Lesson 1 3

LESSON 1
THE WHAT, WHY AND HOW OF COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Have you ever opened up with a friend about a problem only to realize
that he/she just doesn’t seem to grasp why the concern or issue means a lot
to you? Have you ever presented a novel or innovative idea to a group and
it’s met with other confusion? Or maybe, you’ve been in an argument when
the other person suddenly accuses you of not listening to what he/she is
saying at all. What might be the problem? The answer is miscommunication.
Whether we admit it or not, in some form or another, we have all
experienced it. It can lead to perplexities, animosity, misunderstanding, and
could actually even cost life! In fact, even if it’s face-to-face, collocated
communication with the speakers sharing a common language,
communication may still pose a great deal of challenges. The good news is, a
basic understanding of what actually happens in communication can help us
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
make adjustments or offer interventions to solve miscommunication. Hence,
this lesson focuses on the processes involved in communication and the
components that constitute human interaction.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:
a. Discuss the importance of communication;

b. Identify the different models and components of communication; and
c. Relate the communication models to their experiences and apply them
to their everyday communication.
Discussion
The world today is characterized by an ever growing number of

contacts resulting in communication between people with different linguistic
and cultural backgrounds (Vega et al., 2009). As such, it is a mistake to
believe that communication is a simple process. Rather, communication
should be seen as a complex phenomenon. As an essential part of humans’
1 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

existence, it has been studied theoretically for thousands of years. Scholars
have given a number of definitions and metaphors for the term but a
simplistic definition was offered by Bell (2010) when he said
“Communication is the transmission of information, by any means, whether
intentionally or not, from one person to another. It is a two-way activity; it is
interaction, involving at least two people.”
It is not the definition of communication, however, that matters at the

end of the day. A rather relevant point to ponder on as regards
communication as a process is whether or not interlocutors know and
understand the art of effective and purposeful communication.
Models of Communication
For communication to be meaningful, effective and purposeful, one

must have a fundamental understanding of the models of communication as
these provide a framework as to how communication elements interplay,
which consequently allows one to minimize the possibilities of
misunderstanding or communication breakdown in general. Let us look at
some of the models and determine whether they are inclusive enough to
incorporate the essential elements of the process of effective
communication.
Water-pipe Linear Model

Model
Some people think about communication think about communication

as though it were water flowing through a pipe (water-pipe model). Send it
on its way, and if there are no obstructions, the message will reach its

destination intact. Still others view communication as a one-way
phenomenon. The two models are both one-way models. These models imply
that once the speaker has developed and presented the speech, his/her
responsibility for the success of the speech ends. Competent communication,
however, as Hanna and Gibson (1989) opined, entails more than simply
sending a message on its way. Hence, the two models failed to include the
essential elements of the communication process.
Aristotle’s
Model
Speaker Speech Audience Effect
Aristotle’s model is
considered to be the
earliest model of
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION communication. The
great philosopher
explains that speakers
should adjust their
messages according to
their audience and the
occasion to achieve a
particular effect (Uychoco &
Santos, 2018). He once quoted, “The audience is the end and the object of
the speech.”

The figure above is the process/transactional model. It illustrates that
communication is a two-way phenomenon. In communication, the listeners
should have an impact on the communication event while the speaker is
planning the speech and while the speech is being delivered. It is important
to note that without the understanding, one is unlikely to achieve a speaking
goal.
Elements of Communication
A communication cycle offers a model for communication. In its simplest

form, the cycle consists of a sender, a message, a channel and a recipient.
Other models include the feedback, context and noise and interference.
1. Communication Source or Sender – a sender is someone who

encodes and sends a message to a receiver through a particular
channel. He/she is the initiator of communication. It is said that if an
audience was able to decode your message, you have become a
successful communicator.
2. Message – the word message comes from the Latin term ‘mittere’
which means to send. Whatever information is communicated through
the use of a channel is message. Messages can be sent both verbally
and non-verbally. You can say one thing with your words, but depending
on how you say it and the non-verbal cues such as posture and eye
contact, you may send an entirely different message to your audience.
3. Channel – is defined as the medium used to transmit the signal from

the transmitter to the receiver. In face-to-face communication, the
channel is primarily audio using sound and visual using light waves
while in a speaking situation with remote audience via
videoconferencing, the channel will be computer-mediated audio and
visual.
4. Receiver – someone who listens to, receives, interprets and decodes

