FOUDATIONS OF INDIAN CULTURE

AND CIVILIZATION
• CULTURE
• CIVILISATION
• HERITAGE
• INDIAN HERITAGE AND CULTURE
WHAT IS CULTURE?
 CULTURE
– Living Pattern
– Way of Life
– What we are
– Human-made environment
– functioning of the society smooth and well-
ordered.
 CIVILISATION
– Materialistic Development & Technology
– What we have.
– Highest state of culture.
 HERITAGE

– Culture: Cultural heritage.

– Humanity : Human heritage.
– Nation : National cultural heritage.

• Culture is liable to change, but our heritage does not.

• Architectural creations, material artifacts, the

intellectual achievements, philosophy, pleasure of
knowledge, scientific inventions and discoveries are
parts of heritage.
INDIAN CULTURE & HERITAGE
 Indian Culture and Heritage

RELIGION ART ARCHITECTURE

VISUAL ART PERFORMING ART

SCULPTURE DANCE
POTTERY MUSIC
PAINTINGS OTHERS
 Importance of Ancient India
• Know earliest cultures
• Languages have roots in Ancient India
• Crucible of numerous races
• Emergence of religions
 CONSTRUCTION OF
INDIAN HISTORY
SCRIPTS TOOLS POLITY
• PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD • STONE AGE • ANCIENT INDIA
– GEOLOGY – PALEOLITHIC AGE• MEDIEVAL INDIA
– ANTHROPOLOGY – MESOLITHIC AGE • MODERN INDIA
– ARCHEAOLOGY – NEOLITHIC AGE
• PROTO HISTORIC PERIOD • METAL AGE
• HISTORIC PERIOD – CHALCOLITHIC
AGE
– EPIGRAPHY
– BRONZE AGE
– NUMISMATICS
– IRON AGE
– PALEOGRAPHY

23
ORIGINS OF INDIAN CULTURE

24
This is our ancestor Skull from Chad,
which scientists have named Toumai.

This new hominid is the oldest known representative of the human lineage. It’s
probably very close to the chimpanzee divergence hominins.
 SPECIES: EARLIEST HOMONID SPECIES: EARLIEST HOMININI
ARDI – Ardipithecus Ramidus LUCY – Australopithecus Afarensis

Age: 4.4 million years Age: 3.2 million years

Discovered: Awash River, Ethiopia Discovered: Afar Depression, Ethiopia
Date discovered: 1994 Date discovered: November 24, 1974
Discovered by: Tim D. White Discovered by: Donald Johanson
 TIME/AGE DETERMINATION
• CARBON-14 DATING
• URANIUM DATING
• DENDRO CHRONOLOGY
• THERMO LUMINENCE
• POLLEN ANALYSIS

31
Human Evolution in Africa: ~200K years ago

32
65K years ago: Migration out of Africa

33
34
- Hominid

- Homo erectus
- Homo sapiens

35
Geological Archaeological Age Mode of Production, Important-Sites
Tools
& Life style

Pleistocene Palaeolithic • Food Gathering • Early Paleolithic Age (Ice Age - less
(Ice age) (3,40,000-38,000) • Migratory humid), Tools -hand axes, cleavers and
• Negrito Race, choppers. Sites in Soan and Sohan river
Homo sapiens • Unpolished & valley (now in Pakistan) & in the Belan
appeared in last undressed rough Valley in the Mirzapur district of UP.
phase. stones like
Quartz(best), Chert, • Middle Paleolithic Phase - stone tools
Limestone, Silicon, made of flakes mainly scrapers, borers
Basalt, Bones and blade. Sites -valleys of Soan,
Narmada and Tungabhadra rivers.

• In the Upper Paleolithic Phase (warm and

less humid) – Tools marked by burins and
scrapers. Sites in Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Bori region of Maharastra,
Bhopal and Chhota Nagpur plateau.

• Bhimbhetka, M.P
• Attirampakkam, Tamil Nadu
• Borra Caves, A.P
• No sites in alluvial plains of Indus and
Ganga
36
Geological Archaeological Mode of Production, Important-Sites
Age Tools & Life style

Mesolithic(38,000- • Social man • Adamgarh, M.P

10,000) • Hunting, Fishing • Bagor, Rajasthan
Climate : warm and • Microliths • Chota Nagpur Region
dry • Megaliths • Vindhaya Mountains
• Bow & Arrow • South of the Krishna River.
• Fire discovered . • Belan & Narmada valley of Vindhyas
• Wearing fibres.
• Painting
• Domestication
Neolithic • Pastoralism, • Singanakallu - M.P
Holocene Age(10,000-4,500) • Domestication • Tekkalakota, Bhramagiri, Hallur, piklihal ,
Revolution Age • Agriculture, Maski – Karnataka
• Pottery Wheel • Burzahom and Gufkral in J&K (famous for
• Settled Village Life pit dwelling, tools and graveyards),
• Tools: Basalt, Granite • Paiyampatti in Tamil Nadu,
• Garo hils in Meghalaya,
• Chirand and Senuwar in Bihar (known for
remarkable bone tools)
• Amri, Kotdiji, etc.

Chalcolithic Age • stone-copper phase. • Ahara Culture: Aahar (Rajasthan), balathal,

(4,500-2000) • Copper was first used • Kayatha Culture: Chambal
• black and red pottery • Malwa Culture: Narmada & its tributaries in
• Village economy Gujarat
• Svalda Culture: Dhulia district of
Maharashtra.
30K years ago: Paintings of Cave Men

Bimbeketa, Madhya Pradesh

38
39
40
 Founder Crops
Domestication of Wheat, Barley, Peas, Chickpeas,
lentils and flax about 11500 years ago.

41
ANCIENT CIVILIZATIONS
River valleys just above the Tropic of Cancer
produced the 4 ancient civilizations.

2 3 4

43
The Most Advanced of all Ancient civilizations:
Indus Valley Civilization

1 Settlement –MEHRGARH -6000B.C Earliest Agrarian Economy

2 Indus valley civilization-3500 B.C -1700 B.C

The most advanced civilization of the world :

• Town planning (Grid structure)

• Underground drainage system

• Use of uniform bricks

44
45
radio-carbon dating
2500 – 1750 BC.
Races:
Mediterranean,
Proto-Australoid,
Mongoloids
Alpines

46
47
Important city Discovery
Mehargarh Oldest site
Manda Northern most
Daimabad Southern limit
Alamgirpur Eastern limit
Suktagendor Western limit
Kalibangan Khetri mines
Dholavira 3 fold division, largest in India
Rakhigarhi Largest in India(now whole )
Lothal Dockyard, rice, Horse terracota
Rangapur Rice Husk
Surkotada Horse skelton
Harappa (Abode of shiva) First city, 6 granaries
Mohenjodaro(Mound of dead) Largest city, great bath etc.
Chanhudaro No Citadel
Banwali No Drainage system, Plough Replica

49
Common features of town : Citadel and Lower town

50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
5300 years ago: Discovery of Bronze

58
 Contributions

Discovery of cotton Invention of pottery Modern Metallurgy

59
Cultural Achievements : Script ,Handicrafts ,Religion
Religion : Proto Shiva(Pashupati) ,Mother goddess

60
Script : Boustrophedon , Pictographic

61
 Heilographic : Egyptian(sacred writing)

Cuneiform : Sumerian

62
Arts works : Seals, Terracota figures

63
64
65
1700 BC: End of Civilization around Indus.
Global climatic changes

Weather Monsoon River

Trade
got cooler Patterns Courses
Floundered
and drier Changed Changed

People migrated to Gangetic plains and southern India.

66
 Decline of IVC
• Mortimer Wheeler – Aryans Invasion
• G.F Dales – Floods
• Robert Rikes – Earth quakes
• Gordon Child – Internal Disturbances
• John Marshall – Natural Disasters
Vedic Era(1500 BC - 600 BC)

68
 VEDIC PERIOD

EARLY VEDIC PERIOD LATER VEDIC PERIOD

(1500-1000 BC) (1000-600 BC)
 VEDIC PERIOD

VEDIC LITERATURE VEDIC SOCIETY

 Age of Early Vedic Period
(1500-1000 BC)
• Original Home and Identity
• Tribal Conflicts
• Material Life
• Tribal Polity
• Tribe and Family
• Social Divisions
• Rig Vedic Gods
Original Home & Identity

72
SAPTHA SINDHU REGION

73
 VEDIC LITERATURE

SHRUTI SMRITI
• VEDA SAMHITAS • VEDANGAS
• BRAHMANAS • DARSHANAS
• ARYANKAS • PURANAS
• UPANISHADS • ITIHAS
• UPA-VEDAS
• SHUTRAS

74
Smriti :
Vedangas (to understand veda) Shiksha : phonetics, phonology and
morphophonology (sandhi)
Kalpa : ritual
Vyakarana : grammar
Nirukta : etymology
Chandas : meter
Jyotisha : Astrology

Dharmshastras, Manusmriti,YagnavalakyaSmriti Naradsmiriti

Mahabharata
Mahakavyas Ramanya

Puranas, Agni,Garuda,Matsya

Dhanurveda, Ayurveda, Gandharvaveda,

Upavedas, Shilpaveda

Shad-darshanas (Indian Philosphy ,6 systems Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa,

Vedanta

75
Ashwamedha: a horse, duly consecrated and protected by warriors was let lose
(along with a lot more horses) to move about at its own free will as a challenge to
other kings - that they pay homage to the king performing the yajna. For about a
year, the king and his family performed daily prayers and sacrifices. The horse was
brought back then and sacrificed after more ceremonies, its flesh roasted.

Rajasuya Yajna - basically a ceremony for the consecration of a king. It lasted for a
day of prayers and sacrifices and extracting soma, but preceded by a long period,
extending to maybe a year, during which time various preliminary rites were
observed. During this ritual, the king received a bow and an arrow (or other
weapons as the priest was advised) and declares himself the king. He performed
various acts symbolising his conquests and was finally anointed by a priest, a
kshatriya.

Vajapeya Yajna - was a soma-yajna - the offering of Soma formed an essential part
of the yajna, along with killing of other animals. Soma was extracted thrice, and
cattle was offered to Agni. Like the Rajasuya, the ceremony was preceded by a
long period of consecrations and sacrifices, and the sacrificer and his wife lived an
austere life in adjacent rooms/huts

76
Upanishads : Upanishad is derived from upa (near), ni (down) and s(h)ad (to sit),
i.e., sitting down near
more than 200 (Adi-shankaracharya talks of 11 Mukhya upanishads)

• Brhadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the two earliest Upanishads

• Katha

• Mundaka

Central Principle :

“Tat-tvam-Asi”(Chandogya Upanishad): You(Atma) are that(Brahma) and that is you.

"Aham brahmāsmi” : Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

Advaita

Different Paths :
Karma Marg
Bhakti Marg
Gyana Marg

77
TRIBAL CONFLICTS
TRIBAL CONFLICTS
MATERIAL LIFE
MATERIAL LIFE
 TRIBAL POLITY
• POLITY - OLIGARCHY
• RAJAN/CHIEF
• CLAN –BASED ASSEMBILES
– SABHA, SAMITI, VIDHATA, GANA
• FUNCTIONARIES
– PUROHIT, SENANI, VRAJAPATI
 Tribal Polity
PUROHIT, SENANI,
VRAJAPATI
RAJAN/CHIEF

GANA
SABHA

SAMITI VIDHATA
TRIBAL POLITY
TRIBE AND FAMILY
TRIBE AND FAMILY
SOCIAL DIVISIONS
RIG VEDIC GODS
RIG VEDIC GODS
 LATER VEDIC PHASE
• EXPANSION IN THE LATER VEDIC PERIOD
• THE PGW-IRON PHASE CULTURE
• POLITICAL ORGANISATION
• SOCIALL ORGANISATION
• GODS, RITUALS & PHILOSPHY
EXPANSION IN LATER VEDIC PERIOD
ECONOMY
SOCIAL ORGANISATION
CHATURVARNAS
SOCIAL STRUCTURE
CHATUR ASHRAMS
RITUALS AND PHILOSOPHY
UPANISHADS
UPANISHADS
VEDIC LITERATURE
BRAHMANAS
TRIBAL POLITY
CRAFTS
 Comparison of Rig-Vedic Age and Later Vedic age

Comparison Rig-Vedic Age (1500-1000) Later-Vedic Age (1000-600)

Geographical Extent Saptha-Sindhu Region Ganga-Yamuna Doab

Economy Pastoral economy with Cow as main Shift towards agriculture

Stay

Polity Tribal People(Janas) Jana= Janapada

Sabha=Executive Monarchy
Samiti=Legislature

Society Egalitarian Birth based system

Religion Henotheism Polytheism

110
COMPARISON
INDIAN CULTURE & HERITAGE
 Indian Culture and Heritage

RELIGION ART ARCHITECTURE

VISUAL ART PERFORMING ART

SCULPTURE DANCE
POTTERY MUSIC
PAINTINGS OTHERS
RELIGION
• ORIGIN
• NECESSARY
• ESSENCE
• RELIGION IN INDIA
INDUS VALLEY CIVILISATION
CULT PRACTICE: FIRE ALTERS, PHALLIC

NO RELIGIOUS SHRINES, GREAT BATH

DEITIES: ZOOMORPHIC, ANTHROPOMORPHIC

Proto Shiva(Pashupati)

SUSA - PERSIAN GILGAMESH- SUMERIA

Mother goddess Bearded Priest

116
Vedic Era(1500 BC - 600 BC)

117
 VEDIC LITERATURE

SHRUTI SMRITI
• SAMHITAS • VEDANGAS
• VEDA SAMHITAS • DARSHANAS
• BRAHMANAS • PURANAS
• ARYANKAS • ITIHAS
• UPANISHADS • UPA-VEDAS
• SHUTRAS

118
 VEDA SAMHITA
• Derived from root word – VID (Knowledge par excellence)
• Vedas are
• APAURUSHEYA(Not man Made)
• NITYA (Eternity)

1. Rig-Veda “Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise”

2. Sama-Veda “Knowledge of the Melodies”

3. Yajur-Veda “Knowledge of the Sacrificial

formulas”

4. Atharva-Veda “Knowledge of the Magic

formulas”
 RIG VEDA SAMHITA

• 10 MANDALAS85 ANUVAKAS1028 SUKTAS

(1017 hymns (suktas) + 11 hymns(valakhilyas))

• Mandala II – IX are Old, I and X are New.

• Mandala III – GAYTRI MANTRA by Sage Viswamitra to Solar Deity Savitri

• Mandala VII – Battle of Ten Kings on River Parusuni(Ravi)

• Mandala IX – Soma Drink

• Mandala X – Chaturvarna System.

