOD5
SS
COAGULATION -
65 70 PERCENT 0 RG,N
PLUS SETTLING -
86 95 PERCENT P
AMMONIA
STRIPPING -
05 90 PERCENT NH3
TREATED
!. SUPERNATANT
FIGURE 16- 2
1 6- 9
TABLE 16- 4
Constituent Processes
Suspended Coagulation , settling ,
solids microstraining
BOD 5 Removal with suspended
’
solids , stripping of
volatile acids , bio -
logical .treatment , ad -
sorption on activated
carbon
16-10
liquor a t C o l o r a d o Springs , C o l o r a d o, caused t h e B O D5 loading
t o be increased b y 20 p e r c e n t a n d t h e s u s p e n d e d solids l o a d b y
3 0 p e r c e n t ( 2 7 ).
TABLE 16- 5
Value3
Supernatant treated at indicated
chlorine dose , mg/1
Untreated
Parameter supernatant 500 1, 500 1,800 1,900 2,000
Suspended solids ,
percent 1.9 1.7 1.8 1.7 1.7 2.0
Chlorine residual, mg/1 0 0 0 10 80 190
pH 6.8 5.8 5.5 4.8 4.4 2.7
Specific conductance ,
micromhos 1,950 2 , 750 2 , 380 2,500 2 ,600 4 ,500
Alkalinity , mg/1 1 , 100 170 83 60 32 0
BOD5, mg/1 2 ,600 2 ,600 2,600 2 , 200 2 ,000 1,500
COD, mg/1 43 ,900 43 ,100 40 ,800 32 ,000 31,200 20,200
Total nitrogen , mg/1 2 , 100 2 , 200 1,900 1 ,600 1,400 1 , 100
Total phosphate
phosphorus , mg/1 510 430 440 400 380 260
T r i c k l i n g f i l t e r s , t h e a c t i v a t e d s l u d g e p r o c e s s, a n a e r o b i c
biological filtration, a n d aerobic digestion h a v e b e e n u s e d t o
t r e a t t h e liquor. T o r e d u c e t h e nonbiodegradable C O D, activated
carbon has been used. Ozonation or chlorination c a n a l s o be used
t o r e d u c e C O D l e v e l s.
1 6- 1 1
=
1
15 60
O COO
X BOD5
VOLATILE ACIDS
50
A TOC
• TEMPERATURE 1
-J 40
E
8
o
O
ui
£T
Z D
o 30
I-
<
H a:
< Ui
z
H -
ft
s
m
H
O
z
o
o 20
10
20
FIGURE 16 - 3
AEROBIC DIGESTION OF
HEAT TREATMENT , BATCH TESTS ( 29 )
Anaerobic b i o l o g i c a l filtration o f h e a t t r e a t m e n t l i q u o r h a s b e e n
tested for use at the City of Los Angeles Hyperion treatment
p l a n t ( 3 1 ). T h e w a s t e-activated s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t s c h e m e i s s h o w n
o n F i g u r e 1 6-4 • T h e a n a e r o b i c f i l t e r, o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d b y
Y o u n g and M c C a r t y is similar t o t h e conventional aerobic t r i c k -
l i n g filter in t h a t o r g a n i s m s a r e a t t a c h e d t o t h e media s u r f a c e
a n d a s h o r t h y d r a u l i c d e t e n t i o n t i m e r e s u l t s ( 3 2 ). Advant ages
1 6 -1 2
are that the production of methane can result in energy recovery
and that n o p o w e r is required for o x y g e n addition. Care must
be t a k e n , however , t o avoid a n y plugging from p e r i o d i c high
suspended solids loadings. Results of a two- month test are shown
in Table 16-8 ( 31 ). At a hydraulic detention time of two days,
BOD5 and COD removals averaged 85 and 76 percent , respectively.
This s t u d y concluded that detention time could be reduced t o
about 0 . 5 t o 1.0 d a y s without s i g n i f i c a n t deterioration in
performance. Other pilot scale tests on anaerobic filtration of
heat treatment liquor have been conducted . One study reported
COD removals of approximately 65 percent at detention times of
3.5 d a y s and organic loadings of 125 lb COD per 1 ,000 cubic feet
per d a y ( 2.0 kg /m /day )( 33 ).
^
TABLE 16- 6
Residence time ,
days
Parameter 5 10
Temperature ,
°c 38 34
COD
Influent , mg/1 13 , 500 12, 400
Effluent , mg/1 4 , 100 3, 800
Reduction , percent 66 71
BOD5
Influent, mg/1 6, 900 6 , 100
Effluent , mg/1 510 250
Reduction , percent 94 96
16-13
c h a n g e d from d a r k b r o w n t o y e l l o w o r t a n which m a y a l l o w t h e
l i q u o r t o g o undetected w h e n diluted in the liquid s t r e a m.
Results of a pilot t e s t o n Z i m p r o process liquor are shown in
Table 16-9. A flow diagram indicating sampling point locations
is shown on Figure 1 6-6 .
TABLE 16- 7
Aeration time ,
hours
Parameter 21.8 40.9
Temperature , °C 33 .4 31.7
COD
Influent , mg/1 10 ,600 11 ,900
Effluent , mg/1 4 , 300 2 , 000
Reduction , percent 59 83
BOD5
Influent , mg/1 4 ,700 5 ,900
Effluent, mg/1 400 110
Reduction , percent 91 98
METHANE
CARBON D!QX ! DE
t EFFLUENT
RECYCLED TO
WASTE TREATMENT
* '
i
PLANT
7
^
ACTIVATED c
i K £ rst ING
SLUDGE
HEAT
FLOTATION TREATMENT
•a &
ANAEROBIC
SOLIDS L
— 3% 1.2%
*«
i
FILTRATION
CONCENTRATION 5
a.
9%
1
1
' H EAT
UNDERFLOW TREATMENT
LIQUOR
TO TREATMENT
PLANT
DEWATERING
r
I
CAKS-
FIGURE 16- 4
16 -1 4
TABLE 16- 8
AEROBIC BIOLOGICAL FILTRATION OF THERMAL
CONDITION LIQUOR ( 31 )
Parameter Value
BOD 5
Influent , mg/la 3 ,000
Effluent , mg/1 450
Reduction , percent 85
Suspended solids
Influent , mg/la 110
Effluent , mg/1 100
Total solids
Influent , mg/1 8 ,800
Effluent , mg/1 4 ,900
Volatile acids
Influent , mg/1 520
Effluent , mg/1 300
Alkalinity , as CaCOg b
Influent , mg/la 2 , 200
Effluent , mg/1 3 , 500
PH
Influent3 7. lb
Effluent 7.1
a , .
Decant liquor.
b
pH following thermal conditioning was
approximately 5.5 ; 1 , 600 mg/1 alkalinity
added to influent for pH adjustment.
16-15
HEAT TREATMENT LIQUOR
COD 20,000 mg/I APPROXIMATELY
nlrROUGHING
I
ACTIVATED ACTIVATED
l'“i
I ACTIVATED
M 1L i i CARBON CARBON CARBON
FILTER I
COLUMN COLUMN COLUMN
EFFLUENT TO SEWAGE
TREATMENT WORKS
I ( COD 100 mg/I)
AERATION
TANKS HUMUS PUMP
49 HRS. TANKS WELL
( COD 3,000 mg/I )
DETENTION
( COD 900 mg /I )
FICURE 16- S
TABLE 16- 9
Valuea , b
Parameter 1 2 3 4
16-16
ZIMPRO DECANTING DECANTING
PROCESS TREATMENT
I
TO
DEWATERING
FIGURE 16- 6
16.4 References
3 . . .
C h i a n, E S K • / a n d F B
Leachates and Their Treatment "
DeWalle .. "Sanitary Landfill
.
.
P r o c e e d i n g s ASCE, J o u r n a l
of the Environmental Engineering Division Vol 102, P 411 . . - .
1976 .
4 . Lofy, .
R J•/ H T . . Phung, R P . . Stearns, and J. J . W a l s h.
Subsurface Disposal of Municipal Wastewater Treatment
S l u d g e, E n v i r o n m e n t a l A s s e s s m e n t . USEPA O f f i c e o f S o l i d
. . .
W a s t e , p r e p u b l i c a t i o n i s s u e , C o n t r a c t N o 6 8 - 0 1- 4 1 6 6 1978
5 . S i k o r a , L . J . , C . M . M u r r a y , N .H . F r a n k o s , a n d J. M. W a l k e r .
"W a t e r Q u a l i t y a t a S l u d g e E n t r e n c h m e n t S i t e. " G r o u n d w a t e r.
V o l. 1 6. 1 9 7 8 .
6 . W a l k e r , J . M. , L . E l y , P.S lHu udngdee nEmn tarnenn,c hNm.e nFt r aSny ks toesm, faonrd UAs .e
K a m i n s k i. U S E P A . Sewage
byS m a l l C o m m u n i t i e s . E P A - 6 0 0 / 2- 7 8 - 0 1 8 . F e b r u a r y 1 9 7 8 .
7. USEPA , Technology T r a n s f e r . P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l,
M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s . P 1 9 5. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8 .
-
1 6-1 7
8. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. Sewage Sludge Management
P r o g r a m , Final R e p o r t , V o l u m e 5 , Dedicated L a n d Disposal
"
S t u d y. S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l C o u n t y S a n i t a t i o n District .
S a c r a m e n t o, California 9 5 8 1 4. S e p t e m b e r 1 9 7 9.
9. Mignone, N.A . "D i g e s t e r S u p e r n a t a n t D o e s N o t H a v e T o B e a
P r o b l e m." W a t e r & S e w a g e W o r k s. P 5 7. D e c e m b e r 1 9 7 6.
-
10. M i g n o n e, N.A . "S u r v e y o f Anaerobic D i g e s t i o n S u p e r n a t a n t
T r e a t m e n t A l t e r n a t i v e s. " W a t e r & S e w a g e W o r k s. P. 4 2 .
J a n u a r y 1 9 7 7.
20 . M a l i n a , J .F • / and J . DiFilippo .
"T r e a t m e n t o f S u p e r n a t a n t
a n d L i q u i d s A s s o c i a t e d w i t h S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t ." Water &
S e w a g e W o r k s , R e f e r e n c e N u m b e r , p R- 3 0 . 1971 . .
21. Rudolfs, W • a n d L . S. F o n t e n e l l i
/ .
"S u p e r n a t a n t L i q u o r
T r e a t m e n t with Chemicals." S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l. V o l. 1 7,
p. 5 3 8 . 1 9 4 5 .
2 5. " T h e P F T S u p e r n a t a n t L i q u o r T r e a t e r." S e w a g e W o r k s J o u r n a l .
V o l. 1 5 , p . 1 0 1 8 . 1 9 4 3 .( A u t h o r a n o n y m o u s ).
1 6- 1 9
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 17
INSTRUMENTATION
17.1 Introduction
W a s t e w a t e r solids t r e a t m e n t a n d disposal s y s t e m s are g e n e r a l l y
u n d e r - instrumented in c o m p a r i s o n t o o t h e r t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s ,
s u c h as t h o s e in w a t e r supply o r chemical processing p l a n t s ( 1 ).
W h i l e t h e economics a n d o p e r a t i n g e f f i c i e n c i e s o f v a r i o u s
m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s , c o n t r o l e q u i p m e n t , a n d o p e r a t o r interface
displays should be carefully evaluated by the treatment s y s t e m
designer , increased u s e of instrumentation is recommended , This
c h a p t e r examines instruments suitable f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and
disposal facilities.
1 7 . 1.1 P u r p o s e s of Instrumentation
M o s t o f t h e m e a s u r i n g d e v i c e s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s c h a p t e r a r e
" o n- 1 i n e " e q u i p m e n t d e s i g n e d f o r e s s e n t i a l l y u n a t t e n d e d
o p e r a t i o n. H o w e v e r , some critical data c a n be obtained o n l y by
the use of portable t e s t o r laboratory equipment t h a t requires
manual operation o r attention. O n- line instrumentation serves
t h e following p u r p o s e s in a w a s t e w a t e r solids t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m:
• R e d u c e s labor
• R e d u c e s chemical consumption
• R e d u c e s energy consumption
• I m p r o v e s t r e a t m e n t p r o c e s s efficiency a n d reliability
• Provides information f o r planning
• Verifies c o m p l i a n c e with discharge requirements
• Assures p e r s o n n e l safety
S o m e u s e s o f instrumentation — f o r e x a m p l e , t o r e d u c e l a b o r ,
chemical c o n s u m p t i o n , o r e n e r g y c o n s u m p t i o n--wi 1 1 be justified
primarily from a n economics viewpoint. Economics may , however ,
be a s e c o n d a r y consideration in decisions t o install instrumenta-
tion f o r a n y of t h e o t h e r p u r p o s e s listed above. F o r instance ,
instrumentation f o r providing planning information a n d /o r f o r
verifying c o m p l i a n c e with discharge requirements may b e justified
o n n o n - e c o n o m i c g r o u n d s. The information provided may be
essential for planning n e w facilities a n d /o r improving existing
facilities. Such information m a y a l s o be required for monitoring
1 7 -1
treatment results for reports to various g o v e r n m e n t agencies.
Economic considerations will a l s o be secondary for those s y s t e m s
requiring continuous monitoring to protect operating personnel .
Economic a n a l y s e s o f instrumentation , w h e n r e q u i r e d , m u s t
include both capital and o p e r a t i o n and maintenance ( 0/M ) c o s t s.
0/M c o s t s can be high , especially in s l u d g e m a n a g e m e n t , where the
materials being measured are u s u a l l y d e b r i s- l a d e n and sometimes
corrosive . A 1976 USEPA study found that many wastewater
t r e a t m e n t instruments are not properly o p e r a t e d or maintained
a n d q u i c k l y fall into disuse ( 1 ). This is p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e
in s m a l l p l a n t s w h e r e t h e maintenance s t a f f u s u a l l y d o e s n o t
include full-time instrumentation specialists , and where c o n t r a c t
i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n s p e c i a l i s t s a r e u n a v a i l a b l e. The designer
m u s t consider whether proper operation and maintenance will be
available before incorporating instrumentation into a p l a n t' s
d e s i g n. I n l a r g e r p l a n t s ( 2 0 t o 3 0 M G D [ 0 . 8 8 t o 1 . 3 m 3/ s ] ) ,
O/M staffs should include full- time instrumentation specialists.
1 7- 2
TABLE 17- 1
THICKENING
17- 3
TABLE 17- 1
THICKENING (Continued )
Centrifuge
Feed sludge Flow Magnetic
Pump displacement
Pipe empty Capacitance
Nuclear
Centrate -
(See Table 17 12, Sidestreams)
Thickened sludge Level Ultrasonic
Flow Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
De ns i ty Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Centrifuge operation Vibration Accelerome ter
Displacement probes
Torque or power Ammeter
draw
Polymers or chemicals Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotame ter
Propeller
Pump displacement
We ight Static
17- 4
TABLE 17- 2
/
tv 5
STABILIZATION
Anaerobic Digesters
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Digester liquid surface '
,
17- 5
TABLE
-v
17- 2
STABILIZATION (Continued )
Aerobic Digesters
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Digester liquid surface Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Digester contents Temperature RTD
Suspended solids Optical
Dissolved oxygen Polarographic
Galvanic
Thallium
pH or ORP -
Portable selective ion
Sedimentation tank Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Supernatant -
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams )
Recycled sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Density Nuclear
Digested sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH and ORP -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
Lime Treatment
Feed Sludge Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Venturi with diaphragm seal
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH and ORP -
Portable selective ion
Treated sludge Flow Magnetic
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pH and ORP -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
17 - 6
TABLE 17- 2
STABILIZATION (Continued)
Chlorine Treatment
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Treated sludge Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD
Density Nuclear
Optical
Chemicals
pH -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
. Flow Rotameter
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
Weight Static
17 - 7
TABLE 17- 3
DISINFECTION
Pasteurization
Feed sludge Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
pasteurization system Pressure Bourdon with flush diaphragm
seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Time Digital
Synchronous motor
Pasteurized sludge Level Ultrasonic
Flow Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Steam supply Flow Nozzle
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with steam service
siphon
Temperature RTD
Electron Irradiation
Feed Sludge Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
monitoring
-
Irradiation system E beam
Power draw Amme ter
Irradiated sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm seal
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
17 - 8
TABLE 17- 3
DISINFECTION (Continued )
Electron Irradiation
( continued )
Cooling air Flow Pitot tube
Flow loss Vane
Differential pressure
Thermal
Gamma Irradiation
Feed sludge Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Irradiation system
Radiation
- Dosage
Safety
Geiger counter
Geiger counter
Dosimeter
Badge
Irradiated sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Transport displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Radiation Geiger counter
-
Jar2lx *< »
17-9
TABLE 17 - 4
CONDITIONING
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Polymers Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotameter
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Weight Static
-
Non Chemical Additions
17 - 10
TABLE 17- 4
CONDITIONING (Continued )
Thermal Conditioning
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Density Nuclear
Optical
Sonic
Pipe empty Capacitance
Nuclear
Conditioning Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type )
Thermocouple
Solids separation Level Ultrasonic
Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Elutriation
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
17- 11
TABLE 17- 4
CONDITIONING (Continued )
Elutriation ( continued )
Solids separation Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Elutriate -
(See Table 17 12, Sidestreams )
Conditioned sludge Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Wash water Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Rotameter
Propeller
17- 12
TABLE 17- 5
^ - DEWATERING
Drying beds
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Bed contents Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Dewatered sludge Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Drainage and surface
runoff -
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams )
Weather Wind speed (15 ft ( 4.6 m )) Anamome ter
above ground
Wind direction ( 15 ft Wind vane
( 4.6 m )) above
grou nd
Temperature , dry bulb
( 5 and 25 ft ( 1.5 and RTD with solar shield
and 7.6 m )) above Thermistor with solar shield
ground
Relative humidity RTD with lithium chloride
cloth ( wet bulb tempera
ture)
-
Rainfall Tipping bucket
Solar radiation Thermopile
Atmospheric monitoring Odors Portable olefactometer
Drying Lagoons
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Dens i ty Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
17- 13
TABLE 17- 5
DEWATERING (Continued )
17- 14
TABLE 17- 5
DEWATERING (Cohtinued)
Filtration Dewatering
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Pipe empty Capacitance
Nuclear
Vacuum filter
Operation Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Pressure Bourdon with chemical seal
Speed Reluctance pick up -
Filtrate -
(See Table 17 12, Sidestreams )
Spent wastewater
and rejected ( See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
feed sludge
Washwater Flow Venturi
Rotameter
Propeller
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Belt filter presses
Operation Pressure Bourdon or bellows with
chemical seal
Diaphragm
Speed Reluctance
Filtrate -
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams )
Spent wastewater
and rejected (See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams)
feed sludge
Washwater Flow Venturi
Rotame ter
Propeller
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon
Recessed plate filter
presses
Operation Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Filtrate -
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams)
Spent washwater
and reject ( See Table 17- 12 , Sidestreams)
feed sludge
17-15
TABLE 17-5
DEWATERING (Continued )
Filtration Dewatering
{Continued )
Dewatered sludge Flow Pump displacement
Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmeter
Lab test
Polymers or chemicals Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Tape and float
Flow Magnetic
Rotame ter
Propeller
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with chemical seal
Weight Static
Cyclonic Separation
Feed wastewater solids Flow Magnetic
Pressure
Doppler - *
: '
Screening
Feed wastewater Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Feed wastewater solids Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Ultrasonic ' •' '
17-16
TABLE 17- 6
HEAT DRYING
Flash drying
Feed sludge Flow , volume Pump displacement
Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Pipe empty Capacitance
Nuclear
Drying operation Temperature RTD (pad type)
Dried sludge Flow , volume Transport displacement
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Hot air furnace
Burner operation Flame monitoring Ultravilot scanner
Fuel Flow Pitot tube
Orifice
Positive displacement
Combustion air Flow Pitot tube
Orifice plate
Pressure Diaphragm
Bellows
Temperature RTD
Heated air Temperature Thermocouple
Fan monitoring Flow loss Vane
Differential pressure
Thermal
Vibration Accelerometer
Scrubber water -
( See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams)
17- 17
TABLE 17- 6
HEAT DRYING (Continued )
rotary dryers
Feed sludge Flow , volume Pump displacement
Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Drying operation Temperature RTD (pad type)
Speed Reluctance
Torque or power draw Shearpin
Ammeter
Dried sludge Flow , volume Transport displacement
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Hot air furnace
Burner operation Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Fue 1 Flow Pitot tube
Orifice
Vortex
Positive displacement
Combustion air Flow Pitot tube
Or ifice
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature RTD
Heated air Temperature Thermocouple
Fan monitoring Flow loss Vane
Differential pressure
Thermal
Vibration Accelerometer
Scrubber water
* *
* w
_
-
fi'
*
-
(See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams )
aSee -
Table 17 12 , Sidestreams.
17-18
TABLE 17- 6
Incinerators -
(See Table 17 7 , High Temperature Processes)
Torodial dryers
^
Spray drying
Feed sludge Flow Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Drying operation Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Dried sludge Flow , volume Transport displacement
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Hot air supply Temperature Thermocouple
17-19
TABLE 17- 6
-
Multiple effect evaporator
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD (pad type)
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Fluidizing system
Fluidizing tank Level Ultrasonic
Temperature RTD (pad type)
1 7- 2 0
TABLE 17- 6
-
Multiple effect evaporator
(continued ) .