the message. The process of decoding and receiving is arbitrary and
unique. Even native speakers of a language and their listeners do not
have identical experiences with or definitions of the same word. Hence,
it is important to consider certain elements about the audience, called
demographics, for communication to be successful.
Gupit (2011) advised that the speaker must consider his/her audience

and the speaking occasion from the time he begins to prepare his speech to
the time he/she is actually speaking. Failure to do so may be disastrous to
him/her. In analysing the audience and the occasion, there are certain
factors that should be taken into account. The following is adopted from
Gupit (2011) and
a) Age
An audience may be composed of more or less the same age level or
of varying ages. The speech must be attuned to the average age of the
audience and embrace in its reach the minimum and maximum ages of
his listeners.
Age, it has been said, is a measure of the development of man,
primarily with reference to his cultural evolution. The age of a person
determines to some extent his capacity to understand, the fund of his
knowledge, and the depth of his experiences.
The young are adventurous, generally optimistic, and like to take
chances. Older people tend to be conservative, critical and cautious.
b) Sex
The audience may be exclusively or predominantly male or female, or
it may be mixed. It may be a group of gays. Whatever the case may
be, the speaker must take into account the sex of his audience.
Because of the disparity in their sexual structures, men and women
have different tastes, interests, attitudes, prejudices, responses,
methods of thinking, etc. a common line of thought is that women tend
to be emotional and sensitive, whereas men like to arrive at
conclusions through logical processes. The so-called third sex is
aligned with the women more in this regard.
c) Occupation
The audience may belong to certain occupations. They may be
labourers, farmers, teachers, lawyers, doctors, or businessmen. Each
occupation has its own needs and desires.
A speech before laborers should certainly be different in type and
structure from a speech before lawyers.
If the speaker talks on a topic that is familiar to the audience, he need
not dwell too much on the basic ideas of the subject. For instance, he
need not define common legal terms to lawyers, common medical
terms to doctors, or common economic terms to economists. On the
other hand, the speaker should explain the legal terms to an audience

composed of non-lawyers.
d) Education
The audience may consist of elementary school children, or high
school students, or college undergraduates, or those with college
degrees. The type and structure of the speech should be suited to the
educational attainment of the audience.
A speech appropriate for grade school pupils would generally bore or
even insult a college student.
Of course, the speaker should not merely consider the formal schooling
of his audience. A mature audience that has had no college education
but is wise in the ways of life should not be underestimated by the
speaker.
e) Experience
The audience may be experienced in the field of the speaker’s topic. If
so, the speaker must be overly cautious. The audience may know a lot
more than the speaker does because of the audience’s personal
experiences. The speaker should attempt to equalize the situation
through intensive research.
Likewise the listeners may have their own ideas about the subject.
Before taking a stand, the speaker should make sure that he has
considered all possible theories.
For example, it would be difficult to talk on law to the practitioners on
the profession, unless the speaker himself has had a rich practice, the
best thing that the speaker can do is to prepare himself well.
f) Size
Audiences may range from a small intimate group to large crowds. On
the size of the audience depends the speaker’s manner of delivery.
With a small audience, the speaker can and should be restrained in his
actions. With a big-sized audience, the speaker needs to speak slower
to be understood, to talk louder to be heard, and to be a little more
exaggerated with his gestures.
A large audience may also mean that the listeners come from all
walks of life. Thus, there’s a great diversity of opinions and views. The
speaker in such a case is obliged to make broad statements.
Moreover, the smaller the audience, the more it thinks in isolation.
The result is that it tends to react intellectually. The bigger the
audience, the more it is socially conscious. The result is that it tends to
react emotionally.
g) Interests
The members of an audience have their own personal interests. The
listeners are people and people have interests. The speaker must be
aware of them.
The audience may consist of a particular group of teachers interested
in salary increases, or of a civic club interested in community
development, or of a political association interested in clean elections,
or of a sports group interested in physical development.
Above all the speaker must be some sort of a psychologist who knows
the general likes and dislikes of human beings. Striking a wrong chord
may turn your audience off.
h) Beliefs and Attitudes