• The HOTRIS recite Social, Economic, Political and Religious Aspects.

• The hymns of the Rig Veda focus on pleasing the principal gods Indra (war, wind
and rain), Agni (the sacrificial fire), Surga (the sun) and Varuna (the cosmic order)
 SAMA VEDA SAMHITA

• Saman means Song or Melody.

• 1810 SUKTAS

• The UDGATRIS recite at Soma Sacrifice

• Book of Chants

• Origins of Indian Music

 YAJUR VEDA SAMHITA

• Yajus means formulae

• The ADHVARYU recite the purpose and rules during sacrifice.

• Aswamedha, Rajasuya, Vajapeye Yaga were mentioned.

• Divided into Krishna(Black) Yajurveda & Shukla(White) Yajurveda.

 ATHRAVA VEDA SAMHITA

• Atharvans means knowledge of Magic formulae

• The BRAMANS recite to ward of Evils, diseases.

• Connected with War Class, War Drum,

• Divided into Paippalada & Saunaka.

 BRAHMANAS

• Oldest – Tandyastoma Brahmana deals with

‘Vratyastoma’.
 ARANYAKAS
• Forest Books.
• Mysticism and Symbolism of Sacrifice.
• Transitional material.
• Aitareya & Kausitaki Aranyakas are famous.
The term Upanishad
means literally "those
who sit near".

Upa- near, ni- down,

sad- to sit:
Sitting near the
teacher
• A.K.A VENDANTA
(End of Vedas)

• Highly Philosophical
• Deals with Universal Soul,
the Absolute, the Self...
• Criticise the rituals.
• Stress on Right Knowledge.

• Isa • Aitareya
• Kena • Chandogya
• Mukhya Upanishads • Katha • Brhadaranyaka
• Prasna • Svetasvatara
• Mundaka • Kausitaki
• Mandukya • Mahanarayana
• Taittiriya • Maitri
Upanishads : Upanishad is derived from upa (near), ni (down) and s(h)ad (to sit),
i.e., sitting down near
more than 200 (Adi-shankaracharya talks of 11 Mukhya upanishads)

• Brhadaranyaka and the Chandogya are the two earliest Upanishads

• Katha

• Mundaka

Central Principle :

“Tat-tvam-Asi”(Chandogya Upanishad): You(Atma) are that(Brahma) and that is you.

"Aham brahmāsmi” : Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

Advaita

Different Paths :
Karma Marg
Bhakti Marg
Gyana Marg

129
Smriti : Vedangas (to understand veda) Shiksha : phonetics
Kalpa : ritual
Vyakarana : grammar
Nirukta : etymology
Chandas : meter
Jyotisha : Astrology

Sutras Kalpa(rituals),
Srauta(sacrifices- Geometry-
Sulva),Ghriya(Domestic),
Dharma(customs)
Ithihas Ramanya, Mahabharata

Puranas, Agni,Garuda,Matsya

Dharmshastras Manusmriti,Yagnavalakyasmriti
Naradsmiriti

Upavedas, Dhanurveda, Ayurveda,

Gandharvaveda, Shilpaveda
Shad-darshanas (Indian Philosphy ,6 Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya,
systems Vaisheshika, Uttara Mimamsa,
Purava Mimamsa 130
PERIOD OF ENLIGHTMENT
• High domination of Bhramins with Yagas &
Yajnas.
• The essence of religion –Moksha at confusion.
• Sudras were deprived of Moksha and other
benefits.
• Kshetriyas & Vysias were disappointed with their
low profile.
• Vedic religion promoting war and voilence.
• Vysias were deprivied for Naval Trade, Profits.
• Animal Sacrifice became high- Sudras effected.
 6th Century: Turning Point

Siddhartha Gautama: Vardhamana Mahavira:

563 BC to 480 BC 599 BC to 527 BC
Buddhism Jainism
136
• Buddhism
• Jainism(SRAMANAS)
• Bhramanism
Life Of Lord Buddha
Mahamaya, wife of King Suddhodana of KapilaVasttu City, dreamt that the white
elephant came to see her and gave her the lotus.
Sirimahamaya, told her husband and she persuaded the king to do all good things, after
she knew that she got pregnant.
On the full moon day of May, in the year 623 B.C., a noble prince was
born in the Lumbini Park at Kapilavatthu, on the Indian borders of pr
esent Nepal.
He was named “Siddhattha.” which means "wish fulfilled". After he was
born, he could walk 7 steps and declared to the world that this would
be his last life and would not reborn again.
When the king knew good news, he sent his people to pick up them
back to the city.
 The great ascetic named Asita smiled at first and then was sad. he
smiled because the prince would eventually become a Buddha, and
he was sad because he would not be able to see his wisdom.
Kondanna, raised only one finger and convincingly declared that the prince would definitely retire from the
world and become only a Buddha, not a universal monarch.
Queen Sirimahamaya died seven days after his birth, so the king
assigned Mahapajapati, his wife’s younger sister, took care of him.
When Siddhattha was 7 years olds, the king seeked for the high moral teachers to teach his son all
the subjects.
Siddhattha sat cross-legged and seized the opportunity to commence that all-important practice of
intent concentration on the breath - on exhalations and inhalations.
King Suddhodana was so worried about Kondanna’s prediction. Therefore, he would try all the ways
to keep him closely.
King Suddhodana decided to build three palaces for his son- one for the cold season, one for the
hot season, and one for the rainy season.
Siddhattha save the injured swan from Devadhat, his Relative.
When he grew up at the age of 16 years, he got married with a very
beautiful Princess named “Yasodhara” or “Bimba”.
Siddhattha played in a sunny world of gardens and groves, attended
by dancing girls and musicians.
One day, Siddhattha asked Channa to pick him up to see how outside people spent their
lives.
Siddhattha asked Channa, “Could I and Bimba be old like that in one day?” “Yes, of course, sir.”,
said Channa.
Siddhattha asked Channa, “Could I and Bimba be dead like that in one day?” “Yes, of course, sir.”, said
Channa.
When he was 29 years old, he journeyed far and, crossing the river Anoma,
rested on its banks. He handed over his garments and ornaments to Chann
a with instructions to return to the palace
Here he shaved his hair and beard, he thought that his parents might be sorrowful, when they
saw and heard about this.
The ascetic Gotama approached Alara Kalama and Uddaha Ramaputta
and expressed his desire to lead the Holy Life in his Dispensation. He soon
realized that there was none capable enough to teach him the highest truth.
For six long years the ascetic Gotama made a super-human struggle to practice all forms of the
severest austerity. His delicate body was reduced to almost a skeleton.
Hearing of his renunciation, Kondanna, the youngest brahmin who
predicted his future, and four sons of the other sages - Bhaddiya, Vappa,
Mahanama, and Assaji renounced the world and joined his company.
On the full moon day of the month Visakha, he who had attained 35 years of age, was sitting under the
bayan tree. Sujata gave him milk- porridge in a golden bowl.
He was still sitting under the bayan tree and told himself that he would not stand up, until he had
got the hightest truth.
The god mara made him think of the past events, and encouraged him to turn back to his past life.
Mara knew Buddha was close, so he put all his efforts in trying to lure
Buddha back to the world.
Mara changed his tactics and tried to seduce the Buddha. He summoned
his three daughters and ordered them to dance in the most seductive mann
er. Again the Buddha remained in serene meditation.
Finally Mara accepted defeat and together with his confused daughters withdraw leaving the
Buddha alone beneath the Bodhi tree. On the full moon day of the month Visakha, he got the
highest truth!
Lord Buddha taught the Pancavaggi to follow the Middle Way, the Four Noble Truths
and how to practice the Eightfold Path.
With the conversion of the five ascetics at the Deer Park of
Sarnath, the order of monks was established.
At Kabilavasthu City, King Suddhodana asked Lord Buddha not to beg people for the foods,
but Buddha replied that this was the traditional practice for all Buddha.
Yasodara, Rahula's mother, held her son in her arms and pointed to
the Buddha saying. "That is your father!"
The Buddha asked Sariputta, one of his disciples, to ordain Rahula. King Suddhodana asked
Buddha if any child would like to ordain, he had to ask his parent for permission first.
Buddha agreed.
Sariputta asked Buddha to set up the disciplines for all monks, but
Buddha said that he would set up the disciplines after any problems had
happened. He should not set up disciplines, before things happened.
“I stand still Angulimala evermore, for I am merciful to all living beings; but you
are merciless to living beings. Therefore I stand still and you stand not still.”
The Buddha took him to the monastery, where he became a monk.
After King Ajatashatru starved his father to death, he was recommended to
meet Buddha, but he was surprised when he saw the group of monk sat
quietly.
Buddha thought that if King Ajatashatru listened to my Dhamma first, he
would get enlightened for sure. But he killed his father, so this was his
highest sin, and he just felt better, but didn’t understand my teachings.
Magiya, the former attendant of Buddha, asked him for leaving to other
city, but Buddha asked him to work for more periods. He rejected his
request. Later Buddha appointed Ananda to be his new attendant.
Buddha visited Kabillapath to give His last discourse to His father.
On hearing the Dhamma, King Suddhodana attained Arahanthship.
Seven days later he passed away.
Buddha asked Brahmin not to behave, because it was the tradition, but advised to use
wisdom to consider how to do good karma.
Buddha explained that the Nirvana could be compared to the horse that was tame and ready to
ride. Nirvana could be found when we lived, not after the death.
Buddha told Ananda that even Buddha also got older. No one could escape
all these facts, they had to be born, old, sick, and dead unavoidably.
Buddha turned back and saw Vesali City last time. He said to Ananda,
“Ananda, this is the last time that I can see Vesali, I had no chance to come
back to this city again.”
"Possessing this Mirror of Dharma, a noble disciple shall be able to
predict for himself that he shall not fall back to lower states like hell, the
animal world, the ghost world and other sorrowful and unhappy states."
Buddha accepted to eat Canna’s foods, or "boar's delight". But soon
after this, the Buddha suffered from an attack of the dysentery he had
been suffering from earlier and sharp pains came upon him.
 Subhadda asked Ananda to meet Buddha. Later he admitted to the order of monks and the
Buddha granted his request. Subhadda became the very last convert and disciple of the Buddha.
The passing away, or the final nirvana of the Buddha, occurred
in 543 B.C. on a full-moon day in the month of May, known in th
e Indian calendar as Vesak.
 Religious Movements
Buddhism

• Gautam Siddhartha-
• Sakya- Tribe
• City – Kapilavastu
• Lumbini, bodhgaya,saranath, kusinagara

• Born at Lumbini,to Suddhodana and Maya

• Nirvana-Bodh Gaya –Pepal tree

Siddhartha became Buddha(The Enlightened one)

• Sarnath- first sermon-Dharma Chakrapravarthana

Last sermon-KushiNagar

4-Noble Truths
• Life is full of sorrows
• Sorrows are caused by desires
• If desires are controlled sorrows can be controlled
• Ashtanga Marga

189
 VINAYA PITAKA –
UPALI
483 B.C SUTTA PITAKA -
ANANDA

190
 Lotus and Bull
Birth(Janma)

Horse
Leaving material life
(Mahabhinishkramana)

Nirvana Bodhi Tree

Dharmachakra pravartana Wheel

Mahaparinirvana Stupa

191
 Important Buddhist Terms
•
Upasikas: The followers of Buddhism
Pavarna: Also known as Uposatha or Upavastha, it was the
ceremony when Buddhist monks met to confess their offences
Sanghathera: Also known as Samgha Parinayaka, sanghathera was
the elected President of the fortnightly assembly of Buddhist
monks.
Tathagata: One who has attained the truth.
Visuddhimgga: The first systematic and philosophical treatise on
Buddhist doctrine by BUDDHAGHOSHA
Om Mani Padme Hum: The most important mantra of the
Vajrayana.
Dohakosa: The last Buddhist text produced in India.
PrajnaParamita: Collection of sutras, which deal with the doctrine
of Sunya or Nothingness by NAGARJUNA
Jainism
• Thirtankar – Guide to Salvation
• Initially called as SRAMANAS(SRAVANA BELAGOLA).
• NUSHRUTI is pious text spoke about 23 Tirthankars.
– RISHABNATH – Potan
• Bahubali
• Bharatha
• Bhrami
– PARSVANATH – Prince of Kasi- Proposed Cardianal
Principles.
• Asvasena
• Vamala
The Vimala temple of Delwara is
dedicated Adinatha.
monolithic Indian rock-cut architecture:

196
Jainism
Thirthankara-Guide to Salvation(Great Teacher)

1-Rishabha,16-Shanthinath,23-Parasvanath,24-Mahavira

Vardhaman-Gyanthrika Tribe- Born at Vaishali

Born to Siddhartha and Trishala.

At 30 started to wander ,at 42

Kaivalya ,sal tree
Jina-Conqurer,Nirgrandha(free from fetters/bondage )

5 cardinal principles
• Satya-Truth
• Ahimsa-Non-violence
• Asteya-No stealing
• Apagraha-No property
• Brahmacharya-observing continence(added by mahavira)

Shvethambaras Vs Digambaras
(Sthulabahu) (Badrabahu)

Councils
1 Pataliputra - (Sthulabahu) 12 Angas(compiled)
2 Valabhi -Kshmasrama Devardhi- 12 Angas & 11 Upangas
197
• Tri-Ratnas (Knowledge,Faith,Conduct)
• Related to Sankhya Philosphy
• SADVADHA- Theory of Maybe
• Anekantara Vada – Theory of Multiple Souls.
 Buddhism and Jainism
Similarities Differences
• Veda Infallable. • Concept of Ahimsa
• Condemned Rituals. • Existence of God
• Condemned Bhramanical • Concept of Soul
Supermacy. • Concept of Salvation
• Both preached in Sanghas
SAIVISM
The earliest Lingodbhavamurti of Siva
has been found at Gudimallam
RUPAS
Darshan
(Appearance)
• Body covered in
ashes
• Crescent Moon
• Three Eyes,
Tryambaka
 Ambaka & Kundala
Eyes & Earings

• Half open eyes

• Kundalas, earings
• Alakshaya, beyond
perception
Niranjan, cannot be
seen
• Left female,
right male,
Shiva &
Shakti
Vasuki Nagan
• Snake hoards
nothing, carries
nothing, builds
nothing, lives on air
alone for long
periods of time
• Curled 3 Times, Time
• Right side reason &
justice
 Tadiyanam
• Equipment
• Damaru drum, AUM

• Rudraksha Mala

• Trisula, trident
• Kamandalu, water pot
Tiger & Bull
• Tiger skin-
potential
creative energy
• Nandi- jiva
dharma
 Mudras
Hand Gestures

• Speaks the truth

• Do not fear
• Benediction
Dhyanam Shiva
Maha Yogi
Greatest yogi
 Pasupatinath
Lord of a Lethal Weapon

• Benedicted
Arjuna
Neela Kantha
Blue throated
 Natraj
Lord of dance
 Rudra
Suppressor of ignorance
Ramesvaram
Ramesvaram
Ekambaranatha
Kanchipura
Kapalesvara
Chennai
Chummundi
Mysore
Kasi Vishvanath
Vanares
Meenaskshi
Madurai
Chidambaram
Kailashanatha
Kanchipura
Abode of Shiva
Himalayas
Mount Kailash
Tibet
 SHIVA SECTS
• PASUPATHI - LAKULISA
• KASHMIRA SAIVAM – VASU GUPTA
• AGAMANTHA
• MATTA MAYURA
• KALAMUKHA - KALASANA
• KAPALIKA
• NAYANARS – SAKKILAR(THEVARAM)
• SHIVA ADVITA – SHIVA KANTA
• VEERA SAIVA/LINGAYAT – BASAWESHWAR
• ARADHYA SIVAM – MALIKARJUNA PANDIT(SRI SAILAM)
The following are known to be devotes of Siva:
• 1. Harsha of Kannauj
• 2. Vijayasena of Bengal
• 3. Bhoja of Paramara
• 4. Govindachandra of Gahadavala
Kayarohana, said to be dwelling place
of Lakulisa, the founder of the
Lakulisa-Pasupata cult, is located in
Gujarath.