Fluidizing system (continued )
Fluidizing pump Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Feed tank Level Ultrasonic
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Feed pump Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Evaporation system Pressure Bourdon with chemical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Dried sludge Flow , volume Transport displacement
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Condensate Flow Rotameter
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with chemical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Recycled oil Level Ultrasonic
Flow Orifice
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
Temperature RTD
Steam supply Flow Nozzle
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with steam siphon
Temperature RTD
1 7- 2 1
TABLE 17- 7
HICH TEMPERATURE PROCESS
Incineration
Feed sludge Flow ( volume ) Pump displacement
Transport displacement
Temperature RTD
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Furnace operation
Multiple hearth - Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Torque of power Shear pin
draw Amme ter
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Flu id bed - Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
Temperature Thermocouple
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Electric Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Power draw Ammeter
-
Single hearth cyclonic Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Torque or power Shear pin
draw Ammeter
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Ash Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Temperature Thermocouple
Weight Static
Mass flow
Combustion air Flow loss Vane
Differential pressure
Therma 1
Pressure Diaphragm
Bellows
Recycled flue gas Temperature Thermocouple
Afterbu rner Temperature Thermocouple
-
Multiple hearth furnace Temperature Thermocouple
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Electric furnace Temperature Thermocouple
Power draw Ammeter
Exhaust (stack gas ) Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature Thermocouple
Oxygen content Paramagnetic
Catalytic
Ceramic
Opacity Optical
Other measurements As required
as required by
local air quality
management dis
tricts
-
r me •w
—
17- 22
TABLE ,17- 7
Incineration ( continued )
Heat recovery system
Flue gas Temperature Thermocouple
Boiler Level Float { cage mounted )
Pressure Bourdon
Temperature Thermocouple
Steam produced Flow Nozzle
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with steam siphon
Temperature Thermocouple
Scrubbing water
Fuel
-
(See Table 17 12, Sidestreams )
17- 23
TABLE 17- 7
HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESS (Continued )
Watergate Furnace
Feed scum Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Furnace operation Level Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Temperature Thermocouple
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Exhaust ( stack gas ) Pressure Be 1 lows
Diaphragm
Temperature Thermocouple
-
17 24
TABLE 17- 7
HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESS (Continued )
Positive displacement
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
-
Co Combustion with Municipal Refuse
Feed sludge
Liquid state Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Dewatered state Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Municipal refuse Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weigh t Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Furnace operation
Grate fired Temperature Thermocouple
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
-
Multiple hearth Temperature Thermocouple
Speed Reluctance
Torque or power Shear pin
draw Ammeter
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
17- 25
TABLE 17- 7
HIGH TEMPERATURE PROCESS (Continued )
-
Co Combustion with Municipal Refuse
(continued )
Furnace operation ( continued )
-
Fluid bed Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature Thermocouple
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Ash Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Temperature Thermocouple
Weight Static
Mass flow
Combustion air Flow loss Vane
Differential pressure
Therma 1
Pressure Diaphragm
Bellows
Temperature RTD
Recycled flue gas Temperature Thermocouple
Afterbu rner
Multiple hearth Temperature Thermocouple
Flame monitoring Ultraviolet scanner
Exhaust (stack gas ) Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature Thermocouple
Oxygen content Paramagnetic
Cataly tic
Ceramic
Opacity Optical
Other measurements As required
as required by
local air quality
management dis
tricts
-
Heat recovery system
Flue gas Temperature Thermocouple
Boiler Level Float ( cage mounted )
Pressure Bellows
Diaphragm
Temperature Thermocouple
Steam produced Flow Nozzle
Orifice
Pressure Bourdon with steam siphon
Scrubber water ( See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
17 26-
TABLE 17- 8
COMPOSTING
Unconfined
Windrow
Feed sludge Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Compos ting Temperature Portable thermometer
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Aerobic condition Portable galvanic cell
Portable polarographic cell
Composted sludge Flow ( volume) Truck displacement
Weight Static
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Amendment or bulking
agent Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Leachate and surface
runoff -
( See Table 17 12 , Sidestreams )
17- 27
TABLE 17- 8
COMPOSTING (Continued )
Unconfined (continued )
Aerated pile
Feed sludge Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Stat ic
Mass flov;
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Compos ting Temperature RTD
Portable thermometer
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Aerobic condition Portable galvanic cell
Portable polarographic cell
Composted sludge Flov/ ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Aeration air Flow Venturi
Pitot tube
Orifice
Amendment or bulking
agent Flov/ ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Leachate and surface
runof f (See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
Weather Wind speed (15 ft Anemometer
(4.6 m )) above
ground
Wind direction Wind vane
(15 ft ( 4.6 m ))
above ground
Temperature ( 5 and RTD )
25 ft ( 1.5 and Thermistor) with solar shield
7.6 m )) above
ground
Relative humidity RTD with lithium chloride cloth
( wet bulb temperature)
Ra infall Tipping bucket
Solar radiation Thermopile
Atmospheric monitoring Odors Portable olefactometer
17-28
TABLE 17- 8
COMPOSTING (Continued)
Confined Systems
Feed sludge Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Composting Temperature RTD
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Aerobic condition Portable galvanic cell
Portable polarographic cell
Composed sludge Leve 1 Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
We ight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Amendment or bulking
agent Level Capacitance
Ultrasonic
Flow ( volume) Transport displacement
Weight Static
Mass flow
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Atmospheric monitoring Odors Portable olefactometer
1 7- 2 9
«sitmse&mva
^
TABLE 17- 9
Fixation
Feed sludge Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Fixed sludge Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Encapsulation
Feed sludge Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Polyethlene system Pressure Bellows with diaphragm seal
Temperature RTD
Thermocouple
Asphalt system Temperature RTD
Thermocouple
Encapsulated sludge Flow ( volume ) Transport displacement
Earthworm Conversion
Feed sludge Flow (volume ) Transport displacement
Temperature Portable thermometer
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
Castings (egesta ) Flow ( volume ) Transport displaceement
Moisture content Portable ohmmeter
Lab test
-
17 30
TABLE 17- 10
TRANSPORTATION
Pumping
Centrifugal and torque
flow pumps
Variable speed drive Speed Tachometer generator
Reluctance
Vibration Accelerometer
Pumped sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Empty pipe Capacitance
Nuclear
Positive displacement
pumps
Variable speed drive Speed Reluctance
Pumped sludge Flow Reluctance ( revolution counter )
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Empty pipe Capacitance
Nu clear
Pipelines
17-31
TABLE 17-11
STORAGE
Wastewater Treatment
Sedimentation facilities Density Nuclear
Optical
Suspended solids Optical
Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Aeration reactors Suspended solids Optical
Imhoff and septic tanks Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Density Nuclear
Optical
Oxidation ditches Suspended solids Optical
Stabilization ponds Suspended solids Optical
17- 32
TABLE 17- 11
STORAGE (Continued )
17- 33
TABLE 17- 11
STORAGE (Continued )
-
17 34
TABLE 17- 11
STORAGE (Continued )
Supernatant -
(See Table 17 12, Sidestreams)
Aerated Basin
Feed sludge Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Basin contents Dissolved oxygen Portable galvanic
Portable polarographic
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Supernatant ( See Table 17-12 , Sidestreams )
17- 35
TABLE 17- 12
SIDESTREAMS
Thickening
Gravity supernatant Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm sensors
Suspended solids Optica 1
Flotation subnatant Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm sensors
Suspended solids Optical
Centrifuge centrate Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm sensors
Suspended solids Optical
Stabilization
Anaerobic digestion
supernatant Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Tape and float
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Sludge blanket Optical
Sonic
Suspended solids Optical
pH -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
Chemical oxygen TOC Analyzer
demand
Ammo nia -
Selective ion analyzer
Aerobic digestion
superna tant Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
17- 36
TABLE 17- 12
SIDESTREAMS (Continued )
Stabilization ( continued )
Aerobic digestion
supernatant ( continued ) Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Temperature RTD ( pad type)
Density Nuclear
Optica 1
Ultrasonic
Suspended solids Optical
pH -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
Ultrasonic
-
17 37
TABLE 17- 12
SIDESTREAMS (Continued )
Conditioninq ( continued )
Atmospheric monitoring Odors Portable defactometer
Panel
Dewatering
Drying bed drainage Le ve 1 Bubbler
and surface runoff Diaphragm
Float and tape
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magne tic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Suspended solids Portable optical
pH Portable selective- ion
Ammonia Lab test
Drying lagoons super
natant and surface
- Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
runof f Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Suspended solids Portable optical
pH -
Portable selective ion
Centrifuge centrate Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Density Nuclear
Optica 1
Ultrasonic
Suspended solids Optical
pH -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
Ammonia -
Selective ion analyzer
Blanket level Optical
Ultrasonic
Vacuum , belt press , recessed
plate and frame and screw
and roll press filters
Filtrate Le ve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pump displacement
17- 38
TABLE 17- 12
SIDESTREAMS (Continued )
Dewatering ( Continued )
Filtrate ( continued ) Pressure Bourdon with diaphragm seal
Suspended solids Optica 1
pH -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
Ammonia -
Selective ion analyzer
Spent washwater and Level Bubbler
rejected feed sludge Diaphragm
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
Pump displacement
Density Nuclear
Optical
Ultrasonic
Suspended solids Optica 1
pH Selective-ion ( pipeline mtg )
Ammonia -
Selective ion analyzer
Cyclonic separation
Overt low Leve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Screening
Screening liquid Level Bubbler
Diaphragm
Flow Venturi
Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Density Nuclear
Sonic
17- 39
TABLE 17- 12
SIDESTREAMS (Continued )
_
Composting Leachate and
Surface Runoff Leve 1 Bubbler
Diaphragm
Float and tape
Flow Venturi with diaphragm sensors
Magnetic
Doppler
We irs
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Suspended solids Optical
pH -
Selective ion ( pipeline mtg )
Chemical oxygen Total organic carbon
demand analyzer
Storage
Facultative sludge Level Bubbler
lagoon supernatant Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Suspended solids Portable optical
pH -
Portable selective ion
Ammonia Lab test
Anaerobic sludge Level Bubbler
lagoon supernatant Diaphragm
Ultrasonic
Flow Magnetic
Doppler
Weirs and flumes
Pressure Bourdon with cylindrical seal
Suspended solids Portable optical
pH
Ammo nia Lab test
-
Portable selective ion
17- 40
17.2 Measurements
T h i s s e c t i o n b r i e f l y describes e a c h o f t h e instrumentation
devices listed in Tables 1 7-1 through 1 7- 1 2.
17.2.1 . 1 Bubblers
The pneumatic bubbler remains the m o s t universally applicable
liquid level measuring device in w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t facilities.
In its simplest form , a bubbler consists of a d i p t u b e through
w h i c h a c o n s t a n t s m a l l f l o w o f p u r g e g a s, u s u a l l y a i r , i s
discharged . T h e g a s f l o w p r e v e n t s t h e liquid from rising in the
dip t u b e ; therefore , the p r e s s u r e required t o maintain t h e g a s
flow is directly proportional t o the d e p t h of a liquid above t h e
d i p t u b e outlet. This p r e s s u r e c a n be measured by virtually a n y
p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t d e v i c e , s o m e o f which a r e d e s c r i b e d i n
Section 1 7 . 2.3 . T h e bubbler can b e used with almost a n y liquid ,
but clogging may be a problem when solids are p r e s e n t . Clogging
c a n b e controlled by f r e q u e n t purging with h i g h p r e s s u r e air .
W h e r e t h e use o f a n a i r p u r g e i s u n d e s i r a b l e , s u c h a s in
anaerobic digesters, nitrogen or natural gas can be used for
p u r g i n g the bubbler d i p t u b e , F i g u r e 1 7- 1 s h o w s a t y p i c a l
bubbler schematic with air purge capabilities .
1 7 . 2.1 . 2 Diaphragms
B u b b l e r d i p t u b e clogging p r o b l e m s c a n be o v e r c o m e b y u s e o f
diaphragm level element. A diaphragm is u s u a l l y 3 t o 4 inches
( 7.6 t o 1 0. c m ) in diameter and serves a s one wall o f what is ,
e s s e n t i a l l y , a b o x . Inside t h e b o x , a p n e u m a t i c , h y d r a u l i c ,
o r e l e c t r i c mechanism transmits a n y p r e s s u r e e x e r t e d o n t h e
d i a p h r a g m . T h e e n t i r e b o x i s s u b m e r g e d in a v e s s e l , o r t h e
d i a p h r a g m m a y b e inserted in t h e w a l l o f t h e v e s s e l b y m e a n s
o f a standard pipe f l a n g e. In either case , the pressure exerted
o n t h e d i a p h r a g m is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d e p t h o f
l i q u i d a b o v e t h e d i a p h r a g m. The type of diaphragm shown on
Figure 1 7- 2 is air - purged and p r o d u c e s a b a c k p r e s s u r e similar t o
a b u b b l e r. T h u s , b o t h t h e a i r s u p p l y a n d p r e s s u r e m e a s u r i n g
devices a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e used in bubbler s y s t e m s. T h e
air- p u r g e d d i a p h r a g m can , therefore , be used as a r e p l a c e m e n t for
e x i s t i n g bubblers. T h e s e c o n d t y p e o f d i a p h r a g m uses a filled
1 7- 41
***S £&taw*v
COMPRESSED
AIR SUPPLY
30 p&tg
MINIMUM
1/ 2" PIPE
PRESSURE
l/2> BALL
#
ELEMENT
VALVE HIGH FLOW
PURGE VALVE
f t Q
BULKHEAD
DRAIN PLUG - ^ FITTINGS
REQUIRED WHEN
Z — * ~
FILTER REGULATOR —*
/ 1/4" PVC TUBES
ASSEMBLY W/GAUGE
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
REGULATOR W /NEEDLE SCREW ADAPTER
VALVE Si CAP TO PERMIT
ROTAMETER W /CHECK RDDDING
VALVE, 0- 2 SCFH
Ifwhtt x 0*39
m h * 8.146 - cm
fcN/m2 3/4“ SCMED 80
PVC PIPE
LAI
NOTCH
1/2" x 1/2''
FIGURE 17- 1
17-42
COMPRESSED
AIR SUPPLY
30 psig
MINIMUM
N/
1 /2" PIPE
PRESSURE j
1/2" 8 ALL ELEMENT I
VALVE
DRAIN PLUG “
( REQUIRED WHEN
— “
BULKHEAD
FITTINGS
i
TEFLON COATED
i
FIBERGLASS DIAPHRAGM
\ OSAPNflAGM
]|ELEMENT
7 (SEE DETAIL )
FIGURE 17- 2
1 7- 4 3
capillary tube between the diaphragm and a conventional pressure
transmitter , t h u s eliminating the need for an air supply. When
a filled capillary tube is employed , the volumetric displacement
of the diaphragm is critical , and p r e s s u r e indicators o r
transmitters should have as low a displacement as possible so
that diaphragms with low movement can be used . Capillary filling
fluid should have a low thermal expansion coefficient to limit
errors r e s u l t i n g f r o m t e m p e r a t u r e c h a n g e s , Diaphragms a r e
flush- mounted and have no crevices to accumulate solids. The
almost insignificant movement required for accurate measurement
is maintained even when the diaphragm is coated with grease.
17- 44
t h e material s u r f a c e and t h e r e f l e c t e d p u l s e r e t u r n s t o t h e
transducer. T h e time that e l a p s e s between the transmitted p u l s e
and the received p u l s e is related t o the distance between t h e
transducer and the reflecting surface by the s p e e d of sound in
air. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e s p e e d of sound in air is affected by
both t e m p e r a t u r e and humidity , and the reflected signal is also
scattered . These conditions substantially weaken the received
p u l s e. All t h e s e p r o b l e m s c a n be o v e r c o m e with m o r e c o m p l e x
electronics and l a r g e r transducers, but experience t o date ( 1979 )
with t h e s e u n i t s h a s b e e n v e r y p o o r . T h e i r use c a n n o t be
r e c o m m e n d e d until t h e i r s e r v i c e a b i l i t y h a s b e e n p r o v e d u n d e r
treatment p l a n t conditions.
1 7 . 2. 2 Flow Measurements
Flow i s a n i m p o r t a n t m e a s u r e m e n t f o r s l u d g e t r e a t m e n t and
disposal operations. A c c u r a c y has been an ongoing problem with
a l l t y p e s o f f l o w m e t e r s. Venturi - t y p e f l o w t u b e s , o r i f i c e
p l a t e s , and weirs are regarded a s standard flow measuring devices
providing p r o p e r a p p r o a c h conditions--t h e length of s t r a i g h t pipe
u p s t r e a m and d o w n s t r e a m from t h e device--a r e maintained . This by
itself is a s t r o n g a r g u m e n t in f a v o r o f their use . I n m a n y
situations , proper approach conditions cannot be obtained or a
wider r a n g e of operation is needed . S o m e in- p l a n t method should
be p r o v i d e d t o " p r o v e " t h e a c c u r a c y o f n o n - s t a n d a r d m e t e r s.
A liquid f l o w m e t e r can f r e q u e n t l y be calibrated b y d i s c h a r g i n g
a flow into a tank of known dimensions and measuring the c h a n g e
in l e v e l . I n o t h e r c a s e s , m e t e r s m a y b e c o m p a r e d with o t h e r
m e t e r s of p r o v e n a c c u r a c y . For comparison , the meter under
t e s t m u s t be left in t h e actual plant piping , or a test stand
with a n identical piping configuration m u s t be provided . Flow
1 7- 45
m e a s u r e m e n t s o f wastewater s l u d g e are difficult t o take , The
d e s i g n e r m u s t select t h e instrument with care , recognizing that
reliability m a y be a far more important criterion t h a n accuracy .
1 7 . 2 .2 . 2 Nozzles
F l o w n o z z l e s a r e s i m i l a r in o p e r a t i o n t o Venturi t u b e s b u t
are substantially l e s s expensive , Residual head loss is much
g r e a t e r than for Venturi tubes and approaches t h a t of an orifice
plate installation , F l o w nozzles d o n o t wear o u t as quickly as
orifice p l a t e s and can handle fluids containing limited solids.
The m o s t common application o f the flow nozzle is for s t e a m f l o w
m e a s u r e m e n t.
T h e m a g n e t i c f l o w m e t e r functions a c c o r d i n g t o F a r a d a y ' s l a w
which , in simple t e r m s , states that when a n electrical conductor
( in t h i s case w a t e r ) p a s s e s t h r o u g h a m a g n e t i c field , a n
electrical v o l t a g e is developed at right a n g l e s t o t h e direction
o f t h e field a n d t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e m o v e m e n t . If t h e
magnetic field is c o n s t a n t , the v o l t a g e is proportional t o the
conductor's velocity. Hence , a magnetic flowmeter is simply a
tube with magnetic coils that uses electronics t o measure the
voltage produced . In the p a s t , a number of poor applications has
1 7- 4 6
put magnetic flowmeters in disfavor. When they are properly
applied with modern electronics , magnetic flowmeters are now as
reliable as any other flow measuring devices.
Flow velocity of primary sludge through a magnetic flow tube
should be in the range of 5 to 25 feet per second ( 1.5 to
7.6 m/s ), providing a usable range of 5:1. The lower limit is
established by the minimum scouring action required to keep
electrodes free of grease. The upper limit is necessary to
limit erosion of the tube's plastic liner. Flow velocity for
secondary sludges may be extended down to 3 feet per second
( 0.9 m/s) because less grease is present. For intermittent flow ,
velocities may be extended up to 30 feet per second ( 9 m/s )
because less grit is present. Combining these conditions
provides a usable range for secondary sludges of 10:1. Magnetic
flowmeter manufacturers generally recommend certain accessories ,
such as electrode cleaning devices , when metering sludge .
Purchase specifications should clearly state the application and
require provision of all recommended accessories. Properly
applied and installed , modern magnetic flowmeters are giving
excellent service in many installations.
-
17 47
o r b u b b l e s in t h e l i q u i d s t r e a m and is r e t u r n e d t o a s e c o n d
t r a n s d u c e r a t a f r e q u e n c y d i f f e r e n t f r o m t h a t transmitted .
This difference is related t o the velocity o f t h e material that
c a u s e d t h e r e f l e c t i o n . P r e s e n t l y , difficulties p r e v e n t t h e
practical application o f this technique. The frequency change is
affected by the velocity o f sound , which in t u r n is affected b y
t e m p e r a t u r e in the fluid . Furthermore , in s l u d g e a p p l i c a t i o n s ,
the p a r t i c l e s o r bubbles causing reflections will v e r y p r o b a b l y
be located close t o t h e pipe walls , and their velocity m a y not be
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of a v e r a g e fluid velocity. Hence , the accuracy o f
this t y p e of meter is questionable. Actual field experience with
this t y p e of m e t e r is n o t extensive.
17.2.2.6 Rotameters
R e l a t i v e l y c l e a n , n o n - corrosive f l u i d s f l o w i n g t h r o u g h l a r g e
pipes ( 2 inches [ 5 cm ] or l a r g e r ) can be readily m e a s u r e d with
p r o p e l l e r m e t e r s. P r o p e l l e r m e t e r s can p r o v i d e local readout or
can be equipped with transmitting mechanisms for remote readout
o r recording . T h e y are not applicable for s l u d g e flows , but can
p r o v i d e reliable , cost - effective service for s u p p o r t systems.
1 7 . 2.2 . 8 Pitot T u b e s
Pitot tubes v e r y economically measure flow in pipes o f almost
any size .
The pitot tube produces a differential pressure
proportional t o the square o f the fluid v e l o c i t y , which m a y be
1 7- 4 8
m e a s u r e d b y differential p r e s s u r e transmitters described i n
Section 1 7 . 2.3 . O n e commercial unit p r o v i d e s four p o r t s s p a c e d
across t h e diameter of the pipe and a v e r a g e s the impact p r e s s u r e
o f e a c h t o p r o v i d e c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r i r r e g u l a r f l o w p r o f i l e s.
T h e pitot tube p r o d u c e s a very small p r e s s u r e differential f o r
liquid f l o w velocities typically used in t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s and ,
therefore , is not particularly suitable f o r liquid service. I t
is frequently suitable f o r g a s flows w h e r e wide flow r a n g e s are
n o t r e q u i r e d. T h e s m a l l t u b e e n t r a n c e s m a k e it c o m p l e t e l y
unsuitable f o r use with sludge flows.
1 7- 49
1 7 . 2.2 . 1 2 Vortex M e t e r s
O r i f i c e p l a t e s , t u r b i n e m e t e r s , and V o r t e x m e t e r s h a v e a l l
provided a d e q u a t e instrumentation f o.r a n a e r o b i c d i g e s t e r g a s
flow. However , t h e s e instruments cannot provide the absolute
a c c u r a c y of positive displacement meters a t the v e r y low f l o w s
encountered during digester operations , Positive d i s p l a c e m e n t
meters can be of the rotating cavity ( lobe ) or the diaphragm
t y p e. Positive d i s p l a c e m e n t m e t e r s are probably the oldest m e t e r
used for digester g a s measurements. In recent y e a r s, they h a v e
been almost c o m p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d b y t h e in- line m e t e r s described
in the previous p a r a g r a p h s , Positive displacement m e t e r s a r e
frequently used for c l e a n oil o r clean g a s flow m e a s u r e m e n t s and
are inherently useful over a n e x t r e m e l y wide operating r a n g e.
T h e m e t e r' s cavities, exposed bearings, and /or close clearances
make them unsuited for dirty g a s service.
1 7 . 2. 3 Pressure Measurement
1 7-5 0
1 7 . 2.3 . 1 Bourdons or Bellows
P r e s s u r e Elements
T h e bourdon tube is the most c o m m o n l y used pressure element for
p r e s s u r e r a n g e s o f 1 5 p o u n d s p e r s q u a r e inch ( 1 0 3 k N / m 2 )
or greater. The bourdon tube is essentially a piece of
tubing c l o s e d a t o n e e n d a n d b e n t in a n a r c. W h e n p r e s s u r e is
a p p l i e d t o t h e t u b e , it t e n d s t o s t r a i g h t e n , T h e m o v e m e n t.
p r o d u c e d a t t h e f r e e o r closed end is amplified by mechanical
linkage t o o p e r a t e a pointer o r transmitter mechanism , Bellows
are frequently used when lower pressures must be measured or
g r e a t e r m o v e m e n t is r e q u i r e d f o r d i r e c t a c t u a t i o n o f c o n t r o l
mechanisms. B o u r d o n t u b e s a r e r a r e l y u s e d in m o d e r n industrial
p r o c e s s p r e s s u r e transmitters , Bellows elements are frequently
used in process pressure transmitters for p r e s s u r e r a n g e s from
1 0 inches w a t e r pressure ( 2.4 k N/m 2 ) t o a s high a s 6 0 0 pounds p e r
s q u a r e inch ( 4 . 1 4 MN / m 2 ). B e l l o w s e l e m e n t s a r e a l s o r e a d i l y
a d a p t a b l e t o differential p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s a n d a b s o l u t e
p r e s s u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s.