The beliefs and attitudes of people are affected by their economic
status, social position, religious and political ideologies. The speaker
must look into them.
People have set opinions and views on many subjects. A speaker can
use them to bring home his point. For instance, a proposal to prohibit
church ministers from campaigning may hang on the generally held
belief that the church should be separated from the state.
The speaker should also be conscious of the attitude of the audience
toward himself and his subject. The audience may be friendly but may
not respect the speaker, or vice-versa. The job of the speaker is to
attain both friendliness and respect.
The speaker, too, should do something about an audience with a we-
do-not-care attitude toward the subject of the speech.
The speaker should lay down the connection between his topic and the
interest of the audience.
Ask yourself always: in relation to you and/or your subject, is the
audience interested, apathetic or hostile? These are the three kinds of
audience you may possibly have – interested, apathetic, and hostile. A
perceptive answer to the question enables you to act accordingly.
i) Race/Culture
Race refers to groups of people who are distinguished by shared
physical characteristics such as skin color and hair type. Culture, on
the other hand, refers to the customs, habits and value systems of
groups of people. People of the same race may not share the culture;
similarly, a culture is not necessarily comprised of people of the same
race. While the two are separate demographics, one informs the other
and vice-versa. Race and culture can influence everything from
colloquialisms to which hand gestures may or may not be appropriate
as you communicate.
5. Feedback – is the return message sent by the receiver back to the

sender. Feedbacks let encoders and decoders correct and control errors
in the message exchange. Like message, it can be both verbal and non-
verbal.
6. Context – refers to the communication environment. It may refer to the
actual reason for why you are speaking and the physical space in which
you are speaking. For instance, you wouldn’t deliver a eulogy at a
wedding or a stump speech at a friend’s wedding. Or, you may not be
able to fully communicate your thoughts because there are intervening
factors such as temperature, lighting, room size, etc.
7. Noise and Interference – are inevitable elements and at the same

time barriers to effective communication. Noise may be anything jarring
and unpleasant and is usually an interruption or distraction when it
occurs. It blocks the sending or receiving of a message.
References:
Gupit, Fortunato, Jr. (2011) Elements of Public Speaking 5 th Edition. Rex Book
Store, Inc., Sampaloc, Manila.
Hanna, Michael S. and James Gibson. (2001) Public Speaking for Personal
Success. C Brown Publishers: USA.
Uychoco, Marikit Tara A. and Maria Lorena Santos. (2018). Communication

for Society. Rex Book Store, Inc.: Sampaloc, Manila
Vega, Violeta A. et al. (2009). Social Dimensions of Education. Lorimar

Publishing, Inc.: Quezon City, Manila.
http://ianpbell.wordpress.com/communication-in-vi-children/

LESSON 2
THE ROADBLOCKS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Introduction
We all communicate in every day of our lives for communication is

indispensable says Barrot (2011). Communication per se may appear to be
simple but it is actually not. It is not without any challenge. In fact, as has
already been emphasized in Lesson 1, communication poses myriad
challenges to interlocutors due to a wide array of reasons. So, we might ask
“How then can we communicate effectively”. This seems to be a tough
question to answer because there is no such thing as perfect communication.
Communication is complete and perfect when the receiver understands the
message in the same sense and spirit as the communicator intends to
convey. In communication, ideas and information reached to and responded
by receiver remain unaltered and undistorted. But practically it has been
noticed that such perfect and complete communication does not take place
because of certain obstacles or other factors known as communication
barriers. These barriers make the communication incomplete, weak and
ineffective. Proper identification of these barriers is as important and
imperative as diagnosis of ailment for its remedy. Hence, this lesson
highlights the barriers of communication and some general ways of
overcoming or reducing them with special emphasis on listening skills.
Listening is dealt with at a later part of the discussion of this lesson.
Learning Outcomes
a. Identify the major obstacles to effective communication;

b. Describe the listening process and its levels; and
c. Provide ways of overcoming barriers to effective communication and
listening.
Discussion
Communication should be straightforward. What can make it complex,

difficult, and frustrating are the barriers. At any point in the communication
process a barrier can occur. Communication is not always successful. Several
things can prevent the message from reaching the intended recipient or from
having the designed effect on the recipient. There may be some fault in the
communication system which may prevent the message from reaching.
Some of these defects are in the mechanical devices used for transmitting,
that is, the medium; while some others are in the nature of the persons who
are engaged in communication, that is, the sender and recipient. Barriers
keep as from understanding others’ ideas and thoughts. Barriers can appear
at any point of the communication loop. Barriers keep the message from
getting through when communicating; one should watch out for barriers and
monitor the actions of the receiver. The body language of the speaker should
be checked to make sure that the message the receiver received is the same
with what was sent.
Below is a chart showing the barriers of communication according to
Roebuck, (1998) as cited in Barrot (2012)
Stage Barrier Example Solution