Lakulisha holding an axe, sandstone,

Sangameshvara Temple at Mahakuta,
Karnataka, Early Chalukya dynasty, 7th century
CE
BHAGAVATISM

Vasudev Krishna
• Agathocles (200 BCE) -Indo- Greek rulers
issued coins bearing the figures of Krishna and
Balarama
VAISHNAVISM
 Virtual Woman, Flawless

Impossible in Reality, like Krishna in Brahma Moha

SHAKTI
Lakshmi type coins of Gangeyadeva
Kalchuri were imitated by:
1. Govindachandra Gahadvala
2. Parmardideva Chandella
3. Udayaditya Paramara
• Avantivarman of Kashmir built a dam on
Vitasta river to save his Kingdom from the
devastating floods.
Medieval India
 Bhakti and Sufi movement

Bhakti,Karma,Gnan marga-to attain

salvation

1-Phase south India

Alvars-Vaishnavites(12) -Prabhandas
Nayannars-Shaivaites (63 )-Tevarams

• Bassavacharya
virashaivism-lingayats

246
• Adi Shankarachary
• Advaita(central upanish
philosohy,
• TAT-VAM-ASI,
• Gyan marg is the best)
• Ramanuja-Vishist Advait
252
253
Nirguna form-believe in formless god
• Kabir-Doha(Found in Bijak)

• Guru Nanak Saguna Bhakti-worshiping of a god

in murthi
• Dadu dayal-(Bani)
Dadu Panthi • Chaitanya-Bengal-keertans

• Shankerdev-Assam

• Surdas-U.P
Sikhism-Guru Nanak Sursagar,Sur Sarawali

Diff-Need for guru,Purity of • Mirabhai-Rajasthan

Character
• 2-Angadh-Gurumukhi Script • Tulsidas-Ramcharithmanas
• 5-Arjun-1-Adi-
Granth,Hermander Sahib
• 9-Guru Teg bahadur –
executed
• 10-Guru gobind-Khalsa

254
256
Sufism-

Wahadat-ul-wuzud

No difference between Haq(creator),Khalq

Abu-Fazl mentions -14 major silsila

Chisti Silsila most popular

• Moinuddin Chisti
• Qutubuddin kaki
• Nizamuddin Auliya
• Salim Chisti

Shurawati silsila –served only ruling class

Qadri silsila-Dara shikoh

Qanqah= Place of living of Pir

The followers are called Murids

257
258
TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE
• The earliest Hindu Temple carved at Deogarh
• The earliest Vesara Temple carved ar Aihole
 Ancient Grammarians
• Katyayana
• Panini
• Vamana
• Yaska
 Temples are built of bricks
• Begram temple of Dinajpur
• Sat Deuliya of Burdwan, W.B.
• Siddhesvara of Bahulara, Bankura, W.B.
INDIVIDUALS
 Astronomers
• Aryabhata II, Bhaskaracharya, Bhattotpala,
Brahmagupta
 Foreigners
Agathocles - Samkarshana
Kadphises I - Shiva
Vimakad phises - Buddha
Kanishka I- Atash, the fire
 Inscriptions
• Mandasor Inscription of Vatsabhatti.
• Jankhat Inscription of Virasena.
• Allahabad Inscription of Harisena
• Aihole Inscription of Ravikeerti
 Indian Culture and Heritage

RELIGION ART ARCHITECTURE

VISUAL ART PERFORMING ART

SCULPTURE DANCE
POTTERY MUSIC
PAINTINGS OTHERS
VISUAL ART
 VISUAL ART
• INDIAN SCULPTURE
• INDIAN POTTERY
• INDIAN PAINTINGS
 Indian Sculpture (3300 BCE - 1850)
• Characteristics
• History
• Indus Valley Civilization
• Mauryan Sculpture: Pillars of Ashoka
• Ajanta Caves
• Kushan Empire Sculpture
• Hindu Sculpture of the Gupta Empire
• Elephanta Caves
• Pallava and Pandya Sculpture from South India
• Ellora Caves
• Pala Buddhist Art
• Chandela Stone Sculpture in Central India
• Chola Bronze Sculpture of South India, Sri Lanka
• Mughal Relief Sculpture
• Characteristics

• Cultural stonework in India - in the form of primitive cupule art - dates back to the era of prehistoric art of the
Lower Paleolithic, around 700,000 BCE - see Bhimbetka Petroglyphs (Auditorium Cave and Daraki-Chattan Rock
Shelter, Madhya Pradesh). By the time of the Bronze Age, sculpture was already the predominant form of artistic
expression throughout the Indian subcontinent, even though mural painting was also popular. Sculpture was used
mainly as a form of religious art to illustrate the principles of Hinduism, Buddhism, or Jainism. The female nude in
particular was used to depict the numerous attributes of the gods, for which it was often endowed with multiples
heads and arms. There was certainly no tradition of individuality in Indian sculpture: instead, figures were
conceived of as symbols of eternal values. In simple terms, one can say that - historically - Indian sculptors have
focused not on three-dimensional volume and fullness, but on linear character - that is to say, the figure is
designed on the basis of its outline, and is typically graceful and slender. The origin of plastic art in India dates
back to the northwestern Indus valley civilization, which was noted primarily for its terracotta sculpture - mainly
small figurines - but also for the pioneering bronze sculpture of the Harappan Culture. Other important milestones
in the history of sculpture include: the Buddhist Pillars of Ashoka of the Mauryan period, with their wonderful
carved capitals (3rd century BCE); the figurative Greco-Buddhist sculpture of the Gandhara and Mathura schools,
and the Hindu art of the Gupta period (1st-6th century CE).

• Over the next five centuries, a wide range of sculptural idioms flourished in many different areas of present-day
Pakistan, India and Bangladesh, but by the time of the Khajuraho Temples in Madhya Pradesh, which were erected
in the 10th/11th century by the Chandela dynasty, and which were renowned for the erotic content of their stone
sculpture, Indian sculpture had reached the end of its most creative stage. From then on, sculpture was designed
mostly as a form of architectural decoration, with huge quantities of small, mediocre figures being manufactured
for this purpose. It has continued in this way, with little significant change, up to the present. For sculpture from
across Asia, see: Asian Art (from 38,000 BCE).
 Indus Valley Civilization Sculpture
(c.3300-1300 BCE)
• The art of sculpture began in India during the Indus Valley
civilization which encompassed parts of Afghanistan,
Pakistan and north-west India as far south as Rajkot.
Excavations at Indus valley sites at Mohenjo-daro and
Harappa in modern-day Pakistan have uncovered a large
quantity of terracotta sculpture and steatite seals, featuring
images of female dancers, animals, foliage and deities. But
Indus sculpture is most famous for its figurative bronze
known as The Dancing Girl of Mohenjo-Daro (2500 BCE,
National Museum, New Delhi), contemporary with
masterpieces of Mesopotamian sculpture such as Ram in a
Thicket (2500 BCE, British Museum).
 Mauryan Sculpture: Pillars of Ashoka
(3rd Century BCE)
• The story of monumental stone sculpture begins with the Maurya Dynasty, when sculptors first started to carve
illustrative scenes from India's three main religions - Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism.

• One of the earliest Mauryan patrons of the arts was Emperor Ashoka (ruled 270-232 BCE) who decided to spread
the Buddhist faith through the construction of 85,000 stupas or dome-shaped monuments, decorated with
Buddhist writings and imagery engraved on rocks and pillars. The finest example is probably the Great Stupa at
Sanchi, whose carved gateways depict a variety of Buddhist legends. The actual Pillars of Ashoka, typically erected
at Buddhist monasteries or other pilgrimage sites, were hewn out of sandstone and topped with capitals
decorated with carvings of animals, mainly lions. The lions are depicted in the round, either seated or standing.
Only six such pillars survive. The most famous lion-capital - consisting of four lions, and known simply as the
"Ashoka Column" - is located at Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh. It is interesting to note that some of Ashoka's lions
resemble those at Persepolis, Persia, leading some scholars to believe that Mauryan sculpture was influenced by
Ancient Persian Art from the Achaemenid and Sargonid eras. Other animal images used on the pillars, include
bulls (Rampurva) and elephants (Sankissa).

• Ashoka himself may have focused on Buddhism, but his sculptors almost certainly maintained the same sculptural
traditions which were used to illustrate Hinduism, both before and since. Thus, in addition to stone, artists also
practiced wood carving, terracotta and metalworking in bronze and iron.
 Ajanta Caves (c.200 BCE - 650 CE)
• Located in a remote valley in the Aurangabad district of Maharashtra,
Western India, the Ajanta Caves are world famous for their cave art -
paintings and carvings illustrating the life of Buddha. There are some 29
rock-cut caves in total, five of which were used as temples or prayer halls,
and twenty-four as monasteries. The earliest date from the 2nd and 1st
century BCE; more caves were carved and decorated during the Gupta
Empire (400–650 CE). The parietal art at Ajanta includes some of the finest
masterpieces of Buddhist iconography in India. In addition to numerous
serene statues of Buddha, the Ajanta sculptures include intricate images
of animals, warriors, and deities while the paintings depict tales of ancient
courtly life and Buddhist legend. Finally abandoned about 650, in favour of
the Ellora caves some 100 kilometres (62 miles) away, the Ajanta Caves
were gradually forgotten until 1819, when they were accidentally
rediscovered by a British officer during a tiger-hunt. Since 1983, the Ajanta
Caves have been a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Kushan Empire Sculpture (1st–6th
century)
• After Ajanta, the next two distinctive schools of Buddhist visual art emerged during the Kushan Empire in eastern Afghanistan, Pakistan and north-
western India, during the 1st century CE. The first, known as the Gandhara school (flourished 1st-5th century), was centered around Peshawar -
formerly an important centre of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom - and later at Taxila, in the Rawalpindi district of the Punjab province in Pakistan; the
second, located south of New Delhi in Uttar Pradesh, was the Mathura school (flourished 1st–6th century). Their significance lies in the fact that they
gave Buddha a human figure. Up until now, despite India's rich tradition of figurative art, Buddha had never been represented by a human image, but
only by symbols. To emphasize his divinity therefore, the typical Kushan statue of Buddha was typically huge, with a halo around his head, and the
dharmachakra engraved upon the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet. Although the two schools differed in the details of their Buddhist
figures, the general trend in both was to move away from a purely naturalist design and toward a more idealized image.

• The Gandhara school was noted for its Greco-Roman style of Buddhist sculpture, partly due to the conquests of Alexander the Great in the region
and the resulting legacy of Hellenistic art (c.323-30 BCE), as well as the active trade between the territory and Rome. Borrowing heavily from classical
Greek sculpture as well as Roman sculpture, Gandharan artists depicted Buddha with a youthful Apollo-like face, complete with Roman nose, dressed
in toga-style garments like those seen on Roman imperial statues. Greek acanthus foliage decoration was another popular feature, as were cherubs
bearing garlands. The most common material used by Gandharan sculptors was dark grey or green phyllite, grey-blue mica schist, or terracotta. In
contrast, the Mathuran school is associated with native Indian traditions that emphasized rounded or voluptuous bodies adorned with minimal
clothing, typically carved out of mottled red sandstone from local quarries. The typical Mathuran standing Buddha - derived from the earlier yaksa
figures - exudes enormous energy. The more common Mathuran seated Buddha is characterized by broad shoulders, powerful chest, shaven head,
round smiling face, right arm raised in reassurance, left arm resting on the thigh, and close-fitting drapery arranged in folds over the left arm, leaving
the right shoulder bare. In all, very similar to the idealized Buddha statue that in due course became the standard representation throughout the
world.

• Jaina and Hindu images of the Mathura school are carved in the same style as the Buddhas. Indeed statues of Jaina Tirthankaras (saints), can only be
distinguished from statues of Buddha, by scrutinizing the iconographic detail. Furthermore, the Hindu sun god, Surya, was typically dressed in belted
tunic, high boots, and conical cap - the same outfit that was used in Mathura portraits of Kushan kings. Mathuran female figures, such as those
carved in high relief on the gateways and pillars of both Buddhist and Jaina monuments, are strikingly sensual. These female nudes are depicted in a
variety of domestic scenes or surrounded by nature.

• Under the Kushans, sculpture from Gandhara and Mathura art went on to influence artists across India, including the Hindu and Jain sculpture of the
Gupta Empire. In addition its influence also radiated northwards into Central Asia, where it affected the figurative sculpture of China, Korea, and
Japan.
 Hindu Sculpture of the Gupta Empire
(flourished 320-550)
• Founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, the Gupta Empire unified a large portion of northern India and led
to an extended period of stability and cultural creativity. The Gupta era is often referred to as the
Classical or Golden Age of India, and was characterized by extensive inventions and enormous
progress in technology, engineering, literature, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy, that laid
the basis for what is generally termed Hindu culture. During this period Hinduism became the
official religion of the Gupta Empire, which saw the emergence of countless images of popular
Hindu deities such as Vishnu (see the colossal image of Vishnu in the Udaigiri caves in Madhya
Pradesh), Shiva, Krishna and the goddess Durga. But the period was also a time of relative religious
tolerance: Buddhism also received royal attention, while Jainism also prospered. In fact, thanks to
the influence of the Mathura school, the Gupta era is associated with the creation of the iconic
Buddha image, which was then copied throughout the Buddhist world.