Chemical Seals
Both bourdon tubes and bellows are unsuitable for direct
measurement of fluids containing solids, Collecting solids
within the p r e s s u r e element is t h e p r o b l e m , Corrosive fluids
a l s o m u s t be k e p t o u t of t h e p r e s s u r e e l e m e n t , A " chemical seal "
is u s e d f o r t h e s e applications. T h e m o s t c o m m o n chemical seal
consists of a s m a l l metal o r elastomer diaphragm, o n e side o f
which is e x p o s e d t o t h e process fluid , Sometimes this e x p o s e d
s i d e i s p u r g e d w i t h w a t e r o r m o u n t e d f l u s h w i t h t h e fluid
containment v e s s e l. T h e o t h e r side of t h e seal is c l o s e- c o u p l e d
o r c o n n e c t e d by a capillary t u b e t o t h e measuring element a n d
f i l l e d w i t h a s u i t a b l e f l u i d s u c h a s s i l i c o n o i l. For very
dirty , grease- l a d e n process fluids s u c h a s w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e,
a n in - l i n e t u b u l a r o r c y l i n d r i c a l c h e m i c a l s e a l , a s s h o w n o n
F i g u r e 1 7 - 3 , m u s t b e u s e d t o a s s u r e o p e r a t i o n a l r e l i a b i l i t y.
This s e a l is c o n s t r u c t e d a s a n elastomer t u b e o f t h e s a m e size
as the process pipe line and mounted within a flanged steel
p i p e s p o o l. T h e s p a c e b e t w e e n t h e e l a s t o m e r a n d s t e e l s p o o l
is s e a l e d , f i l l e d w i t h a s u i t a b l e fluid ( a n t i - f r e e z e w h e n
n e c e s s a r y ) , a n d c o n n e c t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e p r e s s u r e e l e m e n t.
Pressure elements with electrical contacts and cylindrical
'
1 7- 5 1
F LtJS *L:
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FIGURE 17-3
17.2.3.2 Diaphragms
P r e s s u r e Element
.- .
wvm vimtiMUt w nro
1 7 . 2 .4 Temperature Measurements
Stabilization , disinfection , c o n d i t i o n i n g , c o m p o s t i n g , a n d
heat processes in sludge t r e a t m e n t all m a y require t e m p e r a t u r e
i n f o r m a t i o n t o assure s u c c e s s f u l o p e r a t i o n. Temperature
1 7-5 2
instrumentation is r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e ; h o w e v e r , s u c c e s s f u l
application requires locating p r o b e s t o obtain representative
r e a d i n g s without obstructing s l u d g e f l o w , The designer m u s t be
aware o f t h e s e application restrictions and locate and specify
instruments correctly.
1 7 . 2.4 . 1 Resistance T e m p e r a t u r e
Detectors ( RTDs )
1 7 . 2.4 . 2 Thermocouples
F o r p r o c e s s e s with t e m p e r a t u r e s in e x c e s s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y
1 , 0 0 0 ° F ( 5 4 0 ° C ) ( f o r e x a m p l e , incineration ) , R T D s a r e n o t
suitable and t h e r m o c o u p l e s m u s t be used , T h e r m o c o u p l e s consist
of two junctions of dissimilar metals , One junction, the
m e a s u r i n g j u n c t i o n , is p l a c e d in o r on t h e material t o be
measured . The second , or reference , junction is located in a
constant temperature zone, or the measuring instrument may
include an artificial reference junction. T h e Peltier effect
s t a t e s that at a n y junction o f dissimilar m e t a l s , an electric
motive force ( v o l t a g e ) will b e p r o d u c e d . T h u s , t w o voltages ,
( o n e at each junction ) are produced in a series circuit. T h e
m e a s u r i n g instrument d e t e c t s t h e difference b e t w e e n t h e s e
t w o v o l t a g e s and produces an output proportional to process
t e m p e r a t u r e. T h e r m o c o u p l e s produce v e r y small v o l t a g e s at low
t e m p e r a t u r e s. M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e d i f f e r e n c e in v o l t a g e
produced by the reference and measuring junction is v e r y small .
F o r this reason , t h e r m o c o u p l e s are n o t generally used t o measure
small variations in t e m p e r a t u r e. T h e r m o c o u p l e s are g e n e r a l l y
less expensive than RTDs but require greater attention to
installation p r o c e d u r e s t o r e d u c e e l e c t r i c a l i n t e r f e r e n c e .
Wiring for thermocouples must be especially matched to the
t h e r m o c o u p l e junction material .
1 7- 5 3
1 7 . 2.5 Weight Measurements
T w o t y p e s o f w e i g h t m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e o f i n t e r e s t in s l u d g e
handling facilities. The first is the common static m e a s u r e m e n t.
The second is the weight per unit of time , which is actually a
mass f l o w measurement.
1 7 . 2.5 . 1 Static
1 7- 54
s u b s t a n c e subject t o United S t a t e s Nuclear Regulatory Commission
r e s t r i c t i o n s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s. I t r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g ,
s a f e t y p r e c a u t i o n s, and t e s t i n g . T h i s a d d s t o o p e r a t i o n and
maintenance c o s t s.
All c o n v e y o r mass f l o w scales measure the total mass o f material
on the p l a t f o r m s o r belt , No differentiation is made between
solids a n d water ; therefore , t h e reading is most a c c u r a t e if t h e
moisture content is constant or can be measured .
1 7 . 2.6 . 1 Density
Nuclear
Nuclear density g a u g e s u s u a l l y work well o n primary and mixed
primary and s e c o n d a r y s l u d g e s in the higher concentration r a n g e.
They usually have limited applicability to secondary sludge
alone. The nuclear d e n s i t y g a u g e consists o f a s m a l l radioactive
source , u s u a l l y cesium -137, and a d e t e c t o r p l a c e d o n opposite
1 7 -5 5
sides of the pipe , G a m m a radiation is emitted and absorbed
by the material in the pipe in direct proportion to its density.
However , the difference in radiation absorption between plain
water and water containing the suspended solids concentration
must be significant for nuclear meters t o function well , These
meters are generally effective where suspended solids concentra-
tions are in the r a n g e of 1 t o 1 0 p e r c e n t , The radioactive
source itself decays, and the high gain amplifiers suffer from
gain changes resulting from component aging , Both factors cause
t h e instrument calibration t o c h a n g e r a p i d l y , and f r e q u e n t
adjustment is required t o maintain a c c u r a c y , When nuclear
density gauges are to be used t o measure sludge solids concentra -
tion , t h e y m u s t be s p e c i f i e d with s p e c i a l p r e m i u m low - drift
a m p l i f i e r s. T h e source is a c o n t r o l l e d s u b s t a n c e subject t o
United S t a t e s N u c l e a r R e g u l a t o r y Commission restrictions and
regulations. When properly installed and maintained , nuclear
density gauges have functioned quite successfully with wastewater
sludge .
Optical
-
17 56
the most suitable for this application. Surface scatter types
with no optics in contact with the process fluid are also
usable. Care should be taken to exclude larger solids , such as
particles of floating debris , that are frequently present in the
liquid being monitored . More information on suspended solids
instrumentation is available ( 3 ).
- -
are not reliable for operating speeds that are normally below
50 revolutions per minute. Reluctance pick 'p systems can
provide reliable operation at virtually any speed .
17-57
T h e r e i s n o p r o v e n o n - line instrumentation f o r m e a s u r i n g
moisture in s l u d g e. Consideration of available options leads
t o e s s e n t i a l l y t w o p o s s i b i l i t i e s - - a m a n u a l resistance p r o b e
and laboratory t e s t s. A m a n u a l resistance p r o b e m u s t b e
considered a very approximate instrument since it is not actually
m e a s u r i n g m o i s t u r e , and r e s i s t a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t s ( m o i s t u r e
c o n t e n t ) will v a r y s i g n i f i c a n t l y with t h e c o n t a c t p r e s s u r e
b e t w e e n t h e m o n i t o r e d m a t e r i a l and t h e p r o b e. H o w e v e r , t h e
p o r t a b l e resistance p r o b e can provide t h e a c c u r a c y needed for
i m m e d i a t e p r o c e s s c o n t r o l m e a s u r e m e n t s; f o r e x a m p l e, c o m p o s t
p i l e s o r windrows. The l a b o r a t o r y t e s t is t h e o n l y moisture
measurement method , however, that can provide the repeatable
a c c u r a c y demanded f o r Q F D calculations ( see C h a p t e r 3 ). Special
infrared d r y i n g equipment with integral weighing instrumentation
is available t o make such l a b o r a t o r y testing both convenient and
ef ficient.
7.2.1 0 Dissolved O x y g e n M e a s u r e m e n t s
T h r e e t y p e s o f d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n p r o b e s a r e c o m m o n l y u s e d in
w a s t e w a t e r treatment p l a n t s for measuring the dissolved oxygen
level in liquid s t r e a m s c o n t a i n i n g h i g h l e v e l s o f s u s p e n d e d
solids. T h e s e include the galvanic cell t y p e , the polarographic
cell t y p e , and the thallium c e l l t y p e.
Each o f these cell t y p e s has its own p r o p o n e n t s , The galvanic
cell is p r o b a b l y t h e most c o m m o n l y used in existing wastewater
treatment plants , Both the galvanic cell and the polarographic
cell use a membrane ( u s u a l l y teflon ) t h r o u g h which o x y g e n can
migrate into a n e l e c t r o l y t e in which the e l e c t r o d e s are immersed .
Membrane cleaning and electrolyte replenishment require a
significant maintenance effort with these cells , The thallium
c e l l s d i s p e n s e with t h e m e m b r a n e a n d i m m e r s e t h e e l e c t r o d e s
directly in the fluid t o be analyzed , None of these cells is
a p p l i c a b l e f o r m e a s u r i n g d i s s o l v e d o x y g e n in l i q u i d s h a v i n g
solids c o n t e n t s much higher t h a n 2 p e r c e n t.
1 7 . 2.1 1 pH Measurements
M o d e r n selective - i o n p H s e n s o r s with " n o n - f 1 o w i n g " r e f e r e n c e
electrodes are suitable for measuring the pH of sludge , The
non- flowing reference electrode replaced the liquid reference
junction in which the e l e c t o l y t e ( generally potassium chloride )
f l o w e d c o n t i n u a l l y f r o m a r e s e r v o i r i n t o the p r o c e s s s t r e a m .
T h e s e s y s t e m s s o m e t i m e s p l u g g e d , c a u s i n g erroneous r e a d o u t s.
N o n- flowing r e f e r e n c e electrodes use a semi - solid e l e c t r o l y t e
that does not require frequent replenishment or reservoir
p r e s s u r i z a t i o n to maintain flow , E l e c t r o d e s should be installed
in lines w h e r e s l u d g e flows p a s s the sensor , maintaining a fresh
s a m p l e a t t h e measuring point ; for e x a m p l e, circulation lines.
E l e c t r o d e a s s e m b l i e s s h o u l d b e d e s i g n e d t o hold e l e c t r o d e s
essentially flush with the pipe wall , The electrodes should be
easily removable for cleaning o r r e p l a c e m e n t.
1 7-5 8
17.2 12 . Chemical Oxygen Demand Measurements
A s e l e c t i v e- i o n e l e c t r o d e i s a v a i l a b l e f o r m e a s u r i n g a m m o n i a .
Ions other than ammonia frequently i n t e r f e r e with accurate
measurement and elimination of interferences requires treatment
of the sample before the measurement i s made Package analyzers .
are available t o prepare the sample and make the measurement .
Since custom sample preparation i s frequently required , a sample
should be submitted to the analyzer manufacturer prior to
purchasing this type of equipment .
17.2 14 . Gas Measurement and Analysis
1 7-5 9
and its o u t p u t is plotted a s a function of time. The resulting
p l o t consists o f a series o f p e a k s and v a l l e y s , w i t h e a c h p e a k
representing the d e t e c t o r's r e s p o n s e t o one of t h e g a s e s being
measured . Each p e a k c a n be associated with a specific c o m p o n e n t ,
since t h e time ( relative t o s a m p l e i n j e c t i o n ) a t which the
c o m p o n e n t p e a k will e m e r g e from the column is known . The area
under each of t h e p e a k s is p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e g a s concentration.
E v e n t h o u g h t h i s u n i t i s c a l l e d " o n- l i n e " i t i s a b a t c h
i n s t r u m e n t which , a t b e s t , m i g h t m a k e f o u r m e a s u r e m e n t s p e r
hour. T h e o n-line mass s p e c t r o m e t e r is a l s o c a p a b l e of t h e s e
measurements but is even more expensive than the c h r o m a t o g r a p h.
Digester g a s s a m p l e s for analysis m u s t be stripped of h y d r o g e n
sulfide and filtered to remove solids before passing through
analysis equipment , S a m p l e lines m u s t be heat -traced t o avoid
moisture condensation. With adequate s a m p l e preparation , g a s
analysis instruments should function without undue maintenance ;
h o w e v e r , a t p r e s e n t , n o d a t a is a v a i l a b l e o n a s u c c e s s f u l
wastewater treatment plant installation of any of these
instruments.
1 7 . 2.1 4 . 2 Calorimeter
A suitable instrument for measuring the heat value o f digester
g a s is a calorimeter , which e s s e n t i a l l y b u r n s a g a s s a m p l e. T h e
instrument m u s t be located in a n area free of d r a f t s, which can
affect its a c c u r a c y o r even extinguish t h e flame , Instrument
r e s p o n s e is s l o w , This s h o u l d b e o f n o c o n s e q u e n c e d u r i n g
monitoring applications , h o w e v e r , since digester g a s composition
will n o r m a l l y c h a n g e s l o w l y . Care must b e exercised , however , if
the instrument is t o be used t o control mixing of digester g a s
with o t h e r g a s e s t o m a i n t a i n a c o n s t a n t h e a t v a l u e o r if t h e
i n s t r u m e n t is t o b e used w i t h a m u l t i p l e s a m p l i n g s c h e m e f o r
monitoring several digesters , C a l o r i m e t e r s h a v e b e e n used
s u c c e s s f u l l y in full-scale operations at wastewater t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t s.
17.2.1 5 Stack G a s M e a s u r e m e n t s
and Analysis
On-line analysis of boiler o r furnace s t a c k g a s composition is
u s e d f r e q u e n t l y and h a s p r o v e n s u c c e s s f u l . It is directly
applicable t o w a s t e w a t e r solids s y s t e m s incorporating heat drying
a n d h i g h t e m p e r a t u r e p r o c e s s e s. T h e s e m e a s u r e m e n t s a r e used
for combustion control and are u s u a l l y m a n d a t o r y if air pollution
is t o b e minimized . Obtaining a representative sample and
c o n d i t i o n i n g it f o r t h e a n a l y z e r a r e t h e b i g g e s t p r o b l e m s
in a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f
different p a r a m e t e r s t h a t m a y require measurement t o meet air
p o l l u t i o n c o n t r o l r e q u i r e m e n t s , b u t o x y g e n is t h e p a r a m e t e r
n o r m a l l y used t o control the a i r- fuel ratio. T w o t y p e s of stack
g a s o x y g e n a n a l y z e r s are c o m m o n l y used. T h e o l d e r unit is the
1 7 -6 0
p a r a m a g n e t i c t y p e a n d t h e m o r e m o d e r n is t h e c a t a l y t i c t y p e .
A new s y s t e m u s e s a ceramic e l e m e n t f o r which t h e manufacturer
claims satisfactory operation on dirty flue gases without
c l e a n- u p. Precautions are required where sulfides are present.
O x y g e n analysis equipment is normally included a s p a r t o f t h e
combustion control s y s t e m of a furnace.
17-61
ASSEMBLY DETAILS OF DRO SHOWING
SUBJECT ' S MASK AND CONTROL 'S DILUTION METERS
FIGURE 17- 4
17-62
Air- lifts with intakes at multiple elevations have been provided
in a n u m b e r of p l a n t s f o r d r a w i n g a s l u d g e s a m p l e. The
i n d i v i d u a l air l i f t s f o r a t a n k c a n be manifolded t o g e t h e r
a n d t h e f l o w p a s s e d t h r o u g h a turbidimeter t o p r o v i d e r e m o t e
monitoring . The individual air lifts are actuated in sequence ,
and a s l u d g e profile is obtained . A turbidimeter o f the falling
s t r e a m t y p e is recommended f o r t h i s service. It should be
installed a t the air- lift location .
M e t h a n e is t h e f l a m m a b l e g a s m o s t l i k e l y t o o c c u r i n s l u d g e
management. C a t a l y t i c d e t e c t o r s , available f r o m a n u m b e r o f
manufacturers , are sensitive t o any flammable g a s and ordinarily
m a y b e installed in t h e s p a c e to be monitored , thus eliminating
sampling s y s t e m s. T h e detector consists of a heated catalytic
element exposed to the ambient air and a similar reference
element isolated from ambient air. If flammable g a s is p r e s e n t ,
the e x p o s e d element t e m p e r a t u r e will rise above the reference
probe as the gas is oxidized. This temperature difference
results in a change in electrical resistance , which is measured
b y the detector' s electronics. These units should be calibrated
periodically with a standard reference g a s. Catalytic probe life
is d e f i n i t e l y limited , and p e r i o d i c r e p l a c e m e n t is r e q u i r e d .
U n d e r v e r y s e v e r e conditions , t h e p r o b e m a y l o s e s e n s i t i v i t y
in l e s s t h a n a y e a r. When these conditions occur , a sampling
s y s t e m t o c l e a n up the s a m p l e and remove the moisture should be
considered .
1 7-6 3
1 7 . 2. 21 Machinery Protection
17-6 4
1 7 . 2.2 1 . 3 F l o w L o s s Monitors
V a n e s w i t c h e s, differential p r e s s u r e s w i t c h e s, a n d t h e r m a l f l o w
switches a r e a l s o a p p l i c a b l e t o liquid f l o w s. H o w e v e r , t h e v a n e
switch i s unsuitable f o r s o l i d s- bearing fluids, such a s s l u d g e.
O n e t h e r m a l f l o w s w i t c h i s c o n s t r u c t e d a s a s m o o t h r o d. I f
installed a t a n a n g l e with t h e p i p e r a d i u s o r into a n e l b o w , this
unit is applicable to solids bearing fluids, Differential
p r e s s u r e devices m u s t b e p r o v i d e d with chemical s e a l s i f t h e y are
t o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o solids- b e a r i n g fluids.
1 7 . 2.2 1 . 4 O v e r l o a d Devices
1 7- 6 5
ignition loss. Ultraviolet light detectors provide virtually
instantaneous p r o t e c t i o n since ultraviolet e n e r g y i s p r e s e n t
only in the actual flame. This equipment is n o r m a l l y provided
as p a r t of t h e burner control p a c k a g e , This package a l s o
includes sequencing systems as necessary to ensure the purging of
explosive g a s e s from the fire b o x e s b e f o r e burner relighting
following a flame-out.
Solenoid - c o n t r o l l e d , p n e u m a t i c a l l y o p e r a t e d ball v a l v e s a r e
recommended for sample switching . These units are capable of
handling m a n y o p e r a t i o n s without excessive maintenance and
can provide s l o w o p e r a t i o n o f t h e ball v a l v e and , therefore ,
smooth switching of the sample stream. Electric motor -operated
ball valves can be used but life expectancy of ball valves in
repetitive operations is short. Rapid direct switching with
l a r g e solenoid valves c a u s e s s i g n i f i c a n t p r e s s u r e s t r e s s o n
s a m p l e v a l v e piping . If solenoid v a l v e s are used t o switch
s a m p l e s d i r e c t l y , some s y s t e m must be provided t o a b s o r b
water hammer. Large , three - way solenoid valves with suitable
characteristics are not readily available ; therefore , two two- way
valves, one normally open and one normally closed , are u s u a l l y
required t o obtain the three-w a y switching function .
1 7-6 6
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17.4 O p e r a t o r Interface
1 7 . 4. 1 Location
Modern electronic instruments that provide information to
o p e r a t o r s ( for e x a m p l e , indicators and recorders ) are designed
f o r i n s t a l l a t i o n in c l e a n , air - conditioned c o n t r o l r o o m s.
Field locations are u s u a l l y n o t suitable for these instruments
unless additional p r o t e c t i o n is provided . H y d r o g e n sulfide is
p r e s e n t in m a n y p r o c e s s areas, and if it is allowed t o contact
instruments t h a t are not designed for this a t m o s p h e r e , failures
m a y result from corrosion. S o m e p r o c e s s areas a r e classified a s
h a z a r d o u s, s o that electrical equipment m u s t be e x p l o s i o n- proof.
E x p l o s i o n- p r o o f electronic o p e r a t o r interface instruments are n o t
available. T o be usable in a hazardous area , non- explosion- p r o o f
instruments must be enclosed in a suitable box . This makes them
v i r t u a l l y i n a c c e s s i b l e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , difficult t o use a n d
maintain. W h e r e instruments must be located in a contaminated
o r h a z a r d o u s p r o c e s s a r e a , p n e u m a t i c i n s t r u m e n t s , which a r e
i n h e r e n t l y e x p l o s i o n- p r o o f and are f a i r l y resistant t o dirt a n d
corrosion , should be considered , Where pneumatic instruments
are n o t practical , air purging of cabinets o r special filters
m a y p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e p r o t e c t i o n t o electronic i n s t r u m e n t s.
A suitable r e m o t e control room is the m o s t desirable solution.
1 7-6 7
17.4.2 Indicator Boards
S l u d g e handling s y s t e m s are f r e q u e n t l y designed with considerable
o p e r a t i n g f l e x i b i l i t y , with l a r g e n u m b e r s o f v a l v e s a n d m a n y
p o s s i b l e flow c o n f i g u r a t i o n s , A s a m i n i m u m , some m e a n s i s
required t o tell the o p e r a t o r what the p r e s e n t flow configuration
is. A chalk board can be used for this p u r p o s e , but it d o e s not
r e a d i l y p r o v i d e a g r a p h i c p i c t u r e of t h e piping configuration.
T h e r e f o r e , in m o r e c o m p l i c a t e d p l a n t s , s o m e t y p e o f g r a p h i c
indicator board is desirable t o p r e v e n t errors , In t h e simplest
f o r m o f indicator b o a r d , a g r a p h i c p a n e l is p r o d u c e d w i t h
m a n u a l l y m o v e a b l e f l a g s o r i n d i c a t i n g l i g h t s with w h i c h t h e
o p e r a t o r s indicate c u r r e n t v a l v e positions and p u m p operation.
Such a system can give an excellent picture of the present
operating configuration , but is d e p e n d e n t o n the o p e r a t o r s t o s e t
the f l a g s c o r r e c t l y , The use of limit switches o n valves and
indicating l a m p s is more reliable and also provides t h e o p e r a t o r
with a r e a d y means t o check t h e validity o f t h e valve settings
and p u m p selection , Figures 1 7 - 5 and 1 7 -6 show t w o e x a m p l e s o f
g r a p h i c p a n e l s with indicating lights f o r showing v a l v e o r g a t e
positions.