Constructing Incomplete You forgot to give Make sure the
the message message a deadline for a message is
project complete and
accurate.
You gave a wrong
Inaccurate telephone
message number
Matching the Not tuned Your language is Make sure you
message message too jargonistic for adjust the level of
appropriate to a non-technical information,
the audience audience style, and tone of
delivery to the
intended
audience.
You spoke too
fast
Preparing the Receiver not The receiver was Make sure the
receiver ready to accept busy doing audience is ready
the message another task. to receive the
message.
Practice the right
timing of the
delivery
Sending the Inappropriate You used text Make sure the
message channel messaging for a channel to be
very sensitive used is
issue which can appropriate
be delivered
effectively
through a face-to-
face talk
Receiving the Problems in the The email was Ensure that the
message arrival of the delayed because channel will
message of technical deliver the
problems message to the
right place at the
right time
Interpreting Misunderstood You did not tell Try to understand
the message message the receiver that the perceptions
PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION something was
important
and assumptions
of the receiver
because you
thought that it
was already
obvious
Confirming the No confirmation You did not check Never fail to
message of message or whether the check whether
failure to seek receiver the receiver
and listen to understood the understood and
feedback message that received your
results in failure message
to complete the
task
Meanwhile, Vega et al., (2009) identified the following barriers to effective

communication and possible ways of overcoming them:
Barriers Overcoming Barriers

1. Semantics 1. Clarify ideas before sending

2. Filtering of negative 2. Motivate the receiver
information
3. Lack of credibility of sender 3. Discuss differences in frames of
reference
4. Mixed signals 4. Foster informal communication
5. Different frames of reference 5. Communicate feelings behind the
facts
6. Value judgements 6. Be aware of non-verbal
communication
7. Information overload 7. Obtain feedback
8. Poor communication skills 8. Adapt to other person’s
communication style
9. Engage in meta-communication
The following are barriers of communication in the context of

organization as provided by (https://www.scribd.com/document/111812600/)
1. Perceptual and Language Differences
Perception is generally how each individual interprets the world around

him. All generally want to receive messages which are significant to them.
But any message which is against their values is not accepted. A same event
may be taken differently by different individuals. For example: A person is on
leave for a month due to personal reasons (family member being critical).
The HR Manager might be in confusion whether to retain that employee or
not, the immediate manager might think of replacement because his team’s
productivity is being hampered, the family members might take him as an
emotional support. The linguistic differences also lead to communication
breakdown. Same word may mean different to different individuals. For
example: consider a word “value”.
a. What is the value of this Laptop?

b. I value our relation
c. What is the value of learning technical skills?
“Value” means different in different sentences. Communication breakdown

occurs if there is wrong perception by the receiver.
2. Information Overload
Managers are surrounded with a pool of information. It is essential to

control this information flow else the information is likely to be
misinterpreted or forgotten or overlooked. As a result communication is less
effective.
3. Inattention
At times we just not listen, but only hear. For example a traveller may
pay attention to one “NO PARKING” sign, but if such sign is put all over the
city, he no longer listens to it. Thus, repetitive messages should be ignored
for effective communication. Similarly if a superior is engrossed in his paper
work and his subordinate explains him his problem, the superior may not get
what he is saying and it leads to disappointment of subordinate.
4. Time Pressures
Often in organizations the targets have to be achieved within a specified

time period, the failure of which adverse consequences. In a haste to meet
deadlines, the formal channels of communication are shortened, or
messages partially given, i.e., not completely transferred. Thus sufficient
time should be given for effective communication.
5. Distraction/Noise
Communication is also affected a lot by noise to distractions. Physical
distractions are also there such as poor lightning, uncomfortable sitting,
unhygienic room also affects communication in a meeting. Similarly use of
loud speakers interferes with communication.
6. Emotions
Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects communication.

If the receiver feels that communicator angry he interprets that the
information being sent is very bad. While he takes it differently if the
communicator is happy and jovial (in that case the message is interpreted to
be good and interesting).
7. Complexity in Organizational Structure
Only the people at the top level can see the overall picture while people
at low level just have knowledge about their own area and a little knowledge
about other areas.