• The Gupta style of sculpture remained relatively uniform across the empire. It incorporated the
earlier figurative styles practiced in Gandhara and Mathura, but introduced new and more
sophisticated forms and motifs. It is marked in particular by sensuous modelling of bodies and
faces, harmonious proportions and more subtle expressions. The most innovative and influential
artistic centres included Sarnath and Mathura. The Gupta idiom spread across much of India,
influencing artists for centuries afterward. It also spread via the trade routes to Thailand and Java,
as well as other countries in South and Southeast Asia.
 Elephanta Caves (c.550-720)
• The famous rock-cut Elephanta Caves - created some time between the mid-5th and the 8th
century - are a complex of rock-cut basalt caves located on Elephanta Island, in Mumbai Harbour,
about 10 kilometres (6 miles) east of the city of Mumbai, in Maharashtra. The complex contains
two groups of caves; the first is a group of five Hindu caves dedicated to the god Shiva; the second,
a smaller group of two Buddhist caves. The last (Hindu) cave to be in active use was abandoned
during the 16th century. Part of the complex was renovated in the 1970s, and in 1987 was
designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Elephanta Caves are known in particular for their
Hindu rock art, featuring sculptures of many figures from the Hindu pantheon, such as Shiva,
Vishnu, Parvati, Brahma, Ravana and Shiva's elephant-headed son Ganesha. The most important
sculpture in the caves is the Trimurti (or Maheshmurti), set deep into a recess at the back of the
cave opposite the entrance. Described by one scholar as a "masterpiece of Gupta-Chalukyan art",
the 20-foot high Trimurti is a relief carving of a three-headed Shiva, whose three heads
(Ardhanarishvara, Mahayogi and Aghori) symbolize the three fundamental aspects of Shiva:
creation, protection, and destruction. Other highlights include: an engraved panel showing Shiva
slaying Andhaka; an image of Shiva sitting like Buddha in a cross-legged Yogic position while doing
penance after the death of his first wife Sati, who was later reborn as Parvati; a panel showing Shiva
getting married to Parvati, watched by Brahma, Vishnu, Indra, and other deities.
 Pallava and Pandya Sculpture from
South India (600-900)
• Nearly all the sculpture created in southern India during the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries, is
associated with the Pallavas or the Pandyas - the two most important Hindu dynasties of the time.
The Pallava dynasty reportedly dates back to the 2nd century CE, although it wasn't until the eclipse
of the Satavahana dynasty in the 3rd century that the family and its history entered the spotlight,
and not until the 7th century that they achieved real power. Pallava rule was centered on the
eastern coastline and included the city of Mamallapuram, in the Kancheepuram district of Tamil
Nadu, which was famous for being the site of the carved-stone cliff created by Pallava kings in the
7th century. The Pallava era is significant for marking the transition from rock-cut architecture to
stone temples. Its best-known achievements include the Kailasanatha temple in Kanchipuram (685-
705) noted for its huge pillars ornamented with multi-directional carvings of lions, and the Shore
Temple at Mahabalipuram (7th century), overlooking the Bay of Bengal, which was decorated with
copious stone statues and reliefs of Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna and other Hindu deities.

• The Pandya dynasty, based further south in the vicinity of Madurai, Tamil Nadu, ruled parts of
South India from 600 BCE to first half of the 14th century CE. Like the Pallavas, the Pandyas were
famous for their rock-cut architecture and sculpture. The latter is exemplified by the granite statue
of a Seated four-armed Vishnu (770-820)
 Ellora Caves (c.600-1000)
• The Ellora Caves are a collection of some thirty-four structures - spread
out over more than two kilometres - which were hewn out of the vertical
basalt face of the Charanandri hills north-west of the city of Aurangabad,
in Maharashtra, Western India. Unlike the nearby Ajanta Caves, Ellora
celebrates the Hindu and Jain religious faiths, as well as Buddhism. Built by
the Rashtrakuta dynasty, the site includes twelve Buddhist caves (the
oldest structures), seventeen Hindu and five Jain (the youngest).
Interestingly, although all are lavishly decorated with rock carvings, the
Buddhist and Jain caves seem rather quiet and meditative, while the
Hindu halls seem to resonate with energy. The latter are noted in
particular for the "Cavern of the Ten Avatars", and the Kailasha Temple -
which includes a full-size temple flanked by elephants carved out of the
rock - with its famous sculpture of Ravana attempting to lift Mount
Kailasa, the Himalayan mountain home of Shiva. The Jain Caves are equally
large, richly decorated and mark the last phase of activity at Ellora, which
is now a UNESCO World Heritage site.
 Pala Buddhist Art (8th-12th century)
• The Pala dynasty (in Sanskrit, "Pala" means "protector") exerted control over the present-day states
of Bihar and West Bengal in eastern India, as well as the region of Bangladesh, from the 8th to the
12th century. The Pala school of sculpture is seen as a distinct phase of Indian art, created by the
artistic ingenuity of Bengal sculptors across the region. It is noted chiefly for its bronze Buddhist
statues and figurines, created by the lost-wax process and involving an alloy of up to eight metals.
Depicting various divinities, they are typically small and portable, and designed mainly for private
worship. The style is reminiscent of the Gupta tradition developed at Sarnath, but Bengal artists
added an unmistakeable sensuality. Figures are fuller, more rounded and convey a certain elegant
virtuosity. The leading centres of production for this mobiliary art were the Buddhist monasteries at
Nalanda and Kurkihar. Pala sculptors are also known for their stone sculpture, often used to
decorate wall niches in Hindu as well as Buddhist temples.

• The Pala kingdom was one of the last strongholds of Buddhist culture in India, although by its
decline in the 12th century Hinduism had become predominant. Until then however, the
monasteries and holy sites of the Pala region attracted Buddhist pilgrims, monks, and students from
all over Asia. When these visitors returned home, they took with them a wide variety of Buddhist
art, including Buddhist statuettes, illustrated manuscripts, drawings, and other types of art
associated with Shakyamuni Buddha. As a result, Pala sculpture in particular, influenced the art of
Nepal, Tibet, Burma, and Java.
 Chandela Stone Sculpture in Central
India (10th-13th century)
• The Rajput clan of the Chandelas ruled the Bundelkhand region of central India between the 10th
and the 13th centuries. Chandela culture is best-known for the nagara-style architecture and erotic
stone sculpture at the temples of Khajuraho - now a UNESCO world heritage site. Mostly erected
between 950 and 1050, the Khajuraho complex consists of 85 Hindu and Jain temples spread over
2.5 square miles, southeast of Jhansi, in Madhya Pradesh. Made from sandstone on a granite
foundation, the Khajuraho temples were actively used by worshippers until the establishment of
the Delhi Sultanates of the 13th century. Under Muslim rule, most of Khajuraho's monuments were
destroyed or left to fall into ruin. Of the 20 or so surviving temples, perhaps the best-known are the
Khandarya Mahadeva temple (1029) dedicated to Shiva, and the Lakshana Temple (939) dedicated
to Vaikuntha Vishnu. Khandarya Mahadeva is the largest Hindu temple and is decorated with over
640 statues. Lakshana is famous for its three-headed, four-armed statue of Vaikuntha Vishnu, and
its eight armed, elephant-headed image of Lord Ganesha, the Hindu Lord of letters and learning.
Most (90 percent) of the thousands of Khajuraho statues and reliefs are concerned with daily life,
as well as mythical stories and symbolic values. But around 10 percent of both the interior and
exterior carvings are erotic images featuring female nudes cavorting with naked males. The exact
meaning and purpose of this so-called art remains a matter of debate, but there can be no doubt as
to its importance to the Hindu and Jain faiths, not least because it involved the creative efforts of
hundreds of highly trained sculptors.
Chola Bronze Sculpture of South India,
Sri Lanka (9th-13th century)
• From the late 9th century to the late 13th century the Chola dynasty ruled much of
south India, Sri Lanka and the Maldive Islands from their base near Thanjavur on
the southeastern coast. Chola kings were active patrons of the arts, and during
their reign they built a number of large stone temple complexes decorated
throughout with stone carvings of Hindu deities. However, Chola art is best-known
for its temple bronze sculpture of Hindu gods and goddesses, many of which were
designed to be carried in local processions during temple festivals. Cast using the
lost-wax method, Chola bronzes were admired for their sensuous figures as well as
the detail of their clothing and jewellery. It is worth remembering that when these
images were worshipped in the temple or during processional events, they were
lavishly adorned with silk cloth, garlands, and jewels. The Chola style of sculpture
was greatly admired for its elegance and grace, but especially for its vitality - an
attribute conveyed through facial expression, posture and movement. Even though
bronze sculpture was well established in south India before the Cholas, a much
greater number of bronze statues were created during the Chola period. Chola
Hindu sculpture features countless figures of Shiva, often accompanied by his
consort Parvati; Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi; the Nayanmars, other Saiva saints
and many other Hindu divinities.
 Mughal Relief Sculpture
• From 1526 until 1857, much of northern India was ruled by the Mughals, Islamic
rulers from Central Asia. During this era, the principal artistic activity was painting,
while metalwork, and ivory carving as well as marble sculpture also flourished. The
quality of Mughal stonework is exemplified by a number of intricately carved
sandstone screens.

• The Mughal Emperor Akbar was an enthusiastic patron of stone carving. He

commissioned statues of Jai Mal and Fatha (Rajput heroes of Chittor) shown sitting
on elephants, to guard the gate of the Agra Fort. Emperor Jahangir erected two
life-size marble statues of Rana Amar Singh and his son Karan Singh in the palace
garden at Agra. In general, Mughal rulers were great admirers of relief sculpture
(including abstract work as well as naturalist depictions of flowers, butterflies,
insects and clouds) which was regarded as an essential element of Mughal
architecture, and embellished their buildings with a wide variety of this type of
decorative art: an example being the 50 varieties of marble carving on the walls of
Akbar's tomb at Sikandra.
 Indian Culture and Heritage

RELIGION ART ARCHITECTURE

VISUAL ART PERFORMING ART

SCULPTURE DANCE
POTTERY MUSIC
PAINTINGS OTHERS
INDIAN POTTERY
1) Water Pots – kumbha or present matka.

2) Domestic Utensils - Parinahya).

3) Wine-pots – jumbula

4) Storage Jars - kostha

5) Measuring Pots - kamsa.

6) Pots for religious use - kamandalu

7) Flower Pots- pindalaga

(A) BLACK AND RED WARE INDUSTRY
(B) MEGALITHIC - BLACK AND RED
WARE INDUSTRY
(C) RED WARE INDUSTRY
(D) BLACK WARE INDUSTRY
PAINTED GRAY WARE INDUSTRY
Ahichchhatra - was the first to yield the evidence of Painted Grey Ware
(F) GRAY WARE INDUSTRY
(G) NORTHERN BLACK POLISHED
WARE INDUSTRY (N.B.P.W.)
(H) ANDHRA WARE
 (I) IMPORTED WARES
• Arretine ware
• Reuletted Ware
• Amphorae
• Red Polished Ware
Arretine ware
Rouletted/ Reuletted Ware
Amphorae Ware
Red Polished Ware
TECHNIQUES
 Indian Culture and Heritage

RELIGION ART ARCHITECTURE

VISUAL ART PERFORMING ART

SCULPTURE DANCE
POTTERY MUSIC
PAINTINGS OTHERS
Painting
Classical Indian Painting (Up to 1150 CE)
Post-Classical Indian Painting (14th-16th)
Mughal Painting (16th-19th)
Rajput Painting (16th-19th)
• Introduction

• The conquest of India by Islam over a period of five centuries divided Indian art into two streams: a classical period, which began with the foundation
of the Manrya Empire in the 3rd century BCE. and which ended with Moslem infiltration in the 13th and 14th centuries; and the so-called Mughal
(Mughal) period, from the 14th to 19th centuries, during which the splendours of the ancient structures were used with profit by a new society giving
birth to a hitherto unknown plastic language. Between these two phases, a period of three centuries, from the 13th to the 16th, served as a buffer
between the shock of Hinduism and that of Islam, and was a time of artistic transition.

• Classical Painting

• By the 2nd century BCE, Indian art had found a style of its own, expressing movement, naturalism and contemplation. The admirable sculptures of
Bharjut and Bhaja are proof of this. This vigorous ancient art, still somewhat naive, came under the influence of Greco-Buddhist art from Gandhara,
at the dawn of the Christian era. This was one of the side-effects of Alexander the Great's epic conquests of classical antiquity and permitted Indian
art to evolve its own technique and to expand its field of expression. It is to this mature art, in complete possession of its techniques and subject-
matter, that the first known works of Indian painters belong.

• The ancient treatise on painting, the Vishnudharmottaram, states: "Painting is the best of all arts." There is no doubt that ancient India experienced
intense activity in the field of painting: the number of written works devoted to the subject are sufficient proof, with other references in poetry and
drama. From these writings we learn that mural paintings decorated the walls of houses, palaces and temples. The analytical Indian mind had early
classified their genres and techniques: scenes of gaiety and love were to decorate private houses, while works involving the supernatural were
reserved for royal audience halls and places of worship. Figure painting of both men and gods were subject to certain rules; experts would discuss
the notion of relativity in the plastic conception of the beautiful. And yet of all these works nothing remains today; they have disappeared, along with
the wooden architecture with which they were associated.