17.5 References
1. U S E P A. Instrumentation and Automation Experiences in
W a s t e w a t e r T r e a t m e n t Facilities. MERL. Cincinnati , Ohio
4 5 2 6 8. EPA-6 0 0/2- 7 6- 1 9 8. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 6.
2. L i p t a k , B . G. , e d i t o r . I n s t r u m e n t E n g i n e e r s H a n d b o o k.
Chilton Book C o m p a n y. Radnor , Pennsylvania. 1969.
3. U S E P A. Advanced Automatic Control Strategies for the
Activated S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t P r o c e s s. ERIC. Cincinnati , Ohio
4 5 2 6 8. EPA- 670/ 2- 75- 039. M a y 1975.
4. C o u r t e s y o f Eutek , I n c. S a c r a m e n t o, California .
5. USEPA. W a s t e w a t e r S a m p l e T r a n s p o r t and Conditioning S y s t e m .
Cincinnati , Ohio 4 5 2 6 8. EPA- 6(10/ 2- 7 6-1 46. October 1976.
1 7 -6 8
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INCINERATOR-DIGESTER CONTROL GRAPHIC PANEL
LIGHTS CONTROLLED BY REMOTE VALVE LIMIT
SWITCHES
17- 70
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 18
UTILIZATION
18.1 Introduction
Utilization refers to the beneficial use of sludge or sludge
b y - p r o d u c t s. Sludge disposal options that do not involve
beneficial u s e ( f o r e x a m p l e, w h e n d i s p o s a l is t h e o n l y g o a l ) a r e
discussed i n C h a p t e r 1 9.
S l u d g e m a y b e u s e d a s a:
S o u r c e o f o t h e r u s e f u l p r o d u c t s. O t h e r u s e f u l p r o d u c t s
include w a s t e t r e a t m e n t chemicals , landfill t o p p i n g s ,
industrial r a w materials , a n i m a l feed , a n d materials o f
c o n s truetion.
T h e t h r u s t o f r e c e n t l e g i s l a t i o n h a s b e e n t o e n c o u r a g e beneficial
r e u s e. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1 9 7 2
( P L 9 2- 5 0 0 ) s t a t e d t h a t "T h e Administrator s h a l l e n c o u r a g e w a s t e
t r e a t m e n t m a n a g e m e n t w h i c h r e s u l t s in t h e construction o f r e v e n u e
p r o d u c i n g facilities f o r . . . t h e r e c y c l i n g o f p o t e n t i a l s e w a g e
p o l l u t a n t s t h r o u g h t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a g r i c u l t u r e, silviculture,
o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s, o r a n y combination t h e r e o f." T h e C l e a n
W a t e r A c t ( C W A ) o f 1 9 7 7 ( P L 9 5- 2 1 7 ) o f f e r e d f u r t h e r incentives
f o r p r o j e c t s t h a t involved innovative a n d a l t e r n a t i v e t e c h n o l o g y
( for example , sludge utilization , energy recovery ), In
a d d i t i o n, t h e C W A r e q u i r e s t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f i n d u s t r i a l
waste pretreatment programs with the objective of reducing
t o x i c p o l l u t a n t l o a d i n g s t o m u n i c i p a l t r e a t m e n t f a c i l i t i e s.
Implementation of pretreatment programs will make more municipal
s o l i d s s u i t a b l e f o r r e u s e.
1 8 -1
T h e p r e t r e a t m e n t p r o g r a m s u p p l e m e n t s p r o g r a m s established by t h e
Toxic Substance Control Act ( P L 9 4-469 ) which authorized USEPA
t o o b t a i n p r o d u c t i o n and t e s t d a t a from industry o n selected
chemical substances and r e g u l a t e them w h e r e t h e y p o s e an
unreasonable risk t o the environment , S t e p s t o w a r d s the g o a l
o f f u r t h e r i n g s l u d g e utilization w e r e t a k e n b y t h e R e s o u r c e s
C o n s e r v a t i o n a n d R e c o v e r y A c t ( R C R A ) ( P L 9 4- 5 8 0 ) , w h i c h
authorized USEPA to develop treatment and application rate
c r i t e r i a f o r s l u d g e t o be a p p l i e d t o l a n d g r o w i n g f o o d - c h a i n
c r o p s, as well as t o nonagricultural areas . RCRA also authorized
funds for research , demonstrations, training , and other
activities r e l a t e d t o d e v e l o p m e n t o f o t h e r resource r e c o v e r y
s c h e m e s.
18.2 '
S l u d g e as a Soil Amendment
1 8 . 2.1 Perspective
1 8-2
TABLE 18- 1
C. Nutrients
A. Nutrients in B. Nutrients in presently consumed A , as B , as
currently potentially in commercial percent percent
Nutrient utilized sludges useable sludges fertilizers of C of C
a a
Nitrogen as N 21.6 65.3 10,642 0. 2 0.6
Phosphorus as P 21.5 80.7 2 ,453 0.9 3.2
Potassium as K 4.3 18.9 4,841 0.1 0.4
a
Nitrogen m sludge expressed as available N , assumed to be
50 percent of total N.
18 3-
application rates ), facilities design , and facility management
and operation. Full and complete discussions of each of
these elements are too lengthy to be included in this manual.
Therefore , this section will provide only a brief outline. For
full details , the reader should consult Reference 3. At this
writing , this is USEPA' s primary reference for the utilization of
sewage sludges on land . The entire subject of sludge use on
land will be covered more extensively in a future Technology
Transfer design manual.
TABLE 18- 2
Wastewater Sludge
flow , utilized , a
Communities MGD dry ton/day Description
Composting
Durham , New Hampshire 0.8 0.7 MO, GAM
Burlington , Vermont 5.9 2.3 MO, PL, ML
Toms River , New Jersey 6.5 7.8 ML, PL
Bangor , Maine 7 2 MO, GAM
Windsor , Ontario 21 25 MO
Camden , New Jersey 32 12 MO, GAM
Philadelphia , Pennsylvania 113 30 MO , ML , PL
Washington , D.C. 300 55 PO, GAM , S
Los Angeles , California 440 150 MO, S
Drying
Little Falls , Minnesota 1 0.4 Drying bed , ML , PL
Largo, Florida 8 2.5 Heat dry , S
Marion , Indiana 9 0.2 MO, PL
Fort Worth , Texas 75 41 Drying bed , MO ML
Houston , Texas 73 18 Heat dry , S
Toledo , Ohio 78 35 PO, PL, Filter cake
Milwaukee , Wisconsin 132 190 Heat drying , MO , S
Denver , Colorado 140 125 MO, ML, Filter cake
Chicago , Illinois 909 131 Heat dry , MO , S
a
PO
PL
- Private
Privately operated
land
(contractor)
MO - Municipally operated
ML - Municipal land
FO
GAM
-
-
Farmer operated
Giveaway to municipality
S Sale
18 4-
18.2.2.1 Preliminary Planning
P r e l i m i n a r y planning consists o f the following s t e p s:
1 8- 5
and quality , and minimization of environmental damage ) remain
constant regardless of projected land use , design procedures
differ for applications on agricultural , forested , and reclaimed
lands:
• Application on agricultural land. Sludge should be
applied to agricultural land at a rate equal to
the nitrogen uptake rate of the crop unless lesser
application rates are required because of cadmium
limitations. Annual loading rates for cadmium on
soils have been set at 1.8 pounds per acre per year
( 2.0 kg/ha-yr ) for food chain crops ; however , this value
can be regarded as provisional and may be revised on the
basis of ongoing and future research and future federal
regulations. The basis for the nitrogen criterion is to
minimize nitrate leaching to groundwater , The annual
limit for cadmium is chosen to minimize uptake by crops
- -
and the potential for long term , sub clinical adverse
effects on human health . Site lifetime limits are
established on the basis of maximum cumulative loadings
of lead , zinc , copper , nickel , and cadmium , These limits
-
are designed to allow growth and use of food chain crops
at any future date.
Application on forested land. As with agronomic crops,
the harvesting of a forest stand removes the nutrients
accumulated during growth. However , the amounts removed
in forest harvesting annually are significantly lower
than in agronomic crop harvesting. Uptake by vegetative
cover is negligible. Therefore , forest systems rely
primarily on soil processes ( denitrification ) to minimize
nitrate leaching into groundwater. As a result , nutrient
loadings on forested lands must generally be less than
those on agricultural sites. No annual limitations are
set for cadmium , since no food chain crops are grown.
-
Lifetime metals limits used for agricultural sites are
suggested for forested land ; this would minimize metal
toxicity to trees and allow growth of other crops if the
area were cleared at a future date.
18-6
c a t i o n e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y , a n d o r g a n i c m a t t e r, Such
information will a l l o w f o r finalizing s l u d g e a p p l i c a t i o n
r a t e s d e t e r m i n e d in t h e P r o c e s s D e s i g n p h a s e , Soil
should be characterized t o p r o v i d e baseline d a t a against
which s u b s e q u e n t analyses can b e c o m p a r e d , This will
a l l o w d o c u m e n t a t i o n of c h a n g e s in t h e p h y s i c a l a n d
chemical properties o f the soil d u e t o sludge applcation.
• Determining s l u d g e s t o r a g e requirements. S t o r a g e s h o u l d
be provided w h e n s l u d g e c a n n o t b e s p r e a d ( f o r e x a m p l e,
during inclement weather ), Storage can also provide
a d d i t i o n a l s t a b i l i z a t i o n a n d d i s i n f e c t i o n. See
C h a p t e r 1 5 f o r information o n s t o r a g e.
O p e r a t i o n s m u s t be monitored t o a s s u r e t h a t t h e s y s t e m is
operating a s intended . S l u d g e must be a n a l y z e d t o ensure
its acceptability t o t h e user a n d t o provide a r e c o r d of
nutrient a n d m e t a l additions t o t h e soil. S o i l , c r o p s,
1 8-7
groundwaters, and surface w a t e r s need t o be monitored
only if sludge nutrients are applied at rates exceeding
t h e u p t a k e capacity o f crops or soils.
18.3 .1 Perspective
T h e p r e c i p i t o u s r i s e in energy p r i c e s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 7 0 s has
generated intense interest in the conservation and recovery of
this precious commodity. For example, the United S t a t e s Energy
Research and Development Administration ( now the Department of
E n e r g y ) h a s p r o p o s e d o n e - s e v e n t h o f t h e United S t a t e s e n e r g y
requirements be produced by bioconversion processes ( for example
anaerobic digestion ) by t h e year 2 0 2 0 ( 4 ). Clearly , however,
this a w e s o m e quantity of energy will n o t be g e n e r a t e d f r o m
municipal wastewater sludge; there is simply insufficient sludge.
Very large external organic sources ( for example , manure from
feed lots or municipal refuse ) and external processing systems
( energy farms ) will be required t o effect such production. As
with utilization of s l u d g e on land , t h e impact of energy recovery
from municipal sludges will be largely local, that is, it will be
felt m o s t strongly at the treatment plant and in its immediate
vicinity . H e r e , the effects can be significant .
A s Figure 6 -3 2 indicates, t h e energy value of methane generated
from the anaerobic digestion process exceeds the energy
requirements of the digestion process. T h e excess can be used t o
supply t h e energy n e e d s o f o t h e r p l a n t p r o c e s s e s. I n some
instances , t h e gas generated is sufficient to supply the energy
needs of the entire wastewater t r e a t m e n t plant , with excess gas
available for sale. Notable examples are the British Southern
a n d M o g d e n p l a n t s a n d t h e C o u n t y Sanitation D i s t r i c t s of
L o s A n g e l e s C o u n t y J o i n t Disposal P l a n t ( 5 ). H e a t recovery
is p o s s i b l e e v e n if d i g e s t i o n is not used , for e x a m p l e, h e a t
recovery from coincineration of sludge and municipal refuse is
expected t o provide all the energy needs of the Central Contra
Costa Sanitary District ( CCCSD ) plant in Concord , California ( 6 ).
I n J a n u a r y 1978 , t h e S t a t e of California Public Utilities
Commission ( PUC ) p a s s e d a resolution directing a l l s t a t e
utilities t o augment cogeneration projects by setting u p new rate
schedules covering interruptible electric service; by creating
new specific rates t o e n c o u r a g e cogeneration, including revisions
t o s t a n d b y r a t e s ; a n d by d e v e l o p i n g g u i d e l i n e s c o v e r i n g t h e
p r i c e a n d conditions f o r t h e p u r c h a s e of energy a n d capacity
from c o g e n e r a t i o n facilities owned by others ( 7 ). T h e term
cogeneration in this context means the production of power by
utilization of waste heat ; it also covers power produced through
1 8-8
the
The
burning of alternative fuels , such as municipal waste
resolution significantly changes the economics of power
.
generation a t California Wastewater treatment plants and
-
encourages the use of in plant energy recovery .
On June 27 , 1979, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission issued
proposed regulations providing for the qualification of small
power production and cogeneration f a c i l i t i e s under Section 201 of
the Public Utility Regulatory Policies Act of 1978 ( 8 ) . The
proposed regulations are set up to assure opportunities for
s m a l l p o w e r p r o d u c e r s ( < 8 0 MW ) t o s e l l e l e c t r i c i t y t o . e l e c t r i c
u t i l i t i e s when such e l e c t r i c i t y i s generated through the use of
renewable energy sources ( such as sludge ) or recovered process
heat .
These regulatory actions are an indicator of future trends in the
U n i t e d S t a t e s a s t h e c o u n t r y s e e k s t o i n c r e a s e i t s n o n- f o s s i l
fuel energy production, The designer should be aware of their
impacts on future planning for using sludge as an energy source .
The recovery of energy in the form of fuels and heat from
municipal sludges will be discussed in detail in the following
sections .
.
18.3 2 Recovery of Energy From Sludge
F i g u r e 1 8-1 s h o w s o n o n e d i a g r a m p r o c e s s e s w h i c h r e l e a s e e n e r g y
from sludge; devices which convert the released energy to useful
forms ; useful energy forms ; and suggested applications of
recovered energy , either at the wastewater treatment plant or
-
off site .
Special consideration must be made when designing
processes to recover energy from wastewater sludge , Some of
these considerations are discussed below .
18.3 2.1. Treatment of Digester Gas
The treatment required depends on the digester gas ' anticipated
use . Treatment i s minimal if the gas i s burned in a boiler or in
a high temperature internal combustion engine, Conversely , if
i t is sold for utilities as a natural g a s substitute i t must be
upgraded to natural gas quality . This involves treatment to
.
r e m o v e p a r t i c u l a t e s , H 2S , C O 2 , a n d w a t e r As a g e n e r a l r u l e, g a s
t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d b e a v o i d e d t o a s g r e a t a d e g r e e a s p o s s i b l e. I t
is preferable to set up recovery systems that can be operated
with untreated d i g e s t e r gas.
Particulates are carried over with the gas as i t leaves the
digester .
They may be removed i n large sedimentation traps and
cyclonic separators .
H 2S i s most commonly removed by -
iron sponge scrubbers . The
"s p o n g e" c o n s i s t s o f w o o d s h a v i n g s i m p r e g n a t e d w i t h i r o n o x i d e .
H 2S r e a c t s w i t h i r o n o x i d e t o f o r m n o n v o l a t i l e f e r r i c s u l f i d e .
The sponge can be regenerated with a i r .Sponge capacity i s
-
18 9
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FIGURE 18 - 1
18 10 -
about 0.6 p o u n d s o f sulfur p e r p o u n d o f iron oxide ( 0.6 k g /kg ).
P r o b l e m s h a v e been e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h f o u l i n g o f t h e iron-s p o n g e b y
o i l s a n d g r e a s e s entrained i n t h e d i g e s t e r g a s. I r o n - s p o n g e
s c r u b b e r s a r e c o m m e r c i a l l y available . Other H 2S scrubbing
p r o c e s s e s are less commonly used and are proprietary.
Corrosion F a c t o r s
O n e o f t h e m a j o r p r o b l e m s a s s o c i a t e d with r e c o v e r i n g h e a t
f r o m d i g e s t e r g a s is c o r r o s i o n c a u s e d b y S O 2 a n d S O 3 , t h e
combustion products of H 2S. I f the e x h a u s t g a s t e m p e r a t u r e is
allowed to drop below its dewpoint, the condensate which
f o r m s is a c i d i c a s t h e r e s u l t o f a b s o r b i n g S O 2 a n d S O 3. T h e
a c i d i c c o n d e n s a t e is c o r r o s i v e t o m e t a l l i c e l e m e n t s o f t h e
exhaust - carrying s y s t e m. There are t w o alternatives t o alleviate
t h e p r o b l e m. T h e first is s c r u b b i n g o f H 2 S f r o m t h e g a s
before combustion. The second is maintaining the exhaust g a s at
t e m p e r a t u r e s considerably g r e a t e r than its’ dewpoint , t o p r e v e n t
condensation. This g e n e r a l l y requires that the water t e m p e r a t u r e
o f a n y boiler o r engine using unscrubbed g a s be a t least 2 1 2 ° F
( 1 0 0 ° C ). A l s o , s t a c k g a s t e m p e r a t u r e s s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d
t o d r o p below 350 ° t o 400 °F ( 1 7 7 ° t o 2 0 4 °C ). U s e o f unscrubbed
d i g e s t e r g a s is p r e f e r r e d . E q u i p m e n t fueled by unscrubbed
digester g a s should n o t b e used in intermittent service , since
c o n d e n s a t i o n w i l l o c c u r e a c h t i m e t h e u n i t is s h u t d o w n.
1 8-1 1
S h u t d o w n s s h o u l d b e m i n i m i z e d, Similarly , the equipment should
be designed so that even when operated a t i t s lowest loadings ,
exhaust gas temperatures are s u f f i c i e n t l y high to prevent
condensation .
VENT
J HEAT TRANSFER
TUBES
CONDENSER
° a n
a o V
a . c -
-
FREE L I Q U I D - 4
*
13
*
SURFACE
STEAM-
RETURN
WATE R
MIXTURE WATER
HOT COOLED
GAS GAS
RETURN HOT
FROM WATER
BOILER HEAT TO
DEMAND HEAT
DEMAND
FICURE 18- 2
1 8- 1 2
Boilers
1 8- 1 3
cool larger engines. Flow rates may be increased by installing
a booster pump in the circulating l o o p near the entrance t o the
engine jacket. There are reciprocating engines on the market
designed t o o p e r a t e at t e m p e r a t u r e s in the 160° t o 180 ° F ( 71° t o
8 2 ° C ) range. However , they are not recommended for services
with unscrubbed d i g e s t e r g a s because o f potential p r o b l e m s
with S O 2-S O 3 corrosion. Heat recovered from the engine jacket is
typically used t o sustain the digestion p r o c e s s and for s p a c e
heating .
Reciprocating engines commonly employed in wastewater treatment
plants fall into two categories ; dual-fuel ( compression ignited )
and s p a r k ignited e n g i n e s. D u a l - f u e l e n g i n e s use a blend o f
diesel fuel and digester gas ; the fraction o f diesel fuel can be
varied from a minimum of 4 percent all the way t o 100 percent of
the mixture. Dual-fuel engines are typically used if there is
insufficient digester gas to satisfy power demands .
Dual- fuel
engines have been specified for new plants where digester gas
production is expected t o lag behind power demands for several
years.
Spark - ignited engines are generally used when there is sufficient
digester gas to satisfy power demands. Spark - ignited engines can
o p e r a t e on several different t y p e s of fuel ( for example , digester
gas and natural g a s ). Special carburetors are provided t o blend
d i g e s t e r g a s with an air - d i l u t e d b a c k u p f u e l ( f o r e x a m p l e ,
natural g a s ) during infrequent periods when not enough digester
g a s is available t o satisfy power requirements. Spark- ignited
engines are less complex then dual -fuel engines , are available
in smaller sizes , and are less costly t o operate since expensive
diesel fuel is not required .
Naturally aspirated feed s y s t e m s are preferred to turbocharged
systems for spark - ignited engines. Turbocharged s y s t e m s require
that g a s be delivered at high pressure , which means the gas must
be first c o m p r e s s e d , t h e n delivered t h r o u g h a f u e l m e t e r i n g
s y s t e m w i t h r e s t r i c t e d o p e n i n g s. Gas impurities ( oils,
g r e a s e s , and water ) are condensed when the gas is compressed and
cooled ; these impurities often clog the fuel metering system .
Naturally aspirated systems o p e r a t e at low pressures ( < 0.5 psig
[ 3.4 kN /m 2 ] ). With careful design of the g a s transport systems ,
compression of the feed gas is not required , Low pressure fuel
metering systems also have relatively large openings compared
t o m e t e r i n g s y s t e m s used with t u r b o c h a r g e d units. F o r these
reasons , n a t u r a l l y - a s p i r a t e d f u e l s y s t e m s are t h e r e f o r e l e s s
susceptible to clogging than systems with t u r b o c h a r g e d units .
E n g i n e s r e p r e s e n t a l a r g e c a p i t a l investment and s h o u l d be
c o n s e r v a t i v e l y d e s i g n e d t o p r o t e c t that investment . For
four -stroke engines it is recommended that brake mean effective
pressure ( BMEP ) not exceed 80 t o 85 psig ( 550 t o 590 kN /m 2 ) t o
minimize strain on the equipment. Engine speeds in the 700 to
1 , 000 r p m are preferred as are average piston speeds in the range
of 1 , 200-1 , 500 feet per minute ( 370 to 460 m/rain ). Heavy- duty
industrial engines should be specified , not automotive engines.
1 8-14
G a s Turbines. G a s turbines have had relatively limited use t o
d a t e. W h e r e used , t h e r e h a v e been fouling p r o b l e m s which are
i n h e r e n t with c o m p r e s s i n g a d i r t y g a s t h r o u g h f u e l m e t e r i n g
s y s t e m s w i t h s m a l l c l e a r a n c e s. H o w e v e r , new d e v e l o p m e n t s in
t h e turbine field and t h e fact t h a t less N 0 X is p r o d u c e d b y
turbines t h a n by reciprocating engines has led t o a second look
at turbines, particularly in nonattainment air q u a l i t y areas. A
n e w s y s t e m t h a t u s e s a r e l a t i v e l y l o w ( 4/1 ) p r e s s u r e r a t i o
turbine with recuperation has the potential t o solve m a n y o f the
p r o b l e m s which plagued earlier installations ( 1 0 ). T h e n o r m a l l y
low efficiency o f the low p r e s s u r e ratio turbine is boosted by
p r e h e a t i n g t h e c o m p r e s s e d air with h e a t r e c o v e r e d f r o m t h e
exhaust g a s. Ignition for this turbine can be s t a g e d t o minimize
NOx g e n e r a t i o n. Emissions c o n t r o l is particularly important in
n o n-a t t a i n m e n t a r e a s w h e r e n e w s t a t i o n a r y s o u r c e s m u s t u s e
B e s t Available Control Technology ( BACT ). BACT for reciprocating
engines is considered t o be catalytic denitrification , while BACT
for low p r e s s u r e ratio turbines can be s t a g e d ignition.