8. Poor retention
Human memory cannot function beyond a limit. One can’t always retain
what is being told specially if he is interested or not attentive. This leads to
communication breakdown.
Still, other barriers to effective communication as well as possible ways of

overcoming them are offered by:
http://phicare.com/competencies/communicationbarriers.php
Language Barriers
Clearly, language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to

communication. However, even when communicating in the same language,
the terminology used in a message may act as a barrier if it is not fully
understood by the receiver(s). For example, a message that includes a lot of
specialist jargon and abbreviations will not be understood by a receiver who
is not familiar with the terminology used. As nurses, we are especially prone
to making this mistake. We must remember to use language that can be
understood by the receiver.
Psychological Barriers
The psychological state of the receiver will influence how the message is
received. For example, if someone has personal worries and is stressed, they
may be preoccupied by personal concerns and not as receptive to the
message as if they were not stressed. Stress management is an important
personal skill that affects our interpersonal relationships. Anger is another
example of a psychological barrier to communication. When we are angry it
is easy to say things that we may later regret and also to misinterpret what
others are saying. More generally, people with low self-esteem may be less
assertive and therefore may not feel comfortable communicating - they may
feel shy about saying how they really feel, or read negative sub-texts into
messages they hear.
Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers may result from the receiver’s physical state. For
example, a receiver with reduced hearing may not grasp the entirety of a
spoken conversation, especially if there is significant background noise.

Physical Barriers
An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic

distance between the sender and receiver(s). Communication is generally
easier over shorter distances as more communication channels are available
and less technology is required. Although modern technology often serves to
reduce the impact of physical barriers, the advantages and disadvantages of
each communication channel should be understood so that an appropriate
channel can be used to overcome the physical barriers. Physical barrier may
also include any noise caused by the environment such as heavy downpour,
poor lighting, etc.
Attitudinal Barriers
Attitudinal barriers are behaviors or perceptions that prevent people from

communicating effectively. Attitudinal barriers to communication may result
from personality conflicts, poor management, resistance to change, or a lack
of motivation. Effective receivers of messages should attempt to overcome
their own attitudinal barriers to facilitate effective communication.
Overcoming Barriers
Most of the above mentioned barriers can be overcome by the skilled

communicator. Obviously, bridging gaps in geography and communicating
through disabilities are a topic for a different discussion. Below, we will look
at some tools that can be used to bridge barriers in everyday
communications.
a. Active Listening - Active listening is a skill that can be acquired

and developed with practice. However, this skill can be difficult
to master and will, therefore, take time and patience. 'Active
listening' means, as its name suggests, actively listening. That is
fully concentrating on what is being said rather than just
‘hearing’ the message of the speaker. Active listening involves
listening with all senses. As well as giving full attention to the
speaker, it is important that the ‘active listener’ is also ‘seen’ to
be listening - otherwise the speaker may conclude that what they
are talking about is uninteresting to the listener. By providing
this 'feedback' the person speaking will usually feel more at ease
and therefore communicate more easily, openly and honestly.

There are both verbal and non-verbal cues that convey active
listening. Non-verbal signs include smiling (if appropriate),
making eye contact, nodding at appropriate times, and avoiding
distractions. Theses non-verbal cues convey the message that
you are interested in what the speaker has to say, and that your
attention is fully invested. Offering verbal signs of active
listening can also be useful. Reflecting on something the speaker
has said by asking a clarifying question is a terrific way to do
this. Paraphrasing involves finding slightly different words to
repeat the main idea of the speaker, and is also great way to
show active listening.
b. Use Simple Language - It’s important to remember the

audience that you’re speaking to, and use language that can be
easily understood. Avoid using medical terminology or jargon
when speaking to clients and their families. People are often
intimidated by such language, and can be afraid to admit that
they don’t understand the message being delivered. An
important tool to use when speaking is to pause occasionally and
ask questions to ensure that your message is being understood
as intended. You may also allow the listener to ask questions to
clarify any points.
c. Give Constructive Feedback - Remember that feedback was
part of the communication chain we looked at on the first page.
While the feedback that you give the speaker/sender may
occasionally be negative, it is important that it be constructive in
nature. The intent of the feedback should be to further the
abilities of the speaker. This will strengthen the interpersonal
relationship, and enhance future communications.
EFFECTIVE LISTENING
As you may have observed, one of the main reasons why communication
fails is because of our inability to listen. A research study has revealed that
most people are shockingly poor listeners. We fake paying attention. We can
look right at someone, appear interested in what that person says, even nod
our head or smile at the appropriate moments --- all without really listening
(Lucas, 2004).