• Fortunately for the history of art, followers of Brahmanism (a religion characterized by a priesthood and the division of the people into castes -
successor to Vedism), Buddhism and Jainism (a reforming religious movement, founded in the 6th century BCE, directed against Brahmanism) gave
their temples and meeting-houses a more permanent character; the first cave temples provided painting with a more durable home. Though these
caves were adorned with the faces of gods, we should not forget that this cave painting, from its inception, was a secular one. The religions of India
have left their mark, just as Christianity has influenced the West, but on the whole these paintings are invested with an image of a contemporary
ideal of beauty in order to attract and convince people.
 PAINTING

CLASSICAL POST - CLASSICAL MUGHAL RAJPUT

• VIJAYANAGARA
• GUJARATH • BABUR SCHOOL
BUDDHIST • AKBAR SCHOOL RAJPUT UPPER
• MEWAR & PUNJAB
MALWA • JAHANGIR SCHOOL
• ODISHA • SHAH JAHAN SCHOOL
• AURANGAZEB SCHOOL
BHRAMANIC • Basohli
Ajanta, • DECCAN SCHOOL • Mewar • Guler
Bagh, • Malva • Jammu
Sigiriya • Bundi
Badami, • Garual
• Kotah • Kangra
Panamalai, • Kishangar
Sittanavasal,
Ellora,
Tanjore
 Buddhist Painting (Ajanta, Bagh,
Sigiriya)

• Classical Buddhist art is associated with a period of peace and prosperity which
came to Northern India during the time of the great Gupta empire. (The Gupta
dynasty, founded by Chandragupta, ruled in Central India from 320 to 455.) The
splendour of this dynasty justifies the attribution of the term "Gupta" to cover the
total output of works in this golden age of Indian art. It should nevertheless be
stressed that the great religious centre of Ajanta did not come within the
territories of the Gupta empire, and that from the 2nd to the 7th centuries, this
site passed under the successive control of Satavahana, Vakatake, Kalachuri and
Chaloukya. We cannot say therefore, with any assurance, that there were direct
Gupta influences at work at Ajanta. Nevertheless there can hardly be any doubt
that the classical spirit which inspired Indian art during the 5th, 6th and 7th
centuries was the fruit of that cultural and intellectual emulation which was
developed and promoted well beyond its frontiers by the last great Indian Empire.
• At Ajanta, Bagh and Sigiriya we notice a relaxation from the strict purity of classical
Buddhism in favour of a new dynamism, an aestheticism and sensuality, which was
soon to be freely expressed in Brahman art.
 Ajanta Painting (1st century BCE - 7th
century CE)
• Buddhist monks were forbidden any prolonged stay in towns and therefore sought sanctuary from the monsoons in natural grottoes, just as modern Indian ascetics do today. As soon as
the community became prosperous, they hewed for themselves monasteries and sanctuaries out of the cliffs that edged the Western Ghats. These caves were fairly secluded but always
accessible to the laity. They bordered the trade routes which linked the Deccan with Central and Western India, and the main adherents of Buddhism were recruited from the traders and
merchants. In a sense the caves of Karli, Bhaja, Nasik, Aurangabad, Ajanta and Bagh were staging houses of the Buddhist faith.

• Of all these complexes (and in only a few are paintings preserved), the most important and justly famous is the one at Ajanta. The Ajanta caves were begun around the 2nd century BCE.
and were continued until the 7th century. They were dug out over a distance of over six hundred yards, on the flank of a rock face which juts out like a rounded arch over the Waghora
river. The site has a savage grandeur well suited to inspire both a state of metaphysical anguish and meditation. (For earlier examples of Stone Age cave painting, see also: Parietal Art:
40,000-10,000 BCE.)

• There are twenty-nine Buddhist caves composed of viharas, or monasteries, and chaityas, or meeting-places for the monks and the faithful. The countless sculptures which decorate
them were originally polychrome as well as all the flat surfaces. Subjects and themes on a grand scale were painted on the walls, while the ceilings were covered with decorative patterns
and serial figures.

• Only thirteen of the caves have fragments of paintings, the most important of which are in two chaityas, dating from the 1st century BCE, and in four of the viharas; these were done
between the 5th and 7th centuries.

• The techniques employed in painting the religious art at Ajanta are peculiar to Northern India. The rock face of the cave is first of all covered with a thick layer of ferruginous, or rust-
coloured, earth, bound by organic matter. On this base was applied a smooth coating of lime, a fraction of an inch thick, to which was added an application of glue in order to fix the
colour. The composition was then sketched out in vermilion over the ivory-smooth surface. The areas thus demarcated were given a base, a sort of terra verde, over which the colours
were applied in detail. (For the range of pigments used, see: prehistoric colour palette.)

• Finally, the contours were outlined in black or brown. Though the techniques for obtaining light and shade relief were not known to the Indian painter at this time, by the 5th century, at
least, he was using a method of surface relief, an effect he obtained through scraping or boring. It is remarkable how the Indian artist managed to give an illusion of depth, in spite of his
flat painting technique; he achieved it solely through the amazing exactitude and sensitivity of his drawing. There is no one who can surpass the Indian artist at conveying, with the help
of simple curves, the idea of fullness and plenitude, a sense of weight or the frailty of the female body.

• Colour pigments were chosen with regard to their resistance to damp and the limestone, and all had mineral bases: earth colours of red-brown and yellow ochre, green made from finely
pounded iron silicates, black and white. However, as the Vishundharmottaram explains, they could get "an unlimited variety of colours by mixing up to three colours, and by the play of
imagination and emotion". From the 5th century onwards blue was used, extracted from lapis-lazuli which Indian merchants sought as far afield as Persia. Rare and costly, this blue was
only applied in special instances and to highlight certain scenes, like the splashes of azure which caressingly surround the great Bodhisattva in the first of the chaityas. Gold was never
used, its effect being achieved through a mixture of green and yellow.

• The composition of the frescoes is quite special; it is impossible to translate their extraordinary exuberance. The first caves are still fairly hieratic, particularly where a Buddha is seen
preaching to his disciples. This painting has the noble severity of the Autun tympanum. But the composition which at first was in the form of an illustrated strip suddenly bursts forth in
the viharas as a design which not only goes from left to right but from top to bottom all over the surface of the walls. The scenes follow one upon another rather like the linked fade-outs
of cinema techniques. Stories are recounted simultaneously and on several levels; the only indication that the centre of interest has moved might be an architectural feature, a tree or a
face turned away from another person. Each pictorial phase is encircled in a zone of suspense, each scene is punctuated by a beat, regulating the rhythm of the symphony.

• Professor Philippe Stern relates this style to the influence of classical Sanskrit, a psalmodic language where "words join together through rules of assonance and meetings between
vowels, forming lengthy compounds, long drawn-out phrases which assure continuity and fluidity without interruption; while the rhythms and undulating movements of the language
allow one to follow the sentence, the word formation remains exact".

• Ajanta paintings are fundamentally consecrations to Buddhist iconography: the life of Buddha and a succession of jatakas, fables illustrating the countless animal and human rebirths,
which preceded his ultimate reincarnation as the Blessed One. These jatakas have provided Indian artists with an inexhaustible source of inspiration; their taste for naturalism has here
found an admirable pretext for representing their favourite animals: elephants, monkeys, cattle, birds, all appearing in a background of vegetation, treated with that combination of
• Bagh Painting (6th Century - 7th Century)

• Two hundred and forty kilometres to the north-west of Ajanta, in western Malva, are the Buddhist
caves of Bagh. For almost half a mile they are dotted along a cliff of friable sandstone and have
consequently suffered considerable damage. Most of them were painted; important fragments
existed up to about 1950, although they have practically disappeared today. While copies were
made at the beginning of the century, they are unable to recapture the beauty of the original.
However, they do give precious clues as to the general style, movement and feeling of depth which
characterises them. In fact, while they are closely linked to the Ajanta archetype, the Bagh paintings
show a freshness, a bonhomie, a vibrant, almost earthy, happiness which contrast sharply with the
restraint and introspection of their model. The fresco painting techniques are identical, but the
figures, once painted, are not outlined again, which increases the general impression of carefree
spontaneity. The subjects treated are presented in a broader, more open fashion than those at
Ajanta: a long procession of elephants followed by princes and princesses appear to be on their
way to a spring festival. Women, clinging to terraces, watch them pass. The most impressive section
is a group of musicians, who surround two long-haired dancers. The twirling, frenzied movement of
the ensemble is quite remarkable and portrays a purely pagan joy. This painting is a warm and live
expression (though no doubt provincial) of classic Buddhist art.
 Sigiriya (5th Century)
• Tradition has it that the devout Buddhist Emperor Asoka (reigned 264-226 BCE) of the Maurya dynasty sent his
own brother Mahendra, in 250 BCE, to convert the Sinhalese to the new faith. He seemed to have succeeded so
well that Sri Lanka is still today one of the main bastions of Hinayana Buddhism.
• We owe the beautiful frescoes of Sigiriya to a king-parricide. On top of a huge rock, 600 feet high, he had a palace-
fortress hewn out of the stone. It is only reached by a narrow path cut out of the rock. About a third of the way
up, in pockets sheltered by an overhang, forty feet above the pathway, there are paintings representing bearers of
gifts and offerings, fragments of a vast composition which must have accompanied the visitor for the greater part
of his climb. Twenty-one of these figures remain. The irregularity of the inner rock surface did not permit the
painter to complete the silhouettes in their entirety: women appear to emerge from clouds, their bodies
concealed from mid-thigh. They are contemporary with the paintings of cave No. 16 at Ajanta and have the same
grace and distinction, but with an added sense of realism. There is an attention to detail in the observation of the
human body here which is not so evident in the Ajanta paintings. These ladies and their handmaidens, who are
darker skinned and keep slightly in the background, seem to have been painted in such a way as to accentuate
their ethnic type rather than their individual personalities. Not only do their facial features differ one from the
other but their stance, their hair style and the details of their clothing all vary. This could easily be a portrait
gallery of court ladies. This is, perhaps, the only example in classical Indian painting of such careful
personalisation.
• The sense of volume and depth is particularly noteworthy, thanks to a technique which consisted of first cutting
the design on to the smooth surface of the wall, before putting on the red. The outline, moreover, was gone over
several times to emphasise the relief. The colours are the same as those used at Ajanta, including yellow ochre,
red-brown and mineral green, but to these was certainly added a copper blue, of which there are now but few
traces. A final outline in black, as in Northern India, brought the details into greater prominence. The idea of these
women, their sensual, haunting grace, their fine supple hands intermingling with the flowers brought as offerings,
has little to do with Buddhism. It would seem here that a point has been reached where beauty is glorified for its
own sake, where there is a purely aesthetic search for perfect form, of which a foretaste was given us by the great
Bodhisattva at Ajanta.
 Brahmanic Painting (Badami,
Panamalai, Sittanavasal, Ellora,
Tanjore)
• The great Indian empires collapsed with the Hun invasions
at the end of the 6th century, but the new dynasties, which
divided up the peninsula, continued the artistic traditions
of Ajanta. Classical art carried on with the same brilliance.
But Buddhism was gone; instead the new kingdoms
dedicated their sanctuaries to the gods of a reviving
Brahmanism. Painting, while maintaining the characteristics
of the preceding era - beauty and fullness of form, elegance
and sureness of line - was slowly but surely seduced by the
passion and grandeur of the Hindu pantheon. Art now
began to devote itself entirely to expressing the infinite
complexity of this prodigious vortex.
 Badami Painting
• In the 6th century a power grew up in the Deccan which was to rule Southern
India for the next two hundred years. These were the first western Chalukyas. They
made their capital at Badami, where, as at Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuteshvara,
they constructed many fine temples. The Badami site is very beautiful: cliffs and
imposing monoliths of pink stone tower above a blue lake. In a Badami cave-
sanctuary dedicated to Vishnu (second in the Brahman trinity of Brahma, Vishnu
and Shiva), built in 578, we find our first example of Brahman painting.
• Of the frescoes which once covered the walls of this grotto, only a fragment
remains; it occupies the concave surface of a heavy cornice which shelters the
entrance to the verandah. It is hard to tell what the actual subject of the
composition was, but those figures, which are still distinguishable, are exquisitely
graceful. The rounded heads in soft relief are sketched in fine, delicate lines. This
delicacy probably stems from the Southern Indian technique of applying the
colours a fresco secco. The tenderness and suave and almost friendly charm which
emanate from this painting are characteristic of all works of the Chalukya period:
elegant, restrained, humane. Their sweet faces, half-erased by time, are identical
to the beautifully sculptured pairs which decorate the interior of the Malikarjuna
temple at Pattadakal.
 Panamalai and Sittanavasal Painting
(8th Century - 9th Century)
• The reign of the first western Chalukyas was noted for the long struggle they had against the Pallavas, who from
the 6th century were the suzerains of India, south of the Toungabhadra. Until the 9th century, the Pallavas dotted
their territory with many temples and bequeathed to art the marvellous complexes of Mahavalipuram and
Kantchipuram. Only tiny fragments of their painting remain at Kantchipuram, and sixty-two somewhat larger
pieces at Panamalai and Sittanavasal.

• At Panamalai on one of the walls in the temple, Talagirishvara, there is a ravishing female figure; the delicate,
sharp outline, the fluidity of colours give us an idea of the technical perfection reached by these southern people.
The position of the young woman, one knee bent and the body graciously leaning backwards, is identical to that of
the princess at Ajanta, next to the scene of the birth of Buddha in Cave No. 2. It is a posture which we also find in
the Kajurao sculptures of the 12th century and is, in all probability, one of the characteristic poses of the heroines
of Sanskrit literature.

• The second group of paintings, and the most important of those of the Pallava period, are to be found in a Jainist
temple, cut out of the side of a hill near the village of Sittanavasal. The frescoes, which may date from the first half
of the 9th century, are in fairly good condition. On the verandah pillars there are paintings of two dancers in fine
and delicate silhouette and a group of three other persons. The drawing, as at Panamali, is firm, precise and
elegant; it is done in brownish red, and stands out beside the pale yellow of the lightly modelled bodies. The
ceiling of this verandah is decorated with a very remarkable composition representing three youths about to pick
lotus flowers in a pond where elephants, buffaloes and birds are coming to drink. This interweaving of animals and
plants, in greens and browns, is admirably cadenced and the stylisation of the whole painting takes away nothing
from its freshness and grace. The charming, youthful bodies of the young men are hardly filled out at all, but the
drawing is very sure. The lotus, some in bud and some in flower, haloed by huge rounded leaves, and with their
long sinuous stalks, is the centre-piece of this obviously symbolic group.
 Ellora Painting (8th-9th centuries)
• In the second half of the 8th century the first western Chalukyas were wiped out by a new dynasty, the
Rashtrakutas, who controlled the northern Deccan for more than a century. It is to these princes that we owe one
of the most beautiful monuments, and certainly the most extraordinary, in India, the Kailasha of Ellora. It is an
immense monolithic temple, entirely sculptured out of the massive rock. Of the thirty-four caves at Ellora, twelve
are Buddhist, seventeen Brahman and five Jainist. They issue from an abrupt, vertical cliff above the horizontal
sweep of a natural platform and dominate the northern part of the vast Deccan plateau. In this huge group,
containing the most beautiful pieces of Indian stone sculpture, we have only two examples of painting, in the
Kailasha and in the Jainist grotto called Indra Sabha.