18.3.2.3 Generators
G e n e r a t o r s m a y be s y n c h r o n o u s o r induction t y p e s, Synchronous
g e n e r a t o r s are by f a r the most common. However, in s m a l l e r sizes
( below 5 o r 1 0 MW ) induction units are g e n e r a l l y l e s s expensive
than synchronous units. T h e y are also easier t o maintain since
t h e y r e q u i r e n o g o v e r n o r o r synchronizing equipment , Induction
generators have the disadvantage of being unable to operate
unless parallelled with synchronous generation , either utility o r
in-p l a n t. Thus an induction g e n e r a t o r by itself c a n n o t be used
t o provide e m e r g e n c y p o w e r.
18.3.3 E x a m p l e s of E n e r g y R e c o v e r y
1 8-1 5
will be used to make hot water for digester heating , while heat
recovered from the exhaust silencer ( high temperature heat ) will
be used to generate steam. Figure 18 3 is the system flowsheet. -
( iAR A
(
\ STQRwSt j
/ DIGESTER •>
C? l
it
•j
3?
. z 2L
sc
a JJ
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-
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s ...
SLUDGE CONDENSER
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-
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4 Ii
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^ **
HEATER FOR
HIGH TFMPFRATURF
l > 2»‘ F Dthteftf !
*
FIGURE 18- 3
The following data is estimated for the sludges and digester gas:
Digester feed 50 ,000 pounds per day ( 22,700 kg/d ), dry
weight basis. The feed solids are 75 percent volatile.
The sludge is 4 percent solids by weight.
Fifty percent of the volatile solids ( VS) are destroyed
during digestion.
18 16-
619 Btu ( 648 kJ ) of heat are produced for every standard
cubic foot ( 28.3 l i t e r s ) of digester gas combusted .
The plant has the following energy requirements , which could
be supplied in part or in whole by energy recovery from
d i g e s t e r gas:
1, 0 0 0 k W o f e l e c t r i c i t y .
Energy for raw sludge and digester heating ( to be
computed ) .
15 x 106 Btu per day (15.8 x G J /d ) f o r m i s c e l l a n e o u s
heating .
The following calculations are required :
x l/ i b V S 1 d5 e ss ct rf o y e d = 2 8 1 , 2 5 0 s c f d ( 8 , 1 5 7 m 3 /d )
= ( 281, 250 s c f d ) ( 6 1 9 B t u /s c f )
= 174 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 1 8 3 . 5 G J /d )
18 17 -
c a l c u l a t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o a s e l e c t e d b a s e t e m p e r a t u r e.
H o w e v e r, t h e h e a t c o n t e n t s o f t h e r e a c t a n t s a r e v e r y s m a l l
compared to the heat of combustion and may be neglected with
very little loss of accuracy and with a substantial reduction
in a m o u n t o f c a l c u l a t i o n s n e c e s s a r y .
B t -
LNERGT VALUE
i cj!$r $i A isAs
OF
*
lW .il
<.
STRJCTURA
W A T LOSS
.^.. . SP
DiGESTE R BO
*2
.
I
I EXCESS
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r
" f .Q , HEAT LOSS TO
JS
ALL VALUES l
** SuRROuwoiltlGS
COOLED
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'
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v
ELECTRICITY
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GENERATOR
LOSS
S3.2
7
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•
v SURRCusMQNDi
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J RA'A SLUDGE
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L. SIJNMCIMMOIAOS FOR EMGLYE
"
PROCESS USES
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FIGURE 18- 4
M a k e a- H e a t B- a- l a n c e A r o u n d t. h^e E n g i n e/G e n e r a t o r ( B o x 2 )-
a« •
* 1 vwn r l :*gmwr*ir IA .vuir/ wir r*m r •
« IV [ 1
Work produced
= 0.28 ( 174 x 106 B t u/d a y )
= 48.7 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 5 1 . 3 G J /dJ
18- 18
Electricity
= 0.90 ( 48.7 x 106 B t u /d a y ) = 4 3 . 9 x 106 B t u /d a y ( 4 6 . 2 G J /d )
T h i s is e q u i v a l e n t t o 5 3 5 k W. Since a v e r a g e p l a n t electrical
d e m a n d is 1 ,0 0 0 k W, a u x i l i a r y p o w e r m u s t be p u r c h a s e d .
3. A s s u m e t h e r a d i a n t heat l o s s f r o m t h e e n g i n e is 4 p e r c e n t o f
t h e e n e r g y v a l u e o f t h e f u e l g a s.
Radiation l o s s
= 0.04 ( 174 x 10
^ B t u/d a y ) = 7 . 0 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 7 . 4 G J /d )
4. A s s u m e 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n e r g y v a l u e o f t h e f u e l g a s is
t r a n s f e r r e d t o l u b r i c a t i n g o i l.
Heat loss to oil
5. H e a t in t h e e x h a u s t g a s i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e e n e r g y
v a l u e o f t h e f u e l g a s a n d t h e h e a t l o s s e s determined in items
1 t h r o u g h 5.
H e a t in t h e e x h a u s t g a s
——
J a c k e.t - C o. o l i n q
I - -
mi
W a t e.r
Win MUM I
— ——
to Satisfy
rliHHII MMMM III .
l 'T III II
Diqester
T> tiJB
*
Heatinq
-
* +'
Requirements
“ " m" '
" /
“ ’Mf
' " I MIIW
5 0 , 0 0 0 l b s o l i d s /d a y 1.0 B t u
0 . 0 4 l b s o l i d s/l b s l u d g e l b s l u d g e/°F
(95 - 6 0° F )
= 42.0 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 4 4 . 3 G J /d )
2. Determine e n e r g y r e q u i r e d f o r c i r c u l a t i n g s l u d g e heating.
The purpose of the circulating sludge heater is to make
up for any heat lost through the digester structure Heat .
1 8 -1 9
l o s s c a l c u l a t i o n s s i m i l a r t o t h e s e s h o w n in C h a p t e r 6 ,
S e c t i o n 6 . 2 .6 . 2 , i n d i c a t e s t h a t f o r t h e d i g e s t e r o f t h i s
e x a m p l e, l o s s e s a r e o n t h e o r d e r of 5 . 0 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y
( 5 . 3 G J /d ).
3. Determine h e a t l o s s in t h e h o t w a t e r circulating l o o p, T h e r e
is v e r y l i t t l e h e a t l o s s b e c a u s e t h i s is a c l o s e d s y s t e m
( s e e F i g u r e 1 8 - 3 ). The only losses will be through the
insulation. I t is r o u g h l y a s s u m e d t h a t h e a t l o s s is 5 p e r c e n t
o f t h e h e a t leaving t h e e n g i n e jacket.
Heat loss
= 0 . 0 5 ( 57.4 x 1 0 ® ) = 2.9 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y ( 3 . 0 G J /d )
4. T o t a l h e a t required for t h e digestion s y s t e m
= ( 42.0 + 5.0 + 2.9 ) x 106 = 49.9 x 106 B t u/d a y ( 52.6 G J/d )
5. H e a t available in t h e c o o l i n g w a t e r m i n u s t o t a l h e a t r e q u i r e d
f o r t h e digestion s y s t e m
From p r e v i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s, t h e h e a t a v a i l a b l e i n t h e h o t
c o m b u s t i o n g a s i s 5 2 . 2 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y ( 5 5 . 0 G J / d ). N o t
a l l o f t h i s h e a t c a n b e r e c o v e r e d f o r u s e. P r a c t i c a l l i m i t s
exist to the degree to which the hot gas can be cooled, For
e x a m p l e, t h e h o t g a s e s m u s t b e s u b s t a n t i a l l y w a r m e r t h a n t h e
material being h e a t e d t o c a r r y o u t h e a t t r a n s f e r in a n e x c h a n g e r
o f r e a s o n a b l e size a n d c o s t. I n this e x a m p l e, h o w e v e r , t h e l o w e r
t e m p e r a t u r e limit is set at 3 5 0°F t o p r e c l u d e c o r r o s i o n t h a t
m i g h t o c c u r b y condensation o f w a t e r v a p o r o n t h e inside o f t h e
e x h a u s t s t a c k walls. T h e d e s i g n e r m u s t t h e r e f o r e determine if
s u f f i c i e n t h e a t c a n b e obtained t o s a t i s f y " o t h e r " p r o c e s s u s e s
w h e n t h e h o t combustion g a s e s a r e c o o l e d t o 3 5 0 °F ( 1 1 7 °C ) in t h e
e x h a u s t s i l e n c e r. S i n c e t h e h e a t c o n t e n t o f t h e h o t combustion
g a s e s i s k n o w n ( 5 2 . 2 x 1 0 ® B t u p e r d a y [ 5 5 . 0 G J /d ] ), h e a t
available can readily be calculated once the heat content of
t h e g a s a t 3 5 0 °F ( 1 1 7 °C ) h a s b e e n determined , T h i s is c a l c u l a t e d
a s f o l l o w s:
1. F i r s t c a l c u l a t e t h e v o l u m e o f e x h a u s t g a s. G a s p r o d u c t i o n
c a n b e p r e d i c t e d f r o m s t o i c h i o m e t r y:
1 8- 2 0
CH 4 + 202 CO 2 + 2H 20 -
( 18 1 )
3. -
From Equation 18 1 , one cubic foot of C02 is formed
for every cubic foot of methane burned. Digester gas
contains 66 percent methane by volume.
-
18 21
N 2 flow
0.66 ft3 CH 4
281 ,250 scfd
( ft3 digester gas )
[l.lO x 2]ft3 Og delivered 0.79 ft3 n2
x
ft3 CH4 0.21 ft3 02
= 1 ,536 ,265 scfd ( 43 ,476 m3/d )
2. -
From Equation 18 1 , two cubic feet of HgO are formed
for every cubic foot of methane burned.
HgO formed
0.66 ft3 CH 4 2 ft3 H 20
281 ,250 scfd
ft3 digester gas )( ft3 CH 4
= 371 ,250 scfd ( 10 ,506 m 3/d )
=
lb mole/°F
1 . 9 x 10
359)
^ scfj
^ Btu per day (2.0 GJ/d )
-
18 22
H Li*
y3
2 E£
<
o ^
_
LU DO
X
1200 1600 2000 2400 2800 3200 3600 4Q00 4400 4800 5200
TEMPERATURE, F °
° °
( F = 1,8 C + 32)
FIGURE 18- 5
b. Heat content of O 2
7.2 Btu lb mole
( 350°- 77 °F ) ( 37 , 125 scfd )
lb mole/°F 359 scf
c. Heat content of N 2
6.8 Btu lb mole
( 350 °- 77 °F ) ( 1, 536 , 265 scfd )
lb mole/°F 359 scf
18 - 23
387 , 281 scfd H 20
1. Water comprises 100
2, 222, 889 scfd total
= 17.4 percent by volume of the exhaust gas. The
dew point for gas containing 17.4 percent water by
volume is 135 ° F ( 58°C ).
= 1.1 x lO
^ Btu per day ( 1.2 GJ /d )
.
4 Determine heat loss in steam /condensate circulating loop.
There will be very little heat loss because this is a
closed system ( see Figure 18-3 ). Assume losses are roughly
5 percent of the heat transferred from the exhaust silencer.
Heat loss
18-24
5. H e a t a v a i l a b l e f o r "o t h e r " p r o c e s s d e m a n d s
T h e a v a i l a b l e h e a t i s sufficient t o s a t i s f y t h e d e m a n d s.
Determine E f f i c i e n c y o f t h e E n e r g y R e c o v e r y S y s t e m
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l m e t h o d s f o r evaluating t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f t h e
e n e r g y r e c o v e r y s y s t e m. O n e a p p r o a c h is t o c o m p u t e t h e u s e f u l
h e a t a n d w o r k recovered a s a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e e n e r g y i n p u t.
1. U s e f u l h e a t a n d w o r k:
a. Electrical e n e r g y = 4 3 . 9 x 1 0 6 B t u p e r d a y ( 4 6 . 2 GJ /d ).
b. Raw sludge heating = 42.0 x 10 ^ B t u p e r d a y ( 4 4 . 2 G J /d ).
T h i s activated s l u d g e p l a n t is n o t a b l e t o s u p p l y a l l its e n e r g y
n e e d s u s i n g d i g e s t e r g a s ( i n s u f f i c i e n t e l e c t r i c a l e n e r g y ).
G e n e r a l l y , d i g e s t e r g a s is s u f f i c i e n t t o s a t i s f y t h e e n e r g y
r e q u i r e m e n t s o f m o s t p r i m a r y t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s b u t n o t activated
sludge plants, since aeration blowers generally have high
e l e c t r i c a l d e m a n d s.
1 8 . 3.3 . 2 R e c o v e r y o f E n e r g y f r o m Incinerator F l u e G a s
^
A w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t o f 1 2 5 M G D ( 5 . 4 8 m /s ) c a p a c i t y u s e s
incineration t o p r o c e s s 1 9 0 , 0 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 8 2, 2 6 0 kg /d ) o f
combined p r i m a r y a n d w a s t e-activated s l u d g e s. H e a t is r e c o v e r e d
from the flue g a s e s as electricity and s t e a m in a s t e a m turbine
p o w e r c y c l e, u s i n g a w a s t e h e a t boiler. T h e d e s i g n e r's o b j e c t i v e
is t o m a x i m i z e w o r k p r o d u c t i o n ( e l e c t r i c i t y and d i r e c t p o w e r ).
1 8- 2 5
S t e a m is n o t used for s p a c e o r p r o c e s s heating , A flow sheet o f
the process is shown o n F i g u r e 1 8 -6. T h e following additional
information is provided :
• S t e a m is w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e t u r b i n e a t t h r e e p o i n t s.
First , 50 , 000 p o u n d s per d a y ( 22, 700 kg /d ) a r e withdrawn
a t 1 6 5 p s i a ( 1 , 1 4 3 k N /m 2 ) a n d a p p l i e d t o d r i v e s f o r
p u m p s and c o m p r e s s o r s. This is called " process " steam.
,
Second a quantity ( t o be c o m p u t e d ) is withdrawn and used
for preheating of the boiler feedwater. This is called
" p r e h e a t " s t e a m. The remaining s t e a m , which is " primary "
s t e a m , i s e x h a u s t e d a t 1 p s i a ( 6 . 9 k N / m 2 ). The
efficiency o f t h e turbine ( actual t o theoretical w o r k
o u t p u t ) is assumed t o b e 76 p e r c e n t.
• Electric power g e n e r a t e d.
• E n e r g y r e c o v e r y efficiency.
1 8- 26
"FEFD” STEAM B 25’ F . £ 15 psis "PROCESS" STEAM 11=55 -«ia
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1550
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° 4.18 kJ/kg/ C)
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MOLLIER CHART COURTESY OF BABCOCK AND WILCOX
FIGURE 18- 7
1 8- 2 8
2. D e t e r m i n e t h e " p r i m a r y " s t e a m e x h a u s t c o n d i t i o n. I f t h e
turbine w e r e 1 0 0 p e r c e n t efficient , t h e s t e a m w o u l d e x p a n d
i s e n t r o p i c a l l y , t h a t i s, t h e e n t r o p y o f t h e s t e a m a t a n y
point in the turbine would be identical to the entropy
of the feed steam and the state line would be vertical
( d a s h e d line i n t h e M o l l i e r Diagram ). T h e " p r i m a r y " e x h a u s t
steam condition would be located at the intersection
of the vertical state line and the exhaust pressure
( 1 p s i a [6 . 9 k N/m 2 ] ), a t p o i n t B. E n t h a l p y o f t h e s t e a m a t
p o i n t B is 9 1 5 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 . 1 3 M J /k g ).
H o w e v e r, t u r b i n e s a r e n o t 1 0 0 p e r c e n t e f f i c i e n t s i n c e
i s e n t r o p i c e x p a n s i o n is n e v e r attained. T h e e n e r g y which c a n
b e e x t r a c t e d f r o m t h e s t e a m in p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s is o n l y
a p e r c e n t a g e o f t h a t which c a n b e e x t r a c t e d b y i s e n t r o p i c
e x p a n s i o n. T h i s i s e x p r e s s e d b y E q u a t i o n 1 8- 2.
Turbine efficiency = ( Hi
Hi
_ H p
-
2
H2i ) 100 ( 1 8- 2 )
W h e r e:
Hi = e n t h a l p y o f inlet s t e a m, B t u/l b.
T h e e f f i c i e n c y d e s c r i b e d b y E q u a t i o n 1 8- 2 i s t h e a c t u a l
w o r k o u t p u t relative t o theoretical o u t p u t — it is l e s s t h a n
1 0 0 p e r c e n t b e c a u s e o f irreversibility in t h e e x p a n s i o n o f
g a s e s in t h e turbine, Mechanical l o s s e s in t h e t u r b i n e a n d
g e n e r a t o r a r e n o t i n c l u d e d.
F o r t h e p r a c t i c a l t u r b i n e, e n t h a l p y o f t h e e x h a u s t e d
s t e a m ( H 2 p ) c a n b e c o m p u t e d f r o m E q u a t i o n 1 8 - 2. F o r t h e
t u r b i n e o f t h e e x a m p l e ( 7 6 p e r c e n t efficient ).
)
^
76
H 2p = 1, 4 2 0 ( 1 ,4 2 0 - 9 1 5 ) ( 1 8- 2 )
100
= 1, 0 3 6 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2, 4 0 5 k J /k g )
1 8- 2 9
3. T h e "p r o c e s s" s t e a m c o n d i t i o n m u s t l i e o n t h e s t a t e l i n e, I t
is located at the intersection of the state line and the
" p r o c e s s " s t e a m o p e r a t i n g p r e s s u r e ( 1 6 5 p s i a [ 1, 1 4 5 k N/m 2 ] ),
a t point D.
b. T h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r i s a d i r e c t c o n t a c t d e v i c e.
Sufficient " p r e h e a t " s t e a m is mixed with " p r i m a r y " a n d
" p r o c e s s " c o n d e n s a t e s t o f o r m a t w o- p h a s e s y s t e m a t
3 0 0 ° F ( 1 4 9 ° C ). Thus the feedwater heater system is a
s a t u r a t e d s y s t e m.
c . T h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r p r e s s u r e , therefore is t h e p r e s s u r e
o f s a t u r a t e d s t e a m a t 3 0 0 ° F ( 1 4 9 °C ), which i s 6 7 p s i a
( 4 6 4 k N/m 2 ).
b. B y p r e v i o u s c a l c u l a t i o n s, e n t h a l p y o f s u p e r h e a t e d s t e a m
l e a v i n g t h e b o i l e r i s 1 , 4 2 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 3 , 2 9 7 k J /k g ).
c . F r o m t h e p r o b l e m s t a t e m e n t , heat a b s o r b e d in t h e boiler
= 338 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 3 5 6 G J /d ).
d . Therefore steam circulating rate
3 3 8 x 106 B t u/d a y
( 1 , 4 2 0 - 2 7 0 ) B t u/l b
= 2 9 3 ,9 0 0 p o u n d s p e r d a y ( 1 3 3 , 4 0 0 k g /d ) .
1 8 -3 0
2. "Process," " primary ," and " preheat " steam rates are
d e t e r m i n e d b y mass a n d h e a t b a l a n c e s a r o u n d t h e f e e d w a t e r
h e a t e r. L e t X a n d Y b e t h e f l o w r a t e s f o r " p r i m a r y " a n d
" p r e h e a t " s t e a m, r e s p e c t i v e l y , E q u a t i o n 1 8-3 i s t h e m a s s
balance a r o u n d t h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r.
2 9 3 , 9 0 0 = X + Y + 5 0 ,0 0 0 ( 1 8- 3 )
E q u a t i o n 1 8 -4 i s t h e h e a t b a l a n c e f o r t h e f e e d w a t e r h e a t e r.
2 9 3 ,9 0 0 ( 270 ) 7 0 X + 1 2 5 8 Y + 7 0 ( 5 0, 0 0 0 ) ( 1 8-4 )
= 4.90 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 5 . 1 6 G J /d )
2 . Work from "preheat" steam
4 9 , 274 l b/d a y ( 1, 4 2 0 - 1, 2 5 8 B t u/l b )
1 8- 3 1
Net electricity produced
= 8 3 . 2 x 1 C) 6 B t u p e r d a y ( 8 7 . 7 G J / d )
T h i s i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 1, 015 kW o f e l e c t r i c i t y .
- -access mw
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FIGURE 18- 8
D e t e r m i n e W o r k P r o d u c e d i n t h e "P r o c e s s" S t e a m C y c l e
E n t h a l p y o f t h e " p r o c e s s " s t e a m i s 1, 3 2 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 3 , 0 6 5 k J /
kg ) . Enthalpy of the exhausted steam can be determined using
the same technique employed for analysis of the main turbine .
Isentropic expansion of process steam ( initially at point D,
F i g u r e 1 8- 5 ) t o 1 p s i a ( 6 . 9 k N / m 2 ) p r o d u c e s a n e x h a u s t g a s
o f e n t h a l p y 9 5 0 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 , 2 0 6 k J /k g ) Assume process .
turbines are 50 percent efficient .
1 . Enthalpy of exhausted steam
= 1, 3 2 0 - 50
100
( 1, 3 2 0 - 950 )
= 1 , 1 3 5 B t u p e r p o u n d ( 2 , 6 3 5 k J /k g )
1 8- 3 2
2. Work produced
= ( 5 0 , 0 0 0 l b/d a y ) ( 1 , 3 2 0 - 1, 1 3 5 B t u /l b )
= 9.2 x 106 B t u p e r d a y ( 9 . 7 G J /d )
T h i s is e q u i v a l e n t t o 1 0 7 k W.
Determine E n e r g y R e c o v e r y E f f i c i e n c y
A s s u m e h e a t r e m o v e d in the c o n d e n s e r s i s n o t used b e n e f i c i a l l y ,
b u t d i s c h a r g e d t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e via c o o l i n g t o w e r s.
1. E n e r g y r e c o v e r y , based o n h e a t t r a n s f e r r e d t o s t e a m
(
_ (83.2 x 106
606 x
+ 8.8 x
106
106 )
) 100 = 15.2 percent
1 8- 3 3
It should not be inferred from the examples that energy recovery
from flue gases must necessarily be inefficient , In this
example , the objective of the designer in recoverying heat from
incinerator flue gas was to maximize work , Had he chosen to
exhaust steam from either of the turbines at higher pressures and
used it for heating purposes or had he used " process " steam
solely for heating , some work would have been sacrificed but
thermal efficiency could have been substantially improved , The
point to be made here is that the designer should examine a wide
range of options when analyzing energy recovery operations.
• -
Control strategies must be decided upon , and instrumenta
tion to carry them out must be provided.
18- 34
• Economic analyses must be performed to determine
if t h e s y s t e m c a n b e e c o n o m i c a l l y j u s t i f i e d , As
a r u l e- o f- t h u m b, t h e l a r g e r t h e p l a n t , t h e m o r e
sophisticated the heat recovery system which can be
ju stified .