Listening is an active process of gathering information that involves
hearing attending, comprehending and responding (Barrot, 2011). It is
paying close attention to, and making sense of, what we hear (Lucas, 2004).
It is different from hearing which is the physical action or the physiological
process of gathering sound waves. Listening is not only about accuracy but
also empathy especially if you are in a people-oriented environment.
Barrot (2011) shares that the listening process goes through four stages
namely sensing, interpreting, evaluating and responding.
a. Sensing – is the physical action of receiving sound waves. It is also

known as hearing.
b. Interpreting – is extracting meaning from the words.
c. Evaluating – is judging the message based on the situation
d. Responding – is turning listening into a two-way process.
Lucas (2004) and Barrot (2011) have identified kinds of listening

(appreciative, emphatic, comprehensive, critical).
Appreciative Listening – listening for pleasure and enjoyment, as

when we listen to music, to a comedy routine, or to an entertaining
speech.
Emphatic Listening – listening to provide emotional support for the
speaker, as when a psychiatrist listens to a patient or when we lend a
sympathetic ear to a friend in distress.
Comprehensive listening – listening to understand the message of a
speaker, as when we attend a classroom lecture or listen to directions
for finding a friend’s house.
Critical listening – listening to evaluate a message for purposes of
accepting or rejecting it, as when we listen to the sales pitch of a used-
car dealer, the campaign speech of a political candidate, or the closing
arguments of an attorney in a jury trial.
Barriers to Effective Listening
Environmental
a. Nonhuman initiated
b. Human initiated

Physiological/Mental
c. Congenital Hearing impairment

d. Ear infection
e. Hunger and thirst
f. Thought speed
g. Information overload
h. Vocabulary load
i. Other common illnesses
Psychological
j. Biases and faulty assumptions

k. Preoccupation
l. Psychological distractors
How do you know if you are a poor listener? Hannah and Gibson
(2001)and Barrot (2011) cite the following symptoms:
1. You allow your mind to wander

2. Other people prefer to speak or be served by someone else
3. You respond emotionally to the speaker
4. You let your problems paralyze your listening skills
5. You let your biases interfere with your listening
6. You find yourself missing key details of the conversation
7. You often ask people to repeat information.
8. You walk away from personal encounters not completely knowing
what action is required of you.
9. People often say to you “Did you hear what I said?”
10. You find yourself daydreaming or distracted as other people
speak.
11. You miss accompanying non-verbal cues sent by the speaker.
12. You give false feedback.
13. You listen only for facts.
14. You just want to be entertained when listening.
15. You are easily distracted by the speaker’s mannerisms.
Strategies for Improved Listening

1. Do not overtalk
2. Be motivated
3. Show genuine interest
4. Make eye contact
5. Show willingness to listen
6. Show empathy
7. Listen for concepts
8. Be patient
9. Send positive non-verbal cues and avoid distracting actions
10. Do not argue unless needed
11. Take notes, if necessary
12. Ask questions
13.Paraphrase
References
Barrot, Jessie S. (2011) Speak Successfully: A Guide to Effective Speaking for

College Students. Rex Book Store, Inc., Sampaloc, Manila.
Gupit, Fortunato, Jr. (2011) Elements of Public Speaking 5 th Edition. Rex Book
Store, Inc., Sampaloc, Manila.
Lucas, Stephen E. (2004). The Art of Public Speaking. McGraw-Hill

Companies, Inc.: New York.
Vega, Violeta A. et al. (2009). Social Dimensions of Education. Lorimar