• The Kailasha frescoes are to be found on the ceiling of the western porch. They are covered by three successive
layers of paintings, and are now in process of renovation. The oldest must date from the time the temple was built
in the second half of the 8th century. Here we see gods and goddesses in flight, dwarfs and a mythological being
astride a monster. The technique is the same as that at Badami, but here the drawing is more important than the
modelling. Brahman rhythm grows more and more definite as Buddhist borrowings become less. Shiva is dancing,
and meditation is replaced by a cosmetic jubilation.

• This intensity, this acceleration of movement, is even more striking in the very lovely fragments from the Jainist
cave, which date from the middle of the 9th century and show gods in flight and Shiva dancing with an astonishing
virtuosity. One character flies in the sky, revealing his back and curved buttocks, his hands joined above his head;
it is startling in the perfection of its technique and its sure brilliance. Here bodies have the elegance, the slimness
and the light angularity of the female figure at Panamalai, but there is a great degree of stylisation. The artist has
freed himself from the conventions of Ajanta. Brahmanism is never didactic like Buddhism; there is no attempt to
convince or persuade but one is carried away by the excitement of the scene. Naturalism is too heavy, and is
rejected in favour of schematisation, a neater way of expressing the symbolic geometry of shapes.
 Tanjore Painting (11th century)
• While the Rashtrakutas were ruling in the north of the Deccan a new dynasty, the Cholas, took over
the waning power of the Pallavas in the south and held it from the middle of the 9th century to the
beginning of the 13th century. The very special temple architecture of the south developed in the
Chola period, the most perfect example being the great Shiva temple at Tanjore.

• In six of the rooms at the base of the great tower of this sanctuary, frescoes dating from the
construction of the building (early 11th century) have been discovered underneath paintings of the
17th and 18th centuries. Restorers are now at work on the important paintings. On the whole the
paintings depict scenes about the god Shiva. Most remarkable are the dancers; with their
prodigious expressive strength they convey a feeling of triumphant joy. Although they may
resemble the flying genies of Ellora, here something more carnal animates their being, swells their
bodies and gives greater curve to their form. Their elan, much more violent here, is reflected in the
twisting of the dancer's chest. The colours from mineral pigments seem to be freely applied.
According to recent studies, they were applied to the fresco on wet plaster. Like all Indian painting,
the contours are etched in red and black, and figures are only lightly filled out. New frescoes have
been found in an ambulatory, and once this group has come to light we shall have one of the most
important examples of Indian classical painting.
 Vijayanagar Painting (1336-1565)
• Confronted by the victorious entry of the Moslems into the Deccan the southern kingdoms made a political truce and together founded, in 1336, an
empire which took its name from the capital, Vijayanagar ("City of Victory"). For more than two hundred years, despite a constant succession of wars
against neighbouring sultans, the empire was able to remain independent. Even after its defeat its unique culture was preserved. When the Moslem
states united and ended their resistance in 1565 the capital was pillaged and burned but punitive raids were not carried out further south. By this
time their long years of contact with Hindu civilisation had made them less harsh, less fanatical. To the south of the Deccan, Indian art was able to
develop without any hindrance, producing beautiful, vigorous works right into the 19th century.

• The "City of Victory" was spread over several square miles on a bend of the Tungabhadra River, and its past greatness is reflected in the ruins. It is the
only archeological site which provides important examples of Indian civic architecture of the day. Once again, alas, all the paintings which decorated
the houses, palaces and temples of this immense metropolis - highly praised by all contemporary travellers - have disappeared.

• The only surviving frescoes which are of the same style date from 1535 and cover the ceiling of the cathedral hall of the great temple of Lepakshi.
They are scenes devoted to the god Shiva. The charcoal drawings show great skill, particularly in details, but the overall effect is not so happy. The
sense of movement is stiff, sometimes clumsy. There is, however, no lack of elegance and from time to time the painting shows brilliant spontaneity.
While the conception is somewhat arid there is a degree of sharpness of observation. Here stylisation, at all events, triumphs. The artist has been
able to give an illusion of volume through his drawing but makes no attempt at a three-dimensional effect. All the faces are shown in profile, with
their prominent pointed noses and "fish-eyes", without eyelids. The other eye is shown, projecting from the forehead, giving the impression of a
strange three-quarter profile. These same characteristics are also found in illuminated works from Western India. The colours are few but very fine, a
reminder that Southern India is rich in colour pigments of all kinds. Apart from greens and brown ochres the painters at Lepakshi subtly vary the use
of dominant colours. A formal design, depicting young maidens at a festival, marvellously illustrates the beauty of the southern women, with their
sumptuous saris, jewels on their brows and their heads bare, revealing long black tresses. Lepakshi provides a last glimpse of classical painting.

• After the collapse of Vijayanagar, the empire disintegrated, although its cultural influence was still found in later works in Southern India, particularly
the colourful, though rather bald, scenes depicted in the temples at Anegundi (17th century) and at Tiruparutikundram, and the rich, brightly hued,
decorative effects of Cochin and Travancore
 Gujarat Illuminated Manuscripts
(12th to 16th Century)
• Gujarat, south of Rajastan, is one of India's richest provinces. Rivers water its fertile valleys and there are good ports which, even from the beginning
of the Christian era, were in commercial contact with Persia and Europe. The important merchant class which grew up there were all followers of
Jainism. From the 10th until the 13th centuries Gujarat was ruled by the Chalukyas and underwent a period of great prosperity which the Moslem
conquest of 1299 did nothing to interrupt. The Gujarati were arms manufacturers and bankers and managed to control the commerce of the region.
This enabled the province to keep a certain independence in the face of the Islamic threat and moreover to maintain the old artistic traditions.

• However, with the constant threat of plundering Moslems the painters sought a means of expression which would be less unwieldy and easily
preserved: book illustration fulfilled both conditions. Moreover Jainism attributes a great prestige to the written word, and all good believers knew
that the ordering of a holy book would bring them one step closer to salvation. In this way a great quantity of illuminated manuscripts were
produced, mostly kalpasutras, holy texts of the Jainist faith which enumerate sacrifices and regulate rituals, and Lives of the Saints. Several of them
have come down to us. The oldest, from the 12th and 13th centuries, were executed, like Pali manuscripts, on palm leaves; the greater part of the
surface is devoted to scrupulously executed writing while illustration is restricted to a small frame in which one or two figures are outlined in a
narrow, angular fashion, against a red background. There is absolutely no realism in these paintings. The poses are quite conventional, but they have
a strength and nobility and a tremendous intensity. The other colours used are blue, yellow and green. The faces mostly appear in profile and have
pointed noses, extremely exaggerated lidless eyes on the near side, with the other projecting to the front like the Lepakshi faces.

• From the 14th century the introduction of paper modified the format of the manuscripts. They became larger, and as greater space was devoted to
illustration the painter was able to add more detail to his work, including decoration, architectural elements and plants. The drawing was even more
stylised and complex and lost none of its extraordinary precision. Friezes edge the pages as well as the texts, with various motifs such as animals,
flowers and arabesques, which hint at the influence of Persian art from the west. Gold and silver were used, adding extra lustre to the writing as well
as the painting and giving a sumptuous effect to the whole. However, since its primary aim was to illustrate the holy texts, Jain painting remained
essentially narrative and was intellectual rather than aesthetic in conception.

• Apart from the kalpasutras and other holy works, it is to the Gujarat school that we owe the oldest of all secular manuscripts, the Vasanta-Vilasa,
which is a description of springtime by a husband very much in love with his young wife. This 15th-century manuscript leads on naturally to the early
Mewar illustrations, which depict the mystic, springtime loves of the great god Krishna, and the literature and painting devoted to love which
nourished during the following centuries.
 Illustrations from Mewar and Malva
(15th and 16th Century)
• In the 14th century Timur (1336-1405), King of Transoxiana, raided Delhi, leaving the city in ruins, and Northern India divided among a number of
sultanates all of which struggled to achieve hegemony. Malva was one of these, and played no mean role in the history of Indian miniature painting.
At the same time the small principalities of the Punjab and Rajastan took advantage of the political situation; a Rajput family of the Sisodiya clan in
this way succeeded in maintaining the independence of the state of Mewar for a time.
• Mewar knew two centuries of prosperity despite the internecine warfare. This was due to the enlightened outlook of its monarchs, the Sisodiyas,
who patronised the arts and made their court the centre of the new Western Indian school. The first known work is a manuscript, written on paper,
which dates from the beginning of the 15th century; for the first time we have full-page illustrations. Around 1500 there followed a series of six
manuscripts which confirmed the originality of the new style. They include two Vaghavata-Puranas, one Gita-Govinda (dramatic poem) and
a Chaurapanchasika (a love poem) of the 12th century by the Sanskrit poet, Bilhana. The quality of the latter work is such that the name of the book
has been given, by extension, to the whole of this small group of paintings. On the whole they are devoted to Krishna and to love, and the
illustrations, freed from the restricting form of the manuscript, show a tremendous wealth of inspiration. The painter broke with any ideas of the
past which did not suit the spirit of the present. It is true that they still owe something to the paintings of Lepakshi and to the Jain miniatures, but
while at Vijayanagar we saw a decaying classicism and at Gujarat a dependence on static, unadventurous tradition, the Mewar creations have an air
of extraordinary freshness. One has the impression that the artist achieved a freedom of form and colour not known before. Against a background of
midnight blue, dark reds and greens applied mat on to the surface and sometimes broken up by stylised architectural elements, we have schematic
silhouettes of figures. Women wear brilliant skirts and bodices, their heads and bosoms draped in orhni, transparent stoles which are a pretext for
the most ravishing painted arabesques. Despite a somewhat hieratic style of figure painting, the figures are full of spontaneity and fantasy. There is a
certain naturalism again in the close observation of men and nature. The works are bathed in an atmosphere of lyrical tension.
• In 1436 an independent Moslem dynasty was founded at Malva with its capital at Mandu. The rulers scorned the arts for themselves but tolerated
local artistic activity. A kalpasutra, on paper, was copied and illustrated at Mandu in 1439. The style is Gujarat but there is a greater subtlety in the
composition details and a richness of composition, with different episodes of the same scene placed side by side in the same picture but separated
by delicate frames. This idea of absorbing the narrative at a single glance is repeated in the miniatures of Malva and Mewar in the 17th century. The
fact that Islamic art had very little influence on Indian painting before the Mughal period can be explained by the fact that the first Moslem invaders,
great builders as they were, inspired by the grandeur of Seljukid Persia, had no painting tradition behind them. For a long time the works of the
Persian miniaturist school of painting were unknown in the Indian sultanates although by the 15th century some influence was being felt. In the 16th
century a Book of Recipes (Nimat-Nameh) was commissioned by a Malva sultan who, it was said, renounced all the responsibilities of government in
order to devote himself entirely to the education of his sixteen thousand wives. There is clearly some Persian inspiration in the backgrounds, dotted
with little bunches of flowers, in the clothes and in the figures, shown semi-profile with slit eyes. But the representation of the women, in profile,
with their rounded cheeks, pointed noses and wide-open eyes is purely Indian. This work is the only example we have from the pre-Mughal period;
along with the kalpasutra of Mandu it proves the existence, in Malva, of an artistic growth which was to have an important effect two hundred years
later.
 Hindu Art in Orissa (16th-17th
Century)
• While most of the Orissa paintings date from the 17th and 18th centuries they should be included in the pre-Mughal period, since the influence of
the Delhi school on the development of religious art in this traditional bastion of Hindu culture was practically negligible.

• From the 7th until the 13th centuries there was a rich output of art in Orissa. Its style was powerful and voluptuous and the temples of
Buvaneshvara, Puri and Konarak are marvellous examples. Once more, however, the wall-paintings have disappeared, destroyed by the weather or
concealed under later paintings in the great sanctuaries which are still in use. Nevertheless we have some idea of the nature of this fresco painting,
thanks to the recent discovery of a few paintings dating from the second half of the 16th century. Their originality and the high technical quality of
the work presuppose an advanced painting tradition. They can be seen today in the Asutosh Museum in Calcutta, sheets of well-sized paper,
mounted on material. The most famous of them depicts an embassy of Moslem dignitaries at the court of the king of Orissa. The scene is
monumental in composition and it can easily be imagined fastened to a wall. The colours - reds, blues and greens - are rich and cleverly balanced. The
drawing is skilful, and carefully brings out the individual characteristics of each figure. Included in this collection are four pages of the Gita-Govinda,
also painted on paper, which are of exceptional quality. They are divided into two bands; the draped gopis wear saris of such transparency that one is
very much aware of their bare flesh as they wait on the moonlit banks of the Jamuna for their divine cowherd. The brush-strokes finely and
sensitively wrap the young maidens in spiders' webs. In just the same way the wispy trees surrounding them are painted with just that delicate and
precise touch to bring out their essential form. Does and peacocks, finely observed, play at their feet. This restrained, elegant, allusive painting owes
little to the paintings of Vijayanagar or the Western Indian style. It seems more likely that it is the final flowering of an art associated with the great
Orissa wall paintings: it also recalls especially the sculpture of Konarak.

• After this dazzling flash of brilliance the illustrations of the following centuries are something of an anti-climax. The figures become heavy, the
composition arid, with a multitude of decorative twirls reducing the pictorial space to nothing. They resemble in many ways the wall-paintings of
Southern India in the 18th and 19th centuries. The paintings, on the whole, have an undeniably sensual and exotic effect; but the stereotyped
illustrations belong to folk imagery, nothing more, and are not great works of art. In the 17th century wallpapers were produced which seemed to
have taken their inspiration from Persia and Europe.
 Babur School of Painting
• In 1500, Babur (1483-1530), the last of the Timurids and the founder of the Indian Mughal dynasty, was driven out
of Transoxiana and Eastern Iran, invaded the Punjab and took the sultanate of Delhi from the Turco-Afghans. In
1525 a new Mongol dynasty had founded the Mughal empire.

• Babur was the first in a line of emperors, artists and philosophers who established a rule of exceptional brilliance
in India for three hundred years. They were princes who were devoted to Persian culture and they remained so;
the first works of religious art which issued from their court were closely associated with the Herat school. It was
only in the second half of the 16th century that the Mughal style proper began to develop; this was at a time
when the palace studios of Emperor Akbar (1542-1605) and his son Emperor Jahangir (1569-1627) employed
Indian artists and received fresh stimulus from the West. While Mughal painting forsook older Persian art for a
new Indian style it never entirely forgot its ancestry, as we can see in the refinement and lightness of its
brushwork, its swaying lines, the multiple resources of its palette.