W a s t e w a t e r s o l i d s m a y sometimes b e u s e d beneficially in w a y s
o t h e r t h a n a s a s o i l a m e n d m e n t o r a s a s o u r c e of r e c o v e r a b l e
energy. Lime and activated carbon have been recovered from
s l u d g e s f o r m a n y y e a r s a t p l a n t scale. These applications are
d i s c u s s e d i n C h a p t e r 1 1. S t a b i l i z e d s l u d g e , w h e n m i x e d w i t h
soil , is used a s interim o r final cover o v e r c o m p l e t e d a r e a s o f
refuse landfills ( see Chapter 19 ) . Wastewater scum has been
c o l l e c t e d ( sometimes p u r c h a s e d ) by r e n d e r e r s a t several t r e a t m e n t
p l a n t s for use a s a r a w material in t h e manufacturing of c o s m e t-
ics a n d o t h e r p r o d u c t s. Grit , particularly incinerated grit , m a y
be u s e d a s a n a g g r e g a t e, for e x a m p l e, a s a road sub- base .
O t h e r beneficial uses of wastewater solids have been considered ;
some have been tested on a laboratory or plant scale, These
include:
Recovery of ammonia from the filtrate or centrate
following anaerobic digestion and dewatering of sludge.
Ammonia is stripped from the liquor, absorbed in sulfuric
acid and crystallized a s ammonium sulfate.
R e c o v e r y o f ammonia a n d p h o s p h a t e s by precipitation o f
M g N H 4 P04 f r o m digester s u p e r n a t a n t s, The precipitate
is used a s a fertilizer.
Addition o f sludge t o p r o c e s s e s designed t o c o m p o s t
o r anaerobically d i g e s t m u n i c i p a l r e f u s e , In such
situations , s l u d g e s e r v e s p r i n c i p a l l y a s a nutrient
source .
Recycling of wastewater solids for use as a foodstuff
f o r livestock ( cattle , s h e e p, g o a t s , poultry , a n d fish ).
N o t e t h a t solids used f o r this p u r p o s e h a v e g e n e r a l l y n o t
o r i g i n a t e d f r o m m u n i c i p a l w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t s,
but f r o m s y s t e m s treating purely industrial o r animal
w a s t e s. H o w e v e r , t h e use of dried m u n i c i p a l s l u d g e
disinfected by gamma irradiation is being investigated a s
a food source f o r grazing animals.
U s e o f w a s t e w a t e r solids a s a n o r g a n i c s u b s t r a t e in worm
farming ( s e e C h a p t e r 1 3 ).
1 8 -3 5
18.5 References
3. U S E P A. " P r i n c i p a l s a n d D e s i g n C r i t e r i a f o r S e w a g e S l u d g e
A p p l i c a t i o n on Land ." S l u d g e T r e a t m e n t and D i s p o s a l ,
P a r t 2. T e c h n o l o g y T r a n s f e r , C i n c i n n a t i , O h i o 4 5 2 6 8.
E P A -6 2 5/4 - 7 8 -0 1 2. O c t o b e r 1 9 7 8.
6 . Brown and
Caldwell .Solid Waste Resource Recovery
Study . Prepared for t h e C e n t r a l C o n t r a C o s t a S a n i t a r y
District , W a l n u t C r e e k , California. A u g u s t 1 9 7 4.
8. U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f E n e r g y. P r o p o s e d R e g u l a t i o n s P r o v i d i n g
f o r Q u a l i f i c a t i o n of S m a l l P o w e r P r o d u c t i o n a n d C o g e n -
eration Facilities Under Section 201 of the Public
U t i l i t y R e g u l a t o r y P o l i c i e s A c t o f 1 9 7 8. Federal Energy
R e g u l a t o r y Commission , Washington , D.C • r R m 7 9 - 54. J u n e
1 9 7 9.
9. S a c r a m e n t o A r e a C o n s u l t a n t s. S a c r a m e n t o R e g i o n a l W a s t e -
water Program S t u d y o f M e t h a n e U s e s. Sacramento
R e g i o n a l C o u n t y S a n i t a t i o n D i s t r i c t. S a c r a m e n t o ,
California. J u n e 1 9 7 6.
10 . A l p h a National I n c. S o l i d W a s t e a n d Biomass L o w B t u G a s
Conversion S y s t e m P r o g r a m . 1 3 0 1 E a s t El S e g u n d o B l v d • r
E l S e g u n d o, California. A p r i l 1 9 7 8.
11 . N a t i o n a l B u r e a u o f S t a n d a r d s. W a s t e H e a t M a n a g e m e n t
G u i d e b o o k. N B S H a n d b o o k 1 2 1 . W a s h i n g t o n , D . C. U .S.
G o v e r n m e n t P r i n t i n g O f f i c e. 1 9 7 6.
1 8- 3 6
1 2. U S E P A. Energy Conservation in Municipal Wastewater
T r e a t m e n t. U S E P A O f f i c e of W a t e r P r o g r a m O p e r a t i o n s .
W a s h i n g t o n , D.C. 2 0 6 4 0. E P P A 4 3 0 /9 - 7 7 - 0 0 1 /. M a r c h
1978 .
1 3. H o u g e n , O. A • f W a t s o n, K.M • r a n d R.A. R a g a t z. Chemical
P r o c e s s P r i n c i p l e s. 2n d Ed . N e w Y o r k. J o h n W i l e y a n d
S o n s. 1 9 5 6 .
1 4. K e e n a n , J .H. a n d F.G. K e y e s. T h e r m o d y n a m i c P r o p e r t i e s o f
S t e a m. 4 t h Ed . N e w Y o r k. J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s. 1 9 3 6.
1 5. Combustion E n g i n e e r i n g , I n c. S t e a m T a b l e s. Available
f r o m t h e Public Relations and A d v e r t i s i n g D e p a r t m e n t ,
W i n d s o r , Connecticut. 1 9 6 7.
1 8-3 7
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
CHAPTER 19
DISPOSAL T O L A N D
19.1 Introduction
W a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e may n o t a l w a y s be used a s a resource because
of land acquisition constraints or because they contain
h i g h l e v e l s of m e t a l s a n d o t h e r t o x i c s u b s t a n c e s , In these
s i t u a t i o n s , t h e s l u d g e m u s t be f u r t h e r p r o c e s s e d by o t h e r
m e t h o d s. N o n- utilization disposal p r o c e s s e s a r e t h e subject o f
this c h a p t e r.
As discussed in C h a p t e r 2 , o c e a n disposal is n o l o n g e r considered
appropriate. Consequently , land disposal p r o c e s s e s a r e being
optimized s o t h a t the increasing amounts o f municipal wastewater
s l u d g e p r o d u c e d by t h e a d o p t e d secondary t r e a t m e n t s t a n d a r d s c a n
be a c c e p t e d. T w o principal land disposal methods , landfilling
a n d d e d i c a t e d l a n d d i s p o s a l , d i f f e r in a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s a n d
m e t h o d s o f a p p l i c a t i o n . T y p i c a l l a n d f i l l o p e r a t i o n s involve
dewatered -s l u d g e subsurface a p p l i c a t i o n r a t e s , o f t e n several f e e t
in d e p t h. Dedicated land disposal operations , h o w e v e r, typically
involve repetitive liquid s l u d g e applications , which may only
raise the land surface a few inches p e r y e a r.
1 9 . 1.1 R e g u l a t o r y A g e n c y Guidance
19.2 S l u d g e Landfill
1 9 . 2.1 Definition
Sludge landfill can be defined as the planned burial of
w a s t e w a t e r solids , including p r o c e s s e d s l u d g e , screenings , grit ,
a n d a s h a t a d e s i g n a t e d s i t e. T h e s o l i d s a r e p l a c e d into a
p r e p a r e d site o r excavated t r e n c h and covered with a l a y e r of
soil. T h e soil cover m u s t b e d e e p e r t h a n t h e d e p t h of t h e p l o w
1 9 -1
z o n e ( a b o u t 8 t o 1 0 inches [ 2 0 . 3 t o 2 5 . 4 c m ] ) , F o r the m o s t
p a r t , landfilling o f screenings , grit , and a s h is accomplished
w i t h m e t h o d s similar t o those used for s l u d g e landfilling.
19.2.2 S l u d g e Landfill M e t h o d s
S l u d g e l a n d f i l l m e t h o d s c a n be g r o u p e d into t h r e e g e n e r a l
categories: s l u d g e - only trench fill, sludge - o n l y area fill , a n d
c o- disposal with refuse , General site and design criteria a r e
discussed u n d e r t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s , A detailed discussion o f
sludge landfills is p r e s e n t e d in the U S E P A Technology T r a n s f e r
P r o c e s s D e s i g n M a n u a l , M u n i c i p a l S l u d g e L a n d f i l l s ( 1 ). T h e
remaining p a r t s of t h e landfill p o r t i o n o f this c h a p t e r summarize
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s d e s i g n m a n u a l, Other
information on the disposal of wastewater sludge in sanitary
landfills is available ( 2 ).
Narrow Trenches
Wide T r e n c h e s
T r e n c h e s a r e d e f i n e d a s wi'd e w h e n t h e y h a v e w i d t h s g r e a t e r
t h a n 1 0 f e e t ( 3 m ). M a t e r i a l e x c a v a t e d f r o m t h e t r e n c h e s i s
stockpiled n e a t l y a n d used a s c o v e r f o r t h e t r e n c h. Disposal in
wide t r e n c h e s is suitable f o r s l u d g e s with solids c o n t e n t s o f
2 0 p e r c e n t or g r e a t e r. T h e application r a t e s range from 3 , 200 t o
1 4 , 500 cubic y a r d s o f s l u d g e p e r a c r e ( 6 , 0 5 0 t o 2 7 ,4 0 0 m 3/h a ).
1 9- 2
T h e surface cover thickness d e p e n d s on the solids concentration
of the sludge. The covered sludge will only be capable of
supporting equipment w h e n t h e solids concentration of t h e s l u d g e
e x c e e d s 2 5 t o 3 0 p e r c e n t and t h e s l u d g e h a s b e e n t o p p e d with 3 t o
5 feet ( 1 t o 2 m ) of soil.
1 9 -3
The District ' s operation consists of opening 20 feet ( 6.1 m )
deep trenches on 300 - acre ( 121.5 ha ) site with large
backhoe equipment . This same equipment is used to cover
each layer of sludge with a layer of soil and cap each trench
.
with several feet of soil Production in 1976 was 30 dry
tons / day ( 27 t / day ) .
FIGURE 19- 1
-
19 4
Dike Containment
Sludge c a n b e d i s p o s e d o f in t h i s m a n n e r if i t i s m i x e d w i t h
refuse o r with soil. Mixing techniques a r e discussed in detail
in t h e U S E P A Office o f Solid W a s t e R e p o r t , D i s p o s a l of S e w a g e
Sludge into a Sanitary Landfill ( 2 ).
S l u d g e/Refuse Mixture
S l u d g e/Soil Mixture
1 9 -5
19.2.2.4 Suitability of Sludge for Landfilling
Some wastewater treatment sludges may not be suitable for
landfilling by any of the methods described above. For
sludge-only landfills , the solids concentration should be
15 percent or more. Although soil may be used as a bulking agent
to effectively increase the solids concentration to this level,
cost-effectiveness may become a problem , Solids concentrations
down to three percent are tolerated for co- disposal , but the
absorptive capacity of the refuse should not be exceeded , An
assessment of the suitability of various sludge types is given in
-
Table 19 1. In general, only stabilized and dewatered sludges
are recommended for landfill disposal.
19 6 -
TABLE 19- 1
WAS - -
Waste activated sludge
NS
MS
-- Not suitable
Marginally suitable
S - Suitable
OD
OP
-
-
Odor problems
Operational problems
-
19 7
dewatering equipment may have a significant effect o n t h e
s l u d g e concentration. A certain d e g r e e o f flexibility
s h o u l d be incorporated into t h e design of landfills t o
c o m p e n s a t e for t h e variability in solids concentration o f
dewatered sludge.
• Bacteriological q u a l i t y. S l u d g e t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m s r e d u c e
t h e number of pathogens and t h e possibility of pathogenic
contamination associated with landfilling of s l u d g e s;
h o w e v e r, t h e y d o n o t provide a sterile p r o d u c t.
• Toxic organic c o m p o u n d s. T o x i c o r g a n i c c o m p o u n d s c a n
present potential contamination problems , Solids
contaminated with toxic materials m u s t b e p l a ced in
appropriately designated disposal facilities .
• pH. Acidic conditions p r o m o t e l e a c h i n g o f h e a v y metals
and o t h e r compounds from t h e s l u d g e.
1 9-8
f o r t h e t y p e of s l u d g e t o b e d i s p o s e d of a n d situated i n a
convenient , y e t unobtrusive , location , C h a p t e r 4 o f Municipal
S l u d g e Landfill ( 1 ) p r o v i d e s a n i n - d e p t h a p p r o a c h t o s i t e
selection.
TABLE 19- 2
Appropriate
Sludge solids sludge Appropriate Appropriate
Method content, percent characteristics hydrogeology ground slope
Narrow trench 15 2B Unstabilized or Deep groundwater and < 20 percent
stabilized bedrock
Wide trench > 20 Unstabilized or Deep groundwater and < 10 percent
stabilized bedrock
Area fill mound > 20 Stabilized Shallow groundwater Suitable for steep
or bedrock terrain as long as
level area is pre
pared for mounding
-
Area fill layer > 15 Unstabilized or Shallow groundwater Suitable for medium
stabilized or bedrock slopes but level
ground preferred
Diked containment > 20 Stabilized Shallow groundwater Suitable for steep
or bedrock terrain as long as
a level area is pre
pared inside dikes
-
Sludge/refuse mixture >3 Unstabilized or Deep or shallow < 30 percent
stabilized groundwater or bed
rock
-
Sludge/soil mixture > 20 Stabilized Deep or shallow < 5 percent
groundwater or bed
rock
-
Site Considerations
T h e following f a c t o r s m u s t be considered during t h e evaluation of
possible landfill s i t e s, Information o n t h e s e factors should
t h e r e f o r e b e c o l l e c t e d a n d a s s e s s e d in a d v a n c e o f t h e f i n a l
decision making p r o c e s s.
H a u l distance. T h e m o s t f a v o r a b l e h a u l c o n d i t i o n s
combine level terrain a n d minimum distances.
T o p o g r a p h y.
I n g e n e r a l, s l u d g e landfilling is limited t o
s i t e s with m i n i m u m s l o p e s o f o n e p e r c e n t a n d maximum
s l o p e s o f 2 0 p e r c e n t, F l a t terrain t e n d s t o r e s u l t in
ponding , w h e r e a s s t e e p s l o p e s e r o d e.
1 9-9
Surface water. The location and extent of surface waters
in the vicinity of the landfill site can be a significant
factor in the selection process , Existing surface waters
and drainage near proposed sites should be mapped and
their present and proposed uses outlined , Leachate
control measures including collection and treatment may
be required as part of the landfill design.
19-10
• Site access. Haul r o u t e s should be major highways , o r
arterials , preferably those with a minimum o f traffic
during normal t r a n s p o r t hours. P r o p o s e d r o u t e s should b e
studied to determine impacts on local use and the
potential effects of accidents, Transport through
nonresidential areas is p r e f e r a b l e t o t r a n s p o r t t h r o u g h
residential areas , h i g h- density u r b a n a r e a s , a n d a r e a s
with c o n g e s t e d traffic. T h e access r o a d s t o t h e site m u s t
b e a d e q u a t e f o r t h e anticipated traffic loads.
1 9 -1 1
S c r e e n i n g o f C a n d i d a t e S i t e s , S i t e s r e m a i n i n g a f t e r t h e initial
a s s e s s m e n t a r e s u b j e c t e d t o c l o s e r scrutiny , Information u s e d i n
e v a l u a t i n g e a c h o p t i o n is more detailed a n d s o m e w h a t m o r e s i t e-
s p e c i f i c t h a n in t h e initial a s s e s s m e n t. R e m a i n i n g s i t e s m a y b e
r a t e d b y a s c o r i n g s y s t e m including b o t h o b j e c t i v e a n d s u b j e c t i v e
e v a l u a t i o n s ( C h a p t e r 3 ). T a b l e 3 - 4 s e r v e s a s a n e x a m p l e o f
a rating system , Candidate s y s t e m s w i t h l o w e s t o v e r a l l r a t i n g s
a r e eliminated , a n d t h e h i g h e r r a t e d s y s t e m s a r e c a r r i e d f o r w a r d
f o r f i n a l evaluation.
Final S i t e S e l e c t i o n a n d S i t e A c q u i s i t i o n. M e t h o d o l o g y f o r f i n a l
site s e l e c t i o n is similar t o t h a t f o r t h e s c r e e n i n g p r o c e d u r e
j u s t discussed , i n t h a t r a t i n g s y s t e m s a r e s t i l l u s e d , H o w e v e r ,
e a c h s i t e r e m a i n i n g i s investigated in g r e a t e r d e t a i l, Public
hearings may also be scheduled so that final inputs can be
received f r o m l o c a l g o v e r n m e n t officials a n d t h e p u b l i c.
O n c e t h e b e s t s i t e s a r e determined , t h e y m u s t b e a c q u i r e d , S i t e
acquisition should begin immediately following acceptance of the
p r o g r a m b y l o c a l , S t a t e , a n d F e d e r a l r e g u l a t o r y a u t h o r i t i e s.
T h e s e v e r a l a c q u i s i t i o n p r o c e d u r e s include: p u r c h a s e o p t i o n,
o u t r i g h t p u r c h a s e , l e a s e, condemnation a n d /o r o t h e r c o u r t action,
a n d l a n d dedication.
L o c a l , S t a t e, a n d F e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n s a n d standards m u s t b e f u l l y
understood before the landfill is designed, Consideration must
be given to r e q u i r e m e n t s g o v e r n i n g t h e d egree of sludge
stabilization the , l o a d i n g rates , t h e f r e q u e ncy and depth of
c o v e r, m o n i t o r i n g a n d r e p o r t i n g
, , The d e s i g n s h o u l d conform t o
all building codes and should include a d e q u a t e buffer zones to
protect public roads , p r i v a t e structures , a n d s u r f a c e w a t e r s.
1 9-1 2
Obtaining permits for construction and operation of sludge
l a n d f i l l s c a n b e a long a n d costly p r o c e s s , T o minimize delays
associated with t h i s t a s k , p e r m i t application s h o u l d b e initiated
e a r l y in t h e d e s i g n s t a g e. A s o u n d r e g u l a t o r y- c o n s u l t a n t
relationship a n d a m u t u a l understanding s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d .
The following is a partial list of the permits which may be
required:
O f f i c e o f E n d a n g e r e d S p e c i e s p e r m i t — if l a n d f i l l i s
located in critical habitat o f a n e n d a n g e r e d species.
Solid W a s t e M a n a g e m e n t p e r m i t.
S p e c i a l U s e permit.
Highway D e p a r t m e n t permit.
Construction permit.
Building permit.
Drainage and/o r Flood Plain Alteration permit.
Site Plan
T h e s i t e p l a n s h o u l d contain the following minimum information:
• Location of s u r f a c e w a t e r, r o a d s , a n d utilities.
• V e g e t a t i o n t o r e m a i n a n d t o b e r e m o v e d ; a r e a s t o be
r e v e g e t a t e d.
1 9-1 3
Soils
The soil characteristics at the landfill site should be
thoroughly catalogued and mapped , T h e information o f m o s t
importance t o the design and operation of the landfill includes
d e p t h, t e x t u r e, structure, bulk density , porosity , permeability ,
moisture, stability , and e a s e of excavation, Areas with rocky
soils o r extensive rock o u t c r o p s should b e n o t e d ,
,
T h e pH a n d
cation exchange capacity h a v e a direct bearing o n h e a v y m e t a l
transport through the soil, Translocation of metals must be
considered t o ensure p r o t e c t i o n o f s u r f a c e a n d g r o u n d w a t e r
supplies.
Groundwater
T h e g r o u n d w a t e r aquifers underlying t h e landfill site m u s t be
located. D e p t h of t h e aquifer under varying conditions should be
determined a t s e v e r a l locations. O t h e r characteristics such a s
t h e d i r e c t i o n a n d r a t e o f f l o w , t h e h y d r a u l i c g r a d i e n t, t h e
quality , a n d p r e s e n t a n d p l a n n e d uses should a l s o be established.
Location o f t h e primary r e c h a r g e zones is critical in protecting
quality.
Subsurface Geology
T h e geological formations underlying t h e landfill a r e important
i n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e d e s i g n p a r a m e t e r s. Critical design
p a r a m e t e r s include t h e d e p t h , distribution, and characteristics
o f s u b s u r f a c e s o i l s in r e l a t i o n t o s t a b i l i t y a n d g r o u n d w a t e r
transmissability .
Climate
Climate can influence many factors in t h e d e s i g n of landfills .
Climatic conditions effect r a t e of o r g a n i c decomposition, t h e
c o m p o s i t i o n a n d quantity o f leachate a n d r u n o f f , t h e d a y - t o-
d a y f i l l o p e r a t i o n s, a n d t h e d i s p e r s i o n o f o d o r s a n d d u s t.
I n f o r m a t i o n s u c h a s s e a s o n a l t e m p e r a t u r e, p r e c i p i t a t i o n ,
e v a p o r a t i o n, wind direction a n d s p e e d a n d atmospheric stability ,
c a n be obtained f r o m a local w e a t h e r station.
Land U s e
use o f the landfill site and adjacent
T h e p r e s e n t and p r o p o s e d
properties should be evaluated. If the s i t e is already dedicated
t o refuse o r s l u d g e disposal, it is unlikely t h a t expanding i t
will result in a d v e r s e impacts. H o w e v e r, if t h e s i t e is located
in o r near a p o p u l a t e d a r e a, extensive control measures may b e
n e e d e d t o eliminate concerns a n d minimize any public nuisance
which would d e t r a c t from t h e value of adjacent properties.
1 9 -1 4
Maximizing utilization of the site is an important consideration
in method selection. If daily cover is to be applied , the daily
sludge generation rate will affect the net capacity of the
site. If several days are required to fill a trench , as the
result of low sludge generation, and cover is required each day ,
then the ratio of sludge/ cover will be less than for sites
managing larger sludge quantities. The net sludge capacity will
be higher at sites where trenches are filled each day.
The amount by which the net capacity of the site will be reduced
will vary with the landfill methods , the specific site , and the
daily sludge generation rate. Before a final method is selected ,
estimates of net capacity and site life should be made for each .
Additional design criteria are summarized in Table 19-3 ( 1 ).
TABLE 19- 3
-
Sludge only trench fill
- 20-28 --
Narrow trench 15 20C 2 3 NO -
2 3 No -
1,200 5 ,600 Backhoe with loader,
- C
C
3 10 No -
3 4 excavator, trenching
machine
Wide trench 20~28
> 29d
‘
10 No -
3 4 No -
3,200 14 , 500 Track loader, dragline ,
10 No -
4 5 scraper , track
dozer
-
Sludge only area fill
>20C'd
Area fill mound Yes Soil -
0.5 2 soil:
1 sludge
3 -
3 5 Yes 3,000-14 ,000 Track loader , backhoe
with loader , track
dozer
Area fill layer > 15d Yes Soil -
0.25 1 soil:
1 sludge
-
0.5 1 -
2 4 Yes -
2,000 9,000 Track dozer , grader ,
track loader
Diked containment -
20 28°
> 28d
No
No
Soil
Soil
0.25 -
1 sludge
3-4 Yes -
4,800 15,000 Dragline , track dozer,
scraper
Sludge/soil mixture >20d Yes Soil 1 soil: 0.5- 1 2 - No 1,600 Tractor with disc,
1 sludge grader, track loader
a
Volume basis unless otherwise noted. 1 ft = 0.305 m
1 cu yd = 0.765 cu m
^In actual fill areas. 1 acre = 0.405 ha
CLand-based equipment,
d
e
-
Sludge based equipment
But sometimes used.