Publishing, Inc.: Quezon City, Manila.
http://phicare.com/competencies/communicationbarriers.php
(https://www.scribd.com/document/111812600/)
LESSON 3
ETHOS IN COMMUNICATION
Introduction
Many people have the propensity for cheating and lying. Students more
often than not download materials taken from the internet and turn them in
as assignments. Some resort to copying from their classmates during exams
when they failed to review the night before. There are teachers who
shortchange their students by not religiously coming to class. We hear of
broken marriages here and there because of cheating. We are witnesses to
politicians ransacking people’s money and doing underground activities. We
are held victims of the proliferation of fake news. Cheating and lying come in
different forms, and they happen rather frequently than one might think. In
fact, even when communicating, people tend to distort information, make or
fabricate stories just so their desires may be satisfied. Questions of ethics
come into play when communicating our thoughts or ideas. In an ideal world,
as the Greek philosopher Aristotle noted, all speakers would be truthful and
devoted to the good of the society. Yet history has it that the power of
speech is often abused and sometimes with disastrous results just as Adolf
Hitler remains to be the ultimate example of why the power of words needs
to be guided by a strong sense of ethical integrity (Lucas, 2004). In this
lesson, we explore the importance of ethics in communication, the ethical
obligations of speakers and listeners, and the practical problem of plagiarism
and how to avoid it.
Learning Outcomes
a. Determine the importance of knowing the guidelines for ethical

communication;
b. Understand the nature and the implications of plagiarism;
c. Learn the various ways of avoiding plagiarism; and
d. Use these various techniques in writing a specific text.
Discussion
Ethics is the discussion of the judgments we make about the

appropriateness, the right or wrong, of our actions and policies be those
actions communicative, political, social, personal, or a mixture of areas.
Ethics is the study of what, ultimately, is the best course of action: How
should we behave to have the most positive effect upon society and to
become the best individuals we can
(http://j647commethics.weebly.com/uploads/6/4/2/2/6422481/ethics_in_com
munication.pdf)?
Communicating with others carries with it certain ethical problems for the
speaker. Is it right to influence another person’s behaviour? Are right and
wrong absolutely opposite, or do they reside as shades of gray along a
continuum? Do the worthy goals of a speaker justify the means by which the
speaker achieves those goals?
As a communicator, say Gibson and Hanna (2001), you will have

opportunities to take advantage of your listeners. However, you have an
obligation to be honest. Below are what they think people in our society
generally agree about as unethical:
a. It is unethical to falsify or invent evidence.

b. It is unethical to distort information.
c. It is unethical to deliberately use specious or deceptive reasoning
in order to persuade.
d. It is unethical to deliberately deceive the listeners about your
purpose or intention.
Meanwhile, they say, the following are ethical:
a. it is ethical to support an idea resulting from reflective thinking

and systematic study.
b. It is ethical to reject an idea if it has been shown by evidence or
logical analysis to be doubtful.
Lewis (2015) developed Ten Basics of Ethical Communication
1. Seek to “elicit the best” in communications and interactions with other

group members.
2. Listen when others speak.
3. Speak non-judgmentally.
4. Speak from your own experience and perspective, expressing your own
thoughts, needs, and feelings.
5. Seek to understand others (rather than to be “right” or “more ethical

than thou”).
6. Avoid speaking for others, for example by characterizing what others

have said without checking your understanding, or by universalizing your
opinions, beliefs, values, and conclusions, assuming everyone shares
them.
7. Manage your own personal boundaries: share only what you are
comfortable sharing.
8. Respect the personal boundaries of others.
9. Avoid interrupting and side conversations.
10. Make sure that everyone has time to speak, that all members have
relatively equal “air time” if they want it.
In so far as written communication is concerned, one of the most unethical

and abused practices by students and teachers alike is plagiarism or
intellectual dishonesty.
What is plagiarism?
Calderon et al (2011) say that “Plagiarism occurs when a writer deliberately

uses someone else’s language, ideas, or other original material without
acknowledging its source.”
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines it as “the practice of taking

someone else’s work or ideas and passing them off as one’s own.”
When is Plagiarism committed?

According to Garber et al (2007), one is plagiarizing if he/she:
• Is copying from published sources without documentation

• Is purchasing and submitting pre-written papers
• Is letting someone else write his/her paper
• Is paying someone to write his/her paper
• Is submitting someone’s unpublished work as his/her own
• Is cutting and pasting from websites, and don’t give credit
• Changing words but do not give credit
Reasons for the commission of Plagiarism
• The pressure of “I need to graduate” or “I need to advance”

• Fear of failure
• Students may have poor time-management skills or they may plan poorly
for the time and effort required for research-based writing, and believe
they have no choice but to plagiarize
• Notions that the consequences of cheating are unimportant
• Not wanting to do the work
• Failure of teachers and institutions to report and penalize cheating when
it occurs.
Consequences of committing plagiarism
• Reprimand
• Failure
• Probation
• Suspension
• Expulsion
Ways to Avoid Plagiarism
Summarizing – reducing a longer text from the text to a brief restatement.