• Babur died in 1530; his reign was too troubled and too brief to have produced an art style of its own. His Memoirs,
however, inspired many miniaturists under his successors. An amiable philosopher, his reminiscences betray a
Persian epicureanism and recall the great poet, Hafiz; here is one line as an example: "A tree's shade, a volume of
poetry, some wine, your song in the desert; lo! the desert has become paradise."

• During the reign of Humayun, Babur's successor, the empire was still not consolidated. Delhi had to be abandoned
and the Sultan lived for fifteen years in exile before he recovered his throne, a year before his death. He spent a
long time at the court of Tahmasp, the king of Persia, and brought back to India with him a famous painter, Mir
Sayid Ali, who formed, with other Persian painters, the new school of painting founded by Humayun's son, Akbar.
 Akbar School of Painting
• In the fifty years of his rule (1556-1605) Emperor Akbar extended the boundaries of the Mughal empire as far as the Deccan. He had a genius for organisation and endowed India with a
vast administrative network. Skilfully he followed a policy of reconciliation with regard to the native princes who had been enemies of the Mughal regime, and made allies of conquered
kings. Unlike his Persian ancestors, he was extremely tolerant in the field of religion. He even attempted to found a syncretic philosophy, with Hindu and Islamic ideas happily merged. It
was called the "Divine Faith". He was equally open to ideas from the West and invited Jesuits to his court.

• It is from this time that European art began to influence the painting of the Mughal dynasty. Akbar was not only a warrior, an administrator and a diplomat; he was also a man of culture.
His court, at Fathepur Sikri, was the Versailles of the East. He founded a studio where artists from all over his empire came to work. Persian artists such as Mir Sayid Ali, Abdus Samad and
Farrug Beg taught the Indians the techniques of Iranian miniature painting. The works which came from these studios have an exceptional quality and were produced in such numbers
that it is clear the Indian painters were experts at their profession before the arrival of the Persians; otherwise they could not have assimilated the lessons of the foreigners with such
ease. The emperor himself kept an eye on the work. He encouraged all artists and rewarded them with rich gifts. Mural paintings were done not by one artist but by a team of artists: the
outline, the figures, the landscape, the animals, the colouring could each be the work of a different specialist. In this way the painting became somewhat de-personalised; but there was
an evenness of style and a spreading of talent which made up for this. Indian painters were able to introduce naturalistic ideas to the purely decorative art of the Persians. This is clearly
seen in the treatment of animals and landscapes. The flora of Persia, the shrubs, the slender cypresses, gradually gave way to the rich vegetation of India, painted over large surfaces, the
leaves arranged so as to leave no empty gaps. The influence of Italian Renaissance art, examples of which were brought to the court by the Jesuits and foreign travellers, is seen both in
the use of light and in a hint of linear perspective. Its influence in the development of portrait art was also important.

• Paradoxically, portraiture was introduced into India by rulers of the Islamic faith. In fact, Akbar had a struggle with his courtiers when he tried to introduce this form of art, which is
contrary to Koranic tradition. The emperor justified it by stating: "There are many people who despise painting: I myself cannot abide this type of person. I feel that painters are endowed
with exceptional means of knowing God; a painter in drawing a living person is forced to admit that he is unable to bring his subject to life. He is led to think of God as the sole creator of
all life, and in this way learns to know Him better." In this the emperor had been instructed by the Jesuits. Portraiture did become one of the most important aspects of the Mughal
school, a school of Islamic art which was always closely associated with court life and the rich patrons who lived there. Painters depicted all the activities of the court - their banquets,
their loves and their hunting parties. Portraiture resulted from the aristocratic nature of the state, and princes and their courtesans loved being immortalised by contemporary painters.

• The works of the Akbar school are to be found in illuminated manuscripts and in separate paintings, which, however, are grouped in albums, in much the same way as stamp collections.
The most important of the manuscripts are: the Hamzah-Nameh, begun under Humayun and finished by the end of the 16th century, which tells the story of Mahomet's uncle, with a
considerable number of illustrations, the earlier being entirely derivative while the later paintings show characteristics of the Mughal school; the Babur-Nameh, drawn from the Memoirs
of the founder of the dynasty; the Timur-Nameh, devoted to the life of Tamerlane; and the Akbar-Nameh. A number of manuscripts and albums continued to be produced in the studios
of the Emperor Akbar who also had the great Sanskrit epics translated into Persian, and illustrated. The Razm-Nameh, a translation of the Sanskrit epic Mahabhavata with 169 illustrations
(one of the most sumptuous works of the period), was produced in this way. These were carried out between 1584 and 1589, and among the painters was the great Indian artist,
Daswanth, who was discovered by the emperor and whose works are typically romantic. For a comparison with western manuscripts, see: History of Illuminated Manuscripts (600-1200).

• When Akbar died his palaces at Fathepur Sikri, Agra, and Lahore were decorated with a number of fresco paintings which have now disappeared. Those which decorated his white marble
mausoleum were seen by the Venetian traveller Manucci and showed "The Holy Cross, the Madonna holding the Infant Jesus, and, on her left, Saint Ignatius, archangels and cherubs".
 Jahangir School of Painting
• Jahangir ruled from 1605 to 1627. He followed, on the whole, the policies of his father, although he refused to
continue Akbar's policy of religious reform and reverted to a stricter Moslem belief. He was a great patron of the
arts. The new sovereign even allowed the reins of government to be taken over by his wife so that he could devote
himself to his two ruling passions (apart from a love for alcohol and opium), which were painting and the natural
sciences. It was due to him that animal painting developed and that portraiture was endowed with a psychological
depth and individuality which had been unknown before. To bring out the personal characteristics of their models
the painters showed them in three-quarter profile, rather than strictly in profile, and gave them natural poses. The
emperor was a great art collector and possessed a large number of albums and manuscripts as well as many
European paintings. In his Memoirs he writes: "My love for painting and my ability to judge them has reached
such a heightened degree of awareness that if a work is shown me, whether it was painted yesterday or today, I
can immediately deduce the names of all the painters who were involved in its execution." The sovereign was an
eclectic and this produced the complete fusion of Iranian and Indian traditions, which had begun under Akbar.
Moslem and Hindu artists were on a footing of complete equality in the Imperial studios. Among the Indians, two
names have achieved especial fame: Govardha, who was skilful at synthesising both foreign and Indian styles; and
Manuhar, the celebrated animal painter. It was under Jahangir that the European influence reached its height; but
it was an ephemeral influence, the passion of the Indians for the paintings of the " Franks " being on about the
same level as the passion of Europeans for Turkish decoration and chinoiserie in the 17th and 18th centuries. It
did not fill a basic need. The Western contributions were primarily in the fields of perspective and portraiture,
sitters being painted as they were, in the manner of Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) or Jean Clouet (d.1541).
 Shah Jahan School of Painting
• Under the reign of his son, Shah Jahan (who succeeded in 1627), the
splendour of the Mughal court reached a height which in a sense
paralleled the magnificence of the court of the French King Louis XIV. Like
his contemporary, the "sun-king" with his Versailles, the "king of the
world" built a sumptuous fortified palace at Delhi and the Taj Mahal at
Agra, the finest jewel of Indo-Mughal architecture, which was a
mausoleum built for his beloved wife. He did not share his father's great
passion for painting, but the new emperor continued to extend patronage
to artists who continued the marvellous tradition of the Jahangir epoch.
Animal paintings were of great beauty and some of the portraits
remarkable, but in general, the style of the period, while remaining
technically perfect, degenerated into a constant repetition of similar
themes which led to a dullness of execution. There were intimate scenes
of great preciousness - in the harem, meetings of lovers, nocturnal
escapades - which had a great success during the last years of the empire.
 Aurengzeb School of Painting
• The brilliant reign of Shah Jahan came to an end with a fratricidal struggle for succession. The emperor died, a
prisoner of his youngest son, Aurengzeb, who took over as ruler when he had eliminated all his brothers. The new
sovereign of India, who ruled from 1659 to 1707, was a skilful militarist, annexing the last remaining sultanates of
the Deccan. He was also a great administrator and completed the centralisation of the empire. But while his
predecessors had sought an alliance between Islam and Hinduism as the basis of their power, Aurengzeb, by a
brutal return to the days of a fanatical Islam, alienated the Hindus, and the end of his reign was marked by a series
of uprisings which preceded the final disruption of the empire.
• The religious zeal and austere character of the new ruler led to the suppression of all luxuries at court - even
music was banned. A censorship of morals was instituted. Imitating the furious iconoclasm of the first Moslem
invaders, Aurengzeb had many works of art destroyed, disfiguring portraits painted on walls and white-washing
frescoes, even those on the walls of his ancestor Akbar's mausoleum. However, the emperor did not close the
royal studios and had several portraits painted of himself and his family. But he only allowed artists who were
willing to illustrate his own great deeds, or who did purely decorative work. Many of them, as a result, left the
capital and sought refuge at the courts of local princes, playing an important part in the development of the
Rajput schools of painting.
• The whole of the 18th century was marked by the disintegration of the empire, a breaking away of many
subordinate states, the Afghan invasions and the uprisings of the Sikh and Mahratta peoples. In spite of the
confusion, battles and pillaging which accompanied the rapid fall of the Mughals, a school of painting continued at
Delhi, the greatest painter of which was Mir Chand, an Indian by birth. The painters of this school contented
themselves with reproducing traditional styles, with the introduction of European figures into late Indian scenes
providing delightful lighthearted digressions.
 Islamicised Sultanates of the Deccan
(16th-17th Century)
• The Islamicised sultanates of the Deccan - Bijapur, Golconda and Ahmadnagar, originally founded
on the ruins of the ephemeral Turco-Afghan empire - did not survive the collapse of the Mughals.
They had inherited the art of building from the Seljukids and introduced the cupola into India. From
the 15th century they developed a type of building which was really Indo-Islamic; its original form
was borrowed from Islam but it was enriched and enlivened with the extraordinary Indian genius
for decoration. However, there is no known painting style native to the northern Deccan before the
beginnings of the Mughal school. In the second half of the 16th century there appeared some
original manuscripts which combined both Persian and Mughal influences and also that of the
Vijayanagar school, particularly in the treatment of female figures and in a certain freshness and
spontaneity of movement. From the same period come the beautiful ragmalas of Ahmadnagar and
Bijapur, similar to many works from Western India but with a specifically Persian richness of
decoration. At the beginning of the 17th century the passion for Mughal miniatures gave rise to a
very particular style, notably at Bijapur and Golconda. There are beautiful portraits, delicately and
romantically painted, the rounded figures of the sultans surrounded by courtiers and courtesans
swathed in a halo of flowing white muslin, set off by golden scarves. Landscapes in the distance,
with fine perspectives, reveal marvellous palaces - the princes were great builders - while with the
green intensity of the jungle we feel the atmosphere of the warm Indian earth. Most of the
portraits are done in three-quarter profile: their nobility, humanity and lyricism give the Deccan
school its great originality.
 Mewar School of Painting
• By the time Akbar's peace had been generally accepted by the Rajastan state the Sisodiya clan presented a lone
front to the foreigners. It finally succumbed in 1614 but their defence gained the esteem and sympathy of Shah
Jahan, who allowed the Sisodiya to recover from the defeat without losing their pride. During the beginning of the
16th century the Mewar school had known a precocious but short-lived brilliance which was ended by the severe
defeats inflicted by the empire. However, with their submission to the Mughals the Sisodiya forsook the clash of
arms for the delights of pleasure-making. From this first half of the 17th century appeared a series of paintings
which - keeping in mind the historical context - remained practically untouched by Mughal influence, although
they are closely linked to the contemporary work of their neighbours in Malva. Colour pigments are extremely
brilliant and used in their pure state: red, saffron-yellow, blue and green. Each scene stands out with wonderful
luminosity against the monochrome background. Linear perspective is not employed, the effect of different places
being achieved by the juxtaposition of colours. Elegant, stylised buildings provide levels for the different scenes, as
in Malva, but here they have the added embellishment of luxurious plant ornamentation, treated fully and
vigorously, and later copied by other schools. Countless details of folk life and the courtly, chivalrous atmosphere
of the palace are introduced into the mythical subjects of the Bhagavata-Purana and the Ramayana.

• With the second half of the 17th century we have the beginning of a new period in the development of the Rajput
style. The new-found peace encouraged a revival of the arts: Udaipur was extended, marvellous palaces being
built on the outskirts of the city. Painting became very popular and even began to suffer from over-production.
The compositions grew more complex and more subtle, but at the same time the paintings lost their charm and
their strength. In the beginning of the 18th century the summer palace, at some distance from the capital, was
decorated with mural-paintings which still exhibited a sureness and nobility. The general lines are cleaner and the
scenes are bathed in an aura of sweet serenity from which all superfluous detail is banished. The Galta temple has
some remarkable frescoes, with scenes of religious and local interest. One depicts an extraordinary young man
playing the flute and seated by a lake; it is a harmony of greys and blues, of inexpressible purity and magical
charm. It is as if Mewar, on the eve of a permanent artistic decadence, had suddenly returned to the poetic
simplicity of its first paintings.
 Malva School of Painting
• We have already discussed the Moslem sultanate of Malva, which, in the 15th and
16th centuries, encouraged local artists to produce works of great originality, and,
in the case of the Nimat-Nameh, to fuse both Persian and Indian traditions. At the
beginning of the 17th century, Malva, which is included here not as a state but as a
region comprising both Bundelkand and south-eastern Rajastan, continued to
produce paintings which shared the same inspiration as Mewar but which retained
traces of the style of the illuminated works painted in the preceding century. A
series of ragmalas (paintings inspired by music), among many qualities, show a
command of technique and an astonishing inventiveness. The forceful drawing,
the clarity of the figure painting, the absolute simplicity of the composition,
detract in no way from the ardent expressiveness of the painting.
• With this total starkness the artist obtains maximum dramatic tension. This style
provided inspiration for painters until the end of the century, with illustrations for
the Ramayana and the Bhagavata Purana, and, while they may have lost
something of their emotional shock, they remain alive and seductive.
 Bundi School of Painting
• One of the greatest of the Rajput dynasties, the Hara, ruled over Bundi. They were at first vassals of the Sisodiyas,
but they obtained their independence in 1554 and hastily made a separate peace with the Mughals. From this
alliance a school of painting grew up which merged harmoniously the realistic and elaborate styles of the Mughal
with the intense expression and luxuriant plant life of the Mewar school. A series of ragmalas, dating from the first
decades of the 17th century, perfectly demonstrates the assimilation of these two styles. Figures, of a Mewar
type, disport themselves in buildings which are entirely Mughal in spirit, surrounded by animal and plant life
which are essentially Indian. Colour in painting is intense like Mewar paintings but used with subtlety like the
Mughals. The works reveal a nervous charm and an austerity which seems quite foreign to Bundi. About 1640 the
school developed a greater freedom of expression, as if the artists had made a conscious effort to free themselves
from their models. The colours became clearer, more brilliant and the classical themes of the Bhagavata-Purana
are treated in a new and original manner, with the addition of humorous episodes. The women are all of the same
curious type, with smallish, rounded faces, plump cheeks and pouting lips. At the end of the 17th century intimate
scenes in dwellings surrounded by gardens were composed in a geometrical style. Here we have signs of a growing
aridity, but, right till the end, the paintings retain their nobility, particularly those seductive female nudes which
appear to have been the favourite subject of 18th-century painters.