19-15
h e a l t h p r o b l e m s. I n m a n y c a s e s, l e a c h a t e c o n t a i n m e n t a n d
t r e a t m e n t m a y be r e q u i r e d b y s t a t e o r l o c a l r e g u l a t i o n s.
Numerous methods are available for controlling leachate , includ -
ing drainage , natural attenuation, soil or membrane liners , o r
collection a n d t r e a t m e n t. T h e method a n d t h e design features
c h o s e n a r e s p e c i f i c f o r e a c h p r o j e c t. T a b l e 1 9 -4 d e p i c t s
s l u d g e-o n l y l e a c h a t e quality f o r one s i t e s a m p l e d over t w o y e a r s.
TABLE 19- 4
Constituents Values 3 *
Constituents
PH 6.7
TOC 1 , 000:*
d
COD 5 ,100
d
Ammonia nitrogen 198
d
Nitrate nitrogen 0.28
Chloride 6.7
Sulfate 10
e
Specific conductivity 3 ,600
Cadmium 0.017
Chromium 1.1
Copper 1.3
Iron 170
Mercury 0.0004
Nickel 0.31
Lead 0.60
Zinc 5.0
-
19 16
Gas Control
Gas produced by decomposition of organic m a t t e r is potentially
d a n g e r o u s. T h i s c o n d i t i o n is o f p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e r n if t h e
landfill is l o c a t e d n e a r a p o p u l a t e d a r e a , M e t h a n e g a s , in
p a r t i c u l a r, is highly explosive if confined in a n enclosed area.
C o n t r o l o f t h e g a s e s p r o d u c e d a t t h e landfill m u s t b e p r o v i d e d.
T w o w i d e l y a c c e p t e d m e t h o d s c o n t r o l p a t h s o f g a s m i g r a t i o n.
P e r m e a b l e m e t h o d s u s u a l l y consist o f a g r a v e l- f i l l e d t r e n c h
around t h e fill area for intercepting migrating gas and venting
it t o t h e a t m o s p h e r e, I m p e r m e a b l e m e t h o d s consist o f placing a
barrier of low permeability material, s u c h as c o m p a c t e d clay ,
around t h e fill a r e a t o minimize lateral m o v e m e n t o f g a s. T h i s
method provides f o r g a s venting t h r o u g h t h e cover material , I n
general , m e t h a n e recovery is n o t c o s t- effective at s l u d g e- only o r
small c o-d i s p o s a l sites.
Roads
P a v e d a c c e s s a n d o n- s i t e r o a d s a r e n e c e s s a r y a t t h e l a n d f i l l
s i t e. T e m p o r a r y r o a d s m a y b e c o n s t r u c t e d o f w e l l c o m p a c t e d
natural soil o r g r a v e l . Considerations should include g r a d e s,
r o a d s u r f a c e a n d s t a b i l i t y , a n d climate , Grades in excess
of t e n p e r c e n t should be avoided. Provisions s h o u l d be m a d e t o
a l l o w t r u c k s t o t u r n a r o u n d within t h e s i t e a r e a.
Soil S t o c k p i l e s
S t o r a g e a r e a s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d f o r o n- s i t e s t o c k p i l i n g o f
t r a n s p o r t e d soils w h e r e on- site soils are insufficient o r their
use inappropriate. T h e quantity and t y p e of soil t o be s t o c k p i l e d
d e p e n d s o n t h e individual d e m a n d s of t h e landfill , Stockpiles
may a l s o be desirable f o r winter operations w h e r e f r o z en ground
m a y limit excavation.
Inclement Weather Areas
Special landfill areas should be placed near the entrance to
t h e site s o t h a t operations may be continued during inclement
w e a t h e r. P a v e d o r a l l -w e a t h e r r o a d s s h o u l d b e p r o v i d e d f o r
working these sites.
Structures
A n o f f i c e a n d e m p l o y e e facilities s h o u l d be l o c a t e d a t t h e
landfill s i t e. F o r l a r g e o p e r a t i o n s , a p e r m a n e n t s t r u c t u r e
s h o u l d be provided . At s m a l l e r sites a trailer m i g h t suffice.
A n equipment b a r n and s h o p may be desirable f o r some locations.
Utilities
Electrical , w a t e r, communication and sanitary services s h o u l d be
provided f o r l a r g e landfill o p e r a t i o n s. Chemical toilets, bottled
w a t e r, and o n-site electrical generation may reduce the cost o f
o b t a i n i n g services f r o m utility companies. This a p p r o a c h m a y b e
appropriate f o r r e m o t e sites.
19-17
Fencing
o n e o r t w o s e c u r e d e n t r a n c e s , T h e h e i g h t a n d t y p e of f e n c e
should suit local conditions. A 6-f o o t ( 1.8 m ) chain link fence
t o p p e d with barbed wire will restrict t r e s p a s s e r s ; a w o o d e n fence
o r h e d g e is effective f o r screening t h e o p e r a t i o n f r o m view , a n d
a 4 -f o o t ( 1 . 2 m ) barbed wire f e n c e will k e e p c a t t l e o r s h e e p a w a y
f r o m t h e site area.
Lighting
P o r t a b l e lighting s h o u l d be provided if landfill o p e r a t i o n s a r e
carried o u t a t n i g h t. P e r m a n e n t l i g h t s should be installed f o r
a l l s t r u c t u r e s and heavily used access r o a d s.
W a s h Racks
Monitoring Wells
I t is c r u c i a l t o m o n i t o r g r o u n d w a t e r. T h e n u m b e r , t y p e , a n d
l o c a t i o n o f monitoring w e l l s and monitoring f r e q u e n c y should b e
designated to meet specific conditions associated with the
landfill.
Landscaping
Depending o n t h e s i z e a n d l o c a t i o n o f t h e l a n d f i l l, landscaping
may be a n important design f a c t o r. T h e aesthetic acceptability
o f t h e landfill is critical, especially in a n urban o r d e n s e l y
p o p u l a t e d a r e a. I n g e n e r a l, s h r u b b e r y c h o s e n s h o u l d r e q u i r e
little maintenance a n d become a n effective visual barrier.
A wide variety o f e q u i p m e n t m a y b e r e q u i r e d f o r a s l u d g e
landfill. T h e t y p e of equipment d e p e n d s o n t h e landfill m e t h o d
e m p l o y e d a n d o n t h e q u a n t i t y o f s l u d g e t o be d i s p o s e d o f .
E q u i p m e n t w i l l be r e q u i r e d f o r s l u d g e h a n d l i n g , e x c a v a t i o n ,
backfilling , grading , and r o a d construction. T a b l e 1 9- 5 p r e s e n t s
t y p i c a l e q u i p m e n t p e r f o r m a n c e characteristics f o r v a r i o u s
s l u d g e landfilling methods.
1 9 -1 8
e x p a n s i o n may be n e e d e d s o o n e r t h a n originally p l a n n e d o r it
may be delayed . Any change in wastewater treatment or sludge
management processes may affect the nature and quantity of sludge
p r o d u c e d. O p e r a t i o n a l modifications m a y be needed if t h e s e
c h a n g e s are drastic. T h e landfill design should be such that
changes can be made without major disruption t o operations.
TABLE 19- 5
Backhoe Tractor
Landfill Trenching with Track Wheel Track with
method Submethod Equipment function machine loader Excavator loader loader dozer3 Scraper Dragline Grader disc
Legend
G = Good. Fully capable of performing function listed. Equipment could be selected solely on basis of function listed.
F = Fair. Marginally capable of performing function listed. Equipment should be selected on basis of full capabilities
in other function.
-= Not applicable. Cannot be used for function listed.
Caterpillar -
D 6 generally is the largest track dozer appropriate for a sludge landfill although some engineers
-
are investigating the use of the Caterpillar LG T, double-wide track dozer.
A l t h o u g h t h e o v e r a l l p e r f o r m a n c e of a s l u d g e landfill m a y b e
difficult to predict accurately , certain operating parameters
should be estimated . T h e site life d e p e n d s on many factors ;
a n e s t i m a t e .is n e e d e d f o r p u r p o s e s o f economic evaluations
and f u t u r e planning . S l u d g e application r a t e a n d soil cover
-
19 19
r e q u i r e m e n t s should be estimated before s c h e d u l i n g initial
o p e r a t i o n s. P e r f o r m a n c e c a n be more c l o s e l y predicted a f t e r
actual operating experience is gained.
Hours of operation.
Measuring procedures.
19-20
• Maintenance procedures and schedules.
Narrow trench wide trench Mound Laver Diked containment Sludge/refuse Sludge/soil
Equipment lb 2
C
3
d 6
I 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5
Trenching
machine 1 2
Backhoe with
loader 1 1 l9 1 Ig l9 Ig 1
Excavator 1
lg lg g
Track loader 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 l9 l9 2
Wheel loader 1 l lg
lg 1 1 g lg lg 1 ' g
Track dozer 29 l9 1 1 2 lg 1 1 1 1 1 29 2 1 2 ig 1 1
Scraper l9 1 lg Ig 1 lg lg lg 1 ig r i
Dragline ill l
Grader lg 1
Tractor with
disc 1 1 Ig 29 2
Total 1 2 2 3 5 1 2 2 2 4 12 4 5 5 1 2 2 3 4 1 2 3 3 4 1 12 112 4 5
19-21
Equipment maintenance can be more expensive than the amortized
annual purchase cost. A scheduled preventive maintenance program
should be followed to control maintenance costs , Operators
should perform routine daily maintenance ( for example , check
fluid levels , cleaning , etc. ), The operating schedule should
provide periods for thorough maintenance.
19.2.5.5 Safety
The stability of the soil and fill can present a critical safety
problem , particularly with the use of large equipment , Disturbed
and filled areas should be approached cautiously as should muddy
areas or areas subject to erosion.
Equipment Operation
19-22
Gas Control
1 9 . 2.5 . 6 Environmental C o n t r o l s
T h e p r o t e c t i o n of t h e environment and p u b l i c h e a l t h a r e i m p o r t a n t
a s p e c t s o f t h e landfill o p e r a t i o n. T h e o p e r a t i o n s p l a n s h o u l d
contain guidelines for providing this protection and actual
operations should conform t o t h e guidelines , G e n e r a l require-
m e n t s a r e summarized in T a b l e 1 9-7. Critical a r e a s a r e discussed
below.
TABLE 19- 7
Environmental problems
Si ltation
and
Control practice Spillage erosion Mud Dust Vectors Odors Noise Aesthetics Health Safety
Safety program X
Maintain washrooms for person
nel
- X
Training of new personnel X X X X X X X X X X
Use safety clamps on truck
tailgates X X
Maintain road markings and
trench barriers X X
Maintain fencing X X
Apply insecticide X
Maintain buffer areas and grass X X X X X X
Proper equipment maintenance X X X
Spray water/oil/liquid asphalt X X
Truck wash pad (to clean trucks) X X X
Maintain grass waterways ,
diversion ditches, rip rap X X X
Final grading of disturbed
areas X X
Revegetation of disturbed
areas X X X X
Chemical masking agent X
Lime on site X X X X X
Workers supplied with
aerators X X X X
Cover sludge daily X X X X X
Water diverted away from site X X
Environment
E n v i r o n m e n t a l p r o t e c t i o n is g e n e r a l l y f o c u s e d o n l e a c h a t e
and runoff controls for preventing surface and groundwater
contamination . T r e n c h l i n e r s m u s t b e k e p t intact d u r i n g a n d
a f t e r filling operations. D r a i n a g e s y s t e m s should b e c h e c k e d
1 9- 2 3
to see that they are functioning as designed , If monitoring
indicates that adverse environmental impacts are occurring or
pending , immediate corrective action should be taken.
Public Health
Social Welfare
-
19 24
19.2.6.3 Final Grading
Final grading of the site is to be performed after sufficient
time has elapsed to allow for initial settlement , The final
grading plan should be designed in accordance with the intended
ultimate use of the landfill site. It is important that all
sludge be completely covered to the specified depth with cover
material.
19.2.6.4 Landscaping
The landscaping plan should reflect the intended ultimate use of
the landfill site. Where practical , landscaping may be done on
completed sections before the entire fill project is completed.
19.3.1 Definition
Dedicated land disposal means the application of heavy sludge
loadings to some finite land area which has limited public
access and has been set aside or dedicated for all time to the
disposal of wastewater sludge. Dedicated land disposal does not
19-25
mean in- place utilization , Dedicated sites typically receive
liquid s l u d g e s , While a p p l i c a t i o n of dewatered s l u d g e s is
possible, it is not common , I n addition, disposal of dewatered
sludge in landfills is generally more cost-effective.
A s with any o t h e r land d i s p o s a l technique , dedicated land
d i s p o s a l r e q u i r e s t h e w a s t e w a t e r s l u d g e be stabilized p r i o r
t o application. Once the s l u d g e has been stabilized , however ,
it c a n b e a p p l i e d t o t h e dedicated land in either t h e liquid
or the dewatered state. Use of anaerobically digested sludge
minimizes o d o r and potential nuisances.
Many existing w a s t e w a t e r treatment plants practice some form of
dedicated land d i s p o s a l. H o w e v e r , p r e c a u t i o n s n e c e s s a r y f o r
a s s u r i n g t h a t this m e t h o d of d i s p o s a l is n o t h a r m f u l t o t h e
environment have not always been practiced.
19.3.2 Background
Dedicated land d i s p o s a l w a s first d e v e l o p e d as an informal
practice in response t o the need t o reduce high operational c o s t s
associated with sludge disposal. The practice w a s applicable
particularly in cases where the plant site had adequate acreage
or where adjacent land was available and hauling costs to the
n e a r e s t landfill were high. G r o u n d w a t e r contamination , o d o r
production , and aesthetic concerns were not usually addressed in
this informal practice.
A more sophisticated a p p r o a c h t o dedicated land disposal had t o
be taken as sludge quantities increased with higher treatment
levels , and on-site sludge disposal was perceived as associated
with environmental p r o b l e m s. Recent research on this method of
s l u d g e disposal has developed k e y environmental controls which
are covered in subsequent sections.
T h e use of dedicated land disposal has several major advantages.
T h e s e include flexibility in managing s l u d g e s in excess of
utilization demand ; minimum land use because sludge application
rates per acre are maximized ; inexpensive dewatering through
t h e use of s o l a r e n e r g y instead of t h e relatively e x p e n s i v e
electrical energy required for mechanical dewatering ; relatively
low capital and operating costs ( 6 ).
Dedicated land disposal is applicable as a disposal method for
liquid , dewatered , o r dried s l u d g e s. T o maximize t h e advantage
of low -cost solar drying and minimize the c o s t of u p s t r e a m s l u d g e
processing , disposal of liquid s l u d g e is the most cost-effective
a p p r o a c h. D i s p o s a l of s l u d g e s in t h e liquid form r e q u i r e s
s t o r a g e capacity . Facultative s l u d g e l a g o o n s ( F S L s ) , as
discussed in Chapter 15 , can provide that s t o r a g e. F S L s provide
a buffer between continuous s l u d g e production and intermittent
land d i s p o s a l operations . D i s p o s a l of t h e thickened ( solids
concentration of 6 t o 8 p e r c e n t ) s l u d g e s f r o m t h e F S L s / ill /
19 - 26
19.3 3 . Site Selection
By d e f i n i t i o n , t h e s e l e c t e d DLD s i t e w i l l be d e d i c a t e d i n
perpetuity to the sludge disposal function, L o n g- t e r m b u i l d u p
of heavy metals and s a l t s in the s o i l surface layers will
make the s i t e unsuitable f o r future d i r e c t a g r i c u l t u r a l use .
Public access to these s i t e s must be restricted because of
their potential pathogen contamination, These factors require
complete control and thus ownership of the s i t e by the wastewater
treatment authority , However , merely because certain elements
accumulate t o toxic concentrations on t h a t s i t e does not mean
that the surface soils are forever useless .
.
19.3 3.2 Groundwater Patterns
1 . C h o i c e o f a s i t e w i t h a n i s o l a t e d g r o u n d w a t e r p a t t e r n.
This option requires that there be well defined -
groundwater migration t o a r i v e r o r t h e ocean; In this
case , there must be no intermediate domestic source
wells . An adequate subsurface buffer s t r i p between the
s i t e and the receiving waters should be provided t o
p e r m i t f u r t h e r p o t e n t i a l p o l l u t a n t a t t e n u a t i o n, u p t a k e ,
or dilution .
2. C h o i c e o f a s i t e w i t h a t i g h t/ l o w p e r m e a b i l i t y s u r f a c e
a n d/o r s u b s u r f a c e s o i l l a y e r w h i c h e s s e n t i a l l y p r e v e n t s
from reaching the groundwater ,
DLD l e a c h a t e In this
option, additional monitoring wells may be required
to confirm the design assumptions over the long term .
3. Construction of an artificial leachate control barrier
c o m p o s e d o f a m i n i m u m 2 -f o o t ( 0 . 6 m ) d e p t h c l a y l a y e r
under the entire s i t e and deep cutoff trenches a t the
groundwater downstream end of the s i t e for leachate
collection and recycling , I t should be noted that when
t h e r e a r e l o w- p e r m e a b l e s o i l s t o o c l o s e t o t h e s u r f a c e ,
liquid disposal operations can be hindered , Shallow
clays can cause ponding and reduced loading rates
with these systems.
1 9-2 7
1 9 . 3.3 . 3 Topography
19.3.3.4 Soil T y p e s
Most soil t y p e s can accommodate one or another form o f D L D s y s t e m
with proper protection of g r o u n d and surface w a t e r s a s outlined
a b o v e. P r e f e r e n c e s h o u l d , h o w e v e r , be g i v e n t o s o i l s w i t h a
m o d e r a t e t o h i g h c a t i o n e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y ( C E C ), t y p i c a l l y
g r e a t e r than 1 0 milliequivalents p e r 1 0 0 g r a m s .
Desirable soil c o n d i t i o n s i n c l u d e restrictive p e r m e a b i l i t y ,
minimal ponding , and freedom from boulders , Technical assistance
in the areas o f soil science, soil agronomy, and soil engineering
is recommended , so t h a t the i m p a c t s o f specific soil t y p e s o n t h e
project can be a c c u r a t e l y evaluated .
1 9 . 3.4 Storage
1 9-2 8
19.3.4.2 Operational Storage
Even where climate is not severe enough to require sludge
storage , storage may still be warranted for operational
efficiency . If storage is provided , routine equipment
maintenance can take place during normal work hours. Emergency
situations , such as those which require the retention of
unstabilized sludge for very short periods during any plant
upset, can be responded to effectively (10).
-
19 29
TABLE 19- 8
SURFACE APPLICATION METHODS AND EQUIPMENT FOR LIQUID SLUDGES
1 gal = 3.8 1
19 -30
vectors were an outcome. In both techniques, clogging problems
were experienced with standard water irrigation gated and
perforated piping . This indicated that either special distribu-
tion piping would be required for use with sludge or the sludge
would have to be screened in a manner similar to that indicated
for sprinkler application.
TABLE 19- 9
Farm tank trailer and Sludge discharged into fur- Tillable land ; not usable on
tractor with surface dis - row ahead of plow mounted wet or frozen ground .
charge3 on tank trailer -
applica
tion of 170 to 225 wet
-
ton/acre/pass. Sludge
spread in narrow bank on
ground surface and imme-
diately plowed under -
application rate of 50 to
125 wet ton/acre/pass.
Farm tank trailer and Sludge discharged into chan- Tillable land ; not usable on
tractor with subsurface nel opened and covered by wet or frozen ground .
injection3 a tillable tool mounted on
tank trailer -
application
rate 25 to 50 wet ton/acre/
pass.
19-31
Ridge and Furrow
1 9 -3 2
TABLE 19- 10
a
Slope , Percent
c
percent solids 3* •
Observations
0.1 3.1 Sludge ponded or flowed
very slowly. On slopes
this flat slight
variations in grade
causing ponding. Gen-
erally unsatisfactory.
.2 3.1 No ponding , sludge flowed
slowly . Minimum grade
for 3 percent solids.
Would be too flat for
5 percent solids.
a
0.1 percent equals 0.1 ft of fall/100 ft
of run. (0.1 m/100 m)
b
Percent solids expressed determined in a
dry weight basis.
c
All observations are based on 12 in. ( . 30 cm )
deep furrows , Soil in excellent friable
condition. Deeper furrows would permit the
use of flatter slopes.
-
19 33
To maximize disposal time during days when the site can be used ,
a highway vehicle with a 3 ,000 to 6 ,000 gallon (11.7 to 22.7 m 3 )
capacity tank can be used to transport the sludge to the OLD
site. Sludge is then transferred to one or more off road -
application trucks. These trucks should be equipped with high
-
flotation tires and four wheel drive for working wet sites.
Subsurface Injection
-
19 34
TABLE 19- 11
19-35
t; J' u f
. ?
:3S ’ 4* 4
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f
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s IHi _ 4|f,W- ,a#
*P :" 4,
*
t
s'
»
V *.
. *»f
'
r
>k->
»
'
r'V'
/ ••
af /r
‘x Ml y */•
» *
-
>' -
«:
-r <
,; ”
. '
'
>
,
* *
r
•
/t
A ’* .
*
„
:.%v
,ir
* *tf/ Voff
'
=
*rH
• •'
f i?
IMr .
mmm
,
The Denver Metro uses large trucks to transport dewatered sludge cake to its rela -
tively isolated disposal site at the former Lowry Bombing Range 25 miles ( 40 km)
from the treatment plant . This picture shows transfer of sludge to smaller dump
trucks for spreading in the field. Sludge is spread by allowing it to drop from the
truck as it is driven through the field . At one time the District used a manure
spreader instead of dump truck for sludge spreading purposes .
• . *»•
'i
FIGURE 19- 2
1 9-3 6
I t s h o u l d be n o t e d t h a t runoff and leachate c o n t r o l s are still
required e v e n t h o u g h t h e s y s t e m, o n t h e a v e r a g e, eliminates a l l
w a t e r by e v a p o r a t i o n. L e a c h a t e a n d r u n o f f m u s t b e e x p e c t e d ,
since p e r i o d s will o c c u r w h e n t h e n e t soil e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e s are
l e s s t h a n e x p e c t e d o r w h e r e more s l u d g e t h a n p e r m i s s i b l e is
applied.