 Just give the most important ideas of the text and express them concisely
 Do not forget to cite the author
Paraphrasing – expressing your understanding of the original text in your

own words.
Step 1 – Locate a relevant and credible resource
Step 2 – Locate the paragraph
Step 3 – Write down key words and phrases
Step 4 – Formulate your own sentences
Step 5 – Compare it to the original
Step 6 – Cite the source!
PURPOSIVE
Examples: COMMUNICATION
Original Sentence:
The older citizens were honored with a parade for those once in the military.
Paraphrase:
Senior citizens were honored with a march for veterans.
Original Sentence:
She angered me with her inappropriate comments, rumor-spreading, and
disrespectfulness at the formal dinner table.
Paraphrase:
Her impoliteness, gossiping, and general lack of respect at dinner infuriated
me.

Quoting – is only used when summarizing and paraphrasing renders less
effective in capturing the thought of the original text.
 Direct Quotation
 Indirect Quotation
 Don’t forget to do attribution
Examples:
a. “Plagiarism is a major academic crime,” says Moratilla (2006).
b. In his book Introduction to Debate, Francisco (2010) viewed debate as

“the sports of mind” (p. 3).
c. In 2007, Verderber espoused that anxiety cannot be eliminated. It can
only be reduced.
References:
Calderon, Tina. (2011). The Write Way: Academic Writing for College
Freshmen. Quezon City: Cornerstone of College of Arts and Sciences.
Garber, Gina et al,. (2007). Teaching students how to avoid plagiarism:

Success Strategies. Retrieved December 19, 2017 from
http://sc.edu/fye/events/presentation/annual/2007/pdf/35CT.pdf
Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2017)
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unication.pdf

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LESSON 1

THE WHAT, WHY AND HOW OF COMMUNICATION

At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:

a. Discuss the importance of communication;

The world today is characterized by an ever growing number of

1 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

It is not the definition of communication, however, that matters at the

For communication to be meaningful, effective and purposeful, one

Water-pipe Linear Model

Some people think about communication think about communication

2 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

Speaker Speech Audience Effect

3 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

A communication cycle offers a model for communication. In its simplest

1. Communication Source or Sender – a sender is someone who

3. Channel – is defined as the medium used to transmit the signal from

4. Receiver – someone who listens to, receives, interprets and decodes

4 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

5 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

h) Beliefs and Attitudes

5. Feedback – is the return message sent by the receiver back to the

7. Noise and Interference – are inevitable elements and at the same

Uychoco, Marikit Tara A. and Maria Lorena Santos. (2018). Communication

Vega, Violeta A. et al. (2009). Social Dimensions of Education. Lorimar

8 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

We all communicate in every day of our lives for communication is

At the end of the lesson, learners are expected to:

a. Identify the major obstacles to effective communication;

Communication should be straightforward. What can make it complex,

Stage Barrier Example Solution

Meanwhile, Vega et al., (2009) identified the following barriers to effective

Barriers Overcoming Barriers

11 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

The following are barriers of communication in the context of

1. Perceptual and Language Differences

Perception is generally how each individual interprets the world around

a. What is the value of this Laptop?

“Value” means different in different sentences. Communication breakdown

Managers are surrounded with a pool of information. It is essential to

Often in organizations the targets have to be achieved within a specified

Emotional state at a particular point of time also affects communication.

7. Complexity in Organizational Structure

13 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

Still, other barriers to effective communication as well as possible ways of

Clearly, language and linguistic ability may act as a barrier to

14 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

An example of a physical barrier to communication is geographic

Attitudinal barriers are behaviors or perceptions that prevent people from

Most of the above mentioned barriers can be overcome by the skilled

a. Active Listening - Active listening is a skill that can be acquired

15 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

b. Use Simple Language - It’s important to remember the

16 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

a. Sensing – is the physical action of receiving sound waves. It is also

Lucas (2004) and Barrot (2011) have identified kinds of listening

Appreciative Listening – listening for pleasure and enjoyment, as

Barriers to Effective Listening

17 Prepared by: MICHAEL B. LAVADIA, MAEd

c. Congenital Hearing impairment

j. Biases and faulty assumptions

1. You allow your mind to wander

Strategies for Improved Listening