• The town of Bundi is hidden in a narrow, picturesque gorge and has a palace with 18th-century fresco-paintings.
The designs are unimaginative but they are beautifully executed. Episodes taken from the life of Krishna have a
humour and vivacity which recall the early Bundi paintings but they have a more formal structure and a hint of
academicism. A procession leaving the palace calls to mind the Ajanta frescoes, and there is a marvellously lyrical
scene of courtly love executed with a masterly touch. These paintings are all in a first-storey patio. In an interior
room of the palace, inside a deep niche, there is a wonderful portrait of the divine couple, Krishna and Radha,
being carried off by a whirlwind, literally submerged in the ubiquitous vegetation of the Brindaban forest. This
example of portrait art is possibly the most intense surviving example of mystical Krishnaism.
 Kotah School of Painting
• Kotah, to the south-east of Bundi, once formed an integral part of the latter state
but gained its independence at the beginning of the 17th century. The two
principalities even fought a war a hundred years later. In the second half of the
18th century, at a time when the schools of Rajastan were undergoing a decline,
Kotah had two sovereigns whose passion for hunting resulted in a series of
paintings primarily depicting hunting scenes which were of a style all of their own.
There is a clear Mughal influence in the fine detail and the sure use of perspective,
but the initial inspiration must be sought elsewhere. In these works nature takes
pride of place, even enveloping the hunter, who sometimes disappears almost
completely from view behind a clump of bushes. Wild animals slink through the
landscape with great ease, supple and powerful. Kotah is the only Indian school
which has produced landscape painting in the European sense of the word. W.C.
Archer, to whom we owe the discovery of these works, has compared them to the
paintings of Henri Rousseau (1844-1910). But the great French primitive always
depicts nature in a threatening fashion, expressing man's profound trepidation
when confronted by creation, while the nemrods of Kotah knew the jungle
intimately and reveal a tender complicity towards its teeming life.
 Kishangar School of Painting
• Kishangar, a small state to the north of Rajastan, produced during the first half of the 18th century one of the most attractive of the many Indian
schools of painting. The state was founded with the support of the Mughals in the 17th century. It had close links with the capital and might easily
have remained a provincial branch of the Delhi school had it not been for the existence of three interconnected factors: a great king, Singh; a great
painter, whose name, Nihal Chand, is known to us this once; and a great love affair. In the years between 1730 and 1760 these factors produced a
style of painting remarkable for its grave beauty and extreme stylisation.

• Singh was a fervent follower of Krishna, and renowned as a poet under the pseudonym of Nagari Das. He maintained a retinue of writers, musicians
and painters but only one of them was an artist sensitive enough to express the king's thoughts. Nihal Chand was a man of exceptional talent and
great culture, but the determining factor in the birth of these paintings was Singh's fierce passion for a young dancer from the queen's suite who
became his concubine. She was given the name of Bani Tani (" Magical Lady "), and her special kind of beauty provided the model for all the figures in
Chand's paintings. Both men and women are tall and slim; their attitudes are noble. Their faces are long and fine, grave, with huge eyes slanting
towards the temples, giving the whole an enigmatic expression. In these paintings vegetation takes second place. In French-style gardens, mysterious
young maidens give their lovers secret rendezvous beside spraying fountains. Radha and Krishna meet in the woods at night-time; above the forest a
long, silent barque floats with the lovers down a black river and on the other bank a rose-coloured city disappears under a glowing sky lit by the
moon. Probably the most beautiful of all these paintings, the one which expresses most perfectly Singh's spirituality, is another nocturnal scene:
Radha and Krishna are separated, seated on two white marble terraces, a grey stretch of water between them; they are gazing at each other from a
distance. Each composition is executed with restrained, fine colouring; their format, which is larger than usual for miniatures, gives a feeling of
infinite space.

• After a disturbed reign the king abdicated and ended his days in the forest of Brindaban, the country of his god, accompanied by Bani Tani. "The state
is the source of warfare and that is the reason why I fear to be at its head," he writes in a poem. "It keeps my spirit away from Brindaban. Why bear
the burdens of the world if it cannot bring about the kind of happiness which men gain through devotion to God? Now I am facing new horizons. My
place is near my Lord and it cannot matter now if the whole universe is against me." Singh died in 1764 and his faithful mistress a year later. Nihal
Chad remained at the Kishangar court but his works soon lost their noble, spiritual character without the great inspiration of the poet-king.

• There are other Rajastan schools, such as those of Jaipur, Bikaner and Jaisalmer, which have much of interest to offer, but they lack the originality of
the paintings we have been considering.
The Upper Punjab Schools (17th-19th
Century)
• The Upper Punjab is formed by the western foothills of the
Himalayas and is cut across with deep valleys separating high
mountain chains. This region is difficult of access but has been
occupied since ancient times. There are lovely classical remains at
Kashmir, Kangra and in the Kulu and Jammu valleys. Moslem
invasions in the 11th century were checked and the small Rajput
principalities continued their local struggles in the shelter of the
mountains. Under the Emperor Akbar the whole region came under
Mughal rule with an exchange of hostages and gifts and the sharing
of administrative expenses. In spite of their allegiance to the empire
the states were to all intents and purposes independent and
continued their internecine fighting. In the field of the arts the
Mughal contribution was negligible until the 18th century, when the
collapse of the empire and the sack of Delhi encouraged Delhi
artists to seek refuge in the mountain courts of the Rajput princes.
 Basohli School of Painting
• Rajastan influence was uppermost in the 17th century. The first school of painting to develop in the Upper Punjab,
the Basohli school, was directly derived from Mewar, although there were original elements which presuppose the
existence of a popular Himalayan tradition before this period. The Basohli style is distinctive, due mainly to an
extraordinary tension. The figures are quite unique, with their huge eyes taking up a large part of the face, and
their wild gestures expressive of a continuous vehemence.

• There is something both barbarous and refined, alive and hieratic, insolent and ferocious in these paintings, which
are among the most original to be found in Rajput art. The earliest known works date from the end of the 17th
century and are pages out of the Rasamanjari, an erotic treatise on love-making, written by the Sanskrit poet,
Bhanudatta. The colours reflect the violent passions of the heroes: red-brown, red ochre, blue-green, olive green
and yellow-orange. The figures are given pride of place in a composition which is kept very simple in order not to
distract attention from the human being. Natural objects are extremely stylised and only carpets and jewels are
given luxurious detail. After these astonishing early pieces, the later paintings do not give one the same emotional
thrill, but they are nevertheless imbued with a sensual passion, a virile joy which may become a kind of lewd
gaiety, not often met with in Indian art. The subjects include a young prince hugging two young maidens, Radha
feverishly preparing Krishna's couch, and a delightful scene depicting the child Krishna stealing some butter with
the help of his friends while his nurse has her back turned.

• When, in 1752, the Mughal empire was officially dismembered the Upper Punjab came under the rule of the
Afghans. But it was a rule which was entirely nominal, and the insecurity of the times led to the development of
new trading routes from Delhi to Kashmir which now passed through the territory of the small, modest mountain
states of Guler, Jammu and Kangra. Painters and merchants settled there, and there grew up almost overnight new
schools of painting of a distinctly successful style.
 Guler School of Painting
• Guler was founded in 1405 when the Kangra state split up. It is situated on the River Beas and has
easy access to the plain. This was the region which first felt the Mughal influx and between 1740
and 1770, before it was re-absorbed by Kangra, Guler became the centre of a second Upper Punjab
style, which combined the ideas of the Delhi artists and the characteristics of the second Himalayan
school—lyricism, naturalism and romanticism. Guler no doubt was aware of the Basohli paintings
but the first works, illustrations of the Ramayana dating from 1720, reveal a style which is direct
and naive, individual in conception and, apparently, purely local. One is immediately struck by the
audacity and size of the battle scenes which take place at the foot of curious fortresses.

• Conceptions of such grandeur were unknown to Rajput miniaturists who, on the whole, gave pride
of place to people rather than to action. This was an isolated series of paintings, however, and in
1740 a second style was to appear which was much more refined, inspired by Mughal art. They are
a series of beautiful portraits of local notables. Finally, between 1760 and 1780 we have the Guler
style proper, with the Mughal contribution completely assimilated. The miniatures often include
several figures, court scenes and episodes from the life of Krishna, the backgrounds composed of
delightful landscapes executed with a well-balanced perspective. The painter's palette grew gayer
and the colours attain a certain variety. In sharp contrast with the intensity of the Basohli paintings
these works demonstrate a serenity which we shall also find with the Jammu and Garual schools.
 Jammu School of Painting
• Jammu in about 1600 became the strongest of all these mountain states
and in the 18th century, due to the new commercial route opened in the
direction of Kashmir, it grew even more important. The court was wealthy
and patronised artists, so that painting made steady progress from 1730
to 1785. The subjects at first were exclusively princes, accompanied by
their children or their retainers, portrayed in an atmosphere of aristocratic
refinement, full of nobility and sweetness. The colours are pale but clear
and bring out the beauty of the design. Whatever the subject - a royal
audience, a street scene, the choosing of a horse, a peaceful evening
outside a tent - all these paintings exude a peaceful, gentle calm. From
mid-century onwards, however, paralleling developments in Guler,
painters began to concentrate on more romantic themes, such as a group
of maidens in graceful attitudes, listening to evening concerts on white
terraces replete with ponds and copses. This tendency towards
melancholy finally took over completely from the pallid serenity of the
early works and is found again, with an added lyricism, in the works of the
Kangra school.
 Garual School of Painting
• Tucked away in the south-eastern part of the Punjab the state of Garual
maintained its independence for a long time. But its isolation, which allowed this
autonomy, was an obstacle to any artistic development. Nevertheless between
1770 and 1800, coinciding with the period in which they were conquered by the
Gurkhas, Garual produced its own school of painting. They are romantic pictures,
though restrained, and executed with a grace which was somewhat hieratic; their
formality is softened by the suavity of the colouring. Many explanations have been
offered for the sudden appearance of these paintings. One school of thought
suggests that it was the arrival of a group of Guler artists about 1760. However,
despite some similarities between the two styles, the theory remains unproven
and the mystery remains intact; and in a sense this mystery adds to their charm.
Garual painting does not enjoy the same prestige as that of neighbouring states,
but for thirty years the work of its artists shone with a clear brilliance. Superb
illustrations for the Ramayana marvellously express this art, with its modest
lyricism and its marked taste for symbolism.
 Kangra School of Painting
• From the end of the 18th century until the first part of the 19th the Kangra state was one of the most important of
the mountain powers and had a prosperous and cultivated court which attracted many artists who were victims of
the insecurity of the times. In 1775, Sansar Chand, who was both a collector and an aesthete, came to the throne
and his personality helped in no small way towards this last great Rajput school attaining its rapid maturity. The
brilliance of the Kangra school did not fade before the end of the 19th century, but its golden age covers a much
more limited period, between 1770 and 1820. The influence of the last Guler period is obvious, but the cool
lightness of this style is replaced by a passionate lyricism which accompanies the elegant representation of
classical themes. The loves of Krishna and the anguish of Radha are painted in dramatic terms, with the setting
(the "climate" of the painting) playing an important role.
• Kangra paintings, like those from Garual, are full of symbolism. Their landscapes lack the innocent charm of their
Guler counterparts: here nature is closely linked with human passions. Many nocturnal scenes show the heroine
caught in a forest trap while looking for her lover: surely the very image of blind passion and jealous anguish. The
seasons serve as well as pretexts for digressions about love, while even the weather expresses the doubts and the
hopes of lovers. In these romantic paintings woman reigns supreme. Kangra women are beautiful in the same way
as the Guler women, but they are not restrained by their sense of dignity; they love wholeheartedly, although not
without sophistication, and even while suffering they seek to please. The paintings of Kangra exalt the complex
personality of womankind, stressing her fragility and her mystery to such an extent that she is always the focal
point of their painting. During the 19th century this school produced still more works which have a certain
elegance but the composition lacks inspiration, and portraits of conventional figures have only an academic life in
over-skilful landscapes. (We should point out that the Chamba, Bilaspur and popular Kulu schools are included in
the Kangra group.)
• In Rajastan as well as the Upper Punjab, the 19th century brought a new wave of conquests and finally the English
occupation. This sounded the knell of the mystical and chivalrous society which had been the basis of the
flourishing Rajput culture. The artist, isolated from the noble ideals of their earlier inspiration, could do no more
than place their talents in the hands of the foreign invaders, or repeat, indefinitely, the old themes.
• The ancient literary works a separate section
of painting is found in Vishnudharmottara
Purana.
Mughal Painters
 Humayun
• Abdu’s Samad and Mir Saiyid Ali
• Miskin – Caricaturist
 Indian Culture and Heritage

RELIGION ART ARCHITECTURE

VISUAL ART PERFORMING ART

SCULPTURE DANCE
POTTERY MUSIC
PAINTINGS OTHERS
PERFORMING ART
DANCE
 Bharatanatyam
• History & Evolution
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• Opposition & Ban During Colonial Rule
• Revival
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 Kathak
• History & Evolution
• Association with Bhakti Movement
• Improvisation in the Mughal Era
• Decline during Colonial Rule
• Revival
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 Kathakali
• History & Evolution
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 Kuchipudi
• History & Evolution
• Development & Decline in the Late Medieval Era
• Opposition & Ban During Colonial Rule
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 Manipuri
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• Development in the Medieval era
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• Association with Rabindranath Tagore
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 Mohiniattam
• History & Evolution
• Decline during Colonial Rule
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 Odissi
• History & Evolution
• Traces of the Performance Art from the Medieval Era
• During the Mughal Era
• Expansion in 17th Century
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• Revival of Odissi
• Repertoire
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