19.3.6.1 Site L a y o u t
1 9 -3 7
h o o k u p s t o the tractor- drawn umbilical cord s y s t e m , U s u a l l y , t h e
nurse c e n t e r s consist of a s m a l l ( 4 - t o 6 - inch [ 1 0 t o 1 5 c m ] in
diameter ) s l u d g e f o r c e main riser with a q u i c k c o n n e c t coupling ,
coming from a pump station or dredge operating in a sludge
s t o r a g e lagoon. A s m a l l s t o r a g e tank o r vault ( maximum volume
twice the t a n k e r capacity ) is o f t e n a d d e d a t t h e nurse c e n t e r t o
simplify pumping control and t o permit s l u d g e pickup by a field
t a n k e r b y m e a n s o f s u c t i o n. S l u d g e s h o u l d n o t b e a l l o w e d t o
remain unmixed in t h e vault f o r more t h a n 3 0 minutes. Mixing o f
t h e t a n k contents will p r e v e n t liquid -solid separation , which
could cause wide variations in solids concentrations at pickup
and , t h e r e f o r e , uneven solids application r a t e s t o t h e site.
T h e r e a r e t w o distinct k i n d s o f g r o u n d w a t e r c o n t r o l f o r D L D
sites. T h e first involves c o m p l e t e collection o f a n y and a l l
l e a c h a t e f r o m t h e s i t e f o l l o w e d by either r e c y c l i n g b a c k t o
t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t o r f u r t h e r o n- s i t e t r e a t m e n t , The second
involves monitoring groundwater migration patterns from the
site and assuring t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f external w a t e r s a r e n o t
reduced.
I n t h e case o f t h e first , t h e site s h o u l d be underlain with a n
i m p e r v i o u s soil, h a r d p a n, o r r o c k. A l t h o u g h it is possible t o
p r e p a r e this barrier artificially using c l a y o r a liner , it is
u s u a l l y n o t economically feasible t o d o s o. T h u s , t h e original
site selection determines t h e d e g r e e of vertical containment.
H o r i z o n t a l m o v e m e n t of g r o u n d w a t e r is p r e v e n t e d by t h e u s e
o f d i k i n g a n d c u t o f f t r e n c h e s. Leachate is then collected
t o g e t h e r with s u r f a c e r u n o f f .
19.3.6 . 3 S u r f a c e W a t e r Runoff C o n t r o l s
1 9 -3 8
T h e p r i m a r y m e c h a n i s m f o r w a t e r r e m o v a l a t m o s t sites is
e v a p o r a t i o n. Runoff can be minimized by adjusting sludge
loadings so that they are less than or equal to the net soil
e v a p o r a t i o n r a t e ( evapotranspiration rate minus precipitation ).
1 9 . 3.7 Costs
1 9 -3 9
19.3.8.1 Colorado Springs , Colorado
The analyses for and design of a sludge management program for
Colorado Springs was cased on population and average dry weather
flow figures ( see Table 19 12). - —
TABLE 19- 12
COLORADO SPRINGS POPULATION AND WASTEWATER
FLOW PROJECTIONS
Population , Planning
Year thousands ADWF , mgd designation
-
19 40
COLORADO SPRINGS
WWTF
THICKENERS
ANAEROBIC DIGESTION
Hi i11 ill
I
r —
~
| AGRICULTURAL i
1
i
DEDICATED LAND
HANNA RANCH
I
I
I REUSE BY I DISPOSAL BY
j SUBSURFACE I
INJECTION
SUBSURFACE
INJECTION
i —n
1
, I -
ON SITE REUSE
__
( AG /SSII ( 0LD/SS1)
I J
THE TERM FACULTATIVE SLUDGE BASIN ( FSB ) IN USED INTERCHANGEABLY
WITH FACULTATIVE SLUDGE LAGOON ( FSL )
FIGURE 19- 3
SPRINGS , COLORADO
1 9-4 1
: •
--> /
• •
•
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sr% :l v>’
:
>;• : "
i '
:.
4 . pf -
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m4i
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-
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x
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**Y**0«yQ D. N|J£3fc
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t
AN
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SLtfOQE •
~ DISTNfttfllQ
TTMiow * ,
HUPEH WTMjf
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te 5 -/Vlr
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WXt
TABLE 19- 13
1 acre .91 ha
Note: The term facultative sludge basin (FSB) is used
interchangably with facultative sludge lagoon (FSL).
19 -43
TABLE 19- 14
COLORADO SPRINGS CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AFFECTING
SLUDGE DISPOSAL
19 -44
-
from sludge amended s o i l s , To the south, the entire sludge
disposal area i s contained behind a retention dam designed
to prevent runoff from reaching an existing ash disposal s i t e .
This dam, designed f o r a flood l e v e l equivalent t o a once in a
-
1, 000 y e a r r e c u r r e n c e i n t e r v a l , p r o v i d e s c o n t a i n m e n t of b o t h
surface runoff and upstream percolate Although the operation of .
-
t h e t a n k v e h i c l e SSI s y s t e m w a s b a s e d o n a w e l l d e f i n e d DLD a r e a
with ground slopes typically 3 t o 6 percent , portions of the mesa
area which have slopes of less than 10 percent can also be used
for injection . The maneuverability and freedom of movement of
the detached v e h i c l e s allows maximum s i t e u t i l i z a t i o n .
30
26
OPERATING TOTAL APPLICATION '
PERIOD 1
26
? MONTH DRY TONS /ACRE
m
24
CM
n 6 MONTH DRY TON3MCR 6
22
&0 20
*
C
o
IB
to
L.
16
c
S 14
£
12
O
H 10
<
o
Q.
a
CL
<
yj
O
O
D 4
if)
l i i
FES APR JUN AUG OCT DEC
MONTHS
FIGURE 19- 5
-
19 45
100
140 *
rtt
-C
o
O
II 120
*
U -
r
fTJ
v»
CJ
100
u
BO
<
UP
CL
<
80
<
ay
s
ay
Q
60
O
z
<
-oP
LU
40 r»te-
<
u
a NOTE. BASED ON SSI OPERATING
111 PERIOD MAY THROUGH
Q
.
OCTOBER ASSUMING
20 SLUDGE APPLIED AT
5 PERCENT SOLIDS
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
YEARS
FIGURE 19- 6
1 9- 46
160
£
140
LIT
O
O
tLi
LL.
120 r.. ii:
.'
‘
. j.
U
ffi
irt
dj>
o
« 100
<
LU
cc
<
<
VT so
o
Q
_
VJ
a
a
z: 60
<
D
<
u
-
UJ
r
40
O
LU
Q NOTE : BASED ON SSI OPERATING
H PERIOD MAY THROUGH
III OCTOBER AND SLUDGE
ZL 20 SOLIDS CONTENT AS SHOWN
0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
YEARS
FIGURE 19- 7
-
19 47
1.50 6.0 !m
SM3
Q.
"
EU CNI
CN
m 1.25 5.0
f \2
S3
H
ra
a
CL
c
1.00 4.0
Ic
o
sa I
Vt
Qi
0.75 3.0 <9
w.
£
u
C tn
C
o
2
O 0.50 >.
f- 2.0 T3
<
O
O
.4
^
Q
CL
h-
<
< 0.2 B 1.0 a
Q
-a
J
,
a,
O <
ss_ J
300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 ot f l
.
SLUDGE INJECTION RATE, gpm ( 1 gpri = 3.78 l /min )
FIGURE 19- 8
SSI vehicles
Number 2 4 5
Tank capacity , each gal 3 ,600 3 ,600 3 ,600
Injection rate , gpm
Maximum 700 700 700
Average ‘ 500 500 500
Average vehicle speed , mph 1.5 1.5 1.5
Injection width , feet 12 12 12
Volume injected , gallons per vehicle
per day
Maximum 116 ,000 116 , 000 116 , 000
Average 100 ,000 100 , 000 100 , 000
Vehicle coverage, acres per vehicle
per day 6.5 6.5 6.5
Tillage tractors
Number 1 1
19-49
19.3.8.2 Sacramento , California
S a c r a m e n t o, California h a s b e e n t h e site o f m u c h o f t h e w o r k
associated with t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of dedicated land d i s p o s a l
technical criteria. T h e R e g i o n a l Wastewater T r e a t m e n t P l a n t
S l u d g e M a n a g e m e n t P r o g r a m f o r t h e S a c r a m e n t o Regional C o u n t y
Sanitation District was a p p r o v e d by t h e Regional B o a r d of
D i r e c t o r s in J a n u a r y 1 9 7 9 ( 1 5 ) a n d t h e Environmental I m p a c t
R e p o r t ( EIR ) ( 6 ) was certified a t that time. T h e sludge planning
p e r i o d f o r t h e t r e a t m e n t p l a n t is divided into t w o p h a s e s ;
Stage I includes operations to be conducted from 1980 to 1992 ,
and S t a g e I I is devoted t o operations for the period 1992-1999.
FIGURE 19- 9
Initial w o r k c o m m e n c e d in 1 9 7 4 . S i t e preparation i n c l u d e d
installation of g r o u n d w a t e r m o n i t o r i n g wells . T h e p r o t o t y p e
20-acre DLD system has been in full operation since 1976 , and
data has been collected and analyzed for 1976 t h r o u g h 1978 and
for part of 1979. Figure 19 -9 illustrates the p r o t o t y p e dredging
1 9 -5 0
.............
Table 19-16 shows projected flows and loadings for the Sacramento
wastewater treatment plant for 1985. Figure 19 - 11 is a flow
diagram of the solids treatment and disposal system. The numbers
thereon give the solids flow in dry tons per day for operations
through 1992.
TABLE 19- 16
Parameter Value
—
j iriawr
Seasonal 3
ADWF , b MGD 136.2
B0 D 5, 1 , 000 lb/day 243.3
Suspended solids , 1 , 000 lb/day 246.3
Nonseasonal
ADWF , MGD 122.7
PWWF, c MGD 248.7
19-51
3
*> 4
:i
-'
^^ * J"“ -
—-
^ *1 ^
* '. 7
--
T
’ '
* ,*
x £ . ;- -
•
^ • .- ' J“
* .
v • .
•
' •i Xf '
'
l l’
-> .fi :-
. • A
a‘
- ..-v
_
i.
ar .
,«• „ ,
T * ! ••:' > .
vV.- f '
. v •.
.i
.a
-
v fi '
•
» J
* . * .
'TS
,* i
-
s .r* *
rf
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it i
-v
•
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VC ?*
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V< . .; v •
• * r.
J* •
.
i ;'i
J
* « •
.-
t
fc * +
FIGURE 19-10
PROTOTYPE SUBSURFACE INJECTION OPERATIONS ,
SACRAMENTO REGIONAL COUNTY SANITATION
DISTRICT
1 9 -5 2
RECOMMENDED PROJECT
OFF GAS
1
1
? .r 76.7 e? 2
DEWATERING
JeHlWtMtt
'
!
MULTIPLE 21A 70 !)
165 4 HEARTH SCREENINGS
CENTRIFUGES
FURNACE
55 ,3
I
1D. 5 ASH
CENTRATF
6.7
ANAEROBIC
DIGESTER'S GAS
ON SITE DISPOSAL
IN 2b ACRE LANDFILL
EVAPORATION
RECYCLE
TO REGIONAL
PLANT IN FALL
ANDW NTEft ’ SSB ' sCFFER
PERIODS
20 558's
LONG TERM-
STORAGE AND
124 SURFACE ACRES FURTHER ANAEROBIC
SSB SUPER NATAN F
DECOMPOSITION
EVAPORATION
WINTER RUNOFF
RECYCLE TO HARVESTED SLUDGE
556 Y UH TO
REGIONAL PLANT
.
ifi 500 :an5 solids >' year »’ $ 6 % solids I
DISPOSED OF ON DLD DURING
StX DHY MONTHS
FIGURE 19- 11
19-53
The flow schematic indicates that not all the sludge will be
managed by the SSB/DLD subsurface injector system. Through
the 1980s , there will be sufficient furnace capacity in an
incinerator (designed for screenings , grit, and scum ) to handle
about 30 percent of the primary sludge production , A total of
one month per year shutdown of the incinerator was assumed ,
two weeks for maintenance during the time of low solids
production in spring , and two weeks miscellaneous upset.
Estimated sludge production rates at the Sacramento plant are
given in Table 19 17. -
TABLE 19- 17
Stage I Stage II
aThe term solid storage basins (SSBs) is used interchangably with facultative sludge lagoons (FSLs).
b
Actual daily removal rates are higher . since solids are harvested for only part of the year (May-October).
1 ton/day = 2.24 t/ha
-
19 54
-
material o v e r the maximum 8 ,000 foot ( 2 ,440 m ) distance.
-
Four inch (10 cm) diameter flexible hoses connect the tractor
injectors with hydrants located throughout the DLD sites. Four -
-
tractor injectors are needed to handle the two dredge disposal
operation. In normal operation of these facilities , freshly
-
applied solids remain unexposed to the atmosphere. The DLD sites
are loaded at 100 dry tons to the acre ( 224 dry t/ha ) each
season. Sludge is supplied to approximately match the net soil
evaporation rate , The soil evaporation rate in Sacramento is
about half the evaporation rate which occurs from a free water
surface ( lake evaporation rate ), Stage I DLD operations will
-
utilize 185 acres (75 ha ) in five 37 acre (15 ha) sites. Regular
disking of the site is necessary to break up the soil/sludge
surface and expose more of the loaded soil to the atmosphere.
17 7.6
Turbidity , NTU' < 1.5 170 . 37
'
3.0
TSS , mg/1 26 16 442 38
EC x 103 4.0 3.6 1 .9 1.1
pH 7.2 8.4 7. 4 7.4
NO -. , mg/1 440 310 43 31
NH4 , mg/1 36
- 5 2 . 1
.
..
19-55
For runoff c o n t r o l , t y p i c a l D L D sites a r e s l o p e d t r a n s v e r s e l y a t
a maximum of 0 . 5 p e r c e n t a n d s p r e a d outward in both directions
from t h e centerline , A longitudinal s l o p e of 0 . 1 t o 0.2 p e r c e n t
is also provided , Runoff drains from e a c h D L D site t o ditches on
both sides. T o p r e v e n t erosion , t h e maximum field s l o p e will b e
held t o 0.5 p e r c e n t and w a t e r velocity in t h e ditches will b e
limited t o 5 feet p e r s e c o n d ( 1 . 5 m/s ) , R u n o f f f r o m t h e ditches
is c o l l e c t e d in a f a i r l y f l a t ( 0 . 1 p e r c e n t t r a n s v e r s e s l o p e )
d e t e n t i o n b a s i n , o n e p e r D L D s i t e ; t h e b a s i n is s i t u a t e d
approximately 3 feet ( 0.9 m ) lower t h a n t h e main operational p a r t
of the D L D site. E a c h basin has a capacity o f 12.7 acre- feet
( 1 2 3 m 3 ) a n d a maximum d e p t h o f 2 feet ( 0 . 6 m ). T h e basins a r e
d e s i g n e d t o c o n t a i n t w o 4 - inch ( 1 0 c m ) 2 4- h o u r s t o r m s ( t h e
2 5-y e a r maximum rainfall for t w o 2 4-h o u r p e r i o d s ). T h e runoff is
drained from t h e basins via corner inlet s t r u c t u r e s fitted with
c o n t r o l l e d r e l e a s e r a t e w e i r s a n d is t r a n s f e r r e d t h r o u g h a
2 1- inch ( 0 . 5 3 m ) runoff r e t u r n pipe t o a flow metering s t r u c t u r e.
Then the runoff is drained to an interceptor sewer connected
t o t h e w a s t e w a t e r t r e a t m e n t p l a n t. A flood control levee is
constructed o n t h e lowest three sides of the S S B /D L D a r e a such
that the entire site is protected from flooding. Provision
is a l s o m a d e f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n , r e t e n t i o n , a n d p u m p i n g of
uncontaminated site runoff t r a p p e d by t h e flood c o n t r o l levee.
In this regard , facilities ( including a pump station ) are
d e s i g n e d t o h a n d l e t h e s a m e s t o r m c o n d i t i o n s ( t w o 2 5- y e a r ,
2 4- h o u r s t o r m s , o n e d a y a p a r t ) a s a r e r u n o f f f a c i l i t i e s f o r
t h e D L D s i t e s. A r u n o f f o f 8 0 p e r c e n t i s a s s u m e d b a s e d o n a
saturated g r o u n d condition .
F i n a l D L D s i t e s h a v e a g r o s s a r e a o f a b o u t 5 0 a c r e s ( 2 0 h a ),
including s p a c e for drainage , r o a d access, a n d injector turning .
A s indicated e a r l i e r , t h i s r e s u l t s i n a n e t u s a b l e a r e a o f
37 acres ( 15 ha ) for each of the five sites , E a c h s i t e is
approximately 1 , 3 0 0 feet ( 4 0 0 in ) wide , which allows a tractor
dragging a 6 5 0- f o o t ( 2 0 0 m ) h o s e t o cover the entire width o f
t h e field , T h e s l u d g e h y d r a n t is t h e n located in t h e c e n t e r of
t h e f i e l d. S i t e s a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 , 6 0 0 f e e t ( 5 6 0 m ) long ,
calculated f r o m t h e a r e a r e q u i r e d t o a l l o w t w o i n j e c t ors to
operate continuously o n t h e s a m e field 6 h o u r s p e r d a y , 5 days
p e r w e e k , during t h e p e a k dry m o n t h s of J u n e , J u l y , a n d A u g u s t.
P e a k d r y m o n t h o p e r a t i o n a s s u m e s s l u d g e removed f r o m t h e F S L s c a n
be applied t o t h e same site twice a w e e k. During M a y , S e p t e m b e r ,
a n d O c t o b e r , it is assumed t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f s l u d g e removed from
t h e S S B s will be limited t o o n e once a w e e k. T h u s , application
r a t e s d u r i n g J u n e, J u l y , a n d A u g u s t a r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y d o u b l e
( 1 0 i n c h e s p e r m o n t h [ 2 5 c m/m o n t h ] ) t h e r a t e s of M a y , S e p t e m b e r ,
a n d O c t o b e r ( 5 inches p e r m o n t h [ 1 3 c m/m o n t h ] ). E a c h D L D s i t e is
provided with six field h y d r a n t s for injector feed connection,
located a t 2 3 0-foot ( 7 0 m ) c e n t e r s down t h e middle o f each site.
T h e field hydrants each have a f o u l p r o o f pressure sensing device,
a m a n u a l isolation valve , and a swivel- elbow a s s e m b l y d e s i g n e d
for q u i c k coupling t o a 4 . 5- inch ( 1 1 c m ) injector f e e d h o s e.
1 9- 5 6
Operationally , SSB sludge removal piping is flushed with FSL
supernatant at the end of each week's run with the flushing water
returned to the FSLs. Sludge removal operations themselves are
restricted to reducing the water level in the FSLs no more than
14 inches ( 36 cm) below normal operational levels , The water
level is never allowed to drop low enough to expose the sludge
blanket. The blanket is maintained below its maximum elevation
which is another 10 inches ( 25 cm ) below the absolute minimum
water level.
Two S S B d r e d g e s , e a c h g e n e r a t i n g 1 , 4 0 0 g pm
( 7 ,630 m V d a y ) a v e r a g e flow at 6 percent s o l i d s
concentration.
- -
Two 200 to 250 horsepower ( 150 to 187 kW ) diesel powered
floating booster pumps connected to the dredges with
v a r i a b l e speed p u m p o p e r a t i o n t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r
variations in sludge solids concentrations.
- -
Four 60 to 80 horsepower (45 to 60 kW ) crawler tractors -
-
with 30 inch ( 0.76 m ) wide tracks and nine to ten rear -
mounted subsurface injector sweeps , each w i t h 2 inch
( 5 cm ) diameter feed hoses. Path width is 13 to 14 feet
-
(4.0 to 4.2 m ), speed 1.0 to 1.5 miles per hour (1.6 to
2.4 km/hr ), and average capacity 700 gpm ( 3 ,800 m /day )
each. ^
- -
One four wheel d r i v e , rubber tired , 150 horsepower
(112 kW ) tillage tractor with heavy disk unit which can
-
be raised clear of the ground.
-
19 57
building up at about 0.75 inch ( 1.9 cm ) per year , will have
increased in salinity to about 8 ,000 mg/1 in the saturation
extract. This concentration is not expected to affect the
bacterial decomposition of the organic matter , however.
TABLE 19- 19
Number of
Description staf f
Supervisor 1
Total 11
19.4 References
-
19 58
TABLE 19- 20
Administration , engineering
and contingencies
Landc ^ 4 , 840
2 , 690
750 5 , 590
2 , 690
Sludge handling equipment 1 , 150 1,150 2 , 300
Annual costs
Stationary facilities
Mobile equipment1
^ 2 , 218
144
359
48
2 , 577
192
LandJ 185 185
Operational costs 978 160 1, 138
Total annual costs 3 ,525 597 4 , 122k
-
eTotal average annual cost per full time individual of $ 28 ,000 in 1980, including all
fringe benefits and administrative overhead expenses. (20 1/2 person staff 1985 ,
24 1/2 person staff 1996 ).
Materials and supplies include special allowances for flexible hose for DLD operation
-
( $ 25 ,000/yr), activated carbon for odor stripping (11 , 200 3 b/yr) percent allowances for
equipment ( 3 percent) , structures ( 1 percent), and earthwork ( 1/2 percent ) construction
costs.
^ Electrical power projected at 2.9 cents/kWhr and diesel fuel at 80 cents/gal in bulk
in 1980.
^ -
Amortization at 6 7/8 percent over a 25 yr life.
xMobile facilities have various useful lives. No salvage value assumed .
3 Land value assumed the same at the end of 20 years.
Weighted average annual total program cost $ 3 ,824 ,000.
1 acre = 0.405 ha
1 kWhr = 3.6 MJ
1 gal = 3 . 8 1
1 lb 0.453 kg
-
19 59
5. USEPA . Subsurface Disposal of Municipal Wastewater
Treatment Sludge. Office of Solid Wastes , Washington ,
D.C. 20460. -
SW 167 c. 1978.
-
19 60
EPA 625 / 1- 79 - 011
September 1979
APPENDIX A
METRIC EQUIVALENTS
kilometer
m
km
Basic SI unit 39.37 in = 3.28 ft
1.09 yd
0 62 mi
- Velocity
linear meter per
second
m/s 3.28 fps
millimeter mm 0.03937 in. millimeter mn /i 0 00328 fps
centimeter cm 0 3937 in. per second
micrometer jzm . 3 937 X 10' 3 = 103 A kilometers km / s 2 ,230 mph
par second
Area square meter m2 10.744 sq ft
= 1.196 sq yd angular radians per rad /s
square kilometer km 2 6.384 sq mi = second
247 acres
square centimeter cm 2 0.155 sq in . Flow ( volumetric ) cubic mater m 3/ s Commonly called 15 ,850 gpm
square millimeter mm 3 0 00155 sq m. per second the cumec = 2.120 cfm
hectare ha The hectare ( 10.000 2 47 1 acres
m 2 ) u a recognized liter per second I/ s 15.05 gpm
multiple unit and
will remain in inter Viscosity poise poise 0.06 7 2 / lb /
national use . sec It
of 1 kg . hp hr 0.73756
Mb = 9.48 X
.
10 ' 4 Btu
kilojoule kJ 2 778 kw hr
Power watt W 1 wett * 1 J/ s
kilowatt kW
joule per second J/ j